Pioneers in Arts, Humanities, Science, Engineering, Practice

Volume 30

Series Editor Hans Günter Brauch, Peace Research and European Security Studies (AFES-PRESS), Mosbach, Germany More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15230 http://www.afes-press-books.de/html/PAHSEP.htm http://afes-press-books.de/html/PAHSEP_Wallensteen.htm Peter Wallensteen

Peter Wallensteen: A Pioneer in Making Peace Researchable

With a Foreword by Jan Eliasson and a Preface by Raimo Väyrynen

123 Peter Wallensteen Institutionen för freds- och konfliktforskning/Department of Peace and Conflict Research Uppsala Universitet/Uppsala University Uppsala, Sweden

Acknowledgement: More on Professor Peter Wallensteen, his books, other publications and links to selected media are found at: http://afes-press-books.de/html/PAHSEP_Wallensteen. htm.

ISSN 2509-5579 ISSN 2509-5587 (electronic) Pioneers in Arts, Humanities, Science, Engineering, Practice ISBN 978-3-030-62847-5 ISBN 978-3-030-62848-2 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-62848-2

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Book cover photo by Magnus Aronson, with permission. Copyediting: PD Dr. Hans Günter Brauch, AFES-PRESS e.V., Mosbach, Germany

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland To the Future: Our grandchildren Etta, Aron, Morris, Nina, Tage and Holly Foreword

Jan Eliasson, Chair of SIPRI, speaking at the Stockholm Forum on Peace and Development 2018. Photo: Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) with permission

Partnership in Peacemaking: My Collaboration with Peter Wallensteen

The special Swedish envoy to civil society, Ambassador Olle Dahlén, introduced me to Peter Wallensteen in the mid-1980s. Dahlén was engaged in constructing the ecumenical Life and Peace Institute, a result of the global conference on Life and Peace that met in Uppsala in 1983. Peter was engaged with the Department of Peace

vii viii Foreword and Conflict Research at Uppsala University. He provided lessons for how to build an institution concerned with global issues of war and peace. Peter and I have remained in close touch ever since. Under Peter’s leadership, the Department grew to become a leading academic center as well as a resource for the formation of Swedish and international policies in the field of peace, peace- building and conflict prevention. I am happy to see that his colleagues and suc- cessors have followed the same path. I was fortunate to become a regular lecturer at the Department’s annual International Program on Conflict Resolution (the PACS courses), funded by Swedish development aid. These programs have continued in different forms, now for more than thirty years. Peter and I shared an understanding in the importance of such courses to reach out to the world, and in particular, to the Global South, with scholarly based insights in topics such as conflict resolution, conflict prevention and international institutions. When I travel around the world, I very often meet persons who have participated in these courses. They have become members of government, heads of public agencies, leaders of civil society organizations, professors, teachers and journalists. Many have been involved in peace processes, mediation efforts and conflict man- agement. In that way, these courses have contributed to project the importance of academic training for global development. They have also been instrumental in demonstrating Sweden’s emphasis on global solidarity. The alumni network of persons with such experiences of Sweden’s international policies was also impor- tant when I was leading the Swedish campaign to win a seat at the UN Security Council for the period 1997–1998. When I was Sweden’s ambassador to the United Nations and then the first head of the Department of Humanitarian Affairs (DHA, today: OCHA) in 1988–1994, I could daily observe the negative impact of political conflicts and war on humani- tarian conditions. It would not just be enough to finding remedies to people’s suffering, it was also important to solve the disputes that led to the wars. Thus, I initiated a process that involved Peter and the Uppsala Department in creating dialogue on the Cambodian conflict. It was an issue of concern to the UN at the time. It was a crucial part of the ending of the Cold War. Solving this conflict was key to finding peace for Indochina and Southeast Asia. The Department arranged sessions with the different parties to this conflict. Thoughtfully, the discussions were not arranged in Sweden, but in the region. Peter suggested Malaysia as the location and the Universiti Sains Malaysia as the host. He brought with him his colleague Ramses Amer from the Department and the head of the small peace studies unit at that university Dr. Johan Saravanamuttu. The dialogues worked well, not the least as the Cambodian participants could see the benefits of peace when comparing their own situation to Malaysia’s economy after 30 years of independence. This encounter between the different sides of the conflict provided important inputs into the negotiations that resulted in the peace agreement in Paris in October 1991. This was an experience in what Peter termed “academic diplomacy.” Foreword ix

When returning to Sweden in 1994, I took up an assignment with the OSCE (Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe) as Chair of the Minsk Group in the conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan over Nagorno-Karabakh. A most difficult task, indeed, particularly as this was a geographical region where Russia wanted to retain its traditional role as the ultimate arbitrator. I helped find a formula for a cease-fire in 1994, but it turned out to be much more difficult to arrive at a solution to the conflict. Peter and his colleague Kjell-Åke Nordquist at the Department pursued this, notably by producing documents on an autonomy solu- tion that might have been satisfactory to all sides. In fact, I could do this in my dual role: I was not only the OSCE envoy for this conflict; I was at the same time Visiting Professor at the Department in Uppsala! I could hand the parties a document, which I termed an “academic” paper asking for their response. At least, it injected new ideas into the process. Solving conflict has always been hard. The work by Peter and his colleagues has been instrumental in demonstrating that solutions can be found, notably in his book Understanding Conflict Resolution. But they are not easy to come by. I believe, however, that this type of academic work is useful in negotiations. Thus, when I was the UN Special Envoy for the Darfur conflict in 2007–2008, I had a team in Stockholm working on solutions. To the staff, I recruited a young researcher from Uppsala, on Peter’s advice, Johan Brosché. He has now turned into one of Scandinavia’s leading scholars on the Sudanese conflicts as well as on African conflicts. However, realizing that conflicts are difficult to end and even more difficult to solve, leads to the logical conclusion that they have to be prevented before they become to complicated. To act early, before suffering, deaths and destruction were too high, would be healthier for all involved. These were matters that Peter and I discussed repeatedly in the early 1990s, and where he had lots of ideas of what could be done. When I was State Secretary for Foreign Affairs (1994–2001), I and my colleague Anders Bjurner launched a number of initiatives to make conflict prevention a central concern in Swedish policies for international affairs. Of course, this was also something dear to the Ministers themselves (Lena Hjelm-Wallén and Anna Lindh). One element in this was to create a special forum in the Ministry for discussion on possible peace and prevention initiatives (RFSI, the Council for Peace and Security Initiatives). Peter took an active role in this. As the minutes were dis- tributed throughout the Ministry, all officials became aware of what this entailed. We could pursue conflict prevention on many levels: in the UN Security Council as a member; with the UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan; as well as in the European Union, which agreed to make conflict prevention an important tool in the Union’s international strategy. It was first used by Anna Lindh in EU’s handling of the crisis in Macedonia in 2001. An element in this was the comprehensive conference that the Ministry orga- nized together with the Department at the Krusenberg Manor outside Uppsala in August 1997. It was a remarkable gathering of leading policy makers, activists as well as researchers and teachers (it resulted in the volume Preventing Violent x Foreword

Conflict. Past Record and Future Challenges). It demonstrated the importance of bringing these different communities together. Benefiting from this, it gave me strength in arguing for the importance of conflict prevention. Concretely, this led to an informal channel, a track-II process, between the Department with Peter and Kjell-Åke Nordquist, the Indonesian government and Fretilin, the leading opposition to Indonesia’s occupation of East Timor. It was initiated in 1996 and continued until the independence of East Timor. Certainly, one of the earlier topics under discussion was the possibility of a temporary autonomy for East Timor, while being part of Indonesia. It would have provided for a more peaceful ending of the conflict than what came to happen in 1999. The topic of prevention remains important, also in a post-9/11 and post-Corona world. A very special assignment for me was to brief the young Crown Princess Victoria on international affairs. I appreciated her great interest and encouraged her to study at Uppsala University. I was very happy to see that she and Peter connected well. Although she had a busy schedule, he and his colleague Thomas Ohlson managed to make a study program for the Crown Princess so that she could meet all the requirements for an exam. In 2009, Victoria finished her BA in peace studies and political science. I was happy to see this outcome! It was great for me to be appointed Honorary Doctor and then Visiting Professor for a second time, in 2007, to the Department of Peace and Conflict Research. It coincided with my assignment for Darfur, but I certainly had time also to meet and discuss with Peter, his colleagues, and not the least, the Department’s students. Lecturing and sharing experiences are important. The book, The Go-Between: Jan Eliasson and the Styles of Mediation, done by Peter and his colleague Isak Svensson, incorporates and systematizes a host of lessons that I have drawn from my many international assignments. Sharing experiences on mediation has always been important in our contacts. At the UN, the Mediation Support Unit created a special Academic Advisory Council as a way to connect practice and academic insights. Peter was one of the academics involved in this, together with other leading scholars, notably I. William Zartman. During my time as Deputy Secretary-General in the UN (2012–2016), I always tried to encourage such contacts. They are valuable for the practitioners, but it is also my impression that it stimulates researchers with a concern for global affairs. Over the years, the complexities in dealing with international peace and security have increased. Sometimes, it is a result also of an understanding what peace entails. I tried to make this clear as I had the somber task of delivering the 2011 annual Dag Hammarskjöld Lecture at Uppsala University. It was scheduled for September 18 at 4 pm; exactly 50 years after the Swedish National Radio broke the news that the Secretary-General had died in the plane crash outside Ndola, Northern Rhodesia (now: Zambia). This is a yearly event organized by the Dag Hammarskjöld Foundation and Uppsala University, represented by its Vice Chancellor as well as Peter, as the first holder of the Dag Hammarskjöld Chair in peace and conflict research. In this lecture, I pointed to the close connections between peace, development and human rights. Achieving international peace and security is not only a matter of ending or Foreword xi preventing wars. It is also a matter of how development is pursued, and not the least how respect for human rights is upheld. Achieving peace and security requires a comprehensive approach. Research for peace needs this as well. Human rights have become increasingly important in my understanding. I can see the same in Peter’s professional development, now chairing Uppsala University’s committee for human rights. The Holmdahl Prize, named after the former Vice Chancellor of Uppsala University, is a way of highlighting the importance of adherence to human rights also to teachers, students and friends of the university. It is with joy I have accepted to be invited to speak on this topic, thus promoting human rights with the university and its alumni. This complex understanding of peace requires multi-disciplinary research and a strong daily focus on this problem. The Department of Peace and Conflict Research has achieved this. It is always a pleasure for me to visit this milieu and meet Peter Wallensteen in the environment of creative researcher, teachers and students.

Täby, Sweden Ambassador Jan Eliasson July 2020

Ambassador Jan Eliasson is a Swedish diplomat. He served as Deputy Secretary-General of the United Nations 2012–2016 and Sweden’s Minister for Foreign Affairs in 2006 after being Ambassador to Washington, D.C., 2000–2005 and State Secretary of Foreign Affairs 1994–1999. In the years 1988–1992, Eliasson was Sweden’s Permanent Representative to the UN. He was the first UN Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs, 1992–1994, and elected President of the UN General Assembly 2005–2006. Jan Eliasson was appointed UN Secretary-General’s Special Envoy for Iran–Iraq in 1988–1992 after participating in Swedish Prime Minister Olof Palme’s mediation mission for this conflict 1980–1986. He was also the UN Special Envoy for the conflict in Darfur 2007–2008 and held a similar position for OSCE with regard to the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict 1992–1994. He was Visiting Professor at the Department of Peace and Conflict Research, Uppsala University, in 2007 as well as in 1993–1994. He became Honorary Doctor at Uppsala University in 2005. Ambassador Eliasson was born in Göteborg, Sweden, in 1940, has a master degree in economics and has written on conflict prevention. Since 2017, he serves as the Chair of the SIPRI Governing Board. Preface

Raimo Väyrynen (right) with former President of Finland Martti Ahtisaari (left), Helsinki 2007. Photo: From the personal collection of Väyrynen family, used with permission

A Personal Testimony to the Career of Peter Wallensteen

According to a popular theory in the social sciences, a generation is a cohort, which is united by a foundational experience creating a common Lebenswelt. Having followed the field for over five decades, I would contend that Nordic peace

xiii xiv Preface research, which was largely started by social scientists born in and around the 1940s, forms such a generation—one that has been tied together by recollections of World War II. Few of us are old enough to have any personal impressions of the war, but all of us were raised under the shadow of World War and nuclear weapons. Obviously, our national experiences in the various Nordic countries differed. Our mothers and fathers were on the military’s frontlines, toiled on the home front, or were exiled abroad. This left us with a common, generational experience in spite of different national and social backgrounds. Moreover, practically all of us were males, as women had not yet made their breakthrough into the ranks of peace researchers. This generational experience resulted in the view that there must be a different way than warfare to manage relations between states. This was the thought, which was deeply felt by Mauno Koivisto, a future President of Finland (1982–1994), when, as a 21-year-old, he returned from the frontlines to civilian life. This foun- dational experience was connected in our generation with the empirical revolution in the social sciences. While the generation before us had mostly been trained in the historical method to research behavior of human beings and societies, our gener- ation believed in collection and analysis of data instead of casual observations of behavior by individual decision-makers. This revolution was largely imported from the USA where scholars like Karl W. Deutsch, Ted Robert Gurr, Bruce M. Russett and J. David Singer initiated new empirical approaches in international studies. Peter Wallensteen, during his career, forged close cooperative relations with all of them. Thus, our generation was the first truly Anglo-Saxon cohort of Nordic scholars dealing with the issues of peace and war, animated with holistic and empirical observations of social structures. Moreover, nuclear weapons overshadowed the life of every human being, in Asia, Europe and North America. In Norway, this group included Johan Galtung and Nils Petter Gleditsch, in Denmark Anders Boserup and Hans Henrik Holm, in Sweden Peter Wallensteen and Håkan Wiberg, and in Finland Pertti Joenniemi and me, to mention just a few names. Johan Galtung was the magnet that drew most of us together in the late 1960s and helped to create a social generation, closely corresponding to Karl Mannheim’s notion from 1928. Galtung was an incredibly active and talented scholar, although occasionally self-centered, who, being more than ten years older than the rest of us, already had considerable international experience in the study of peace and non-violence. Our generation was in no way united in its outlook and attitude toward inter- national affairs. There were, however, tensions with the older generation of political scientists who had an “objective” and somewhat stale view of social institutions and political behavior. Pierre Bourdieu has distinguished between succession strategies and subversion strategies in the choice of young scholars in their research topics and methods. We were not as radical as “revolutionary” peace researchers, but were no doubt disinclined to follow the succession strategies. There was an element of subversion in our work that was seen in the choices of structural violence, impe- rialism, transnational corporations and civil wars as our research topics. For instance, the Vietnam War was seen through the lenses of these factors. Preface xv

Nordic cooperation in peace and conflict research was gradually taking shape over the course of the 1960s. My first meeting with Peter took place in Sigtuna, the oldest city in Sweden, in April 1968; it was organized by Peter, Håkan Wiberg and Bo Wirmark and was a small get-together on economic sanctions and non-violence. Peter had an early and enduring interest in economic sanctions, starting with the case of Rhodesia. Our second meeting took place in August 1968 in Helsinki in connection with the Nordic conference of political scientists, just before the Soviet occupation of Czechoslovakia. Early on Peter was in contact with the Finnish peace research community that was taking shape in the late 1960s. The Tampere Peace Research Group was established in 1968, and the Tampere Peace Research Institute (TAPRI) started its activities in 1970. Peter was the first international scholar to stay for a longer period at the Institute in the fall of 1970. Simultaneously, he lectured at the University of Tampere on development theory, which, in addition to peace research, was his abiding interest. This was the first academic visit by Peter to Finland, and it was followed by several more stays in subsequent decades. These visits gave him a chance to become quite familiar with peace research in Finland as an emerging activity. Our first cooperative project focused on the economic structure of the Nordic system from the 1920s to the 1970s and its impact on the internal and external political relations of the Nordic countries. The international structure was opera- tionalized by trade flows. The framework of this book-length study, entitled The Nordic System. Structure and Change, 1920–1970 (1973), was originally Peter’s idea. It was drafted in four days of intensive work in the basement of a house in Åland Islands, which was rented by our team that also included Unto Vesa from Tampere. This study, to my mind, was truly innovative and should have merited a larger international audience through an international publishing house. Instead, the report came out in mimeographed versions from the Tampere and Uppsala peace research institutions and hence had only a limited circulation. The same theoretical and operational structure, using trade flows as an indicator, was also used in Peter’s excellent doctoral thesis Structure and War: On International Relations 1920–1968 (1973). The state actors were grouped into topdogs and underdogs, and the trade orientation in their pairwise relations was compared to the occurrence of war in their mutual relations. The study also focused on the connections between structures and conflicts in Europe before and after the Second World War. The thesis was publicly defended at the Department of Political Science at Uppsala University. The primary opponent was Helge Hveem from Oslo, while I served as the second opponent. You can imagine how nervous I was as a freshly minted 26-year-old doctor! Peter’s thesis was the first dissertation I was involved in as an official examiner and, furthermore, the defense was conducted in English, a foreign language which I mastered less than perfectly. The publications using international trade data were linked to Peter’s lifelong interest in economic sanctions and their use as nonviolent punishment of nations initiating warfare, undemocratic changes and violation of human rights in societies. While often inefficient in their outcomes, economic and other sanctions were a xvi Preface nonviolent alternative to war and hence, a preferable means of influence. Over time, sanctions have also become more sophisticated and have been designed to be more selective in terms of their choice of targets and instrumental influence. In addition to several international articles, Peter’s publications also include a book-length study of economic sanctions, Ekonomiska sanktioner (1971), exploring ten cases of sanctions. Economic sanctions also opened Peter’s way as an expert to the United Nations, which had the mandate to initiate multilateral sanctions to affect the policies of misbehaving states. The interest in the United Nations also led him to produce a think piece on reforming the Security Council. Unfortunately, it has remained on paper together with all other proposals for reforms of its structure. International cooperation was one focal point of our activities. A beginning were the Nordic peace research conferences, which initially were held every second year, and were one of the shared arenas of peace researchers. As Nordic peace research was in the lead internationally, these meetings were indeed formative experiences for young scholars in the field. An additional forum on which we left our mark was the world conferences of the International Peace Research Association, IPRA, held in the 1970s in Yugoslavia, India, Finland, Mexico and Germany. At the conference in Finland in 1975, I was elected the Secretary-General of the Association (which actually was the same as its Chairperson). The chair did not receive a salary but thanks to support from the President of Finland, Urho Kekkonen, the Finnish Government provided IPRA with annual funding. By this grant, we were able to hire one full-time person to work for international peace research. Peter was elected a member of the executive committee of the Association, meaning that we served together for the period of 1975–1979. He was elected to that position again in the 1980s. The study of war and international order was one of the main areas of Peter’s creative and many-sided projects. I particularly liked an article which he published in Journal of Peace Research in 1981 entitled Incompatibility, Confrontation and War: Four Models and Three Historical Systems, 1816–1976. It neatly summarized several strong points in his research methodology: theoretical models, empirical work and historical approach which were tied together into a coordinated whole. During his career, Peter also touched upon a great variety of issues ranging from necessities of life, such as food and water, through conflict resolution and mediation to Lebenswelt of accomplished diplomats, including a countryman, Dag Hammarskjöld. Peter even ventured into actual conflict resolution when he was invited to help in settling the violent conflict in copper-rich Bougainville, geo- graphically a part of the Solomon Islands. The population of Bougainville yearned for greater independence from Papua New Guinea. Peter served an extended period of time as the first Dag Hammarskjöld Professor in Peace and Conflict Research at Uppsala University and Head of the Department before retiring. Peter’s appointment to that position in the mid-1980s was a somewhat complicated issue. It reflected the struggle between old-fashioned political science and a “subversive” young field known as peace research. Peter was undoubtedly an accomplished and competent candidate for the position, which was also the view by one of the experts, Professor Erik Allardt. Another candidate for Preface xvii the position was Kjell Goldmann, who also had strong credentials to support him. He was, however, a political scientist, not a peace researcher. I recall how much genuine interest and support Peter’s candidacy created among peace researchers. We even provided written evidence to Uppsala University to support Peter’s application. I don’t know whether this operation helped the cause but, ultimately, Peter was appointed. His most important contribution to the field is the Uppsala Conflict Data Program, which he initiated in the Department. It has resulted in the publication of an annual report of occurrence and duration of armed conflicts in the Journal of Peace Research and other outlets, which initially included the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), which published the report in 1987– 2017, the Carter Center (USA) and the Human Security Project (Canada). The reports were the first of their kind, but the collection of conflict data later became a crowded field. However, the Uppsala program has remained a leader. It was also a major educational effort in which a number of younger peace researchers started their careers. The Uppsala department continues to be one of the main centers of peace research, complete with a Ph.D. program of its own, in the Nordic countries and internationally. The high quality of the Uppsala Conflict Data Program was observed in 2010–2011 in an international evaluation of Uppsala University in which I took part. Our paths also crossed on the other side of the Atlantic, at the University of Notre Dame. In 1993, I was appointed the Regan Director of the Joan B. Kroc Institute for International Peace Studies and Professor of Government. The Institute is funded from a generous grant from Joan B. Kroc and focuses, in addition to its academic programs, on the resolution of conflicts in a wider sense and their social and religious aspects. During my tenure at the Kroc Institute, he visited the Kroc Institute in the 1990s and again in the early 2000s when he stayed for one semester. Peter contributed a chapter in our project on The Waning of Major War, whose main results came out as a book in 2006. Peter was a major international recruit- ment for the Institute and spent the years 2006–2018 in the service of the Institute along with his wife, Lena, who has been an important partner throughout his career. Peter was each fall semester at the Kroc Institute, now part of the Keough School of Global Affairs, as Richard G. Starmann Sr. Research Professor, invigorating its research program and teaching in conflict studies. A rather exceptional task fell upon me when I was asked by Uppsala University to review the B.A. work of Sweden’s Crown Princess, Victoria, in 2009. The Dean of the Faculty of Social Sciences in Uppsala obviously believed that someone from outside Sweden would be less inhibited in reviewing her work. To perform this task, I went to Stockholm, met Peter, who served as one of her supervisors, and received from him the empirical components of her work. I had about one hour to acquaint myself with her empirical endeavor before heading to the royal palace to discuss her work. The discussion lasted for about an hour and a half, after which it was clear to me that the Crown Princess had mastered the theoretical outline and empirical material of her work. I recommended it for approval by the university without hesitation. xviii Preface

I believe that the connections between Peter and me over the years have been beneficial for peace research in both our countries. It has also helped to develop Peter’s connection to Finland. When meeting at my second home in Southern Finland in 2017 together with Unto Vesa, we discussed the importance of history to our lives. Peter mentioned that his father had been a Swedish army volunteer on Finland’s side in the Winter War and that he was proud to have received a medallion from Marshal Gustaf Mannerheim. It reinforced for Peter how our countries have been connected historically and continue to this day. It also affects how we, in this generation, conceive of peace research. Peter Wallensteen is a leading scholar of the first generation of peace researchers, and he has remained faithful in his choice of research topics over half a century. Without being subversive in the radical sense of the word, his research has challenged many of the established truths and pioneered many important openings in peace and conflict studies.

Helsinki, Finland Raimo Väyrynen July 2020

Raimo Väyrynen (b. 1947) is a leading peace researcher in Finland, with a Ph.D. in political science, University of Tampere (1973), and Director of Tampere Peace Research Institute (TAPRI) 1972–1978, tenured professor of political science, University of Helsinki 1978–1993, and Dean of the Faculty of Social Sciences, 1989–1993. In 1993–2002, he was a professor of political science and Director of the Joan B. Kroc Institute for International Peace Studies at the University of Notre Dame, USA. He has also been a visiting scholar at Princeton University, the University of Minnesota, Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Harvard University. Returning to Finland, he was the Director of the Helsinki Collegium of Advanced Studies (2002–2004), President of the Academy of Finland (2004–2007) and Director of the Finnish Institute of International Affairs (2007–2009). He served as the Secretary-General of the International Peace Research Association 1975–1979. He was also a member of the Executive Council of the United Nations University and chaired the Copenhagen Peace Research Institute. He participated in academic evaluations, for instance, of the Danish Institute of International Studies, the European University Institute, and the universities in Uppsala and Göteborg (Gothenburg). As a researcher, he has published extensively in multiple languages on international peace and security, on international political economy and on the theory and history of international relations. Notable are The Waning of Major War: Theory and Debates (2006) and numerous articles in Journal of Peace Research, Cooperation and Conflict and International Studies Quarterly. Acknowledgements

Cover photo and assistance with many of the photos: Magnus Aronson, Uppsala. Critical and constructive reading of texts: My wife Lena Wallensteen and our friend Bill Montross. Many thanks to Hans-Günter Brauch, the editor of this volume, and the Springer team in Chennai, Tamil Nadu, notably Ms. Jayanthi Krishnamoorthi and Ms. Priyadharshini Subramani, typesetters and graphic designers. For more information on the author, go to pcr.uu.se/about us/faculty and staff and https:// katalog.uu.se/empinfo/?id=XX1659.

Uppsala, Sweden Peter Wallensteen August 2020

xix On This Volume

Part I gives basic information about me, the author, including a comprehensive bibliography. Parts II, III and IV contain texts from ten different areas that are important for peace research, ranging from sanctions to quality peace. Section A, in Part II “Peaceful Means,” offers lessons for how to operate a research milieu with ethical concerns, followed by accounts of how the peace research agenda has been formed and an article on the researcher’s responsibility for the consequences of his/her findings. The reproduced Code of Ethics for Researchers was the result of a formal interdisciplinary effort at Uppsala University in the early 1980s. It is still quite exceptional. Part II also deals with sanctions, a topic which has been of primary concern to me since my first scholarly publication (in 1968). Two additional studies of sanc- tions are included here. As explained in Part I, I led an international effort to reform the UN’s use of sanctions, the Stockholm Process in 2001–2003. At that time, there was a lack of sanctions research with regard to the impact of targeted sanctions on individuals as well as their utility for conflict resolution. Two such texts are included. In peace research, mediation of conflicts is central and captured my attention already in the 1980s, but the end of the Cold War changed the focus. Thus, only publications from the 2010s have been included, some of them carried out with Isak Svensson. In addition, there is a reflective essay on the “Munich syndrome.” Part II ends with chapters dealing with international organizations. The UN Security Council is a constant subject for reform. Consequently, I present a pro- posal with ideas that seem relevant even today. That regional organizations sometimes have been regarded as alternatives to the UN gave rise to the reflections in one chapter. Part III focuses directly on war. Obviously, understanding the causes of war is of central concern to peace research. The Uppsala Conflict Data Program, UCDP, has taken on a crucial role, and a few of its definitions are explained. Also included is an article analyzing major power relations in terms of particularism and univer- salism as well as a theoretical study of different models for understanding inter- national affairs.

xxi xxii On This Volume

One of the ideas with UCDP is to observe conflicts before they escalate into wars. Thus, conflict prevention is of significant concern, and advances in this field are demonstrated in two chapters: one on genocide prevention and one that sys- tematically analyzes the experiences of Dag Hammarskjöld resulting in suggestions for today’s diplomacy. Part IV deals with peace. These texts elaborate on the long-term changes that can prevent conflicts from recurring and identify the conditions for peace with quality. In the 1990s, feminist thinking enriched peace research. Without a doubt, the gender variable (as well as other dimensions of human identity) had been over- looked. The academic background of the significant resolution 1325 (2000) by the Security Council is presented here for the first time. In order not to forget the efforts by Alva Myrdal, an early woman pioneer in the field of disarmament, a chapter on her approach to negotiation, is included. The connection between peace and economic development remains of great interest to me, going back to my days in development studies. That food, which should be a human right, can be used as a tool for power is shown in one article. Another one deals with the conditions when drought might result not only in food shortages but also in conflict. In the 1970s, there were extensive discussions on possible connections between disarmament and local development, exemplified here in a study of military base closings. In this section, there is also an article of immediate relevance to climate change, as it draws lessons from disputed fresh- water resources. Part IV also demonstrates that researchers can contribute insights that are useful in ongoing conflicts. This is academic diplomacy where academics play a role in diplomacy for conflict resolution. Two such experiences are recounted in Section J. To make reading, referencing and retrieval of these writings easier, I have included a list of abbreviations in the beginning of the book and an index at the very end. Contents

Part I The Author 1 The Making of a Peace Researcher ...... 3 Peter Wallensteen 1.1 Researching Peace ...... 3 1.2 Appreciating Cooperation ...... 4 1.3 Entering Uppsala University ...... 5 1.4 Discovering Peace Research ...... 6 1.5 Grasping University Affairs ...... 8 1.6 Becoming Dag Hammarskjöld Professor ...... 10 1.7 Globalizing the Department ...... 12 1.8 Developing the Uppsala Conflict Data Program, UCDP ...... 15 1.9 Taking on Public Service Assignments...... 16 1.10 Understanding Conflict Resolution ...... 19 1.11 Connecting to the World ...... 20 1.12 Experiencing Other Universities ...... 25 1.13 Characterizing My Research ...... 26 2 Comprehensive Bibliography of Peter Wallensteen ...... 31 Peter Wallensteen 2.1 Books, Monographs, Edited Works, Major Reports ...... 31 2.2 Articles in Scholarly Books and Journals ...... 39

Part II Peaceful Means

A Establishing Peace Research 3 Foundational Debates for the Study of Societal Problems: Lessons from Peace Research ...... 65 Peter Wallensteen 3.1 Peace Research as an Example ...... 65 3.2 Peace Research in the Nordic Countries: A Short History ..... 66

xxiii xxiv Contents

3.3 Foundational Topics ...... 68 3.3.1 The First Debate: Action or Research? ...... 68 3.3.2 The Second Debate: Urgent Issues or Long-Term Change? ...... 71 3.3.3 The Third Debate: Inside or Outside the Universities? ...... 74 3.3.4 The Fourth Debate: Autonomy or Merger? ...... 75 3.3.5 The Fifth Debate: Conditions for a Creative Environment: Cooperative or Adversarial? ...... 76 3.4 Conclusions ...... 77 4 The Origins of Contemporary Peace Research ...... 79 Peter Wallensteen 4.1 Introduction ...... 79 4.2 Peace Research, Violence and Peace ...... 81 4.3 Empirical Peace Research and Social Ethics ...... 82 4.4 Global Traumas and the Development of Peace Research ..... 83 4.4.1 The World War I Trauma, Causes of War Research, and International Organizations ...... 84 4.4.2 The Trauma of World War II and Disarmament Research ...... 87 4.4.3 The Cold War Trauma and Conflict Theory ...... 89 4.4.4 The Trauma of the Vietnam War and Asymmetric Conflict ...... 91 4.4.5 The Post-Cold War Period and Peacebuilding Research ...... 94 4.5 Traumas, Hopes and the Future of Peace Research ...... 98 4.6 Summary ...... 100 References ...... 100 5 The Uppsala Code of Ethics for Scientists ...... 105 Bengt Gustafsson, Lars Rydén, Gunnar Tibell, and Peter Wallensteen 5.1 Ethical Problems in Research ...... 105 5.2 The Responsibility of Scientists ...... 108 5.3 Individual Responsibility ...... 109 5.4 Ecology and War ...... 109 5.5 Negative or Positive Code? ...... 111 5.6 Duty to Inform ...... 111 References ...... 112

BRefining Sanctions 6 Characteristics of Economic Sanctions ...... 115 Peter Wallensteen 6.1 Introduction ...... 115 6.2 Economic Sanctions ...... 117 Contents xxv

6.3 General Features of Economic Sanctions ...... 120 6.3.1 Success ...... 120 6.3.2 Sender-Oriented Theories ...... 122 6.3.3 Receiver-Oriented Theories ...... 125 6.3.4 SR-Relation-Oriented Theories ...... 131 6.3.5 Environment-Oriented Theories ...... 133 6.4 Conclusion ...... 135 6.5 Implications ...... 138 7 Targeting the Right Targets? The UN Use of Individual Sanctions ...... 139 Peter Wallensteen and Helena Grusell 7.1 The Rise of Smart Sanctions ...... 139 7.2 The Theory of Targeting Individuals ...... 142 7.3 Eight Cases of UN Sanctions 2000–2009 ...... 146 7.4 Closeness to Power ...... 150 7.5 Political Compliance: The Evidence ...... 156 7.6 A Future for Individual Sanctions? ...... 159 8 Targeting Sanctions and Ending Armed Conflicts: First Steps Towards a New Research Agenda...... 163 Peter Wallensteen and Mikael Eriksson 8.1 Sanctions and Ending Conflict ...... 163 8.2 A Note on Questions, Data, Definitions and Hypotheses ...... 164 8.3 The Contemporary Literature on UN Targeted Sanctions ...... 165 8.4 Sanctions and Armed Conflict Since the End of the Cold War ...... 168 8.4.1 Armed Conflict and the Use of UN Targeted Sanctions ...... 169 8.4.2 UN Targeted Sanctions and Type of Armed Conflict ...... 170 8.4.3 UN Targeted Sanctions and the Phases and Intensity of Armed Conflict ...... 171 8.4.4 UN Targeted Sanctions, Armed Conflicts and Conflict Resolution ...... 173 8.4.5 Sanctions and Unresolved Conflicts ...... 174 8.5 Conclusion ...... 175

C Developing Mediation 9 Going Ahead: Lessons for Mediation Theory and Practice ...... 179 Peter Wallensteen and Isak Svensson 9.1 Introduction ...... 179 9.2 Mediation Mandate ...... 180 9.3 Mediation Outcome ...... 183 9.4 Mediation Resources ...... 185 xxvi Contents

9.5 Styles in International Mediation ...... 188 9.5.1 Scope: Inclusive or Exclusive ...... 188 9.5.2 Method: Forcing or Fostering ...... 190 9.5.3 Mode: Confidential or Open Mediation ...... 192 9.5.4 Focus: From Narrow to Wide Peace ...... 193 9.6 Comparing Mediation Styles ...... 196 9.7 Ten Implications for Mediation Research and Mediation Practice ...... 201 9.7.1 First: Incorporate Learning into the Mediation Process ...... 201 9.7.2 Second: Understand the Mandate ...... 202 9.7.3 Third: Make Way for Specific Styles in Mediation .... 203 9.7.4 Fourth: Assess the Humanitarian Aspect of Mediation ...... 204 9.7.5 Fifth: Focus on the Chances for Direct Dialogue ..... 205 9.7.6 Sixth: Create Institutional Support for Mediation ..... 205 9.7.7 Seventh: Be Alert to the Proliferation of Parties ...... 206 9.7.8 Eighth: Relate to Other Third Parties ...... 207 9.7.9 Ninth: Find a Way to Intra-Party Mediation ...... 207 9.7.10 Tenth: Be Open to Different Outcomes and Exits ..... 208 10 Talking Peace: International Mediation in Armed Conflicts ...... 209 Peter Wallensteen and Isak Svensson 10.1 Introduction ...... 209 10.2 Defining Mediation ...... 210 10.3 Mediation Data ...... 211 10.4 Frequency of Mediation ...... 213 10.5 Strategies in Mediation ...... 215 10.6 Bias and Mediation ...... 217 10.7 Mediation Coordination ...... 219 10.8 Mediation and Outcomes ...... 220 10.9 Challenges to Mediation Research ...... 223 References ...... 224 11 Munich, Majors and Mediation ...... 229 Peter Wallensteen 11.1 Challenges to Mediation ...... 229 11.2 Dealing with the Munich Syndrome ...... 230 11.3 Dealing with the Major Powers ...... 231 11.4 A Final Note on Institution Building ...... 234 References ...... 235 Contents xxvii

D Organizing the World 12 Representing the World: A Security Council for the 21st Century ...... 239 Peter Wallensteen 12.1 An Active Security Council ...... 239 12.2 Legitimacy and Representation ...... 240 12.3 Senatorial Members and Qualified Majority ...... 245 12.4 Is It Practical? ...... 250 13 International Conflict Resolution, UN and Regional Organizations. The Balance Sheet ...... 253 Peter Wallensteen 13.1 The Problem...... 253 13.2 Chapter VIII in the UN Charter ...... 254 13.3 The Present Context ...... 256 13.4 Regional Conflict and Regional Organizations ...... 259 13.5 Regional Approaches to Regional Conflicts ...... 262 13.6 Global Versus Regional Peacemaking: The Balance Sheet..... 264 References ...... 267 14 The United Nations Security Council in State-Based Armed Conflicts, 2003–2012 ...... 269 Peter Wallensteen and Patrik Johansson 14.1 The Role of the Security Council in Armed Conflicts ...... 270 14.2 The Powers of the Security Council ...... 271 14.2.1 Chapter VI Powers ...... 272 14.2.2 Chapter VII Powers ...... 272 14.2.3 The Choice of Chapter VI or Chapter VII Powers .... 273 14.3 State-Based Conflicts and Wars ...... 274 14.4 Conflicts with the Most and Least Attention ...... 275 14.5 Geographical Patterns ...... 277 14.6 Veto Voting Patterns ...... 278 14.7 Conclusions ...... 281

Part III War

E Understanding Causes of War 15 Four Models of Major Power Politics: Geopolitik, Realpolitik, Idealpolitik and Kapitalpolitik ...... 287 Peter Wallensteen 15.1 The System of States ...... 287 15.2 One Assumption and Four Models ...... 290 15.3 Three State Systems in 160 Years ...... 296 xxviii Contents

16 Universalism Versus Particularism: On the Limits of Major Power Order ...... 301 Peter Wallensteen 16.1 Universalism Versus Particularism ...... 301 16.2 Identifying Universalism and Particularism ...... 303 16.3 Universalism and Particularism in Practice ...... 306 16.4 From Universalism to Particularism, and Vice-Versa ...... 312 16.5 Limits of Major Power Universalism ...... 317 References ...... 319 17 What’s in a War? Lessons from a Conflict Data Program ...... 321 Peter Wallensteen 17.1 The Importance of Understanding “War” ...... 321 17.2 Who Defines War? ...... 322 17.3 Peace Research and the War Definition ...... 325 17.4 Non-state and One-sided Conflicts ...... 328 17.5 Conflict Trends and Peacemaking ...... 330 References ...... 331

F Preventing Violent Conflict 18 Dag Hammarskjöld and the Psychology of Conflict Diplomacy ... 335 Peter Wallensteen 18.1 The Relevance of Dag Hammarskjöld ...... 335 18.2 Conflict Diplomacy ...... 337 18.3 Hammarskjöld’s Record of Conflict Diplomacy ...... 339 18.3.1 Agenda Diplomacy ...... 341 18.3.2 Agreement Diplomacy ...... 342 18.3.3 Implementation Diplomacy ...... 343 18.4 Success and Diplomatic Psychology ...... 344 18.5 Special Features of Hammarskjöld’s Diplomacy ...... 346 18.5.1 Travel Diplomacy: Going to the Area of Conflict ..... 346 18.5.2 Build on Mutual and Personal Trust ...... 347 18.5.3 Creating Diplomatic Leverage ...... 347 18.5.4 Act Early, When Possible ...... 348 18.5.5 Coalition-Building ...... 349 18.5.6 Protect the Integrity of the Office of the Secretary General ...... 349 18.5.7 Multi-Arena Diplomacy ...... 350 18.5.8 Hammarskjöld’s Risk-Taking ...... 350 18.5.9 Stamina and Simplicity ...... 351 18.6 Conclusions for Diplomacy ...... 352 References ...... 353 Contents xxix

19 International Response to Crises of Democratization in War-Torn Societies ...... 355 Peter Wallensteen 19.1 The Post-War Situation ...... 355 19.2 A Democratization Crisis: Uganda 2005 ...... 358 19.3 International Response: React or Not? ...... 360 19.4 International Response: When? ...... 363 19.5 International Response: For How Long?...... 367 19.6 International Reactions: By Which Means? ...... 369 19.7 Conclusions ...... 373 20 Preventing Genocide: The International Response ...... 375 Peter Wallensteen, Erik Melander, and Frida Möller 20.1 Genocide and Civil War ...... 375 20.2 Peacekeeping and the Prevention of Genocide ...... 378 20.3 Preventive Diplomacy, War, and Genocide ...... 381 20.4 Targeted Sanctions and the Prevention of Genocide ...... 385 20.5 Success in Genocide Prevention? The Case of Côte d’Ivoire ... 390 20.5.1 Genocide Danger in Côte d’Ivoire ...... 390 20.5.2 The International Response ...... 393 20.5.3 Côte d’Ivoire: The Route Away from Genocide? ..... 395 20.6 International Coherence and Genocide Prevention ...... 397 References ...... 398

Part IV Peace

G Searching for Quality Peace 21 Peacebuilding, Victory and Quality Peace ...... 407 Peter Wallensteen 21.1 The Challenge of Peace After War ...... 407 21.2 Peacebuilding: A Conceptual History ...... 416 21.3 Victory, World Order, and Quality Peace ...... 427 21.4 Perspectives on Peace After War ...... 430 22 Conditions for Quality Peace: A Regional Approach ...... 437 Peter Wallensteen 22.1 Introducing Quality Peace ...... 437 22.2 Quality Peace in the Regional Setting ...... 439 22.3 Challenges from Recent History ...... 441 22.4 Territorial Peace ...... 442 22.4.1 General Findings ...... 442 22.4.2 Territorial Peace in Europe ...... 443 22.4.3 Territorial Peace and Democracy ...... 446 xxx Contents

22.5 Democratic Peace ...... 448 22.5.1 General Findings ...... 448 22.5.2 Democracy and Peace in Europe ...... 448 22.6 East Asia and Quality Peace ...... 450 22.6.1 Territorial Armed Conflicts in East Asia ...... 450 22.6.2 East Asia and Governmental Conflicts Between States ...... 453 22.7 The Realpolitik Alternative ...... 456 22.8 Lessons for Other Regions ...... 458 References ...... 461 23 Developing Quality Peace: Moving Forward ...... 463 Peter Wallensteen and Madhav Joshi 23.1 Quality Peace ...... 463 23.2 The Five Dimensions ...... 465 23.3 Sequences and Weight of the Dimensions ...... 467 23.4 Methodological Requirements ...... 469 23.5 Moving Forward ...... 470 References ...... 471

H Gendering Global Agendas 24 Resolution 1325 (2000): A Note on Its Background ...... 475 Peter Wallensteen 24.1 Gender in the 1990s ...... 475 24.2 A Project on Gender and Peacekeeping Operations ...... 476 24.3 From Research Report to Action Plan ...... 478 24.4 Comparing the Declaration and the Resolution ...... 480 24.5 Concluding Observations ...... 481 25 Alva Myrdal’s Approach to International Disarmament ...... 483 Peter Wallensteen 25.1 The Role of Alva Myrdal ...... 483 25.2 Strand I: An Appeal to Economic Reason! ...... 485 25.3 Strand II: There Must Be Alternative Ways to Security! ...... 487 25.4 Strand III: Somebody Has to Listen, Find That Audience! .... 488 26 Gendering International Affairs ...... 493 Peter Wallensteen 26.1 Gender and Peace ...... 493 26.2 Toward Women’s Empowerment ...... 494 26.3 Gender Inequality and Armed Conflict ...... 497 26.4 Gendering International Analysis ...... 500 References ...... 501 Contents xxxi

I Connecting Peace and Development 27 Scarce Goods as Political Weapons: The Case of Food ...... 505 Peter Wallensteen 27.1 The Power of Economic Commodities ...... 505 27.2 American Grain Power ...... 510 27.2.1 Scarcity ...... 510 27.2.2 Supply Concentration and Demand Dispersion ...... 511 27.2.3 Action Independence ...... 513 27.3 Instruments of American Grain Power ...... 516 27.3.1 The Market and the Corporations ...... 516 27.3.2 The Government and PL 480 ...... 518 27.4 Experiences of American Grain Power ...... 521 27.4.1 Objectives and Forms of Power ...... 521 27.4.2 The Reward Approach ...... 524 27.4.3 The Punishment Approach ...... 528 27.4.4 The Use of American Grain Power ...... 530 27.5 Remedies for American Grain Power ...... 531 27.5.1 Reduction of Scarcity ...... 531 27.5.2 Reduction of Supply Concentration ...... 532 27.5.3 Reduction of Demand Dispersion ...... 532 27.5.4 Reduction of American Action Independence ...... 532 28 The Politics of Base Closing: Some Swedish Experiences ...... 535 Peter Wallensteen 28.1 Introduction ...... 535 28.2 Narrowing Margins for Military Expenditure ...... 536 28.3 The Politics of Base-Closure ...... 537 28.3.1 Contradictions in Defense Priorities ...... 538 28.3.2 Contradictions in Social Reform ...... 539 28.4 The 1973 Decision: Eliminate One, Add Another ...... 540 28.4.1 Uppsala-Enköping ...... 541 28.4.2 Arvidsjaur ...... 545 28.5 Lessons for Disarmament ...... 547 28.5.1 Economic Drawbacks ...... 547 28.5.2 A Growing-Sum Game ...... 548 28.5.3 Political Power ...... 549 29 Disaster and Conflict: Conflict Formations in the Sahel and the Horn of Africa, 1971–1976 ...... 553 Peter Wallensteen 29.1 Introduction ...... 553 29.1.1 One Problem and Three Models ...... 553 29.1.2 One Set of Events ...... 556 29.1.3 Outline of the Contents ...... 557 xxxii Contents

29.2 Methodological Considerations ...... 558 29.2.1 Incompatibility ...... 558 29.2.2 Drought Impact ...... 559 29.2.3 Conflict Behavior ...... 560 29.3 Conclusions ...... 564 29.3.1 Drought and Conflict: Policy Implications ...... 564 29.3.2 Disaster and Conflict: Implications for Conflict Theory ...... 565 30 International Freshwater Resources: Conflict or Cooperation? .... 569 Peter Wallensteen and Ashok Swain 30.1 Water: Its Importance and Availability ...... 569 30.2 Water Resources and International Conflicts ...... 571 30.2.1 International Rivers ...... 572 30.2.2 International River Disputes ...... 575 30.2.3 Case Analyses ...... 576 30.3 Searching for Ways to Share International Rivers ...... 593 30.4 Conclusions ...... 595

J Acting for Peace—Academic Diplomacy 31 Strengths and Limits of Academic Diplomacy: The Case of Bougainville ...... 599 Peter Wallensteen 31.1 The Beginning ...... 599 31.2 Entering the Conflict ...... 600 31.3 The Parties ...... 602 31.4 A Third Party Perspective ...... 604 31.5 Secondary Parties ...... 606 31.6 The Agreement ...... 608 31.7 Exit of a Third Party ...... 610 31.8 Lessons for Mediation ...... 611 References ...... 613 32 An Experiment in Academic Diplomacy ...... 615 Peter Wallensteen 32.1 The Invitation ...... 615 32.2 The Setting ...... 616 32.3 Experiment One: Creating Format ...... 617 32.4 Experiment Two: Finding Balance ...... 618 32.5 Experiment Three: Focusing Discussions ...... 619 32.6 Experiment Four: Keeping Momentum...... 621 32.7 Learning Lessons ...... 622 References ...... 624

Index ...... 625 Abbreviations

APEC Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation APT ASEAN Plus Three ARF ASEAN Regional Forum ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations AU African Union BA Bachelor of Arts BBC British Broadcasting Corporation BITS Swedish Agency for International Technical and Economic Cooperation BRA Bougainville Revolutionary Army CADU Chilalo Agricultural Development Unit (Asella, Ethiopia) CFE Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe CHOGM Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting CNRET Center for Natural Resources, Energy and Transport COPDAB Conflict and Peace Database COW Correlates of War (project) CPA Comprehensive Peace Agreement (Sudan) CSO Civil Society Organization CTBT Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty CWM Civil War Mediation (database) DDR German Democratic Republic, East Germany DHA UN Department of Humanitarian Affairs DHF Dag Hammarskjöld Foundation (Uppsala) DPA UN Department of Political Affairs DPCR Department of Peace and Conflict Research (Uppsala University) DPKO UN Department of Peace Keeping Operation DPRK Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (North Korea) DRC Democratic Republic of Congo EAP East Asian Peace (project)

xxxiii xxxiv Abbreviations

ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States EEAS EU European External Action Service EIP European Institute of Peace EU European Union FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FFU Committee on base closings (Sweden) FN Forces Nouvelles (Côte d’Ivoire) G-20 Group of Twenty G-7, G-8 Group of Seven, Group of Eight GCC Gulf Cooperation Council GPS Global Positioning System H.M. His/Her Majesty HCNM High Commissioner on National Minorities IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency IBRU International Boundaries Research Unit (Durham University) ICAN International Campaign Against Nuclear Weapons ICB International Crisis Behavior (database) ICC International Criminal Court ICJ International Court of Justice ICM International Conflict Management (database) IGAD Intergovernmental Authority on Development IGO International Governmental Organization INF Intermediate Nuclear Forces IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IPPNW International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War IPRA International Peace Research Association IPSP International Panel on Social Progress IRA Irish Republican Army IS, ISIL, ISIS, Da’ech Islamic State (of Iraq and the Levant/Syria) ISA International Studies Association ISAF International Stabilization Force (Afghanistan) ITDM International Training for Dialogue and Mediation JCPOA Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (on Iran’s nuclear program) JCR Journal of Conflict Resolution JPR Journal of Peace Research LLU Lessons Learned Unit (UN) MA Master of Arts MBFR Mutual and Balanced Force Reductions MID Militarized Interstate Disputes (dataset) MILC Managing Intrastate Low-Intensity Conflict (dataset) NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization NPT Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty Abbreviations xxxv

OAS Organization of American States OAU Organization of African Unity OCHA UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs OECD/DAC Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development/Development Assistance Committee OHR Office of the High Representative (Bosnia-Herzegovina) OIC Organization for Islamic Cooperation OPEC Organization of Petroleum-Exporting Countries OSCE Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe PACS Peace and Conflict Studies (Uppsala University) PAM Peace Accords Matrix (Kroc Institute, University of Notre Dame) Ph.D. Doctor of Philosophy PKK Kurdistan Workers’ Party PLO Palestine Liberation Organization PNG Papua New Guinea PRIO Peace Research Institute, Oslo PRIS Peace Researchers in Sweden RFSI Rådet för freds- och säkerhetsskapande initiative (Council for Peace and Security Initiatives, Swedish Ministry for Foreign Affairs) RUF Revolutionary United Front (Sierra Leone) SAARC South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation SADC Southern African Development Community SALT Strategic Arms Limitation Talks SCR Security Council Resolution SICA Central American Integration System SIDA Swedish International Development Authority Sida Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency SIPRI Stockholm International Peace Research Institute SPITS Special Program on International Targeted Sanctions SPLA Sudan People’s Liberation Army SRSG Special Representative of the Secretary-General (UN) START Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty TAPRI Tampere Peace Research Institute TPI Third Party Intervention (database) TSC Targeted Sanctions Consortium UCDP Uppsala Conflict Data Program UF Utrikespolitiska föreningen, Uppsala UK United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland UKÄ Swedish Higher Education Authority UN United Nations UNCLOS UN Convention on the Law of the Sea UNDOF UN Disengagement Observer Force (Golan Heights) UNDP UN Development Program xxxvi Abbreviations

UNEF UN Emergency Force (Suez) UNEP UN Environmental Programme UNHCR UN Refugee Agency UNICEF UN Children’sFund UNITA National Union for the Total Independence of Angola UNMIL UN Mission in Liberia UNOCI UN Operations in Côte d’Ivoire UNOGIL UN Observation Group in Lebanon UNSC UN Security Council US, USA United States of America USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (Soviet Union)