398 INDEX

Index

Acarina 237 sleeping sickness 182 Acerolitos 225 40–41 Aedes (see also Aedes aegypti; Aedes albopictus)7, yellow 34, 36–37 15–17 Anklets, repellent-treated 61–62 behaviour 17 Annual killifishes 124, 127, 160 breeding sites 137–138, 141, 152 Anopheles 7, 13–14 control measures 53, 135, 138, 357 behaviour 13–14 dengue transmission 36, 39 breeding sites 13, 159, 161 distinguishing features 12, 13 control measures 53, 107, 135, 155, 164 filariasis transmission 29, 30–31 distinguishing features 12, 13 life cycle 11, 16–17 filariasis transmission 29, 30–32 transmission 34, 36, 37 insecticide resistance in 26 Aedes aegypti 15, 16, 17 life cycle 11, 13 breeding sites 16, 137–138 malaria transmission 26–27 control measures 39, 107, 114, 134 Anopheles balabacensis 122 dengue transmission 36, 39 Anopheles barbirostris 29, 32 yellow fever transmission 34, 36, 37 Anopheles culicifacies 13 Aedes albopictus 15, 16–17 Anopheles darlingi 161 breeding sites 17, 137–138 Anopheles maculatus 122, 158 control measures 114 Anopheles minimus 122 dengue transmission 36 Anopheles stephensi 138, 141 Aerial spraying Antimalarial drug resistance 26 blackflies 44, 45, 132 Antimony, pentavalent 49 274–275 Ants 386 tsetse flies 208 Ant traps, control 138, 139 Aerosol sprays, insecticidal 63, 69–70 Aphyosemion 124 in bedbug control 239 Aplocheilus (panchax) 124, 127, 164 in cockroach control 296–298 33–41 in housefly control 319, 320–321 Argasidae (soft ticks) 263, 264–265 in mosquito control Argentine pearlfish, see Cynolebias bellotii fabric treatment 94 Arsenite, sodium 316 in tents 103 Attractants in control, 273 cockroach 299 Aleppo boil, see , cutaneous housefly 317 Allergic reactions tsetse fly 185, 195–196 to bedbugs 239 Australian cockroach, see Periplaneta australasiae to biting Diptera 17, 24 Avoidance to biting mites 277 of biting Diptera 105 to cockroaches 292 of snail-infested waters 346, 350 to fleas 245 of ticks 272 to house dust mites 282 Azamethiphos, in housefly control 317, 320, to lice 257 322 to triatomine bugs 213 Azolla, in mosquito control 123, 163 Allethrins, in mosquito coils 63, 66, 67 Alphacypermethrin 86, 362 Babies, protection of in cockroach control 297 fly nets 311, 312 in housefly control 320 mosquito nets 78 in tsetse fly control 203 Bacillus sphaericus 131, 137 Amblyomma americanum 271 in pit latrines 150–152 Amblyomma hebraeum 266 Bacillus thuringiensis H-14 American cockroach, see Periplaneta americana in blackfly control 45, 136–137 Anaemia 213, 239 in drinking-water 147 reservoirs in irrigated fields 164 213–214, 215 in mosquito control 131, 136–137 leishmaniasis 47, 48, 51 in ponds 160 Lyme disease 270, 275 Bacterial larvicides (see also Bacillus sphaericus; schistosomiasis 348 Bacillus thuringiensis H-14) 123, 131, INDEX 399

136–137 mansonellosis transmission 51–52 Bahia ulcer, see Leishmaniasis, cutaneous onchocerciasis transmission 41–43, 44 Bait(s) Blatta orientalis 288, 289, 294 boxes, rats 250, 251 Blattella germanica 288, 289, 290, 294, 300 cockroach 299–300 Blowflies 148, 302 housefly 316–318 Borrelia 268 dry scatter 318 Borrelia burgdorferi 269 liquid dispensers 318 Borrelia recurrentis 258 liquid sprinkle 318 Borrow-pits viscous paint-on 317, 318 filling/drainage 160, 352 Bancroftian filariasis, see Filariasis, lymphatic, mosquito larva control 160 bancroftian Boxes Bands, repellent-treated 61–62 bait, for rats 250, 251 Bar, repellent 58 surveillance, in triatomine bug control Bathing places, placement of tsetse traps/ 233–234, 235 screens 191–192 Breeding sites Bed(s) blackflies 17–18, 45 camp, with mosquito net cover 79 freshwater snails 338, 352 curtains, insecticide-treated 84–85 houseflies 304–305, 308–310, 321–323 mosquito nets, see Mosquito nets , see Mosquito breeding sites protection from ticks 272 Briquettes, insecticidal 132 Bedbugs 237–243 Bromophos, in housefly control 320, 323 biology 237–238 Brown-banded cockroach, see Supella control measures 239–243, 357, 388 longipalpa detection 239 Brugia malayi 29, 31–32 dispersal 238 Brugia timori 29, 32 insecticide resistance in 109, 241, 242 Building blocks, pressed stabilized soil 226– public health importance 239 228 Bedding, insecticide-treated Buildings (see also Houses; Shelters), residual in bedbug control 241 insecticide spraying 381 in biting Diptera control 60–61 Bulinus 337–338, 339, 352 in flea control 248–249 Buzzers, electronic 71 Bendiocarb 362, 366 in bedbug control 242 Campers in cockroach control 297 camp bed with mosquito net cover 79 in flea control 249 protection measures for 103–104 in housefly control 317 Capture bags, tsetse traps 196 in tick control 274 Carbamates (see also Bendiocarb; Benzene hexachloride (BHC), in triatomine Propoxur) 360, 362, 365–366 bug control 218 in housefly control 316, 317, 318 Benznidazole, in Chagas disease 215 as mosquito larvicides 130 Benzyl benzoate Carbaryl in control 283 in bedbug control 242 in mite control 282 in control 260 Betacyfluthrin, in cockroach control 297 in tick control 274 Biconical tsetse trap 186–187 Card agglutination test for Bilharziasis, see Schistosomiasis (CATT) 185 Bioallethrin Carp in louse control 260 common, see Cyprinus carpio in mosquito/biting Diptera control 67, 71 grass, see Ctenopharyngodon idella Bioassay cone method, see Residual tooth, see Aplocheilus panchax; Gambusia insecticides, efficacy testing affinis; Poecilia reticulata Biological control Catfish, Chinese 147 freshwater snails 352, 353 Cats mosquitos 122–127, 136–137 fleas 243–244, 245, 246, 247–248 Biomphalaria 337–338, 339, 352 tapeworms 246 Bioresmethrin, in housefly control 322 Ceilings Bithionol, in fascioliasis 350 in mosquito control 99 Blackflies 7, 17–20 mosquito nets 74 behaviour 18, 20 Cement roofing sheets, fibre-reinforced 225 breeding sites 17, 19, 45 Central European tick-borne encephalitis 271 control measures 53 Cercariae 340, 343 personal protection 59, 60 Cesspools, housefly control 310 prevention of breeding 44, 45, 132, Chagas disease 210, 213–216 136–137 clinical symptoms 214–215 distinguishing features 8–9 prevention and control 215–216, 357, 381 life cycle 17–18 transmission 213–214 400 INDEX

Chiclero’s ulcer, see Leishmaniasis, cutaneous tsetse traps/screens 185 Chiggers 276, 277 Comb, louse 259 Chigoes, see Jigger fleas Community virus disease 41 approach, house-spraying 358 Chinese catfish 147 disease control in 52, 53 Chitin synthesis inhibitors 135 education 382 Chlorfenvinphos, in housefly control 320 health workers 358 Chlorpyrifos insecticide delivery to 205 in cockroach control 297 protection as mosquito larvicide 131, 134 by mosquito nets 82 in tick control 274 from ticks 274–275 Cholera 292, 307 by tsetse traps 186 Cholinesterase, blood 392 triatomine bug surveillance 232 Chrysomyia, see Blowflies Compression sprayers, see Hand-compression Chrysops, see Deerflies sprayers Cichlid fish, see Oreochromis mossambicus Conjunctivitis, epidemic 307 hemipterus 237 Constant-head dispenser 355 Cimex lectularius 237 Construction blocks, pressed stabilized Citronella, in mosquito/biting Diptera soil 226–228 control 56, 57 Construction materials 140, 226–228 Clarias fuscus 147 Cotton Cleaning cloth hand-compression sprayers 378–379 insecticide impregnation 87 used pesticide containers 388 for water filtration 334 Cleanliness, see Hygiene netting Clegs 23 insecticide impregnation 87 Clonorchis sinensis 348 for mosquito nets/screens 73, 100 Cloth, see Fabrics/cloth Coumaphos, in tick control 274 Clothing Coxiella burnetii 268–269 body lice in 255, 262 Creeks, see Streams/creeks insecticide/repellent-treated 59–63 Crimean–Congo haemorrhagic fever 271, 272 in biting mite control 278 Ctenocephalides canis, see , dog choice of chemical 60 Ctenocephalides felis, see Fleas, cat in louse control 262 Ctenopharyngodon idella 125, 164, 352 method of treatment 60 Culex 7, 14–15 in tick control 272 behaviour 15 types 60–63 breeding sites 15, 148, 152, 153, 161 protective 389–391 control measures 33, 53 in biting control 59–63 insecticide spraying 107, 357 for insecticide impregnation of larval control 135, 137, 155 fabrics 391 distinguishing features 12, 13 for insecticide spraying 377, 378, 383, life cycle 11, 15 389–390 Culex gelidus 148 maintenance 391 Culex quinquefasciatus 15 for mixing insecticides 390–391 breeding sites 15, 148 in tick control 272 control measures 33, 107 removal of contaminated 395, 396 filariasis transmission 29, 30, 31 Clou de Biskra, see Leishmaniasis, cutaneous Culex tritaeniorhynchus Cockroaches 288–300 breeding sites 15, 161 behaviour 290–291 viral encephalitis transmission 40–41 biology 288–291 Culicoides 21, 51–52 control measures 292–300 Culverts 116–117 chemical 293–300, 357, 386 Curtains environmental management 293 anti-fly 311, 312 dispersal 291 bed, insecticide-treated 84–85 life cycle 288–290 insecticide-treated 100–102 public health importance 291–292 Cyclopoid copepods 123 Coils, mosquito 63–66 Cyclops 324–336 for campers 103 biology 324, 325 holders 65, 66 control measures 332–336 method of making 66 life cycle 326, 327 near hammocks 72 public health importance 324–332 use 64–65 Cyfluthrin 362 271, 272 in bedbug control 242 Colour in cockroach control 297 mosquito nets 74 in flea control 249 INDEX 401

in housefly control 320, 322 in flea control 249 in mosquito control in housefly control 315, 317, 322, 323 clothing treated with 60 in jigger infections 252–253 net/fabric treatment 86, 87 in tick control 274 screen treatment 102 vapour dispenser 68–69, 315 Cynolebias (bellotii) 124, 127, 160 Dieldrin 363 Cypermethrin 362, 366 in bedbug control 241 in housefly control 320 in flea control 248 mosquito net/fabric treatment 86 in triatomine bug control 218 Cyphenothrin, in cockroach control 297 Diesel oil, as mosquito larvicide 129, 131 Cyprinus carpio 125, 128, 164 N,N-Diethyl-3-toluamide, see Deet Cyromazine, in housefly control 323 Diethylcarbamazine (DEC), in filariasis 33 Diethylcyclohexylacetamide (DECA), in Dams, mosquito larva control 121–122, 155, cockroach control 300 156 N,N-Diethylphenylacetamide (DEPA) DDT 357, 362, 363–364 in cockroach control 300 comparative cost 364 as mosquito repellent 57 in flea control 249–250 Diflubenzuron in louse control 260, 262 in housefly control 323 preparation of suspension 367 as mosquito larvicide 136 resistance 241, 248, 357, 360 Dimethoate, in housefly control 317, 320, 322, in tick control 274 323 in tsetse fly control 207 Dimethyl phthalate (DMP) vaporizers 64 in cockroach control 300 Deerflies 8, 9, 22–23 in mite control 278 behaviour 23 as mosquito repellent 57 disease transmission 52, 270 Dimetilan, in housefly control 317 life cycle 23 Dioxacarb, in cockroach control 297 Deerfly fever, see Tularaemia Dioxathion, in tick control 274 Deet 57 Diphtheria, cutaneous 307 in cockroach control 300 Diptera, biting (see also Blackflies; Deerflies; in flea control 247 Horseflies; Midges, biting; Mosquitos; in mite control 278 Sandflies, phlebotomine; Stable flies; in mosquito control Tsetse flies) 5–177 clothing treated with 60 biology 7–24 repellent bars 58, 60 control measures 52–164 Deltamethrin 362, 368 avoidance and diversion 105–106 in bedbug control 242 insecticide spraying 106–112 in cockroach control 297 insect-proofing of houses/shelters comparative cost 364 98–105 in flea control 249 personal protection 54–98 in housefly control 320, 322 prevention of breeding 112–164 in louse control 260 selection 52, 53 in mosquito control diseases transmitted by 7 net/fabric treatment 86, 87 distinguishing features 7–10 screen treatment 102 public health importance 24–52 in tsetse fly control 203, 207 Ditches, open drainage 115–117 Dengue 36–39 Dogs 51, 246 control measures 107, 357 fleas 245, 247–248 haemorrhagic fever (DHF) 36–39 jigger fleas 252–253 DEPA, see N,N-diethylphenylacetamide tapeworms 246 Dermacentor andersoni 266, 271 Doors 99 Dermacentor silvarum 271 anti-fly curtains 311, 312 Dermacentor variabilis 271 screening 99–102 Dermatobia hominis 24 Dracunculiasis, see Guinea-worm disease Dermatophagoides 282–283 Dracunculus medinensis, see Guinea worm Diarrhoea 292, 307 Dragonflies 123 Diazinon Drainage systems 114–118, 154–155 in bedbug control 242 borrow-pits 160 in cockroach control 297 control measures 154–155, 310, 311 in flea control 249 open ditches 115–117 in housefly control 317, 320, 322, 323 schistosomiasis transmission 347 in tick control 274 subsoil 117–118 Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, see DDT swamps and marshes 155, 156 Dichlorvos Drip-feed technique, molluscicide in cockroach control 297 application 354–355 402 INDEX

Drum dispensers, molluscicides 354–355 triatomine bugs 233, 234, 235 Dung 304, 308–309 Far Eastern tick-borne encephalitis 271 larvicide treatment 321–322 Fasciola gigantica 348 Dusts, insecticidal Fasciola hepatica 348, 349–350 in cockroach control 296, 298 Fascioliasis 348, 349–350 in flea control 247–248, 249, 250 Fasciolopsis buski 348 in louse control 259, 262, 263 Fenchlorvos in tick control 273 in bedbug control 242 292, 307 in flea control 249 in housefly control 317, 320, 322, 323 Eastern equine encephalitis 40, 41 Fenitrothion 360, 362, 365 Eaves 99, 101 in bedbug control 242 screening 102 in cockroach control 297 Eflornithine, in sleeping sickness 184 comparative cost 364 Eichhornia 17, 18 in flea control 249 Electric liquid vaporizers 68 in housefly control 320, 323 Electrocutors, fly 314 as mosquito larvicide 131 Electro-hydrodynamic sprayers 94 Fenthion Electronic buzzers 71 in flea control 249 Elephantiasis 31, 32 in housefly control 323 Emergency measures, pesticide poisoning 393– as mosquito larvicide 131, 133 397 Fenvalerate, in housefly control 320 Emulsifiable concentrate, insecticide 132, 361– Ferns, floating 123, 163 362, 367 Filariasis, lymphatic 29–33 Encephalitis, viral, see Viral encephalitis bancroftian 29, 30–31 Endosulfan, in tsetse fly control 207 brugian 29, 31–32 Enteric infections 292, 307 clinical symptoms 32 Environment control 33, 107, 357 management prevention and treatment 32–33 cockroach control 293 transmission 29–32 freshwater snail control 352 Filling housefly control 308–311 borrow-pits 160 manipulation, mosquito breeding sites breeding sites 114 120–122 ponds 159 modification, mosquito breeding sites Filth fly, see Musca sorbens 114–120 Filtration, water 332–334, 335 Equipment, for house-spraying 383 First-aid, in pesticide poisoning 394–397 Erythema chronicum migrans, see Lyme disease Fish Esbiothrin, in mosquito control 67 in biological control of aquatic plants 159, Espundia, see Leishmaniasis, mucocutaneous 352 Eucalyptus trees, in mosquito control 119 larvivorous, see Larvivorous fish Excreta, see Faeces sanitary handling 310 Eye(s) collars 247, 249, 273, 274 infections 307 Fleas 237, 243–253 pesticide contamination 395 behaviour 244–245 protection 390, 391 biology 243–245 cat 243–244, 245, 246, 247–248 Fabrics/cloth, insecticide treatment of 85–95, control measures 60, 246–250, 357 101–102, 104 dog 245, 247–248 dosages 87 human 243, 245, 248–249 for hammocks 72 public health importance 245–246 measuring residual efficacy 95–98 rat 243, 245, 246, 249–250 methods 88–95 sand (jigger) 243, 251–253 patches for personal use 62–63 , see Diptera, biting; Houseflies protective clothing 391 Floors safety precautions 392, 393 in flea control 247, 248 spray-on application 93–95 improvement, in triatomine bug for tsetse traps/screens 195–196 control 224–225 when to re-treat 95 open, entry of via 81 Face protection 390–391 residual insecticide spraying 241 Faeces Floor traps, mosquito control 139, 140 animal, housefly breeding 304, 308–309 Flufenoxuron, in cockroach control 297 bedbugs 239 Fluke infections fluke control measures 349 foodborne 337, 348–350 human, housefly breeding 309 waterborne, see Schistosomiasis schistosome egg counts 346 Flumethrin, mosquito net treatment 86, 94 INDEX 403

Flushing, water, see Streams/creeks, sluicing discharge assembly 370, 372 nets 311, 312 fabric treatment 94 Fly traps 313–314 functioning and design 369–372 Foggers, total release 240 molluscicide application 353 Food nozzles, see Nozzles, sprayer contamination problem-solving 380 by cockroaches 291–292 storage 380 by houseflies 306–307 tank assembly 369 protection tsetse fly spraying 207 during insecticide spraying 391, 392 use and operation 373–380 from cockroaches 293 application of spray 376–378 from houseflies 311 maintenance and repair 378–380 trematode infections spread via 337, 348– preparation/addition of insecticide 373– 350 375 waste from processing 304 preparation of sprayer 375–376 Forests training in 376–378 tick control 274–275 Hand-operated sprayers 367–380 tsetse resting places 178–180 Headnets, repellent-treated 61, 62 tsetse traps/screens 191–193, 194 Hepatitis 239 Formaldehyde, in housefly control 316, 317 Herbicides 160 Francisella tularensis 246, 270 Holders, mosquito coil, see Coils, mosquito, Freshwater snails, see Snails, freshwater holders Fumigant canisters, insecticide Horseflies 7, 22–23 bedbug control 240–241 behaviour 23 cockroach control 298 control measures 53 flea control 247, 249 distinguishing features 8, 9 safety 232 life cycle 23 triatomine bug control 230–232 House dust mite 282–283 use 230–231 Houseflies 302–323 Fungi 123 biology 302–306 biting, see Stable flies Gambusia affinis 123–124, 126, 147, 164 breeding sites 304–305, 308–310, 321–323 Garbage, see Refuse control measures 308–323 Gauze, for water filtration 334, 335 chemical methods 314–323 Gerbil, great 51 improvement of environmental German cockroach, see Blattella germanica sanitation/hygiene 308–311 Glossina, see Tsetse flies physical methods 312–314 Glossina fusca group 178 ecology 305–306 Glossina morsitans group 178, 179, 182 food 302, 304 Glossina palpalis group 178, 179, 182 life cycle 302, 303 Gloves public health importance 306–307 for handling pesticides 390, 391 Houses for impregnation of fabrics 88, 91, 392, 393 areas surrounding, see Peridomestic Gourami, giant 125 environment Granules, insecticide 132 bedbug control 239–243 Greenheads 23 cockroach control 292, 293, 294–300 Ground spraying, tsetse flies 206–208 flea control 247, 248 Guinea worm 324, 327, 328 insecticide space-spraying, see Space- Guinea-worm disease 324–332 spraying, insecticide clinical signs and symptoms 328, 330 mosquito breeding sites in/around 112, transmission 326–328 137–155 sites 326, 329–330 with clean water 137–148 treatment, prevention and control 330–332 with polluted water 148–155 Guppy, see Poecilia reticulata mosquito/insect-proofing 98–102 Gutters, mosquito control 140, 143 design 99 insecticide application to walls 110, Haemagogus 34, 37 217–222 Haemaphysalis leporis-palustris 271 screening 99–102 Haemaphysalis spinigera 271 residual insecticide spraying, see Residual Haematopora 23 insecticide spraying, indoors Haematuria 346 siting to avoid mosquitos 105 Hammocks 71–72 triatomine bug control 222–228 mosquito nets for 79, 80, 92 existing houses 222–225 protection in absence of mosquito net 72 new houses 226–228 Hand-compression sprayers 368, 369–380 triatomine bug resting places 211–213 air pump assembly 370, 372 Hyalomma marginatum 271 404 INDEX

Hydramethylnon, in cockroach control 297 mosquito larva control 161–164 Hygiene (see also Sanitation) snail control 352, 354–355 in cockroach control 292, 293 in flea control 247 in filariasis 33 in housefly control 308–311 in jigger flea infections 252–253 in louse control 259, 262 in onchocerciasis 45 while using pesticides 388–389, 390 in scabies 281 Ixodes dammini 271 Indirect immunofluorescence test (IFT) 185 Ixodes holocyclus 271 Insect growth regulators 131, 134–136 Ixodes persulcatus 271 in cockroach control 295–296, 297 Ixodes ricinus 266, 271 in housefly control 323 Ixodidae 263, 265–267 in mosquito larva control 135–136, 164 safety 135 40–41, 107 Insecticides (see also Larvicides; Pesticides; Jigger fleas 243, 251–253 specific agents) biology 251 aerosol sprays, see Aerosol sprays, prevention and control 252–253 insecticidal public health importance 251 application to walls 110, 217–222 symptoms 252 in bedbug control 239–240 treatment 253 clothing treated with, see Clothing, Jodfenphos insecticide/repellent-treated in cockroach control 297 in cockroach control 293–300 in flea control 249 in cyclops control 334–336 in housefly control 320, 322 delivery to community 205 in louse control 260 disposal of surplus 98, 385–388 as mosquito larvicide 131 in flea control 247–249 Juvenile hormone analogues 135 fumigant canisters, see Fumigant canisters in housefly control 314–323 Kala-azar, see Leishmaniasis, visceral larvicidal, see Larvicides, synthetic organic Kerosene, as mosquito larvicide 129 in louse control 259, 260 Knapsack sprayers 368 in mosquito control molluscicide application 353 aerosol sprays, see Aerosol sprays, in tick control 275 insecticidal in tsetse fly control 206 clothing treated with, see Clothing, 271, 272 insecticide/repellent-treated hammock impregnation 72 Labels, pesticide containers 385, 386 impregnated ropes 67 Lagoons, coastal 157 impregnated sheeting for shelters 104– Lakes 105 mosquito larva control 156–157 net treatment, see Mosquito nets, schistosomiasis control 348 insecticide treatment schistosomiasis transmission 338, 347 screen/curtain treatment 100–102, 103– Lambdacyhalothrin 362, 366 104 in bedbug control 242 poisoning, see Pesticides, poisoning in mosquito control residual, see Residual insecticides fabric treatment 87 resistance 26, 360 net treatment 86, 87 safe use, see Pesticides screen treatment 102 in scabies 281–282 Landfills, sanitary 140, 310 in tick control 275 Larval control 112–113 tsetse screen impregnation, see Tsetse biological methods 123–127 screens, insecticide-impregnated feasibility 113 space-spraying, see Space-spraying, field habitats 144–164 insecticide habitats in/around houses 137–155 vaporizers, see Vaporizers, insecticide larvicides, see Larvicides Insect repellents, see Repellents Larvicides 128–137 Insects, see Bedbugs; Diptera, biting; Fleas; bacterial 123, 131, 136–137 Lice; Tsetse flies in borrow-pits 160 Instant fish, see Cynolebias bellotii in housefly control 321–323 Irrigated fields insect growth regulators 131, 134–136 mosquito larva control 161–164 in irrigated fields 164 schistosomiasis transmission 338, 347, 348 in lakes and reservoirs 157 Irrigation petroleum oils 128–130, 131 intermittent 121, 163 in pit latrines 150–152 systems in ponds 160 construction and maintenance 163 in rivers and creeks 158 INDEX 405

in swamps and marshes 156 Loiasis 52 synthetic organic 130–134 Lotion, insecticidal 259 advantages and disadvantages 131 271 formulations 132 Louse, see Lice in irrigated fields 164 Lufenuron, in flea control 247 in onchocerciasis control 44, 45 Lung fluke 348 in pit latrines 150–152 Lyme disease 269–270, 271, 275 resistance 130 Lymnaea 337, 339 in wells 147 Larvivorous fish 112, 123–127 Malaria (see also Mosquitos) 25–29 in borrow-pits 160 chemoprophylaxis 28 in irrigated fields 163–164 clinical symptoms 27 in ponds 159 control 28–29, 52–164, 242, 357–358, 381 rearing 125 immunity 27–28 transportation and distribution 125–126 prevention and treatment 28 in water storage containers 147 transmission 26–27 in wells 147 Malathion 362, 365 Latrines, pit 148–152, 311 in bedbug control 242 design 149–150 in cockroach control 297 expanded polystyrene beads in 119–120, comparative cost 364 150 in flea control 249 insect-proofing 119, 149–150, 309 in housefly control 317, 320, 322 insect-proof lids 148, 149 in insecticidal paint 219 larvicide use 150–152 in louse control 260 pour-flush, with water seal 149, 150 as mosquito larvicide 131, 133–134 in schistosomiasis control 350, 351 resistance 360 ventilated improved 149–150, 151 in scabies 282 aethiopica 47 in tick control 274 45, 47 in triatomine bug control 219 Leishmania chagasi 45 Mangrove flies, see Deerflies 45 Mansonella ozzardi 22, 51–52 47 Mansonella perstans 22, 52 47 Mansonellosis 51–52 47 Mansonia 7, 17 Leishmaniasis 20, 45–51 behaviour 17 clinical symptoms 47–48, 49 control measures 53, 155, 159–160 cutaneous 46, 47–48, 49 insect growth regulators 135 mucocutaneous 45, 46, 47, 48, 50 water plant removal 33, 122, 159 prevention and control 50–51, 107, 357 distinguishing features 13 transmission 47, 48 filariasis transmission 29, 31–32 treatment 49–50 life cycle 11, 17 visceral 45, 46, 47, 49 Manually operated sprayers 367–380 Leprosy 292, 307 Marshes Leptoconops 21 molluscicide application 353–354 Lice 237, 253–262 mosquito larva control 155–156 biology 254–257 snail habitats 338 body 237, 253–254 tidal salt 157 biology 254, 255 Mats, vaporizing 67–68 control measures 60, 262, 263 Mattresses public health importance 257–258 bedbug control 241, 242 control measures 259–262 flea control 248 crab (pubic) 253 Melarsoprol, in sleeping sickness 184 biology 254, 255, 257 Methomyl, in housefly control 317 control measures 261 Methoprene, as mosquito larvicide 135, 147, head 253, 256 160 biology 254, 255, 256 Metrifonate, in schistosomiasis 346 control measures 259–261 Microfilariae 29, 31, 41–44 public health importance 257–258 Midges, biting 21–22 Light traps with electrocutor 314 behaviour 22 Lindane 248, 362, 363 control measures 53, 59, 60, 103 in bedbug control 241 diseases transmitted by 7, 51–52 in louse control 260, 262 distinguishing features 8, 9 in scabies 282 life cycle 22 in tick control 273, 274 Mites 237, 275–283 Liver flukes 348, 349–350 biting 237, 276–279 Loa loa 52 biology 276–277 406 INDEX

control measures 60, 278–279, 357 models 75–80 distribution 277 rectangular 75–77 public health importance 277–278 self-supporting 78, 79 house dust 282–283 untreated scabies 279–282 problems 81, 82 biology 279–280 protection provided by 82 public health importance 280–282 wedge-shaped 78 trombiculid 276–279 Mosquitos (see also Aedes; Anopheles; Culex; Molluscicides 352, 353–355 Mansonia) application 353–355 behaviour 11, 13–14, 15, 17 in flowing water 354–355 biology 10–17 in stagnant water 353–354 control measures 52–164 Mosquito breeding sites (see also Larval insecticide spraying 29, 106–112, 357, control) 33, 39, 112 358–359 altering/eliminating 112, 113–122 personal protection 54–106 in/around houses 112, 137–155 prevention of breeding 33, 39, 112–164 with clean water 137–148 selecting 52, 53 drainage systems 154–155 diseases transmitted by 7, 25–41 permanent 141–148 distinguishing features 7, 8 pit latrines 148–152 life cycle 10–11 with polluted water 137–155 public health importance 7, 24–41 septic tanks 152, 153 Mosquito screens, see Screening, anti-mosquito soakaway pits 152–154 Mouth-to-mouth resuscitation 394–395 temporary indoor 138–139 Mozambique mouthbrooder, see Oreochromis temporary outdoor 139–140, 141, 142– mossambicus 144 Murray Valley encephalitis 40 biological control measures 122–127 Musca domestica, see Houseflies closing, screening or covering 119–120 Musca sorbens 302, 307, 309 drainage 114–118 24 filling 114 larval control, see Larvicides Naled man-made 112 in housefly control 317, 322 removal/destruction 113 in tick control 274 in rural areas 155–164 Neem 56, 123 borrow-pits 160 Nematodes, parasitic 123 irrigation systems/irrigated fields 161–164 Nets lakes and reservoirs 156–157 fly 311, 312 ponds 159–160 mosquito, see Mosquito nets rivers and creeks 157–158 wide-mesh 84 swamps and marshes 155–156 Netting water accumulations near roads 161 impregnated, for attaching to hammocks 72 Mosquito coils, see Coils, mosquito for mosquito nets 73–74 Mosquito fish, see Gambusia affinis for mosquito screens 100 Mosquito nets 73–98 treatment with insecticide 85–95 availability 81 for tsetse traps 196 for camp beds 79 Niclosamide, in snail control 353–355 circular (conical) 77 Nifurtimox, in Chagas disease 215 for hammocks 79, 80 Nits, see Lice, head insecticide-treated Nochi 56 in bedbug control 240 Nothobranchius 124 in louse control 261 Nozzles, sprayer 370, 372, 379 in malaria control 82–98 cleaning 379, 389 measuring residual efficacy 95–98 types 372–373 safety 88 Nuisance in tick control 274 bedbugs 239 in triatomine bug control 228, 229, 230 biting Diptera 24–25 types 84 biting mites 277 insecticide treatment 85–95 cockroaches 291 choice of insecticide 85–86 fleas 245 choice of material 87 houseflies 306 disposal of surplus insecticide 98 lice 257 dosages 87 ticks 268 methods 88–95 triatomine bugs 213 safety measures 88 tsetse flies 180 when to re-treat 95 instructions for use 80–81 Octoxinol, as mosquito larvicide 129 materials 73–74, 84–85 Ohara disease, see Tularaemia INDEX 407

Oils in mosquito control essential, as repellents 54, 300 clothing treatment 60 larvicidal 128–130, 131 fabric treatment 87, 94 advantages and disadvantages 130 net treatment 86, 87, 90 application 129 repellent bars 58 in borrow-pits 160 screen treatment 102 in irrigated fields 164 in tents 104 in pit latrines 150–152 in scabies 281, 282 in ponds 159 Personal protection vegetable 129 from mosquitos/biting Diptera 39, 54–98 Omsk haemorrhagic fever 272 from ticks 272–274 Onchocerciasis 41–45 Personnel, for house-spraying 358, 383 clinical symptoms 44 Pesticides (see also Insecticides; Larvicides; transmission 41, 44 Molluscicides; specific agents) treatment, prevention and control 44, 45 cleaning used containers 388 Onchocerciasis Control Programme (OCP) 42, disposal of surplus 98, 385–386, 387–388 45 emergency measures 393–397 Oncomelania 337, 338, 339, 352 general hygiene 388–389 Opisthorchis felineus 348 labelling 385, 386 Opisthorchis viverrini 348 poisoning 393–397 Oreochromis mossambicus 125, 127, 164 first-aid treatment 394–397 Oreochromis niloticus 125 signs and symptoms 393 Oreochromis spiluris 125, 147 precautions 385–392 Organochlorine insecticides (see also DDT; preparation/addition to sprayers 373–375 Lindane) 362, 363–364 protective clothing 389–391 as mosquito larvicides 130 safe use 385–397 resistance 360 storage and transport 385, 387 Organophosphorus insecticides (see also techniques of use 391, 393 Fenitrothion; Malathion; Pirimiphos Petri dish method, see Residual insecticides, methyl) 362, 364–365 efficacy testing in housefly control 317, 320, 322, 323 Petroleum oils, larvicidal 128–130, 131 as mosquito larvicides 130, 131, 132–134 Phenothrin resistance 360 in flea control 249 Oriental cockroach, see Blatta orientalis in housefly control 322 Oriental sore, see Leishmaniasis, cutaneous in louse 260 Ornithodoros moubata 264, 272 Phoxim, in blackfly control 45 Osphronemus goramy 125 Pirimiphos methyl 360, 362 Oxamniquine, in schistosomiasis 346 in bedbug control 242 in cockroach control 297 Paints, insecticidal 110, 218–221 in flea control 249 Panchax, see Aplocheilus panchax in housefly control 320, 322 Pappataci fever 20 as mosquito larvicide 131, 134 Paraffin, as mosquito larvicide 129 in tick control 274 Paragonimiasis 348 Plague 245–246, 292 Paralysis, tick 268 bubonic 246 Parathion, in housefly control 315 pneumonic 246 Paris green, as mosquito larvicide 128, 131 prevention and control 246, 249–250 Pearlfish, Argentine, see Cynolebias bellotii rural 246 Pediculus humanus septicaemic 246 capitis, see Lice, head urban 246 humanus, see Lice, body Planorbidae 337 Pellets, insecticide 132 Plantations, tsetse traps/screens 193, 194 Pentamidine, in sleeping sickness 184 Plants, see Vegetation Peridomestic environment (see also Houses) Plasmodium falciparum 25, 26, 27 improvement 228, 229 Plasmodium malariae 25, 27 insecticide spraying 381 Plasmodium ovale 25, 27 triatomine bug resting places 211 Plasmodium vivax 25, 27 Periplaneta americana 288, 289, 294, 300 Plaster Periplaneta australasiae 288, 289 cement 224 Periplaneta brunnae 294 insecticide mixing into 110 Permethrin 362, 368 preparation 222–224 in bedbug control 242 wire reinforcement 224, 225 in cockroach control 297 Poecilia reticulata 123–124, 126, 147, 164 comparative cost 364 Poisoning, pesticide 393–397 in flea control 249 Poisons, rat 250 in housefly control 320, 322 Poliomyelitis 292, 307 in louse control 260, 261, 262 Polystyrene beads, expanded 408 INDEX

in mosquito control 119–120, 146–147, 150 Q fever 268–269, 271 production 120, 121 Ponds Rabbit fever, see Tularaemia filling 159 Rat(s) guinea-worm disease transmission 326, 328, bait boxes 250–251 330 control 249, 250 molluscicide application 353–354 fleas 243, 245, 246, 249–250 mosquito control 159–160 poisons 250 schistosomiasis transmission 338, 352 Refuse Pools disposal 139–140, 142 guinea-worm disease transmission 326 housefly breeding 304 mosquito control 139, 147–148 insecticide spraying 321 schistosomiasis transmission 352 protection Poultry houses, housefly control 308 from cockroaches 293 Powders, insecticidal, see Dusts, insecticidal from houseflies 309–310 Praziquantel Relapsing fever in foodborne trematode infections 349 louse-borne 258 in schistosomiasis 346 tick-borne 268, 272 Pregnancy 27, 214 Repellent(s) 54–58 Pressurization, hand-compression bar 58 sprayers 375–376 in bedbug control 239 Propetamphos clothing treated with, see Clothing, in bedbug control 242 insecticide/repellent-treated in cockroach control 297 in cockroach control 300 in flea control 249 in flea control 247, 249 in housefly control 317, 320 instructions for use 55 Propoxur 362, 365–366 in mite control 278 in bedbug control 242 modern synthetic 56–57 in cockroach control 297 in mosquito control comparative cost 364 on hammocks 72 in flea control 249 ropes 67 in housefly control 317 screen treatment 103 in louse control 260 ropes 67 in tick control 274 in tick control 270, 272 in triatomine bug control 218 traditional/natural 56 Pthirus pubis, see Lice, crab types 56–57 Pulex irritans, see Fleas, human when and where to use 55 Pyramidal trap 187, 188 Reservoirs assembly 196–200 fluctuations in level 121, 156–157 Pyrethrins, in housefly control 322 mosquito larva control 156–157 Pyrethroid insecticides (see also Residual insecticides 359–367 Alphacypermethrin; Cyfluthrin; characteristics 360 Cypermethrin; Deltamethrin; commonly used 363–366 Lambdacyhalothrin; Permethrin) 360, cost comparisons 364 362 dosages and cycles 362–363 in aerosol sprays 69 efficacy testing 96–98, 221 in bedbug control 241 formulations 360–362 disposal of surplus 386 preparation of suspension 366–367 in housefly control 320, 322 resistance 360 in louse control 259 safety 108, 109, 295, 360 in mosquito control Residual insecticide spraying in aerosol sprays 69 in bedbug control 241–243 clothing treated with 59–60 in biting mite control 279 as larvicides 130, 134 in Chagas disease control 216, 217–222, 381 net treatment 82–98, 228 in cockroach control 295–296 safety 88 in filariasis control 33, 107 in triatomine bug control 218, 228, 229 in flea control 247, 249 in tsetse fly control in housefly control 318–319, 320 spraying 207 indoors 106–109, 357–384 tsetse trap/screen impregnation 203– alternatives to 110 206 calculating amount of insecticide for 383 vaporizers 63, 64, 66, 67 factors affecting efficacy 358–359 Pyrethrum, in mosquito control 64, 86 insecticides for 359–367 in aerosol sprays 69 measuring total surface area to be in mosquito coils 66 sprayed 382 Pyriproxyfen, in housefly control 323 methods 107, 359–360, 381–383 INDEX 409

organization 358 insecticide-impregnated mosquito nets 88 personnel/equipment needed 383 pesticide use 385–397 planning a programme 382–383 residual insecticides 108, 109, 295, 360 problems with 109, 357–358 St Louis encephalitis 41 protective clothing 377, 378, 383, 389– Salinity, changes in 122, 157 390 Sand fleas, see Jigger fleas requirements 107 Sandflies, phlebotomine 7, 20–21 safety precautions 108, 109, 295, 391– behaviour 21 392 control measures 53 surfaces to spray 108, 363, 381 personal protection 59, 60 timing 108, 381 residual insecticides 50–51, 107, 357 in leishmaniasis control 50–51, 107 distinguishing features 8, 9 in malaria control 29, 106–109, 357–358, 381 leishmaniasis transmission 47, 48 manually operated sprayers 367–380 life cycle 20 selective 381 Sandfly fever 20 in tents 104 Sanitation (see also Hygiene) in tick control 273–274 in housefly control 308–312 in tsetse fly control 206–208 in mosquito control 148–155 vectors/pests controlled by 357 279–282 Resmethrin, in housefly control 322 Scabies 280–282 Respiration, artificial 394–395 diagnosis 281 Resting places 381 distribution 280–281 biting Diptera 106–107 symptoms 281 cockroaches 290, 296, 300 transmission 280 houseflies 305, 315–316, 318–319 treatment 281–282 ticks 265, 273–274 Schistosoma haematobium 337, 340, 342, 343– triatomine bugs 210–211, 212, 213 344, 345–346 tsetse flies 178–180 Schistosoma intercalatum 337, 340, 341, 345 Resuscitation, mouth-to-mouth 394–395 Schistosoma japonicum 337, 340, 342, 344–345, Rhipicephalus sanguineus 271 348 Rhodnius prolixus 211 Schistosoma mansoni 337, 340, 341, 344–345, Rice fields 346 mosquito larva control 161–164 Schistosoma mekongi 337, 340, 342, 344–345 schistosomiasis transmission 347 Schistosomiasis 337, 340–348 Rickettsia australis 268, 271 clinical signs/symptoms 344–345 Rickettsia conori 271 diagnosis 345–346 Rickettsial , tick-borne 268–269, 271 distribution 340, 341–342 Rickettsia prowazekii 257 intestinal 340, 341–345, 346 Rickettsia rickettsii 268, 271 life cycle/transmission 340, 343–344, 347 Rickettsia sibirica 268, 271 prevention and control 346, 348, 350– Rickettsia tsutsugamushi 276, 277 355 Rickettsia typhi 246 treatment 346 41 urinary (vesical) 340, 342, 343–344, 345– River blindness, see Onchocerciasis 346 Rivers (see also Streams/creeks) 157–158 Screening, anti-mosquito 99–102 blackfly control 44, 45 in housefly control 311, 312 molluscicide application 354–355 insecticide-treated 100, 101–102, 103–104 mosquito larva control 158 materials 100, 102 schistosomiasis problems with 101 control 354–355 for tents 103–104 transmission 347 treatment method 101–102 sleeping sickness transmission 182 Screens, tsetse, see Tsetse screens, insecticide- tsetse traps/screens 191–192 impregnated Roads, water accumulations near 161 Scrub itch 277 Rochalimaea quintana 258 Scrub typhus 277–278 Rock hyrax 51 Seasonal variations Rodents (see also Rats) 270, 275 in freshwater snail populations 339 Romaña’s sign 214, 216 in guinea-worm disease 326–328 Roofs, triatomine bug control 225, 226 Self-protection Ropes, repellent 67 from biting Diptera 52, 53 Ross River disease 41 in leishmaniasis 49 Rubbish, see Refuse from ticks 272–274 Septic tanks, in mosquito control 152, 153 Sabethes 34, 37 Sewage Safety disposal 154–155 fumigant canisters 232 housefly breeding 305 410 INDEX

Shampoo Stable flies 8, 9–10, 24 anti-louse 259, 260 behaviour 24 in flea control 247, 249 control measures 53 Sheeting (see also Bedding) life cycle 24 border, mosquito nets 74 Stepwells 326 insecticide-treated 104–105 Sticky tapes, in housefly control 314 Sheets, triatomine bug surveillance 234 Stilt houses 81 Shelters (see also Houses) Stirrup pumps 369 insect-proofing 98–105 Stomoxys, see Stable flies temporary Storage insecticide spraying 381 hand-compression sprayers 380 treated sheeting for 104–105 pesticides 385, 387 Shorelines, straightening/steepening 122, 160 Stouts 23 Simulium, see Blackflies Streams/creeks 157–158 Simulium damnosum complex 17, 20 blackfly control 45 Simulium neavei 17 flushing/sluicing 121–122, 158 Skin molluscicide application 354–355 infections 307 mosquito larva control 158 pesticide contamination 395 shading of banks 122 Sleeping sickness 178, 179, 180–185 snails in 338 clinical symptoms 182, 184 straightening/steepening shorelines 122 distribution 180, 181 Strips, toxic, in housefly control 315–316 gambiense 180, 182, 183 Sulfur, in scabies 282 prevention and control 184–185 Supella longipalpa 288, 289 rhodesiense 180, 182, 183 Suramin sodium, in sleeping sickness 184 transmission 180, 182, 183 Surveillance treatment 184 sleeping sickness 184–185 Sluice gates 157 ticks 274 Sluicing, streams, see Streams/creeks, sluicing triatomine bugs 232–235 Smoke boxes 233–234, 235 insecticidal, see Vaporizers, insecticide collecting by hand 232, 233 insect repellent effects 56 sheets 234 Snails, freshwater 337–355 Suspension concentrate, insecticide 132, 361– biology 337–339 362 control measures 350–355 Swamps, see Marshes biological 353 Swimmer’s itch 345 chemical 353–355 Synthetic fly attractant (SFA) 317 environmental management 352 removal and destruction 352 Tabanids 9, 22–23 ecology 338–339 Tabanus 23 life cycle 337–338 Tapeworms 246 public health importance 340–350 Tapir nose 48 Soakaway pits 152, 153, 154 Temephos Soap, insecticidal 261 in blackfly control 45, 132 Source reduction, mosquitos 112 in cyclops control 334–336 environmental manipulation 120–122, 156– in louse control 260 157, 158, 159–160 as mosquito larvicide 131, 132–133, 147 environmental modification 113–120, 155, Tents 159, 160 protection measures for 103–104 Space-spraying, insecticide (see also Aerosol spraying interior surface 104 sprays, insecticidal) 110–112 Tetrachlorvinphos, in housefly control 323 acceptance 111 Three-day fever 20 advantages and disadvantages 111–112 Tick collars 273, 274 in cockroach control 298 Tick paralysis 268 in housefly control 319–321 Ticks 237, 263–275 in mosquito/biting Diptera control 69, 70, biology 263–267 110–112 control measures 272–275, 357 outdoor community protection 274–275 houseflies 321, 322 self-protection 60, 272–274 mosquitos/biting Diptera 39, 110–111 hard 263, 265–267 ticks 274 public health importance 268–272 tsetse flies 208 soft 263, 264–265 Spotted fevers, rickettsial 268–269, 271 Tilapia 125, 127, 147, 164 Spray cycle 362–363 Tiles, roofing 225, 226 Sprayers, manually operated 367–380 Toilets, see Latrines, pit Spray guns 70–71 Top minnow, see Gambusia affinis INDEX 411

Toxorhynchites 123 Tsetse traps 185–206 Trachoma 307 advantages and disadvantages 189 Training, compression sprayer use 376–378 assembly 195–201, 202 Traps materials needed 195–196 cockroach 299–300 pyramidal trap 196–200 fly 313–314 Vavoua trap 200, 201–202 tsetse fly, see Tsetse traps community use 186 Trees insecticide impregnation 203–206 along stream banks 122 maintenance 195, 196 aromatic 56 mode of action/design 185–186, 187, eucalyptus 119 188 holes in 140, 143 models 186–189 Trematode infections placement 189–193 foodborne 337, 348–350 Tularaemia 52, 246, 270–271 waterborne, see Schistosomiasis , see Jigger fleas Trench fever 258 Typhoid fever 292, 307 Triatoma dimidiata 211, 224–225 Typhus (fever) Triatoma infestans 211, 213 flea-borne (murine) 246 Triatomine bugs 210–235 control 249–250 behaviour 210 louse-borne 253–254, 257 biology 210–212 mite-borne 276, 277–278 control measures 216–235 fumigant canisters 230–232 Urine, schistosome egg counts 345–346 house improvement 222–228 impregnated mosquito nets 228, 229– Vaporizers, insecticide 63–71, 103 230 aerosol sprays, see Aerosol sprays, improvement of peridomestic insecticidal environment 228, 229 coils, see Coils, mosquito insecticide spraying of house walls 217– dichlorvos dispensers, see Dichlorvos, 222, 357, 381 vapour dispenser surveillance 232–235 electric liquid 68 life cycle 210, 211 fumigant canisters, see Fumigant canisters, public health importance 213–216 insecticide resting places 210–213 mats 67–68 Trichlorfon ropes 67 in housefly control 317, 320, 323 spray guns 70–71 in tick control 274 Vavoua trap 187 Triclabendazole, in fascioliasis 350 assembly 200, 201–202 Tricula 337 Vegetable oil, as mosquito larvicide 129 Triflumuron, in housefly control 323 Vegetation aquatic, see Water plants gambiense 180, 181 decaying, housefly breeding 305 rhodesiense 180, 181 insecticide spraying 210–213, 215 biting mite control 279 Trypanosomiasis tsetse fly control 206–208 African, see Sleeping sickness management American, see Chagas disease in biting mite control 279 animal 186, 208 in mosquito control 122, 160 Tsetse flies 8, 9, 178–208 in tick control 274, 275 biology 178–180 Venezuelan equine encephalitis 40, 41 control measures 53, 185–208 Ventilation, house 99, 101 insecticide spraying 206–208, 357 Vigilance phase, Chagas disease 216, 217 traps and insecticide-impregnated Villages, tsetse traps/screens in 192, 193 screens 185–206 Viral diseases food 180 spread by cockroaches 292 life cycle 178 spread by houseflies 307 public health importance 7, 180–185 mosquito-borne 33–41 resting places 178, 179, 180 tick-borne 271–272 Tsetse screens, insecticide-impregnated Viral encephalitis 185–206 mosquito-borne 40–41 advantages and disadvantages 189 tick-borne 271 assembly 195–196, 201–203 Vitex negundo 56 insecticide impregnation 203–206 maintenance 195 Walls mode of action/design 186, 188, 189 improvement, in triatomine bug placement 189–194 control 222–224 412 INDEX

insecticide application methods 110, improving safety 332, 333, 346, 350, 217–222 351 materials, suitability for insecticide tsetse traps/screens 193, 195 treatment 218 storage containers 141–147 residual insecticide tanks 144–147 determination of efficacy 221–222 Water-dispersible powder, insecticide 132, spraying, see Residual insecticide 361–362, 366–367 spraying, indoors Water fleas, see Cyclops Washing Water plants after pesticide use 389, 390 biological control 159, 352 in insecticide poisoning 395 floating fern (Azolla) 123, 163 in louse control 259, 262 mosquito breeding sites 17, 18 places, tsetse traps/screens 191–192 removal/destruction Water (see also Lakes; Ponds; Pools; Reservoirs; in mosquito control 33, 122, 159, 160 Rivers; Streams/creeks) in snail control 352 children playing in 350 Wells drainage systems, see Drainage systems guinea-worm disease transmission 326 drinking mosquito control 119, 147–148 boiling 336 Western equine encephalitis 41 filtration 332–334, 335 Windows 99 insecticide/larvicide treatment 147, 334– screening 99–102 336 Wuchereria bancrofti 29 methods of covering surface 119–120, 146– 147 Xenopsylla 245 resources development projects 348 salinity changes 122, 157 Yellow fever 34 schistosomiasis transmission 340–344 distribution 34, 35 snail habitats 338 prevention and control 34 sources transmission 13, 34, 36–37 fluctuations in level 121, 156–157, 352 Yersinia pestis 245 guinea-worm disease transmission 326, 328, 329–330 Zooprophylaxis 105–106