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Notes Chapter 1 NOTES CHAPTER 1 1. A clarification of terminology: In this book, I use "actress" rather than "female actor" because of the complex cultural connotations that the term "actress" car­ ried at the turn of the century in English-language theater. "Joyu" carries simi­ lar connotations in the Japanese context. Although I believe "actor" ought to be a gender-neutral term when applied to individuals today, historically it makes more sense to call Kawakami Sadayakko and Matsui Sumako "actresses" rather than "actors." I use "performer" to translate the Japanese term "haiyu." "Haiyu" is an ungendered term that subsumes "dan'yu" (male actor) and "joyu" (female actor, which I usually translate as "actress"). 2. See for example the first line of the editor's "Introduction" in Laurence Senelick, ed., Gender in Performance: The Presentation of Difference in the Performing Arts (Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New England, 1992), ix-xx. 3. Ibid., ix. 4. Texts on the theatricality/performativity of gender include essays in Sue-Ellen Case, ed., Performing Feminisms: Feminist Critical Theory and Theatre (Balti­ more, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990); Marjorie Garber, Vested In­ terests: Cross-Dressing and Cultural Anxiety (New York: Routledge, 1992). Judith Butler's work is of course central to the debate. See her "Gender Trouble, Feminist Theory, and Psychoanalytic Discourse," in Feminism/Postmodernism, ed. Linda Nicholson (New York: Routledge, 1990), 324-40; "Performative Acts and Gender Constitution: An Essay in Phenomenology and Feminist Theory," in Performing Feminisms: Feminist Critical Theory and Theatre, ed. Sue-Ellen Case (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990), 270-82; Gender Trou­ ble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (New York: Routledge, 1990); Bodies that Matter: On the Discursive Limits of Sex (New York: Routledge, 1993). 5. In considering the sociological concept of "sex role," R. W. Connell suggests that the dramaturgical metaphor of "role" is "apt for situations where (a) there are well-defined scripts to perform, (b) there are clear audiences to perform to, and (c) the stakes are not too high (so it is feasible that some kind of perform­ ing is the main social activity going on)." Thus he concludes that the metaphor 232 AcTING LIKE A WOMAN of "sex role" is inappropriate for most social contexts, except in specific situa­ tions like ballroom dancing. R. W. Connell, Masculinities (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 26. 6. Butler, Bodies that Matter, x. 7. Ibid., 12. 8. Butler, Gender Trouble, 146-4 7. 9. Butler, Bodies that Matter, 12. 10. The double meaning of "acting" is summarized by Naoki Sakai: "on the one hand, to act is to behave, to initiate a movement of the body; on the other hand, it is to disguise, to hide the inner self, to imitate and take the role of another." See Naoki Sakai, Voices of the Past: The Status of Language in Eighteenth-Cen­ tury Japanese Discourse (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1992), 301. 11. Butler, Bodies that Matter, 12-13. 12. For a more nuanced account of the history of kabuki performed by women (anna kabuki), by young men (wakashu kabuki), and by adult men (yaro kabuki), see Maki Morinaga, "The Gender of Onnagata as the Imitating Imi­ tated: Its Historicity, Performativity, and Involvement in the Circulation of Fem­ ininity," positions: east asia cultures critique (forthcoming). 13. See Morinaga, "The Gender of Onnagata," for a description of the circulation of femininity as a set of signs. See also Cecilia Segawa Seigle, Yoshiwara: The Glittering World of the Japanese Courtesan (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1993 ). 14. Italics in excerpt are in the original. William Elliot Griffis, vol. 2 of The Mikado's Empire, 2 vols., 11th ed. (New York: Harper, 1906), 515. 15. Suematsu Kencho's Engeki kairyo iken (Views on theater reform), 1886, quoted in Komiya Toyotaka, ed., Japanese Music and Drama in the Meiji Era, trans. Ed­ ward G. Seidensticker and Donald Keene, vol. 3 of Japanese Culture in the Meiji Era, 14 vols. (Tokyo: Obunsha, 1956), 217. Suematsu was the chairman of the Engeki Kairyokai and a prominent politician. Engeki kairyo iken was the tran­ scription of a speech made by him in October of 1886. The full text of was pub­ lished in one newspaper, detailed summaries were given in two others, and the full text was reprinted in three issues of the journal Bijutsu shimpo before ap­ pearing in book form in November of the same year. This suggests the high level of general public interest in theater reform. The group's call for modern theater buildings was to eventually culminate in the opening of Japan's "imperial the­ ater," the Teikoku Gekijo, in 1911. This theater, which was not a state-run in­ stitution but an enterprise sponsored by prominent industrial as well as political figures, symbolizes the oblique relations that would bind theater and the state in modern Japan. See Mine Takashi, Teikoku Gekijo kaimaku (The opening of the Teikoku Gekijo) Chuko Shinsho, no. 1334 (Tokyo: Chuo Koronsha, 1996). 16. Ozasa Yoshio, Nihon gendai engeki shi (History of Japanese contemporary the­ ater), 6 vols. to date (Tokyo: Hakusuisha, 1985-1999), 1:15-28. This meant that while the social status of performers rose substantially, the performers were also incorporated into the state. Homogenization and incorporation were the principles at work, as in the case of the physical space and performance time for theater, described later. NOTES 233 17. Ozasa, Nih on, 1:32. See Karatani Kojin, Origins of Modern Japanese Literature, trans. Brett deBary, eta!. (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1993), 56-57, for discussion of the significance of the kabuki actor Ichikawa Danjiiro appear­ ing without makeup or wig at this performance. 18. See, for example, Fukuzawa Yukichi's account in his Fukuo jiden, translated as The Autobiography of Fukuzawa Yukichi, trans. Eiichi Kiyooka (Lanham, Md.: Madison Books, 1992), 104-23. 19. See Lorraine Helms, "Playing the Woman's Part: Feminist Criticism and Shake­ spearean Performance," in Performing Feminisms: Feminist Critical Theory and Theatre, ed. Sue-Ellen Case (Baltimore, Md.: John Hopkins University Press, 1990), 196-206; Phyllis Rackin, "Androgyny, Mimesis, and the Marriage of the Boy Heroine on the English Renaissance Stage," PMLA 102, no. 1 (1987): 29-41; Juliet Dusinberre, Shakespeare and the Nature of Women (New York: Macmillan, 1975); Lisa Jardine, Still Harping on Daughters: Women and Drama in the Age of Shakespeare (Brighton, Great Britain: Harvester, 1983); Linda Woodbridge, Women and the English Renaissance: Literature and the Na­ ture of Womankind, 1540-1620 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1984); Joan Kelly, "Did Women Have a Renaissance" in Becoming Visible: Women in European History, ed. Renate Bridenthal and Claudia Koonz (Boston: Houghton, 1977), 137-63. 20. I use "male performers of female roles" rather than the more familiar "female impersonator" for the sake of clarity. I realize that by doing so I may be rein­ scribing the binary opposition between the male and the female, the imperson­ ating body, and the role performed by that body. 21. Elizabeth Howe, The First English Actress: Women and Drama 1660-1700 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), xi. 22. John Stokes, Michael R. Booth, and Susan Bassnett, Bernhardt, Terry, Duse: The Actress in Her Time (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988). 23. Examples of feminist critique of theater include: Gayle Austin, Feminist Theories for Dramatic Criticism (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1990); Sue­ Ellen Case, Feminism and Theatre (New York: Methuen, 1988); Gay Gibson Cima, Performing Women: Female Characters, Male Playwrights, and the Mod­ ern Stage (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1993 ); Tracy C. Davis, "Ques­ tions for a Feminist Methodology in Theatre History," Interpreting the Theatrical Past: Essays in the Historiography of Performance, ed. Thomas Postlewait and Bruce A. McConachie (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1989), 59-81; Jill Dolan, The Feminist Spectator as Critic (Ann Arbor, Mich.: UMI Research Press, 1988); Lesley Ferris, Acting Women: Images of Women in Theatre (New York: New York University Press, 1989); Gail Finney, Women in Modern Drama: Freud, Feminism, and European Theater at the Turn of the Century (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press); J. Ellen Gainor, Shaw's Daughters: Dramatic and Nar­ rative Constructions of Gender (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1991 ); Lynda Hart, ed., Making a Spectacle: Feminist Essays on Contemporary Women's Theatre (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1989). 24. Loren Kruger, The National Stage: Theatre and Cultural Legitimation in Eng­ land, France, and America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). 234 ACTING LIKE A WOMAN 25. For example, James Fujii, Complicit Fictions: The Subject in the Modern Japanese Prose Narrative (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992); David Pollack, Reading Against Culture: Ideology and Narrative in the Japanese Novel (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1992); Mary N. Layoun, Travels of a Genre: The Modern Novel and Ideology (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990). 26. Important English-language work in modern Japanese theater includes: David Goodman, Japanese Drama and Culture in the 1960s: The Return of the Gods (London: M. E. Sharpe, 1988); Brian Powell, Japan's Modern Theatre: A Cen­ tury of Change and Continuity (New York: St. Martin's Press, 2001); J. Thomas Rimer, Toward
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