volume 6 1 2/2011New Routes 2/2011 1 A journal of peace research New Routes and action published by the life & peace institute

Dag Hammarskjöld and the United Nations: Vision and legacy – 50 years later

Special issue in collaboration between the Life & Peace Institute and the Dag Hammarskjöld Foundation Contents A sunny September day i was eleven, standing in our garden, moved to tears when my mother told 3 editorial: me what had happened. In my childish world Dag Hammarskjöld had been Dag Hammarskjöld re-visited a garantor against “the worst”, in spite of the Cold War round the corner. Henning Melber How could he suddenly go? Fifty years later I have the privilege of introducing Henning Melber as guest General rather than Secretary editor of this special issue of New Routes. Thanks to his commitment, know­ 7 Lena Lid Falkman ledge and network we present the vision and legacy of Dag Hammarskjöld in honourable memory. inspired by dag hammarskjöld kristina lundqvist 11 Birgitta Nordenman [email protected] [email protected] 12 The ethics of an international civil servant Hans Corell about the authors Leave it to Dag! 17 henning melber is Executive Director 06 President of the UN General Peter Wallensteen of the Dag Hammarskjöld Foundation Assembly. He also served as a Special and a Research Associate with the Envoy to Darfur (2006-08). Global leadership of Secretaries University of Pretoria. 21 kiyo akasaka is the Under-Secretary- and Generals lena lid falkman (Andersson), PhD, is General for Communications and Public Thomas G. Weiss a scholar at Stockholm School of Information at the UN. He served as Economics, Sweden. Her thesis Rhetoric the Japanese Ambassador to the UN in a famous swede for Leadership deals with value-based 2000-01. From 2003 to 2007, he was 25 Ian Phimister leadership in the UN. She is currently the Deputy Secretary-General of the working with the Dag Hammarskjöld Organization for Economic Cooperation Foundation. dag hammarskjöld’s legacy: and Development. 26 birgitta nordenman, PhD, has a back­ maria barck-holst is a volunteer in the A beacon of hope ground from research, marketing, man­ Brian Urquhart Life-Link Friendship Schools based in agement and is a member of different Uppsala, promoting among teenagers boards. She now arranges guided tours to work for care and sustainable leading by example for visitors in Uppsala. responsibility. 30 Jan Eliasson hans corell was the UN Legal Counsel phyllis bennis is a Fellow of the 1994-2004. He served in the Swedish Dag Hammarskjöld: Institute for Policy Studies and of the 31 judiciary 1962-1972. He then joined the Transnational Institute in Amsterdam. His values and legacy Ministry of Justice where he became a Her books include Calling the Shots: Kiyo Akasaka Director in 1979 and Chief Legal Officer How Washington Dominates Today’s UN in 1981. From 1984 he was head of the and Challenging Empire: How People, Legal Department of the Foreign Ministry. an unforgettable moment Governments and the UN Defy U.S. 35 Maria Barck-Holst peter wallensteen holds the Dag Power. Hammarskjöld Chair in Peace and murhega mashanda est Professeur Libya and the limits to the R2P Conflict Research at Uppsala University d’université, Coordinateur du Réseau and is Professor at the University of 36 Phyllis Bennis d’Innovation Organisationnelle (RIO). Notre Dame, USA. He directs the RIO est un service technique de l’Eglise Uppsala Conflict Data Program. République Démocratique du Christ au Congo en province du Sud 40 thomas g. weiss is Presidential Kivu. Il est partenaire de Life & Peace du Congo 50 ans après Professor of Political Science at the CUNY Institute et membre du Service civil Dag Hammarskjöld Graduate Center and Director of the pour la paix/EED. Ralph Bunche Institute for International acquis à valoriser et leçons tirées angela ndinga-muvumba is a Senior Studies. He was Past President of the Murhega Mashanda Research Fellow of the African Centre International Studies Association for the Constructive Resolution of (2009-10) and Chair of the Academic My sister’s keeper Disputes and a doctoral candidate at 45 Council on the UN System (2006-09). the University of Uppsala’s Department Angela Ndinga-Muvumba ian phimister is Professor of International of Peace and Conflict Research. History at the University of Sheffield. the magic of africa and margot wallström is the UN Special Before taking up his present chair, he 48 a white guy in a suit Representative of the Secretary-General taught at the Universities of Zambia, on Sexual Violence in Conflict. She has Henning Melber Rhodesia, Cape Town and Oxford. been an advocate of the rights and sir brian urquhart was the second needs of women throughout her ending sexual violence: 49 person to be recruited to the UN political career, first in the Swedish From recognition to action Secretariat in 1945 as personal assist­ Government and later in the European Margot Wallström ant to Trygve Lie, the first Secretary- Commission. General. In 1954 -1971 he worked with marco toscano-rivalta is an Adviser 53 renewing the choice: Ralph Bunche, whom he succeeded in to the UN Special Representative of the Developing the United Nations 1972 as UN Under-Secretary-General Secretary-General at the Secretariat of further for Special Political Affairs. the International Strategy for Disaster jan eliasson has been Minister for Reduction in Geneva. He has served at Marco Toscano-Rivalta Foreign Affairs of Sweden. From 1988 the headquarters and in field operations to 1992 he was Sweden’s Permanent in conflict, post-conflict and development

57 Reviews Representative to the UN and in 2005- environments. editorial New Routes 2/2011 3

Editorial: Dag Hammarskjöld re-visited Henning Melber F This special issue of New Routes rec- H ognises the legacy of Dag Hammar- skjöld as second Secretary-General of the United Nations (UN). 50 years after his death, his concepts of the UN, of mediation and peacebuilding, and his understanding of the role as the high-

est international civil servant remain Photo: Mattias Lasson, D as relevant today as they were then. The contributions address the stand- ards and criteria set by Hammarskjöld during his eight years in office (1953- 61). They also recognise the continued demand for the approaches and types of initiatives he embodied. This is not a backward-looking exercise, which portrays the romantic heroism of a by- gone era. Rather, it is forward-looking, intended to learn from the past for the sake of our future. In an address to the University of Cali­fornia’s convocation on 13 May 1954, Hammarskjöld, after a year in office as – However ambiguous the achievements of the UN may seem, many of the efforts of the UN Secretary-General, concluded: ‘It world body deserve our recognition, says Henning Melber, guest editor of this special issue has been said that the United Nations of New Routes and Executive Director of the Dag Hammarskjöld Foundation. was not created in order to bring us to heaven, but in order to save us from the performance of the institution es- norms and sobering social and politi- hell.’ According to him, ‘that sums up tablished after the Second World War cal realities. But would the world today as well as anything I have heard both as a global body embracing all the be a better place in the absence of such the essential role of the United Nations recognised governments of sovereign frameworks, as selectively and arbitrar- and the attitude of mind that we should states. The UN is barely appreciated for ily as they have far too often been ap- bring to its support.’1 Indeed, and unfor- its achievements, but criticised rather plied? Would we be better off without tunately, little in our times has changed for its failures. The wide range of cov- the UN? for the better (if at all) to make such a enants, conventions, resolutions and There seems little reason to sing pragmatic approach superfluous. other codified programmes and dec- praise songs concerning the rather Despite the need for such realism, larations adopted over the more than ambiguous achievements of the UN. scepticism often reigns half a century 60 years of its existence often reveal an But looking back, it would be unfair to after Hammarskjöld in judgments of appalling discrepancy between defined dismiss the efforts of the ‘family of na- tions’ as merely useless or fruitless. Es- pecially those voices in the so-called glo- bal South, at times now openly critical of international governance as a tool for hegemonic interests, should remember that in the absence of the limited power New Routes of a UN, their future might now be even New Routes is a quarterly publication of the Life & Peace Institute (LPI). Material may be reproduced freely if New Routes more problematic. is mentioned as the source. Opinions expressed in New Routes do not necessarily reflect LPI policy positions. After all, the UN played a pioneer- Life & Peace Institute ing role in declaring apartheid a ‘crime Eddagatan 12, SE-753 16 Uppsala, Sweden. Phone +46 18 66 01 32, fax +46 18 69 30 59, e-mail: [email protected], website: www.life-peace.org. Editorial committee: Henrik Fröjmark, Helena Grusell, Bernt Jonsson, Kristina Lundqvist, against humanity’ and imposing an Henning Melber and Tore Samuelsson. Guest editor: Henning Melber. Regular editor: Kristina Lundqvist. arms embargo on the South African Cover photo Dag Hammarskjöld (background image), UN Photo/HP, svlumagraphica, Kate Holt/IRIN. minority regime.2 It also was decisive Layout: Georg Lulich Grafisk Form. Printer: Lenanders Grafiska, 43123. ISSN 2000-8082 (electronic version), ISSN 1403-3755 (printed version) in bringing about the decolonisation of 4 New Routes 2/2011 editorial

Namibia as a ‘trust betrayed’3 and has destruction in many parts of the world, and the West’ delivered to the academic played a similar role in mediating the with Libya and the Ivory Coast being association of the University of Lund on end of conflicts elsewhere. Struggles only the latest examples in a seemingly 4 May 1959, Hammarskjöld confidently for emancipation would in many in- endless series of conflicts. With UN Se- claimed that, ‘the Organization I repre- stances have been even more prolonged curity Council Resolutions 1970 and sent … is based on a philosophy of soli- – if successful at all – in the absence of 1973 adopted in February and March darity’.5 Solidarity, empathy, integrity the arena created by the world body, as 2011 respectively, we seem to have are the values for which he stood and limited as its powers may be. The same entered a new norm-setting stage of by which he lived. He created a moral can be said of the many peacekeeping global responsibility, even though the compass guiding the international civil missions, which were established in outcomes are still too early to judge. service, thereby setting criteria against their current form by none other than The highly unusual processes thereby which the UN and their leaders conti­ Hammarskjöld when dealing with the set in motion carry with them the risk nue to be measured. challenges of the so-called Suez Crisis of yet more one-sided, opportunistic The complementary reflections of Lena in 1956. The organisational structure exploitation for hegemonic purposes. Lid Falkman, Hans Corell, Thomas G. and chart for peacekeeping operations The jury is still out on the effective- Weiss, Peter Wallensteen, Brian Urqu- he designed during a mission to the ness of such interventions as a means hart and Jan Eliasson testify with differ- Congo in 1960 (se p.42 in this issue) of dealing with unacceptable violations ing nuance to the significant role of Dag has stood the test of time. by dictators of defined fundamental Hammarskjöld as an international civil standards and norms, using the altar servant and global leader and to his rel- UN resolutions for global of national sovereignty as a protective evance today. responsibility shield, and of saving lives instead of This year marks the half-century of sacrificing them. Human universalism Hammarskjöld’s death during a mis- Kiyo Akasaka illustrates how the UN For Hammarskjöld, the work of the sion to seek a peaceful solution for today accepts the engagement with emerg- UN was to build on the commonal- the Congo. The country has remained ing challenges, while Phyllis Bennis criti- ity of humankind, its conduct and torn by violence bordering on chronic cally assesses the risks of the new interven- experience. During a visit to India civil strife, at the cost of millions of tions in Libya and the possible ambiguities in early February 1956, he addressed lives and the ruin of the physical and resulting from these for peacekeeping in a the Indian Council of World Affairs. mental health of so many more. As is time of war. Prompted by a moving encounter with so often the case, women and children a local cultural event performed in his have suffered most and have been the Remaining global challenges honour earlier, his mainly extempora- victims of a war that has not shied away While the Westphalian order remains at neous speech explored the dimensions from systematic rape and other forms the core of bi- and multilateral relations, of human universalism. A commonal- of atrocities to the individual. UN Se- the UN as an instrument for global gov- ity beyond Western – or, indeed, any curity Council Resolution 1325 of Octo- ernance in the face of global challenges culturally, religiously or geographically ber 2000 paved the way for a new ap- is more important than ever. The great- limited – ideology or conviction is what proach to dealing with gender issues, est threats to human survival, the future he spoke to: while Security Council Resolution 1960 of our planet and all forms of life know It is no news to anybody, but we of December 2010 finally consolidated no borders. One can only speculate sense it in different degrees, that our new standards and norms in the effort what the late Secretary-General’s initia- world of today is more than ever before to protect both women and men from tives would have been for dealing with one world. The weakness of one is the systematic sexual violence as a means the challenges of climate change, inter- weakness of all, and the strength of of war-making. The implementation national terrorism and many other then one – not the military strength, but the of the latter will serve both as another unknown phenomena. Being a person real strength, the economic and social beacon for humankind and a point of with a deep-rooted love and respect for strength, the happiness of people – is reference for measuring the effective- nature, culture, religion and the arts, indirectly the strength of all. Through ness and legal and moral weight of the who sought dialogue instead of polari- various developments which are famil- world body. sation, he would have approached mat- iar to all, world solidarity has, so to say, Murhega Mashanda highlights the role ters in his own way. been forced upon us. This is no longer a of a local civil society in the efforts to bring What is certain is that the challeng- choice of enlightened spirits; it is some- more peace to the Democratic Republic of es Hammarskjöld and his staff faced thing which those whose temperament the Congo. Angela Ndinga-Muvumba and then have not been solved. Nor have leads them in the direction of isolation- Margot Wallström deal with the relevance we avoided the mistakes that marred ism have also to accept. (…) With re- of and obligations under the normative in- not least the UN’s involvement in the spect to the United Nations as a symbol struments created during the first decade of former Belgian Congo and culminated of faith, it may (…) be said that to every our century for the protection and promo- in the brutal murder of the Congo’s man it stands as a kind of ‘yes’ to the tion of women and the prosecution of sexu- first prime minister, Patrice Lumumba, ability of man to form his own destiny, al violence, and document how the UN has as well as the death of Dag Hammar- and form his own destiny so as to create indeed responded to new challenges. skjöld.4 But the onus ‘to save us from a world where the dignity of man can The situation in today’s Democratic hell’ still rests on the institution, which, come fully into its own.6 Republic of the Congo is unfortunately despite all its setbacks and shortcom- Dag Hammarskjöld, as Swedish only the tip of the iceberg. People are ings, has also been a norm-setting au- cosmopolitan, showed that firm roots exposed to similar and other forms of thority. In an address on ‘Asia, Africa, in one’s own society, with its particular editorial New Routes 2/2011 5 Photo: bernt jonsson

The Dag Hammarskjöld Memorial Crash Site outside of Ndola was added to the UNESCO World Heritage list in 1997. Nowadays there is also a museum with some remains of the plane. The picture was taken in 1971 by Bernt Jonsson, later to become Executive Director of LPI. history and culture, were no obstacle ernmental – not international – secre- and the cause of the crash remains a to universal values but, instead, a valu- tariat providing merely the necessary matter of speculation. But the legacy able point of departure, provided that administrative services for a confer- of the UN second Secretary-General history and culture was not taken as ence machinery? This is a basic ques- remains alive – not only, but not least the one and only absolute ‘truth’. The tion, and the answer to it affects not through the further drafting, adop- awareness of one’s own upbringing only the working of the Secretariat but tion and implementation of normative in a specific social context, anchoring the whole of the future of international frameworks to promote and protect hu- one’s identity in a framework guided relations.7 man rights for all. Common sense tells by a set of values, allows for curiosity Marco Toscano-Rivalta explores the us, of course, that normative frame- towards ‘otherness’ and explorations perspectives resulting from such a notion. works alone will not save us from hell. into the ‘unknown’ for one’s own ben- As a younger UN staff member today he But hell is much more likely in the ab- efit and gain. There are no risks in en- testifies to the lasting mark Hammarskjöld sence of such frameworks, which pro- tering a dialogue with ‘strangers’ if one made on a committed international civil vide important markers and reference knows where one comes from. On 8 service. points for guiding the noble cause of September 1961, Dag Hammarskjöld ensuring human rights for as many of addressed the staff at the secretariat of In honourable memory us as possible and for bringing those the UN for the last time. His words then Hammarskjöld died during the early who abuse them to task. are as relevant today: morning hours of 18 September 1961, In April 2011, the Swedish central What is at stake is a basic question close to the wreckage of the plane that bank announced the choice of person- of principle: Is the Secretariat to de- crashed before landing in Ndola, the alities to be depicted on the new bank velop as an international secretariat, Northern Rhodesia town bordering the notes to be introduced in 2014/15. The with the full independence contem- former colony of the Belgian Congo. new 1,000 kronor note will remind us plated in Article 100 of the Charter, or None of the 15 other members of his of ‘the boss’, as he was respectfully and is it to be looked upon as an intergov- entourage and crew on board survived, fondly (if not admiringly) called by the 6 New Routes 2/2011 editorial

UN staff he was heading. But Dag Ham- 1 Quoted from Andrew W. Cordier and Wilder 6 Quoted from Andrew W. Cordier/Wilder marskjöld and his values, his principled Foote (eds), Public Papers of the Secretaries- Foote (eds), Public Papers of the Secretaries- General of the United Nations. Volume II: Dag General of the United Nations. Volume II: views and his integrity should in anoth- Hammarskjöld 1953-1956, (Selected and edited Dag Hammarskjöld 1953-1956. New York and er way be common currency in our daily with Commentary), New York and London: London: Columbia University Press 1972, lives. It is for us to keep his values alive Columbia University Press 1972, p. 301. pp. 661 and 660. as our own and to strengthen the UN, 2 See for a summary on these specific UN 7 Quoted from Andrew W. Cordier and Wilder not, as Hammarskjöld reminded us, ‘in interventions: The United Nations and Foote (eds), Public Papers of the Secretaries- order to bring us to heaven, but in order Apartheid, 1948–1994. New York: United general of the United Nations. Volume V: Dag Nations Department of Public Information Hammarskjöld 1960-1961. New York and to save us from hell’. 1994; and Twenty-Five Years of Commitment London: Columbia University Press 1975, There is a website that allows one to to the Elimination of ‘Apartheid’ in South Africa. p. 563. visit the pictured graves of people and New York: United Nations Special Committee 8 Accessed in March 2011 at www.findagrave.com. post a message. The Hammarskjöld Against Apartheid 1988 family grave in Uppsala is one such 3 A Trust Betrayed, Namibia. New York: United tomb, and ever since the website was Nations, Office of Public Information 1974. created a few years ago, people have 4 See the volume also reviewed in this issue: Robert A. Hill/Edmond J. Keller (eds), Trustee posted messages to it, mainly around for the Human Community. Ralph J. Bunche, the date of Dag Hammarskjöld’s birth the United Nations, and the Decolonization or death. One of them, by a certain Kim of Africa. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press from Texas, was posted on 17 Septem- 2010. ber 2006. It reads: ‘You set the bar high 5 Quoted from Andrew W. Cordier and Wilder for everyone who came after you Mr. Foote (eds), Public Papers of the Secretaries- General of The United Nations. Volume IV: Secretary. Never a politician, always a Dag Hammarskjöld 1958-1960. New York and diplomat. Rest in peace.’8 + London: Columbia University Press 1974, p. 384. F H Photo: D

Many prominent people have paid their respect to Dag Hammarskjöld at the family grave in Uppsala old churchyard, among them Kofi Annan, UN Secretary General 1997-2006. general rather than secretary New Routes 2/2011 7 The rising generation might not know too much about Dag Hammarskjöld’s personality, visions and achievements, but none the less, our own age has a great deal to learn from his leadership. The Secretary-General of the United Nations has limited power but may have great influence. In order to exert this influence in a meta-organisation like the UN, you need trust, more than obedience, from the international community. Hammarskjöld had visions and ideas about communication that were quite unusual in the 1950s. In order to enhance the presence of the UN in the world he initiated the system of Special Representatives appointed by the Secretary-Generals. He visualised and embodied the concept of an international civil servant.

General rather than Secretary Lena Lid Falkman

It had been a colourful meeting on 3 Oc- Hammarskjöld’s statement was that have been studied are strategy, ef- tober 1960 at the UN General Assem- interrupted by loud applause and fol- ficiency, the importance of the organi- bly Hall in the Manhattan headquarters, lowed by a standing ovation. People sational culture and the influence of where Nikita Khrushchev accused the around the world cheered as well, as particular situations. Leadership is not Secretary-General of not being neutral. the five boxes worth of admiring letters easily defined, and no single definition Officially the Soviet Union did not be- sent to Hammarskjöld testified to. The has become generally accepted. Howev- lieve in the system of one single leader retort has come to be seen as an expres- er, most scholars agree that leadership of the UN and argued that the post of sion of some of the visions and values has to do with influence. Peter G Nort- Secretary-General should be exchanged that Hammarskjöld stood for. It is also house has, by analysing a vast number for leadership by a troika of countries. an example of power negotiation in the of leadership studies, concluded that Rumour had it that the main reason for governance of a federation and meta- leadership “is a process whereby an in- the attack was actually that Hammar- organisation. Furthermore, it shows dividual influences a group of individu- skjöld was too strong and troublesome. the importance of trust in value-based als to achieve a common goal”.5 Influ- During his assignment he turned out to leadership. ence is the base of leadership. Without be a General rather than the Secretary Hammarskjöld was one of the most influence, leadership does not exist. the member states thought they had effective and trusted Secretary-Gen- How does this influence work? elected. During the meeting Khrush- erals, as the saying “Leave it to Dag”, Through money, rules, laws or maybe chev explicitly and loudly told Hammar- which was in common use in the or- even violence, but also “soft” influence skjöld to resign. Dag Hammarskjöld, ganisation, seems to suggest. His con- through norms and culture. Since the known to be an inexpressive public ception of the international civil serv- 1980s, at least in the Anglo-Saxon re- speaker, answered with strength and ant made him a role model for staff of search, leadership theory has been pri- emphasis: international organisations. He is also marily concerned with investigating “It is not the Soviet Union or indeed an inspiration for many people around soft influence in the area of value-based any other Big Powers which need the the world as a poet and religious mystic. leadership. Concepts such as “vision- United Nations for their protection. It The interest for Hammarskjöld seems ary”, “charismatic” and “authentic lead- is all the others … I shall remain in my to have gone through a revival in the be- ership” have been explored to explain post during the term of office as a serv- ginning of the 21st century.2 So what can emotional, ethical, motivational and ant of the Organisation in the interest we learn from Dag Hammarskjöld’s symbolic aspects of leadership. of all these other nations as long as they leadership today? wish me to do so. Federation, meta-organisation and In this context the representative of Leadership as influence and world community the Soviet Union spoke of courage. It is communication “All the power a Secretary-General has, very easy to resign. It is not so easy to During the early 20th century, lead- is the power of reason and persuasion”, stay on. It is very easy to bow to the wish ers and leadership (often categorised said Kofi Annan, UN Secretary-General of a Big Power. It is another matter to as management) became subjects of 1997-2006, in the Swedish/Norwegian resist. As is well known to all members scientific study. The interest in leader- TV show Först och sist in April 2007. of this Assembly I have done so before ship continues and leadership research Leading the UN has some particular on many occasions and in many direc- seems to grow exponentially.3 The lit- conditions, due to the fact that UN in its tions. If it is the wish of those nations erature is diverse, perhaps due to dif- form is a federation, meta-organisation who see in the Organisation their best ferent starting points: the leader as an and world community. protection in the present world, I shall individual, leadership as a process, or The word federation derives from the now do so again.”1 the behaviour of the leader.4 Other areas Latin word fides, meaning confidence 8 New Routes 2/2011 general rather than secretary and trust. A federation is a voluntary Communication – personal and going underneath the superficial association based on common agree- and in new ways reactions, be they expressed by ever so ments. The power in a federation is split Dag Hammarskjöld declared: “I go to important news organs …” 12 between the owner-organisation (mem- Peking, because I believe in personal Hammarskjöld used the Secretary- bers) and the management-organisa- talks.”9 This trip to China where Ham- General’s Special Representative as a tion (federation staff). Their interests marskjöld negotiated, and socialised, tool to be present in more places than and power overlap and in some events with Chou En-lai became Hammar- he himself could be.13 Thereby his idea collide. The organisational scholar Erik skjöld’s first diplomatic break-through, of communication as a relationship did Swartz argues that a chairman in a fed- in that he succeeded in releasing Amer- not remain just a personal ideal. He eration to a much larger extent needs to ican prisoners. The view of communi- used it as an institutionalised organi- earn trust than leaders in organisations sational tool. Such translation of ideas with stricter hierarchy.6 In some sense, into practical tools ought to be one of the the leader in a federation is the leaders’ Dag Hammarskjöld most important lessons for value-based leader, in that it is the members who declared: leadership. One key to the success of provide the leader with a mission and the initiatives resulting from Hammar- responsibility. “I go to Peking, skjöld’s vision and values is his creative The UN can also be defined as a me- “ language. “Silent diplomacy” creates ta-organisation. It is an organisation because I believe in other associations than “negotiation that consists of other organisations personal talks.” behind closed doors”. “Peace-keeping as members, and is both an expres- forces” means something else than sion of, result of, and also a reason for “armed military”. In talking of the UN globalisation. The meta-organisation cation as relational also influenced his Hammarskjöld often used metaphors is dependent on the members for its view on media and public opinion. In based on the family, the informal and access to resources and its ability to his own words: “The Secretary-General the close. The UN staff was the family exercise influence. Conflicts between – and I use him as a symbol for all of and the UN headquarter was the house. members in a meta-organisation are the Secretariat – is facing a public re- He also acted in ways which showed hard to solve by means of exclusion lations problem of a delicate and dif- that he was not a believer in hierarchy or the authority of the leadership. The ficult nature … But he has to try and and status for its own sake, for example reach the minds and hearts of people by eating in the café in the basement so as to get the United Nations’ efforts rather than in the delegates’ dining The meta- firmly based in public reaction … So room. As he did this on his first day as the question of public relations to the Secretary-General, it is said to have at- organisation is Secretary-General develops into a ques- tracted a certain amount of attention. It dependent on the tion of human relations.”10 Hammar- is also something that appears to have “ skjöld also acknowledged one of the become a symbolic ritual. Ban Ki-moon members for its most established insights in rhetoric: also did this on his first day at work.14 the importance of emotions as a means access to resources to reach the audience. Visions as reaction to events and its ability to Hammarskjöld pioneered new ways It is not only Hammarskjöld’s creativ- to communicate. He realised the im- ity that is important in his communica- exercise influence. portance of media, and the importance tion, but also his patience and persist- of using public opinion in diplomacy, ence. Over and over again he speaks through media. “His (the diplomat’s) and writes about the things that he possibility for the meta-organisation words will reach everybody by press sees as important. Take for example the to exercise influence lies in persua- and film and radio and television.”11 sion, consensus, and negotiation. The One way to reach out in media was to UN is one of the larger meta-organi- create a relationship with journalists. Hammarskjöld had sations that exist.7 It is unique in its In 1953 Hammarskjöld introduced multi-dimensionality and is universal regular press conferences. In the first an idea and strategy as a world community. meeting he tells the somewhat puzzled in communicating These aspects make the UN and its journalists that he sees these meetings “ front figure, the Secretary-General, in- as a collaboration. Hammarskjöld had through media, teresting cases for value-based leader- an idea and strategy in communicat- ship. As Brian Urquhart and Erskine ing through media, which seems to be which seems to be Childers commented on the role of unusual in the 1950s. However, he was unusual in the 1950s. the Secretary-General in A world in aware of the fact that media does not need of leadership: “Although the of- always say what ought to be said: “In fice has little real power, it provides the modern world of mass media and role of the international civil servant. very wide possibilities for exercising publicity no diplomat trying to respond Hammarskjöld talks about what this influence.”8Value-based leadership is to the demands of the situation can only role means, and what is important for influence through communication, val- be a servant. He must to some extent people in this role, such as integrity and ues, visions, and through the leader’s and in some respects also be a leader by neutrality. He explores and defines the own person. looking beyond the immediate future role and its values, over and over again. general rather than secretary New Routes 2/2011 9 B Photo/M N Photo: U

In 1953 Dag Hammarskjöld initiated regular press conferences at the UN, then an unusual approach to communication through media.

If a norm is to be institutionalised in a formulate the vision of the international family, he does not have a background culture, it is not enough to state this as civil servant. Subsequently, Hammar- in party politics, and besides diplomas a value statement. The message needs skjöld filled the idea with content, such in both law and economics, he also has to be repeated, in many channels, in as the importance of neutrality and in- a humanistic education with studies in many ways. tegrity, and how it can work in reality, language and philosophy. The idea of the international civil how it can be lived. When doing a rhetorical analysis servant can be seen as one of Hammar- covering all eight installations of the skjöld’s visions. It is a goal. It unites Leaders as carrier of values Secretary-Generals, both the statement the people in his organisation. It says One important part of value-based lead- of the Secretary-General to be, as well as how they ought to work and think and ership is leading through one’s own the statements of the delegates, I found what the goal and ideal of their way of person. Authenticity and appearing to over a hundred words that expressed working is. Visionary leaders are often be genuine are being highlighted today character traits or virtues, which were characterised as people who expound as important aspects both in rhetorical said to be typical of these eight men. their visions with fiery performances, theory and in the area of leadership. When analysed, these seem to be varia- and whose visions were developed early, The leader is a symbol and a carrier of tions of classical virtues. The eight men often in childhood.15 Hammarskjöld is values. are all attributed the same virtues, the sometimes described as a boring public The eight men who have had the most important one being integrity. A speaker. But this is probably a result of role of Secretary-Generals are in many rhetorical analysis (both with classical judgments based on norms associated aspects homogenous. When analysing genre analysis and with the contempo- with other cultures of expression. Also, their exterior appearance, they are quite rary model of dramatistic pentad) shows I believe that many of his visions and alike. Middle-aged (48-63 years of age) that these virtues are reproduced and ideas derived from specific situations clean-cut men, all with a similar back- attributed to the leaders, not as descrip- rather than being childhood visions. ground (experience from both national tions of the leaders’ personalities. They It seems as if it was the attack from and international politics). They also are rather an expression of the attempt Khrushchev and the need for a coher- have similar education with studies to create unity in the group, the UN. It ent culture in the early beginning of the in law or economics. Hammarskjöld is the celebration of these virtues that is UN, which triggered Hammarskjöld to sticks out. He is the only one without a important in the organisation. The indi- 10 New Routes 2/2011 general rather than secretary vidual person, the Secretary-General, is empty vision statements, vision needs 6 Erik Swartz, Ledning och organisering av federa- used as a rhetorical figure synecdoche, to be translated into practice, and vi- tioner. Stockholm: Nerenius & Santerus 1994. the part which represents the whole. A sions also need to be lived and acted by 7 Göran Ahrne and Nils Brunsson, Meta-organi- leader is made into a symbol of the or- their advocates. zations. Cheltenham: Edvard Elgar 2008. ganisation’s values.16 8 Brian Urquhart and Erskine Childers, A world The eight Secretary-Generals are Ageless values and lessons in need of leadership. Uppsala: Dag Hammar- homogenous in terms of their exterior To a large extent, Hammarskjöld stood skjöld Foundation 1990, p. 22. attributes. They are also ascribed the for classical virtues. In many ways, his 9 Bo Beskow, Dag Hammarskjöld – Strictly same character traits in form of classical speeches and writings and poems have Personal. New York: Double Day 1969, p. 35. virtues. However, they seem to be very aged well. There are contemporary as- 10 Address by Dag Hammarskjöld to American pects in many of the things that Ham- Political Science Association, Washington. 11 marskjöld wrote and said. In a time September 1953. Published in Kai Falkman, To “Silent diplomacy” when diplomatic, secret correspond- speak for the world. Atlantis 2005. ence is published on Wikileaks and the 11 Address by Dag Hammarskjöld to Foreign creates other like, Hammarskjöld’s words from 1953, Policy Association 21 October 1953. Published associations than when discussing the UN as operating in ibid. “ in a glass house, are worth a thought: 12 Ibid. “negotiation behind “Publicity is right and necessary in mul- 13 Brian Urquhart. Dag Hammarskjöld. Tryckcen- closed doors”. tilateral diplomacy. However, it also rep- trum. 1972.; UN press release SG/849, August resents a danger. Open diplomacy may 27, 1959. In Cordier and Foote 1972. Vol 2: p 475. … easily become frozen diplomacy. This different as persons, in that they have comes about when open diplomacy is 14 Niklas Ekdahl and Inga-Britt Ahlenius, Mr treated and handled the position very turned into diplomacy by public state- Chance. Stockholm: Brombergs 2011. differently. In an ambitious study, Kent ments made merely to satisfy segments 15 FrancesWestley & Henry Mintzberg, Visionary J Kille has mapped seven Secretary- of domestic public opinion or to gain leadership and strategic management. In: Stra- tegic Management Journal (10)1989, pp.17-32; Generals’ actions and communication some propaganda advantage else- Raed Awamleh and William L Gardner, Percep- and argues that they have different lead- where.”18 tions of leader charisma and effectiveness. In: ership styles. Trygve Lie, Dag Hammar- 2011 marks fifty years since Ham- Leadership Quarterly 10(3)1999, pp. 345-373. skjöld and Boutros Boutros Ghali were marskjöld passed away. But his values, 16 Lena Lid Andersson, op. cit. visionaries, U Thant, Kurt Waldheim visions, communication and leadership 17 Kent J Kille, From manager to visionary – The and Javier Perez de Cuellar were bu- are modern and have much to teach us Secretary-General of the United Nations. Pal- reaucrats, and Kofi Annan was a strate- about the world of today. + grave Macmillan 2006, p. 68. gist. Dag Hammarskjöld was the most 18 Address by Dag Hammarskjöld to Foreign typical of the ideal visionary leader, even Policy Association 21 October 1953, op. cit. though his results were complex. 1 Andrew Cordier and Wilder Foote (eds), Public Despite getting the highest score on Papers of the Secretaries-General of the United the aspect of visions, Hammarskjöld Nations. Columbia University Press 1972. was at the same time focused on ac- 2 See Lid Andersson, Ledarskapande Retorik – tions, which makes Kille call him “a vi- Dag Hammarskjöld och FN:s generalsekretare sionary in a manager’s clothing”.17This som scen för karisma, dygder och ledarideal. is also expressed in many of the things Stockholm: EFI 2009, p. 247. Hammarskjöld has been called, such 3 Keith Grint,: Leadership, limits and possibilities. as a realistic idealist or a pragmatist Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan 2005, p. 15. with a vision. It is my belief that this 4 Ibid., pp. 1-19 says something about successful vision- 5 Peter G Northouse, Leadership – Theory and ary leadership. In order to not stop at Practice. Thousand Oaks: Sage 2007, p. 3.

Horn of Africa Bulletin Analyses • Context • Connections

Free newsletter on the Horn of Africa Subscribe to the Horn of Africa Bulletin, a bimonthly newsletter, with analyses, news and resources primaly about the Horn of Africa region. The aim of this Nairobi-based initiative is to support peacebuilding and provide tools for peace. To start a free subscription email [email protected] Download HAB at www.life-peace.org personal reflection New Routes 2/2011 11 Inspired by Dag Hammarskjöld

I do not remember where I first heard it was nothing compared to this mag- photography, to nature and the moun- or read about the tragic death, but it was nificent scene. Never had I experienced tains when he visited Jämtland in the something that everyone talked about anything like this before. And the daily early years. – and we still do. We, the students in life of the UN troops in Congo, which Wherever you go in Uppsala, Ham- Uppsala, were invited to honour Dag I had learned about in general terms in marskjöld’s home town during twenty Hammarskjöld in different ways. Two the letters I exchanged with one of the years, and the city he wanted to return nights after his death, students walked soldiers, took on another and more seri- to, you encounter his memories: his arti- from the castle to the Main Hall of the ous dimension for me. cle in the Swedish Tourist Association’s University, where a commemorative My interest in international work year-book of 1962 about his beloved speech was held. When his coffin was grew over the years and during the last Castle Hill, the memories of the differ- placed on lit de parade in the Cathedral, decades the memory from that very spe- ent Nobel Peace laureates like himself: students made up the guard of honour cial day has influenced my life more and Nathan Söderblom, Albert Schweitzer, and eight students carried the coffin more. I have of course been to the UN Alva Myrdal and Martin Luther King, out of the Cathedral after the state fu- Headquarters in New York and to Dag everything about Carl von Linné whom neral. Hammarskjöld’s summer house “to he admired and about whom he present- I was one of the students lining up be”, Backåkra in southern Sweden, now ed a Director’s speech at the Swedish along the route of the several hundred a museum. The lovely circle of stones Academy in 1957. Dag Hammarskjöld’s meters long procession from the Cathe- with the word PAX inscribed on the big wordings are impressive. One can see dral to the cemetery. The atmosphere one in the middle, as well as the Me- his deep interest in literature, his con- was overwhelming: the catafalque morial room, give me feelings similar tacts with authors. In the Cathedral, in supporting the coffin covered with the to those I experience coming back to the Peace Chapel, one of his Markings, Swedish flag and flowers symbolising the mountains in Jämtland in northern “Not I, but God in me”, was placed in the UN emblem, the horses, all the peo- Sweden where I grew up. Coming back 2005, 100 years after his birth. ple representing different countries and there gives me time for reflection, to different religions. In this historic mo- calm down, and get new inspiration. Birgitta Nordenman ment I started to realise the greatness of With the fond memories I have Dag Hammarskjöld. It was a day with from the mountains, from all seasons, clear sky and some wind – and when the and the stories told about the photo­ procession came closer to the cemetery grapher Nils Thomasson and pictures the clouds covered the sun. taken by him, it is like having walked This occurred during my first term on a parallel track to Dag Hammar- in Uppsala. The introduction to student skjöld. Nils Thomasson was the one life in Uppsala was thrilling enough, but who introduced Dag Hammarskjöld to F H Photo: D

The outdoor meditation site with stones in a circle provides a peaceful experience for visitors to Dag Hammarskjöld’s farm Backåkra in southern Sweden. 12 New Routes 2/2011 the ethics of an international civil servant The position of civil servants within the United Nations (UN) in general and of its Secretary-General in particular is of a very sensitive nature. Neutrality and integrity are two crucial concepts in the discharge of these duties. Dag Hammarskjöld made evident the ethical dilemma when the Secretary-General is involved in situations that might lead to political conflict. During the 50 years since Dag Hammarskjöld’s death the world has undergone tremendous changes. The necessity of binding ethical and legal agreements within the UN system is, however, subsistent. They are a prerequisite for the efforts to promote democracy and the rule of law

The ethics of an international civil servant Hans Corell

In September 2009, on the occasion “neutrality”. Against this background, of a commemorative event on the 48th The Secretary- Dag Hammarskjöld develops his rea- anniversary of Dag Hammarskjöld’s General must act soning by analysing this word both in death, I had the privilege of reflect- a legal and ethical perspective. In his ing on Dag Hammarskjöld’s famous on the basis of view the international civil servant speech on the international civil serv- “ cannot be accused of lack of neutrality ice at Oxford University on 30 May his exclusively simply for taking a stand on a contro- 1961.1 I noted that, in view of the chal- international versial issue when this is his duty and lenges that humankind faces in our cannot be avoided. But at the same time days of globalisation, the need for the responsibility. there remains a serious intellectual and rule of law in international affairs has moral problem since in this situation never been greater. The way in which ably may run counter to the views of at the civil servant will find himself in an this has been emphasised by different least some Member States. A particular area within which personal judgement United Nations (UN) organs leads to dilemma is where an agreement reached must come into play. Ultimately, the the obvious conclusion that we need ef- in the general terms of a resolution may question becomes one of integrity or fective international organisations. In no longer exist when more specific is- conscience. particular we need an effective UN; the sues are presented, in particular when In Dag Hammarskjöld’s view the purposes of the organisation are just subsequent developments that may not international civil servant must keep as relevant today as they were in 1945. have been foreseen may call for action himself under the strictest observation. A point of departure in Dag Hammar- that could be regarded as highly contro- He is not requested to be a neuter in the skjöld’s 1961 lecture is the provisions versial by the Member States or some sense that he has to have no sympathies in the UN Charter that deal with the of them. or antipathies. In his personal capacity role of the Secretary-General. In par- He then comes to the ethical element he can certainly have interests, or ideas ticular he identifies the dilemma that in his reasoning. In his view the respon- or ideals. What he must be aware of are might present itself when the General sibilities of the Secretary-General under those human reactions and meticulous- Assembly or the Security Council en- the Charter cannot be laid aside merely ly check himself so that they are not per- trusts the Secretary-General with tasks because the execution of decisions by mitted to influence his actions. involving the execution of political de- him is likely to be politically controver- To a lawyer it is interesting to note cisions that might bring him and the sial. Instead the Secretary-General must that Dag Hammarskjöld maintains that Secretariat into the arena of possible act on the basis of his exclusively inter- there is nothing unique in his reason- political conflict. He also concludes national responsibility and not in the ing. He ends by indicating that as a mat- that the Secretary-General of the UN interest of any particular state or group ter of fact every judge is under the same is not a purely administrative official of states. professional obligation. but one with an explicit political re- The ethical core in Dag Hammar- sponsibility. Obliged to observe “neutrality” skjöld’s reasoning must be conveyed in His main focus is on situations where According to the UN Charter, interna- his own words: the Secretary-General is entrusted with tional civil servants shall refrain from “If the international civil servant functions which by necessity require any action which might reflect on their knows himself to be free from such per- him to take positions in highly contro- position as international officials re- sonal influences in his actions and guid- versial political matters and where he sponsible only to the organisation – in ed solely by the common aims and rules may have to take action which unavoid- other words they are obliged to observe laid down for, and by the Organisation the ethics of an international civil servant New Routes 2/2011 13

Photo/x The civil servant N will find himself

Photo: U “ in an area within which personal judgement must come into play.

become a very serious complicating fac- tor. These matters have to be addressed through political decisions based on international law. Ultimately such de- cisions may have to be translated into legislation or decisions of an adminis- trative or judicial nature. In the UN, the question of the rule of law has increasingly come to the forefront. The General Assembly has discussed it on several occasions. Of particular significance is the so-called Summit resolution, adopted in Sep- tember 2005. In this resolution Mem- ber States recommitted themselves to actively protect and promote all human rights, the rule of law and democracy. Also the Security Council has engaged itself in this field for the simple rea- son that the rule of law has become a prominent element in peacekeeping and peacebuilding operations. The presidential statement, adopted by the Security Council on 22 June 2006 de- serves to be recalled: “The Security Council reaffirms Integrity, independence and impartiality are words – and qualifications – of weighty its commitment to the Charter of the importance to the Secretary General and all UN staff members. United Nations and international law, which are indispensable foundations he serves and by recognised legal princi- in many places around the globe. As a of a more peaceful, prosperous and just ples, then he has done his duty, and then matter of fact, more people have lost world.”3 he can face the criticism which, even so, their lives in conflicts that have oc- To someone who serves in an in- will be unavoidable. As I said, at the final curred after the Second World War than ternational organisation the question last, this is a question of integrity, and if in the two world wars combined. The of how the standards agreed upon are integrity in the sense of respect for law root causes of conflicts that threaten in- observed by the members of the organi- and respect for truth were to drive him ternational peace and security are the sation is ever present. Are these proud into positions of conflict with this or that same: no democracy and no rule of law. declarations or decisions respected or interest, then that conflict is a sign of Consequently, this is where our focus do they constitute mere lip service? To his neutrality and not of his failure to must be. international civil servants this some- observe neutrality – then it is in line, not Ethical questions are omnipresent. times becomes a question of ethics: in conflict, with his duties as an interna- However, when we have to deal with should one speak up or … ? tional civil servant.”2 the unprecedented challenges that mankind is facing today they come International agreements Focus on democracy and to the forefront. The changing world must be honoured the rule of law economy, climate change, the growing One of the fundamental principles of The question is now what lessons we world population, and migration will international law is expressed in the Lat- can draw from this reasoning in con- put extremely heavy demands on deci- in concept pacta sunt servanda – agree- temporary society. A given point of sion-makers around the world. A sad ments must be honoured. This prin­ departure is the present geopolitical fact is that religious extremism, which ciple is actually respected for the most. situation. Sadly, there are still conflicts one had hoped belonged to the past, has The simple reason for this is that it is 14 New Routes 2/2011 the ethics of an international civil servant P H Photo/ N Photo: U

An international civil servant must be very strict not to let his own human reactions influence his actions. Dag Hammarskjöld visited Katanga in August 1960 for talks with Katanga authorities and Belgian representatives about possible solutions to the critical situation. in the interest of states to abide by their litical positions belittling international by the Security Council is approaching commitments in order to be able to con- law, claiming that it constitutes an in- 2,000, and international law is covering duct their business in an orderly man- fringement on state sovereignty. That is ever wider fields. In the latter respect, ner. However, when it comes to peace a great misconception. When states en- human rights law, humanitarian law and security and state sovereignty, the ter into international agreements they and international criminal law could picture changes. actually exercise their sovereignty. be mentioned in particular. The UN Charter is legally bind- We also sometimes see flagrant viola- However, in some areas, there is still ing. As all international law it actually tions of some of the core obligations in a wide gap between the norms that ap- trumps national law, including national the Charter, in particular the rules that ply and the way in which they are re- constitutions. If a state has concluded lay down the conditions under which use spected. This is of course first and fore- an international agreement, the state of force may be resorted to. Many events most a matter for the community of in question is bound by that agreement over the last few years have demonstrat- sovereign states. However, it also brings in relation to other parties to the treaty. ed that states are not fully committed to to the forefront the ethical element in Detailed rules about this are laid down acting in accordance with their interna- the role of the international civil serv- in the Vienna Convention on the Law tional obligations. Sadly, this applies also ice. The UN is often criticised for not Treaties. With respect to the UN Char- to members of the Security Council, in- delivering. In many cases this criticism ter there is also a provision (Article 103) cluding Western democracies. is valid. The truth is of course that the that says that “in the event of a conflict organisation can never be stronger than between the obligations of the Members Determination and efficiency its members allow it to be. At the same of the United Nations under the present The development over the 50 years time this raises the question whether Charter and the obligations under any since Dag Hammarskjöld delivered the international civil servants might be other international agreement, their his address has brought tremendous able to influence the development in a obligations under the present Charter change. The Cold War is over, decoloni- more determined and effective manner shall prevail”. sation is almost completed, the mem- in the future. However, in the debate we some- bers of the United Nations now number In this context the following provi- times hear people in responsible po- 192, the number of resolutions adopted sions in the UN Charter are of particu- the ethics of an international civil servant New Routes 2/2011 15 lar relevance. According to Article 100, structions in regard to the performance course of their duties or by authorisa- in the performance of their duties, the of my duties from any Government or tion of the Secretary-General. These Secretary-General and the staff shall other source external to the Organisa- obligations do not cease upon sepa- refrain from any action which might tion. I also solemnly declare and prom- ration from service. reflect on their position as interna- ise to respect the obligations incumbent tional officials responsible only to the upon me as set out in the Staff Regula- Integrity and good judgement organisation. Article 101 stipulates tions and Rules.” The question is now how staff members that the staff shall be appointed by the Staff Regulation 1.2 contains detailed should conduct themselves when they Secretary-General under regulations rules on the basic rights and obliga- observe that Member States are not re- established by the General Assembly tions of staff. Among the core values specting the rules that they have agreed and the paramount consideration in expressed in this provision, the follow- upon and when they observe that states the employment of the staff and in the ing are of particular relevance in this are lacking in “loyalty to the aims, princi- determination of the conditions of serv- context: ples and purposes of the United Nations”. ice shall be the necessity of securing the – Staff members shall uphold and re- highest standards of efficiency, compe- spect the principles set out in the When states enter tence and integrity. Charter, including faith in fundamen- into international Staff’s responsibilities are tal human rights, in the dignity and international worth of the human person and in the agreements they equal rights of men and women. “ Staff Regulation 1.1 prescribes that actually exercise their staff members are international civil – Staff members shall uphold the servants and that their responsibilities highest standards of efficiency, com- sovereignty. as staff members are not national but petence and integrity. The concept exclusively international.4 They shall of integrity includes, but is not lim- It goes without saying that the rules make the following written declaration ited to, probity, impartiality, fairness, just quoted mean that it would not be witnessed by the Secretary-General or honesty and truthfulness in all mat- appropriate for staff members at dif- his or her authorised representative: ters affecting their work and status. ferent levels to express their personal “I solemnly declare and promise to views in various matters in a manner – By accepting appointment, staff exercise in all loyalty, discretion and that may adversely reflect on their sta- members pledge themselves to dis- conscience the functions entrusted to tus, or on the integrity, independence charge their functions and regulate me as an international civil servant of and impartiality that are required by their conduct with the interests of the United Nations, to discharge these that status. Ultimately, this becomes a the Organisation only in view. Loy- functions and regulate my conduct with matter of judgement. And in this as- alty to the aims, principles and pur- the interests of the United Nations only sessment, the reasoning of Dag Ham- poses of the United Nations, as set in view, and not to seek or accept in- marskjöld is an obvious lodestar. forth in its Charter, is a fundamen- An evident conclusion from his rea- tal obligation of all staff members by soning is that the way in which the Sec- virtue of their status as international retary-General acts is of paramount im- civil servants. portance. It is against this background – Staff members shall conduct them- that the Secretary-General – as any per- selves at all times in a manner befit- son serving in a high-level function – ting their status as international civil needs critical advisers around him. The servants and shall not engage in any most authoritative manner in which to activity that is incompatible with the deal with the dilemma that is described proper discharge of their duties with here is to bring the concerns of staff to the United Nations. the attention of the Secretary-General – Staff members shall avoid any action through the appropriate channels. It and, in particular, any kind of public would then be for his or her senior staff pronouncement that may adversely to advise the Secretary-General what ac- reflect on their status, or on the in- tion to take. Ultimately, the Secretary- tegrity, independence and impartial- General must make a decision how to ity that are required by that status. proceed in general terms and in the particular case at hand. – Staff members shall exercise the utmost discretion with regard to all The interests of the UN matters of official business. They are paramount shall not communicate to any Gov- It is sometimes said that many Mem- ernment, entity, person or any other ber States prefer that the chief admin- source any information known to istrative officer of the United Nations is them by reason of their official posi- more of a “secretary” than a “general”. Integrity is in Dag Hammarskjöld’s ethical tion that they know or ought to have However, to the general public the core, especially in the sense of respect for known has not been made public, Secretary-General actually personifies law and respect for truth. except as appropriate in the normal the UN. This is the reason why he is 16 New Routes 2/2011 the ethics of an international civil servant sometimes criticised for the shortcom- people in general but also among those to the international civil servant, he or ings of the organisation also relating to who represent them. Another reason she could make a difference. It is at matters over which he has no authority. could be that the government represent- this juncture that his or her integrity, This requires that the Secretary-General ing the state is not a true and legitimate independence and impartiality can be a proceeds with determination when it is representative of its people. The recent determining factor. + obvious that the UN must act. It is in events in North Africa and the Middle this situation that the Secretary-General East are cases in point. 1 Published since then as Hans Corell, The Need must do his duty “guided solely by the It is in this case that the purposes and for the Rule of Law in International Affairs – common aims and rules laid down for, principles of the UN must be brought Reflections on Dag Hammarskjöld’s address and by the Organisation he serves and to the forefront. It is in this case that it at Oxford University on 30 May 1961, ’The 5 International Civil Service in Law and in Fact’, by recognised legal principles”. is necessary that the international civil in Hans Corell/Inge Lønning/Henning Melber, service with the Secretary-General in The Ethics of Dag Hammarskjöld. Uppsala: The the lead acts on the basis of the com- Dag Hammarskjöld Foundation 2010. To the general public monly agreed norms which constitute 2 Quoted from Andrew W. Cordier and Wilder the heritage from a generation that ex- Foote (eds), Public Papers of the Secretaries- the Secretary-General perienced two world wars. General of the United Nations. Volume V: Dag Hammarskjöld 1960-1961. New York and actually personifies A famous quote of Dag Hammar- London: Columbia University Press 1975. “ skjöld is from his statement in the the UN. General Assembly on 31 October 1956: 3 United Nations Security Council, Statement by the President of the Security Council, 22 June “The principles of [the Charter of the 2006, S/PRST/2006/28. The tension that might arise in this United Nations] are, by far, greater than 4 ST/SGB/2009/6. situation is closely related to the question the Organisation in which they are em- how states define their interests. Surely, bodied, and the aims which they are to 5 Quoted from Andrew W. Cordier and Wilder one must be aware of the political reali- safeguard are holier than the policies of Foote, op. cit. ties here. However, it is striking to see any single nation or people.”6 6 Statement by Dag Hammarskjöld in the Gener- how short-sightedly these interests are Read in conjunction with the words al Assembly, 31 October 1956. Quoted from Kai Falkman, To speak for the world: Speeches and sometimes defined. There are several of the oath quoted above, “with the in- Statements by Dag Hammarskjöld. Stockholm: reasons for this. One obvious reason terests of the United Nations only in Atlantis 2005. may be the current political situation at view”, the obvious conclusion is that the national level, which could be an un- the interests of a particular state must fortunate reflection of arrogance in com- yield to the interests of the organisation. bination with ignorance not only among Depending on the functions entrusted

Rotary selects Uppsala University for new Peace Center In keen international competition, Uppsala University has Wilhelm Stenhammar, chair of the Rotary Foundation of been named Rotary International’s seventh center for inter- Rotary International. national studies in peace and conflict resolution. This means The Rotary Peace Center in Uppsala is scheduled to open that students from all over the world will be able to receive in September, 2012. Rotary scholarships to pursue a master program in peace and – Rotary’s decision is a source of tremendous pride for conflict studies at Uppsala. us, says Anders Hallberg, Vice Chancellor of Uppsala Uni- Out of an international pool of more than 100 universi- versity. Peace, security, and democracy comprise one of our ties, Uppsala University was selected for its established university’s truly robust fields of research and education, core curriculum in international relations, peace, and con- and it means a great deal to us to have been selected out of flict resolution, superior faculty, excellent academic creden- more than 100 universities in the world. tials and financial stability. The seven Rotary Peace Centers in the world are: – It is, of course, a great honor to be recognized as offer- Uppsala University, Sweden ing world-class education, says Peter Wallensteen, holder University of Bradford, United Kingdom of the Dag Hammarskjöld Professorship in Peace and Con- flict Research at Uppsala University. This is an effect of our University of Queensland, Australia long-term quality work in education and research. It has International Christian University, Japan resulted in bright international students already finding Universidad del Salvador, Argentina their way here. Duke University and the University of North Carolina Founded in 1477, Uppsala University is one of oldest and at Chapel Hill, USA top ranked universities in Northern Europe. Its department Chulalongkorn University, Thailand, (three-month of Peace and Conflict Research was established in 1971. certificate program). – A key aspect of the department’s research has been its numerous and wide-ranging collaborations with in- Adapted from: Rotary International and Uppsala University ternationally leading scholars and institutions, says Carl- Department for Peace and Conflict Research leave it to dag! New Routes 2/2011 17 The number and character of the conflicts in the world of today have certainly changed since the 1950’s, but it is a sad fact that several of them still remain unresolved. Thanks to, among other things, Dag Hammarskjöld’s personal diplomacy, a number of agreements were reached to avert these crises. He had a special ability to see an agreement as the first step in a series of continued implementation of what we today would call peacebuilding. His perspective was conflict resolution, not only crisis management. This article also presents a number of concrete steps on the rough road of conflict resolution.

Leave it to Dag! Peter Wallensteen

Among the many telegrams that The Uppsala Conflict Data Program of the UN, this time the United States reached Dag Hammarskjöld on his shows that there were 39 armed con- and Britain, intervened militarily in birthday, 29 July, 1955, one came from flicts going somewhere in the world Iraq without a proper mandate from the Prime Minister of China, Chou En- during Hammarskjöld’s period as the Security Council. In fact, they were Lai. It congratulated Hammarskjöld on Secretary General (1953-61). This can breaking international law. In an im- his 50th anniversary and informed him be compared to the 67 that were active portant speech, Annan said that the that a Chinese Court had just freed a during Kofi Annan’s ten years (1997- international community had come of number of captured American pilots. 2006) and 46 during Ban Ki-Moon’s a fork in the road. There was a choice This made headlines around the world first three years for which there is data between unilateralism and multilater- and catapulted Hammarskjöld to fame (2007-09). The sheer number of con- alism. Being constructive, Annan em- as a United Nations (UN) leader that flicts is now much higher. It also re- barked on a reform process of the UN, could achieve remarkable results. Me- mains a fact that not all conflicts are on resulting, for instance, in agreement dia invented the phrase: Leave it to Dag! the UN agenda. Local uprisings in India From then on Hammarskjöld became and Burma, for instance, are defined by engaged in a series of political disputes the governments as ‘internal’ and, thus, Sadly, conflicts and conflicts as a problem-solver and outside UN authority, in the same way mediator. His achievements generated that the Cold War rivalry barred issues that Hammarskjöld a momentum, which made it possible from the UN agenda. dealt with are still for him to convene the UN Security “ Council five years later and commit it Turning crisis into opportunity on the agenda of to one of the UN’s largest peacekeep- All Secretary-Generals are likely to face the international ing missions ever in the Congo. It also complicated situations involving major became the battle-field where he him- powers. Hammarskjöld had to deal with community. self succumbed now 50 years ago, on the military intervention by France, Brit- 18 September, 1961. We can now legiti- ain and Israel against Egypt in the Suez mately ask, what legacy has Hammar- Canal in 1956. As the two major powers on the international responsibility to skjöld left for conflict resolution? also were permanent members of the protect civilian populations from mass Sadly, conflicts that Hammarskjöld UN Security Council, they could pre- violence and war crimes, committed dealt with are still on the agenda of the vent action from this body, something by their own governments (known as international community. His most re- that upset Hammarskjöld. He had seen R2P). This principle was the basis for cent successors, Kofi Annan and Ban Britain and France as champions of the UN action in Libya in February and Ki-Moon, have also had to deal with the UN and of international law. In this March 2011. conflicts in the Congo, as well as over crisis they contradicted what they previ- Hammarskjöld and Annan turned Palestine. The focus may have shifted ously had supported. Instead, Hammar- a crisis into an opportunity to enhance but the core concerns remain the same: skjöld operated with the support of the the standing of the UN. Ban Ki-Moon keeping the Democratic Republic of UN General Assembly, Canada and the may be facing his formative moment Congo intact and giving legitimate United States to bring about the first real when dealing with the unarmed Arab rights to the Palestinians. In addition peacekeeping mission, putting troops insurrections in 2011. It remains to be there are issues that were not on the between the belligerents. The principles seen if this becomes an opportunity for agenda in the 1950’s, notably sexual of action that he developed are still basic UN to demonstrate how R2P can be violence against civilians and suicide for peacekeeping operations. turned into action. bombings, and some that are no longer Kofi Annan faced a similar impasse Hammarskjöld was strongly involved relevant, notably the Cold War. in 2003. Again, two leading member in seven major conflicts, which in fact 18 New Routes 2/2011 leave it to dag! consisted of at least twenty decision seat on the Security Council, however, but the US Congress quickly passed a points, and he had a reasonable record and the US continued to recognise the law forbidding such travel. The mission of achievements that we can learn from. Nationalists as China’s government. It seemed to have been a failure. This is First, there was his ability in forging also meant that the UN did not have why the telegram from Chou En-Lai agreements between parties in disputes. direct contacts with the de facto rulers became such a surprise and why the Second, he managed sometimes to get of China. However, the pilots were for- outcome was important for Hammar- issues on the agenda, thus leading the mally part of the UN operation in Ko- skjöld’s standing. In fact, the release of international community. Third, he rea. Thus, the US President Eisenhower the pilots was coupled to the creation contributed to changing realities on the could solve his dilemma of not being of a secret direct channel between the ground by negotiating arrangements able to get the pilots out by pointing US and China, via their embassies in for implementation of UN decisions. to the responsibility of the Secretary- Warsaw, Poland. Let us take a quick look at situations he General for ‘his’ staff. Hammarskjöld Clearly the two major powers wanted faced. had to take on a mission that seemed a solution. Hammarskjöld could sug- impossible. gest different possible ways out without Making agreements However, Hammarskjöld had one making any of the sides uneasy. How- In the autumn of 1954 an American advantage. Sweden had recognised the ever, he soon learned that major powers airplane flew into China’s airspace. The government that controlled the main- are not simple to handle. The Suez crisis plane and its crew were captured by the land. Using Swedish channels he could was one such experience, dealing with Chinese and the pilots were accused of send a message to the rulers in Beijing the Soviet Union’s invasion of Hungary spying. American media was alarmed. and ask for a meeting. He was invited at the same time was another, as was the The US government demanded their and spent one week in China for dis- rebuff he encountered when approach- immediate release. However, USA and cussions on a wide-ranging set of top- ing the parties in the short 1961 war be- China had no diplomatic relations. The ics, including, of course, the pilots. tween France and Tunisia. Finding an Communist regime, led by Mao Tse- When returning to the US from this agreement primarily requires the con- tung, had taken control over the main- visit, American media asked for the pi- sent of the parties. In the Suez crisis a land in 1949, and the Nationalist allies lots, but he brought none of them. One solution based on the withdrawal of the of the United States were only in con- solution had been that they could be intervening forces achieved this, par- trol over Taiwan. They retained China’s released if their families visited China, ticularly with the committed support of Photo/x N Photo: U

UN peacekeeping missions were introduced during Dag Hammarskjöld’s term as Secretary General. In December 1958 he visited Gaza to spend Christmas with the troops of the UN Emergency Force, here inspecting the Brazilian Battalion. leave it to dag! New Routes 2/2011 19 Z the United States. Hammarskjöld’s role B was instrumental as he had direct and personal conversations with the lead- Photo/ N ing actors, notably Israel’s Prime Min- ister Ben Gurion and Egypt’s President

Nasser. Hammarskjöld said that Nasser Photo: U had never “gone back on anything he said to me personally” (Urquhart 1994: 269). By placing peacekeeping troops along the Suez Canal, the UN (and the USA) could pressure Israel to withdraw from the Sinai Peninsula, ending the threats of an immediately renewed war. In the following years, Hammar- skjöld was involved in settling threat- ening conflicts, notably in Lebanon, between Cambodia and Thailand, and in the Congo. On what became his fi- nal mission he hoped to find a solution Refugees crowding around a UN vehicle in 1962 to be repatriated from a camp to the secessionist regime of Katanga, near Elisabethville (present Lubumbashi) in Congo to the traditional tribal lands the mineral-rich southern part of the of their forefathers. Congo. The plane crash may have killed the hope of a peaceful settlement. The following year, Katanga was forcefully UN, even withdrawing its support to Managing practical diplomacy is reintegrated into the Congo. Hammar- the UN budget. For the long term, UN what the Charter expects the Secretary- skjöld did not achieve a solution in the action helped to save the country’s in- General to do, presumably under the Congo, but he prevented it from becom- tegrity and independence, but the price instructions of the Security Council. ing part of the Cold War by getting it to was high. However, Hammarskjöld repeatedly en- the UN agenda. Getting matters to the agenda and countered situations where the Council achieving support for internationally could not agree on instructions. Then Setting the agenda agreed action is not easy. In 1954, Ham- it was for Hammarskjöld to interpret Before negotiating with the parties, the marskjöld wanted to bring the CIA in- his mandate and chart his own route. issue has to be on the agenda. Thus, tervention in Guatemala to the UN Se- Without a capacity to analyse and act it is important for a UN Secretary- curity Council, but was stopped by the the UN cannot function in critical situ- General to get the international com- United States. It argued that the issue ations. On the whole Hammarskjöld munity involved. Article 99 of the UN belonged to the regional body, the Or- was remarkably successful. In several Charter gives the holder such powers. ganisation of American States, which This involves often invisible ‘agenda was under the US spell. In 1956, Ham- diplomacy’. It was remarkable how marskjöld wanted to go to Hungary to Hammarskjöld did Hammarskjöld could call the UN Se- inform himself on the Soviet invasion, curity Council to meet in the middle but he was not allowed to enter. France not achieve a solution of July 1960. Congo had just become did not allow him to act on the war in the Congo, but he independent and within days its army between Tunisia and France in 1961. “ soldiers mutinied, and rich Katanga There are limits to what a Secretary- prevented it from declared independence, no doubt with General can achieve. becoming part of assistance of the former colonial power, Belgium. Changing realities the Cold War. The country was about to disinte- Much of Hammarskjöld’s work had grate, with disastrous effects for the to do with implementation: to pursue newly independent continent of Africa. what has been agreed so that it becomes instances it was possible for him to It threatened to turn Congo into an a practical reality. Hammarskjöld was a overcome opposition from some of the arena of Cold War proxy wars. Ham- master in ‘implementation diplomacy.’ permanent members by drawing on marskjöld was resolved to prevent this, Getting a ceasefire in the Suez Canal his position in the General Assembly. and had the strong support from lead- was but a first step in a series of diplo- Hammarskjöld managed to build com- ers of Africa, Asia and neutral states. matic moves that gave the peacekeep- mitted coalitions in particular issues. His solution was to keep the country ers authority in the area and convinced Hammarskjöld’s ability to interpret together with the help of an interna- Israel of the advantages of withdrawal. mandates and finding ingenious solu- tional peacekeeping mission. It came The complex operation in the Congo tions, principles for action and practical to involve Hammarskjöld in disputes included similar concerns, including courses of action may explain his activ- with local actors, and, not least, the So- persuading Belgian troops to leave, and ity. His intellectual capacity was geared viet Union. In the beginning he had its making sure assistance money was not to problem-solving. He understood very support, but towards the end the Soviet used to further outside powers interests well that the survival of agreements de- leader refused to cooperate with the but channelled through the UN. pended on the ability to settle the first 20 New Routes 2/2011 leave it to dag! crises that follow the signing of an ac- JH cord. The implementation of the agree- ment on peacekeeping troops in 1956 Photo/ N made the mission stick until 1967. He displayed a preference for developing principles that would last. He did not Photo: U want “fixes” for the day. The perspective was the one of conflict resolution, not simply crisis management. There are some lessons to be drawn for mediators also today.

Hammarskjöld’s contribution to conflict resolution There are interesting features in Ham- marskjöld’s way of operating. Here are some pointers: Build unorthodox coalition! Hammar- skjöld’s diplomacy built on working both with powerful USA and the newly- independent states. The North-South divide was not, and still is not, easy to handle. Hammarskjöld repeatedly ran Private P. Fennessey at his camp in Albertville (present Kalemie). In 1960 some 15,700 into conflict with the US administra- soldiers from eleven countries were on duty with the UN Force in the Republic of the tion but could still work with it in other Congo, helping to restore order and calm in the country. areas. Hammarskjöld‘s relationship with the Soviet Union was positive ini- tially only to go sour in 1960, when the Soviets wanted him to resign in order Act early, but with caution! The term ”pre- Most mediators come with unselfish per­ to radically change the UN Secretariat. ventive diplomacy” was coined by Ham- spectives. Well-considered risk-taking These complications contrasted Ham- marskjöld and again achieved promi- for peace should be applauded. + marskjöld’s cordial relations with Third nence in the 1990’s. Once bloodshed World leaders, like India’s Prime Min- has begun and troops are in battle, the Literature ister Nehru. Hammarskjöld’s perform- options narrow. There is mixed record ance demonstrates the utility of princi- in preventive diplomacy. Sometimes ac- Therése Pettersson and Lotta Themnér pled pragmatism. tions come too late, sometimes too early. (eds), States in Armed Conflict 2009. Meet the parties! The breakthrough The parties may have to be convinced Uppsala: Uppsala University/Depart- for Hammarskjöld’s diplomacy came of the use of outsiders, which requires ment of Peace and Conflict Research with his visit to China in 1954. Per- skilful diplomacy. 2010. sonal diplomacy was Hammarskjöld’s Maintain your integrity! The UN Secre- Brian Urquhart, Hammarskjold. New trademark. It is even more important tariat has a role position. A mediation York: Norton 1972 (reprint 1994). today. Travel is more comfortable, com- mission rests on the integrity it can Peter Wallensteen, Dag Hammarskjöld munication is more rapid, Internet can demonstrate vis-à-vis the parties. It is and the Psychology of Diplomacy, in Pe- be used for direct conversations. But a platform of action and should not be ter Wallensteen, Peace Research: Theory much suggests that the direct personal allowed to be questioned by the parties. and Practice, London and New York: meeting and establishing mutual trust Routledge 2011, pp. 154-171. is unsurpassed when moving towards Stamina and patience! Hammarskjöld’s conflict resolution. key visit to Beijing took place in cold and dark January, after a tedious flight Create leverage! Hammarskjöld had no via London, Paris, Delhi, Canton, and traditional power. His authority rested Hankow. Hammarskjöld could still with the UN Charter and his standing walk around without a hat and ”at a ter- in the UN. By threatening to bring a rific pace”. He could also work through conflict to the agenda, he could gain the night if necessary. For a conflict re- leverage. By having an issue on the solver it is important to have energy to agenda, he could influence parties by stay focused on key issues. outlining possible outcomes of votes. With the peacekeeping troops as an We have also noted that Hammarskjöld instrument even more leverage could was willing to take risks. He took risks be gained. This is partly what is today for peace, not for country or God. He often described as ‘soft power’, and the was expected to be more of a ‘secretary’, resources may vary among institutions. and became an agenda setting ‘general’. There is often something to build on. He saw the duties his office required. global leadership New Routes 2/2011 21 With a starting point in voices from the United Nations Intellectual History Project, the author in this article makes a record of all the UN Secretaries-General up until now, with their different characteristics and styles of leadership. He points to the outstanding personality of Dag Hammarskjöld, who because of his untimely death left an unfulfilled legacy behind him. According to the author, the UN body suffers from problems like overlapping jurisdiction, lack of coordination and an overweight bureaucracy.

Global leadership of Secretaries and Generals

Thomas G. Weiss

In his oft-quoted May 1954 address at the cal and security matters in the Secre- “there is also a legend about Hammar- University of California’s commence- tary-General’s office, regardless of the skjöld … this man who could do no ment, Dag Hammarskjöld concluded: occupant. wrong, and everything he did was per- “It has been said that the United Nations Brian Urquhart, one of the first per- fect. Of course, he died in an airplane was not created in order to bring us to sons recruited to the Secretariat, ex- crash so it is easy to martyrize him”. heaven, but in order to save us from hell plained: “The 38th floor, under [Trygve] Urquhart recalled that Hammar- … [which] sums up as well as anything I Lie, and under everybody except Dag skjöld “looked about fifteen years old. have heard both the essential role of the Ham­marskjöld, didn’t really devote any­ He was the youngest looking forty- United Nations and the attitude of mind thing like enough attention to the eco- five-year-old I have ever seen. He was that we should bring to its support.”1 nomic and social side – partly because Ever the pragmatist, Hammarskjöld’s they weren’t economists and didn’t to- down-to-earth prose understated his vi- tally understand it, and partly because The UN’s various sion and aspirations. This essay explores there were so many political preoccupa- two aspects of his tragically abbreviated tions … It is very difficult, when you are moving parts work at tenure as Secretary-General. It begins Secretary-General, to focus on the eco- cross purposes instead with Hammarskjöld’s leadership in nomic and social side, because every “ comparison with other Secretaries- day, and every night, something hap- of in an integrated, General, which build on oral histories pens which preoccupies you on the po- from the United Nations Intellectual litical side.” However, Hammarskjöld reinforcing, and History Project.2 It continues with two “believed that the UN was going to be collaborative fashion. parts of his unfulfilled legacy, which are the bridge over which the former colo- part of what ails the contemporary UN nial powers and the United States would and could be fixed.3 be able, in a completely un-colonial way, extremely diffident and very shy, and to help in the development of the inde- started off with all kinds of rather mis- Hammarskjöld’s leadership pendent African countries”. guided gestures, like eating lunch in the Leadership is critical to every human Most of our interviewees echoed cafeteria every day, and turning down undertaking, and the UN’s “CEO” Urquhart: out of all of the Secretaries- the Secretary-General’s hospitality and holds a particular place in folklore and General, the second occupant had the living allowance”. Urquhart added that reality. The Charter, of course, labels greatest impact on the organization. he eventually became “a master with him (not yet her) the “chief admin- According to Robert Cox, a Canadian the press … he was like a Delphic ora- istrative officer”, an understatement scholar and former ILO official, Ham- cle – ask Hammarskjöld a question, you of the potential and actual role, cer- marskjöld “was a key figure in that whole would get an answer which you could tainly as demonstrated by the second period, and became kind of an icon be- read under water, at 10,000 feet, back- Secretary-General. Hammarskjöld’s cause he did stand so much for the in- wards, forwards, and sideways. He was tenure at the UN from 1953 to 1961 tegrity of the international civil service a brilliant intellectual, but he didn’t re- coincided with the initial period of and its role. Then he became the mar- ally tell you what he was doing”. decolonization, and it seems surpris- tyr”. Guatemalan UN ambassador and ing that a Swedish economist did not former Foreign Minister Gert Rosenthal Hammarskjöld, the economist spend more of his time on economic agreed that the second Secretary-General Oscar Schachter, director of UN’s Le- and social development. These issues was the only one who “broke the mold” gal Division and later a law professor invariably take second place to politi- of major power control but added that at Columbia University, remembered 22 New Routes 2/2011 global leadership er d chnei S van E Photo/ N Photo: U

The 100th anniversary of Hammarskjöld’s birth was celebrated in 2005 with a series of lectures in the Dag Hammarskjöld Library at the UN Headquarters. From left to right: Brian Urquhart, former UN Under-Secretary-General and a close colleague of Hammarskjöld, Secretary-General Kofi Annan, and Shashi Tharoor, Under-Secretary-General for Communications and Public Information.

that, “Hammarskjöld came in with the erner, but more well-disposed towards James O. C. Jonah spent thirty years idea that as an economist he wanted to the emerging former colonial countries in the Secretariat before becoming a meet the economists … He is the only than most westerners were.” minister in Sierra Leone, and summa- Secretary-General who not only read rized a widespread view about the sec- but discussed the World Economic Re- ond Secretary-General: “I still believe port. He was critical of some IMF ap- The stereotype that he is unsurpassed. I am convinced proaches. He had a kind of a stake in it, about that for three reasons. One, I related to the fact that he wanted to be of a bloated UN think Hammarskjöld was a true intel- seen as an economist”. Schachter also administration lectual of the highest and finest sorts. pointed to the political resulting sup- “ He was not a wishy-washy man. He port from newly independent countries: overlooks many had a good conceptual view of the UN. “Psychologically, I think he identified talented and Secondly, he was a man of absolute in- himself with that movement … He re- tegrity … Thirdly, he had the quality of lied too much politically on the support dedicated individuals. tremendous courage ... I am convinced that he thought he was getting from that we will never have another Secre- the majority of members … But that’s tary-General like Hammarskjöld. There when it looked to many as though the One of the results of Hammar- is a determination among the veto pow- new majority of Third World states were skjöld’s leadership was Moscow’s ire, ers that that will never happen.” taking over. It looked, on the face of it, which became a proposal to replace In a similar vein to Jan Eliasson’s es- as if he would have a big majority in the the Secretary-General with a troika, or say in this journal, Hammarskjöld had General Assembly – as he did. But how three-person square wheel to act as a an impact on the long-time former Sec- much did that matter? This was, I think, check on the West. Vladimir Petrovsky, retary-General of the Commonwealth Hammarskjöld’s big miscalculation.” who was in the Foreign Ministry at the Sonny Ramphal’s internationalism: The Irish author, diplomat, and politi- time and later directed the UN Office “He inspired me. He infused in me a bit cian Conor Cruise O’Brien recounted in Geneva, recalled Hammarskjöld’s of his vision … of ‘one world to share’. why Hammarskjöld had selected him giving “the impression of a man with And it is that kind of leadership that has to work on the Congo: “He was much philosophical cast of mind, who has his to come from the Secretary-General to a ‘horses for courses’ person. He saw own vision of the world and of his role infuse successive generations of young me as a horse who would be useful in as the head of the international organi- people, particularly at a time when the certain circumstances, as being a west- zation”. UN is under siege, and there are so many global leadership New Routes 2/2011 23 who would like to drag it down. I grew tory, but undoubtedly judgments about Robert Jackson, the Australian logis- up with the basic conviction that the UN the eighth Secretary-General would tics genius who moved goods to Malta was the world’s salvation. Not many peo- compare unfavorably with Hammar- and the Middle East in World War II ple have that understanding today.” skjöld and Annan. Having described and subsequently oversaw a number himself proudly as “the invisible man”,6 of key UN humanitarian operations, Predecessor and successors a starker contrast with at least some of began his 1969 evaluation of the UN Space only permits a brief compari- his more dynamic predecessors is hard development system by writing that son between Hammarskjöld and his to imagine, and this lackluster leader- “the machine as a whole has become predecessor and successors. Our inter- ship undoubtedly will continue during unmanageable … like some prehistoric viewees had less to say about the first a second five-year term. monster”.8 The lumbering dinosaur is and third Secretaries-General whose more than 40 years older but not bet- autobiographies and speeches are little ter adapted to the twenty-first century’s known:4 Norway’s Trygve Lie (1896- Hammarskjöld climate. 1968), who served from 1945 to 1953, and Burma’s U Thant (1909-1974), who believed that UN Heavy bureacracy served from 1961 to 1971. Not surpris- officials could and A related disorder stems from the over- ingly, our voices were outspoken about “ whelming weight of the bureaucracy, the fourth Secretary-General from 1972 should pledge its low productivity, and often under- to 1981, Kurt Waldheim (1918-2007), whelming leadership. The stereotype who was subsequently elected as Aus- allegiance to a larger of a bloated UN administration over- tria’s president in 1986. Few described collective good. looks many talented and dedicated in- him as either effective or sympathetic, dividuals. However, the world body’s and most believed that the major pow- recruitment and promotion methods ers were familiar with his past – his Reforming the UN system are certainly part of what ails it. Suc- allegiances to the Nazi Party and his and its civil service cess usually reflects personalities and involvement with war crimes while A significant UN malady is structural: serendipity rather than recruitment of serving as a German officer in World the overlapping jurisdictions of various the best persons for the right reasons War II. From 1982 to 1991 the care- UN bodies, the lack of coordination and institutional structures designed to ful Peruvian diplomat, Javier Pérez de among their activities, and the absence foster collaboration. Staff costs account Cuéllar (1920- ), was at the helm for the of centralized financing for the system for the lion’s share of the UN’s budget, move toward the right in the West and as a whole. This decentralization is ex- and the international civil service is a the reversal of the momentum toward acerbated by the nature of the staff and potential resource whose composition, dramatic change in international eco- its leadership. These structural short- productivity, and culture could change nomic relations, as well as the thawing comings highlight an unfinished Ham- quickly. of the Cold War and the UN’s renais- marskjöld legacy. In fact, Rube Goldberg would have sance. Boutros Boutros-Ghali (1922- ) Hammarskjöld never pursued the trouble finding a better design for fu- served from 1992 to 1997 but was ve- reform of the UN’s economic and so- tile complexity than the current array toed by the United States for a second cial machinery to which he devoted of organizations, each focusing on a term – an ordeal described in great time and energy during his first year in substantive area, often located in a dif- depth in his autobiography.5 During office. Disgruntled that he “had inher- ferent city from relevant UN partners the tumultuous first half of the 1990s, ited a work program which had grown and with separate budgets, governing the organization was called upon to up piecemeal over the years and which mount operations in an unprecedented consisted of a mass of unregulated and number of civil wars at the same time uncoordinated activities”, Brian Urqu- Confronting such that the UN system was collectively try- hart recalls that “on economic and so- ing to revisit many economic and social cial projects alone Hammarskjöld held threats as climate issues through world conferences. He more than seventy-five meetings to find change, pandemics, was characterized as a strong-willed, out what was going on”.7 “ even arrogant, intellectual who did not The UN’s various moving parts work terrorism, and suffer fools gladly. at cross purposes instead of in an in- weapons of mass The leadership from 1997 to 2006 tegrated, reinforcing, and collabora- by the seventh Secretary-General, the tive fashion. Organizations of various destruction requires life-long international civil servant from stripes relentlessly pursue cut-throat Ghana Kofi Annan (1938- ), came clos- fundraising, stake out territory, and multidisciplinary est to approaching Hammarskjöld’s. pursue mission creep. While the UN’s perspectives. Our respondents’ opinion was second- organizational chart refers to a “sys- ed by the committee whose members tem”, this term implies coherence and honored Annan with the 2002 Nobel cohesion whereas reality has more in boards, organizational cultures, and in- Peace Prize in the midst of his term common with feudalism than modern dependent executive heads. Confront- rather than posthumously. organizations. Frequent use is made of ing such threats as climate change, The current Secretary-General, Ban the term “family”, a preferable meta- pandemics, terrorism, and weapons Ki-moon (1944- ), assumed office in phor because, like many such units, the of mass destruction requires multidis- 2007 after the completion of the oral his- UN is dysfunctional. ciplinary perspectives, efforts across 24 New Routes 2/2011 global leadership sectors, firm central direction, and in- pressure on the intentional Secretari- from his unusual leadership as well as spired leadership. The UN rarely sup- at”.11 His clarion call did not ignore the interest in confronting structural prob- plies any of this. reality that the international civil service lems that are his unfulfilled legacy. Treatment would be possible if gov- exists to carry out decisions by Member They are not the UN’s most virulent ernments chose to pursue, rather than States. But Hammarskjöld believed that illness – the myopia of Westphalian ignore, making the UN operate with UN officials could and should pledge Member States wins that award – but more cohesion, as advocated by “Deliv- allegiance to a larger collective good fixing these structural problems is cru- ering as One”,9 one of the last proposals symbolized by the organization’s light- cial for enhanced global governance13 in published before Annan’s departure. blue-covered laissez-passer rather than the 21st century. + No previous reform has reduced turf the narrowly perceived national inter- struggles and unproductive competi- ests of the countries that issue national tion for funds within the so-called UN passports in different colors. 1 Andrew W. Cordier, and Wilder Foote, eds., system. But one could if donors stopped Setting aside senior UN positions for Public Papers of the Secretaries-General of the talking out of two sides of their mouths officials approved by their home coun- United Nations. Volume II: Dag Hammarskjöld 1953-1956 (New York: Columbia University and insisted upon the centralization tries belies that integrity. Governments Press, 1972), 301. and consolidation that they often preach seek to ensure that their interests are before UN forums and parliamentary defended inside secretariats, and many 2 See Thomas G. Weiss, Tatiana Carayannis, Louis Emmerij, and Richard Jolly, UN Voices: bodies but never implement. have even relied on officials for intelli- The Struggle for Development and Social Justice A related therapy consists of tak- gence. From the outset, for example, the (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005), ing steps to reinvigorate the person- Security Council’s five permanent mem- 347-58. See also the CD-ROM The Complete nel of the United Nations. There is an bers have reserved the right to “nomi- Oral History Transcripts from “UN Voices” (New York: Ralph Bunche Institute for International urgent need to revive the notion of an nate” (select) nationals to fill the key Studies, 2007). For additional information, see autonomous international civil service, posts in the Secretary-General’s cabinet. www.unhistory.org and the capstone volume a passion of Hammarskjöld’s. Compe- The influx in the 1950s and 1960s of by Richard Jolly, Louis Emmerij, and Thomas tence and integrity should outweigh former colonies as new Member States G. Weiss, UN Ideas That Changed the World (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, nationality and gender as well as cro- led them to clamor for “their” fair share 2009). nyism, which have become the princi- of the patronage opportunities, follow- 3 See Thomas G. Weiss, What’s Wrong with the pal criteria for recruitment, retention, ing the bad example set by major pow- United Nations and How to Fix It (Cambridge: and promotion. In fact, Hammarskjöld ers and other Member States. The result Polity, 2009). was downplaying competence and exag- 4 Trygve Lie, In the Cause of Peace: Seven Years gerating national origins as the main with the United Nations (New York: Macmil- Moving back to the criterion for recruitment and promo- lan, 1954), and U Thant, Portfolio for Peace: tion. Over the years, efforts to improve Excerpts from the Writings and Speeches of U future would involve Thant, Secretary-General of the United Nations, gender balance have resulted in other on Major World Issues 1961-1968 (New York: recruiting people types of claims, as has the age profile of United Nations, 1968). “ secretariats. All positions above the di- 5 Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Unvanquished: A U.S.- with integrity and rector level, and often at every level, are U.N. Saga (New York: Random House, 1999). the object of government lobbying. talent. 6 Joe Lauria and Steve Stecklow, “the U.N.’s The UN should rediscover the ide- ‘Invisible Man,’” The Wall Street Journal, 14 July alistic roots of the international civil 2009. championed an ideal that harks back service, make room for creative idea- 7 Brian Urquhart, Hammarskjöld (New York: to what the Carnegie Endowment for mongers, and mark out career develop- Norton, 1994), 76. International Peace during World War ment paths for a 21st-century secretariat 8 UN Development Programme, A Study of the II called the “great experiment” of the with greater turn-over and younger and Capacity of the United Nations Development League of Nations. more mobile staff. Moving back to the System (Geneva: UN, 1969), vol. I, iii. future would involve recruiting people 9 UN Secretary-General’s High-level Panel on Allegiance to a collective good with integrity and talent. There are nu- UN System-wide Coherence, Delivering as One, Hammarskjöld’s speech at Oxford in merous ways to attract more mobile and 9 November 2006. May 1961 spelled out the importance younger staff members with greater 10 Dag Hammarskjöld, “The International Civil of a first-rate, independent staff. He turnover and fewer permanent con- Servant in Law and in Fact,” lecture delivered asserted that any erosion or abandon- tracts while providing better career de- to Congregation at Oxford University, 30 May ment of “the international civil service velopment. Regional or linguistic quo- 1961, reprinted by Clarendon Press, Oxford, quotes at 329 and 349. … might, if accepted by the Member tas could diminish the governmental nations, well prove to be the Munich influence resulting from national ones. 11 Urquhart, Hammarskjöld, 58. of international cooperation.”10 While 12 Quoted o the jacket of Dag Hammarskjöld, this speech was delivered shortly be- Conclusion Markings (New York: Knopf, 1965). fore his death, Urquhart points out that Dag Hammarskjöld described Mark- 13 See Thomas G. Weiss and Ramesh Thakur, Hammarskjöld started his tenure in the ings as “my negotiations with myself Global Governance and the UN: An Unfinished midst of the McCarthy witch-hunts and and with God”,12 but this poetic text con- Journey (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2010). was persuaded that “the future effec- tains no reference to his service as Sec- tiveness of the UN … would depend in retary-General or to momentous events large measure on resisting all efforts by in which he was a key actor. Hopefully, governments to interfere with and put this short essay brings to bear insights personal reflection New Routes 2/2011 25 ix p can

A famous Swede S

In September 1961 I was eleven years old. Born in Nkana, on the then North- onnierarkivet/ ern Rhodesian Copperbelt, I had moved B with my parents to Mufulira in the early

1950s when my father had taken a posi- Photo: tion on what was to become the biggest underground copper mine in the world. Operated by Rhodesian (later Roan) Se- lection Trust but one-third owned by Anglo American, the larger of the Cop- perbelt’s two mining corporations, Mu- fulira, is only about eight miles south of the Katangese/Congo border, and about 40 miles from Ndola, the commercial capital of the region and home to the Copperbelt’s main airport. The previous year had seen the wider world impinge ever more pressingly on the Copperbelt. Independence in June 1960 for what up until then had been the Belgian Congo was followed swiftly Two ‘famous Swedes’: by Katanga’s secession in July 1960. Dag Hammarskjöld Other provinces also attempted to break and ‘Ingo’ Ingemar away. The ensuing ‘Congo Crisis’ seem- Johansson at the ingly brought the Cold War to the door- UN Headquarters in step of the Central African Federation, New York, where the of which Northern Rhodesia was part. Secretary-General When the Congolese armed forces mu- showed ‘Ingo’ around. tinied, rounding on their Belgian offic- ers and attacking white settlers generally, streams of refugees flowed across the coins. These were much sought after From that day on I followed his ca- border. I remember – or at least I think I and swopped during ‘break’ at school. reer as closely as the local newspaper, do – seeing Federal troops and armoured But at the age of ten, about to be eleven, The Northern News, permitted. Hence cars on the road between Mufulira and my horizons were filled by school and my consternation one night in Sep- Mokambo, the nearby border post, as holidays. Many hours were spent labo- tember 1961, when I overheard my well as along the stretch of road to Ndola. riously gluing together plastic model parents talking in the lounge. From Like other white mining families, aeroplanes, and any remaining spare what I could make out, as I lay in bed my parents hosted Congo refugees for time was devoted to a new, all-consum- in the room I shared with my young- several nights, before helping them ing passion. This was following the er brother, a plane crash just outside on their way further south, many of tribulations of heavyweight boxing. In Ndola had killed a number of people, them to a large camp located in Salis- March 1961, America’s Floyd Patterson including a ‘famous Swede’. Think- bury’s (now Harare) agricultural Show had defended his title against Sweden’s ing that this could only be Johansson, Grounds. What I vividly recall is putting Ingemar Johansson. I was hugely upset. I was astonished my finger into a bullet hole in the ex- An 8 mm (I think!) black and white because I hadn’t known that Johans- otic, very dusty Simca car parked in film of the bout eventually found its son was coming to the Federation, and our driveway. But all this was really a way to the Copperbelt, and one evening devastated by the news of the crash in subject for grown-ups, and children in I was taken by my father to watch a which he’d died. those days were expected to keep quiet, screening at the Mufulira Mine Club. It was only the next morning at even if occasionally allowed to hover on Absolutely enthralled, I couldn’t put out breakfast that my gloom lifted when I the fringes of adult conversation. What of my mind the thrilling first round in realised that it was not Johansson who I can recall is the odd name ‘Welensky’ which ‘Ingo’s hammer of Thor’ – his had died, but another famous Swede. (the Federal Prime Minister) or the straight right punch travelling faster Too embarrassed to admit to my mis- phrase: ‘It could never happen here’, than the eye could see, according to take, I began quietly reading whatever but what precisely the ‘it’ might be, I sports writers – twice bludgeoned Pat- I could find about the United Nations had no idea. terson to the canvas. Despite the fact Secretary-General, Dag Hammarskjöld. Life soon returned to normal. As far that Johansson was eventually kayoed I still have in my possession the copy of as I was concerned, all that Katanga’s by Patterson, those unbelievably excit- Time magazine, devoted to his last days. ‘independence’ meant was the appear- ing first minutes turned me into a fer- ance of new stamps and, occasionally, vent ‘Ingo’ supporter. Ian Phimister 26 New Routes 2/2011 a beacon of hope In the early 1950’s, in a world shattered after the Second World War and split by the widening gap of the Cold War, the young United Nations were marred by internal conflicts. When Dag Hammarskjöld entered the stage as the second Secretary-General, hopes were high that he would instill new life into the world organisation. A man of great charisma and integrity, he left a legacy of extraordinary wealth, as one of his close members of staff recalls.

Dag Hammarskjöld’s legacy: A beacon of hope Brian Urquhart

Far more important was the status and Hammarskjöld Hammarskjöld devoted his first standing of Hammarskjöld’s UN. It is hard eighteen months at the UN to discreetly to remember what a beacon of hope it was devoted his first winning the confidence of member gov- in the 1950’s: indeed, it was every young eighteen months at ernments and to reorganising the Secre- man’s dream to serve.1 “ tariat and reinforcing its discipline and the UN to discreetly morale. He showed himself a master It is now fifty years since Dag Hammar- administrator who could combine prin- skjöld died in an air-crash near Ndola in winning the ciple and practical common sense in the what was then Northern Rhodesia, on confidence of resolution of controversial problems. his way to put a stop to a battle between He also dealt firmly but quietly with UN peacekeeping troops and the mer- member the anti-communist US witch-hunt, cenary-led forces of Moise Tshombe, emphasising the Secretary-General’s the secessionist leader of the Congolese governments. overall responsibility for the Secretariat. province of Katanga. He strongly defended the independent In 1953 the United Nations (UN) York’s Idlewild airport, he welcomed position of the fledgling international had long outlived the enthusiasm and his successor, Dag Hammarskjöld, to civil service and reinforced both its dis- apparent common purpose of its early, “the most impossible job on this earth”. cipline and its efficiency. post-war days. The nations, and espe- Hammarskjöld had been chosen as cially the great powers, were anything Lie’s successor on 31 March, 1953, after The first political intervention but united. The Cold War had frozen a long stalemate in the Security Council. Hammarskjöld had said that the Secre- many of the hopes and possibilities of He was not well known except to a few tary-General should not “jump up on the UN. Trygve Lie, the first Secretary- European negotiators and, of course, in the stage“ on political matters unless General, had had a particularly difficult his own country. There was a general there was a critical situation which he time. His support of the UN’s forceful feeling that he would be a good but rela- was best suited to deal with. Such a situ- intervention against North Korea’s inva- tively colourless civil servant who would ation arose at the end of 1954. Seven- sion of South Korea, which the Security not rock the international political boat. teen American air force members had Council had authorised in the absence He inherited a dismal situation at the come down in China during the Korean of the Soviet representative (in protest UN, and to many observers it seemed War and were convicted as spies by Chi- at the exclusion from UN membership unlikely that this youthful-looking and nese courts. They were still being held, of the recently victorious People’s Re- ostensibly diffident Swede would be and the United States, having refused to public of China) had caused the Soviet able to deal with it. However, as was recognise the People’s Republic of Chi- Union to sever all relations with him. his habit, Hammarskjöld had arrived na, was in no position to get them freed. At the same time the US congression- with firm principles already formu- Enormous internal pressure on the al, anti-communist witch-hunt, led by lated, as well as imaginative ideas on Eisenhower administration had built Senator Joseph McCarthy, had found the nature and execution of his new up in Washington. Nuclear strikes on a happy hunting ground among the responsibilities. Recent developments the Chinese mainland had even been American members of the Secretariat. were also in his favour. The advent of suggested, and the administration was Lie had struggled with this intricate a new US administration, the death of desperate. problem and in the process lost the re- Stalin in March 1953, and the prospect The UN Security Council and the spect of the Secretariat, where morale of an armistice in Korea all gave hope General Assembly, in neither of which had plummeted. Lie put his resignation of improvement in East-West relations the Peking government was represent- before the General Assembly in No- and of a more constructive role for the ed, had been able to do no more than vember 1952. On 9 April, 1953, at New Secretary-General. censure the Chinese government and a beacon of hope New Routes 2/2011 27 u Photo: scx.h

Dag Hammarskjöld’s entering the stage as the Secretary-General in 1953 has been compared to a beacon of hope for the UN marred by disunity among its Member States. ask the Secretary-General to seek the preferred, and the release of the last of achievement was based on the elements release of the air force crew members the US air force crew members, on 1 which also made possible his future and all other captured UN personnel. August, 1955, was announced in a mes- successes: determined independence Immediately after the Assembly had sage from Chou En-lai, who also con- and objectivity, absolute honesty with adopted its resolution Hammarskjöld gratulated Hammarskjöld on his fiftieth all concerned, rigorous intellectual and announced his intention to go to Pe- birthday. The date of the airmen’s re- practical preparation, ingenuity in cre- king. He knew however that a govern- lease was not a coincidence. ating innovative alternatives in order to ment, which was excluded from the UN break deadlocks, intuition and under- and had just been severely criticised by standing of the positions and difficul- the UN General Assembly, was unlikely Under the terms of ties of those he was dealing with, and to cooperate with him as the Assembly’s the integrity and moral courage which representative. He therefore had to find the UN Charter the gave him a unique and respected posi- a rationale for his mission which Chou Secretary-General tion in the world. En-lai, the Chinese Foreign Minister, “ might be able to accept. has an obligation Major international crises This rationale, which is a good ex- During the Cold War regional crises had ample of Hammarskjöld’s genius for to reduce an extra and terrifying dimension. This improvisation and which added a new international was the possibility that what had started dimension to the work of the Secretary- as a regional conflict could develop into General, became known as the ‘Peking tensions anywhere the cause of nuclear confrontation be- Formula’. Its essence was that under tween the two superpowers. This threat the terms of the UN Charter the Sec- in the world. strengthened Hammarskjöld’s effort retary-General has an obligation to re- to develop conflict resolution mecha- duce international tensions anywhere The successful solution of a highly nisms involving the Secretary-General in the world. He was coming to Peking explosive international problem showed and his representatives. Among these as a result of this legal obligation, not governments that in the person of the mechanisms was the new concept of on the basis of the General Assembly new UN Secretary-General they had a peacekeeping forces. resolution, which had censured China. major resource for resolving dangerous Hammarskjöld continued to develop Chou En-lai accepted this formula. The problems at a time when the Cold War the UN’s capacity for conflict resolution negotiations proceeded on the high had severely limited the effectiveness of in a series of major crises. During the intellectual level that both participants the Security Council. Hammarskjöld’s Suez Crisis of 1956 he displayed not 28 New Routes 2/2011 a beacon of hope only his ability as a mediator, but also By his leadership, skill and creativity he scope of the political functions of the his flair for emergency political/admin- not only gave the Secretary-General and Secretary-General, as well as the respect istrative action, improvising the first the international secretariat a new posi- of both governments and the public for UN peacekeeping force and deploying it tion in world affairs. He also renewed the office. He left to his successors a po- within ten days of the decision to estab- and strengthened the standing and sition and a range of responsibilities far lish it. In 1958 he played a central role performance of the world organisation greater than the limited role outlined in in defusing the Lebanese crisis, during itself. His achievement has remained the Charter. which the United States landed troops an inspiration to his successors. Charisma is an important quality in Lebanon and the British in Jordan. In May 2010, at a symposium in Del- for any public figure, and of all human Hammarskjöld conducted a score or phi, Greece, a group of former foreign qualities it is the most elusive and un- more of “quiet diplomacy missions” in ministers, UN permanent representa- accountable. Hammarskjöld was not a different parts of the world during his tives, and members of the Secretariat sociable or gregarious man. He was nat- eight years as Secretary-General. “Leave discussed the role and the process of urally shy and had little interest in social it to Dag” became a familiar slogan in selection of the UN Secretary-General.2 life. He was not a particularly good pub- the world press. Of the desirable qualities for a UN Sec- lic speaker. He was a very private person At mid-summer 1960 the mounting retary-General, their report included: who valued and protected his privacy. chaos in the newly independent Congo He spurned supposedly crowd-pleasing demanded a UN operation that included – integrity, independence, moral gestures. Nonetheless, ordinary people a large civilian administrative element courage, and impartiality; all over the world knew who he was, as well as a large peacekeeping force. – moral and intellectual as well as why what he did was important, and The Congo situation faced the UN with political leadership; why the Secretary-General was relevant highly complex demands in a vast and to their lives. This kind of charisma is a – diplomatic skills essential for a often violent tribal country in which quality which cannot be handed on, but mediator and crisis manager; both superpowers had a strong inter- it is particularly important in an office est. It later involved Hammarskjöld in – capacity to manage the Organisa- which has none of the normal attributes disagreements with Nikita Khrushchev tion effectively and to provide of power. and to a lesser extent with Charles de leadership to the wider UN system; Gaulle, the latter embittered by Ham- – problem-solving capacity and sure Enhancing UN presence political instincts; and Hammarskjöld not only expanded the – charisma and contemporary role of the Secretary-General; he also In a world of power media skills. created new methods of conflict control politics haunted by and bridged at least part of the very large Not altogether coincidentally, Dag Ham- gap that the Cold War had made in the the Cold War, marskjöld displayed most, if not all, of UN’s principal function of maintain- “ these qualities. In doing so he set an ing international peace and security. Hammarskjöld admittedly high standard for his suc- Peacekeeping forces, quiet diplomacy, generated a strong cessors. That is perhaps the most basic UN “presences”, and Representatives of part of his legacy. Hammarskjöld cham- the Secretary-General were just four of and welcome feeling pioned and personified the principles such creations. of hope. of the Charter, and especially those Hammarskjöld realised that the per- that applied to the Secretary-General. manent representatives of the mem- He was a dedicated intellectual actively ber nations at UN headquarters could marskjöld’s efforts to protect Tunisia participating at the highest and most be immensely valuable to the work of from an armed French incursion in the demanding level of international poli- the Secretary-General. He established summer of 1961. His relations with the tics – an international civil servant of close cooperation with them to such United States, the United Kingdom and unique integrity and passion. effect that some of them said that they several African countries were also se- In a world of power politics haunted sometimes found it hard to remember verely strained by disagreements over by the Cold War, Hammarskjöld gener- whether they were national representa- the Congo. Hammarskjöld died during ated a strong and welcome feeling of tives or members of the Secretariat. an effort to resolve the Katanga problem, hope. He had proved his ability to act ef- This new alliance was passed on to his which, for the previous two years, had fectively in dangerous situations where successors, most of whom greatly ben- poisoned the UN’s work in the Congo the UN Security Council was frustrated efitted from it. as well as the mood of the General As- by the conflicting interests of the great The basic element of Hammar- sembly and the Security Council. powers. He became widely trusted to skjöld’s famous confrontation with solve life-endangering problems that no Khrushchev in the 1960 General As- The legacy one else could tackle. He seemed un- sembly was the degree of independence Hammarskjöld had become Secretary- daunted by powerful governments. In and authority of the Secretary-General General of a world organisation that times of crisis he showed that one man, and the Secretariat. The operation in was divided and paralysed by the mu- if sufficiently spirited and courageous, the Congo became so controversial that tual ideological and political hostility could stand up for principle against neither the Security Council nor the of the nuclear superpowers and was even the greatest powers and have an General Assembly could agree on the thoroughly demoralised by both gov- influence on important events. Thus necessary directives. Hammarskjöld ernmental and public disillusionment. Hammarskjöld greatly expanded the was therefore forced either to make a beacon of hope New Routes 2/2011 29 the important decisions himself, or to close the operation down. He rightly Photo/x chose the first and more difficult alter- N native. Thus the Congo operation came to represent everything that Khushchev found intolerable about the independ- Photo: U ent action of the Secretary-General. Khrushchev therefore proposed replac- ing the Secretary-General with a troika of three senior officials – from the capi- talist West, the socialist countries, and the third world. Hammarskjöld knew that such an arrangement would in effect extend the veto power that had paralysed the Security Council into the Secretariat, and he fought it with all his strength. The UN, he argued, would be reduced by the troika to a mere confer- ence machinery with no capacity to re- solve critical problems or to take action in controversial emergencies, a develop- ment that in the current circumstances could well prove to be the “Munich of international cooperation”. Khrushchev’s troika was soundly defeated in the General Assembly, but Hammarskjöld still felt that the essen- tial and vital nature of a truly interna- tional civil service owing no allegiance Dag Hammarskjöld visiting a kindergarten class in the school of Givath-Jearim, to any national government was not suf- a village for immigrants in the Jerusalem hills in 1956. Most immigrants in this ficiently understood. In his last major community came from Yemen. speech, at Oxford University on 30 May, 1961, he addressed the subject with a text, The International Civil Servant was sound enough, it would benefit fu- practical work and ideas, is a vision of in Law and in Fact, which remains the ture peacekeeping operations by estab- profound importance for those who be- classic pronouncement on the nature lishing an accepted legal basis for them. lieve that a just and peaceful world is the and reality of the international civil serv- He has proved to be right. greatest of humanity’s objectives. Ham- ice, a central principle of the UN Char- Hammarskjöld believed that a reli- marskjöld’s ideas and his unsurpassed ter.3 It is a text that should be studied able and just world order could even- record of international service have left and discussed again at the present time tually be built only by a process of a generous legacy for the fulfillment of when both the concept and the practice precedents and case law. He hoped this vision. + of international civil service are subject that by this process the world organi- to neglect and serious erosion. sation would be gradually transformed from an institutional mechanism into 1 Sir Raymond Appleyard, recalling his time Long-term development of the UN a constitutional instrument creating at the UN in the 1950’s setting up the UN Finally there is Hammarskjöld’s vision obligations that were recognised and Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (1953-1961), ‘The birth of UNSCEAR of, and contribution to, the long-term respected by all nations. “Working at – the midwife’s tale’, in: Journal of Radiological development of the UN. He was acutely the edge of the development of human Protection, 30(2010), p. 622. aware that the world organisation was society”, he stated on 1 May, 1960, in 2 The UN in the 21st century: The role and still in a very early stage of development a speech at the University of Chicago selection of the secretary general of the United and needed a constant effort to estab- Law School, “is to work on the brink of Nations. The Delphi Symposium in honour lish new precedents and ideas in order the unknown. Much of what is done will of Javier Perez de Cuellar, Athens and Delphi, 27-30 May 2010. Athens: Athens Development to keep up with contemporary problems one day prove to be of little avail. That and Governance Institute (ADGI-INERPOST) and grow with the times. He took great is no excuse for the failure to act in ac- 2010 care to lay a strong foundation for new cordance with our best understanding, 3 In Andrew W. Cordier and Wilder Foote (eds), ideas and techniques. He personally in recognition of its limits, but with Public Papers of the Secretaries-General of the engaged, for example, in the laborious faith in the ultimate result of the crea- United Nations. Volume 5: Dag Hammarskjöld negotiation of a Status of Forces Agree- tive evolution in which it is our privilege 1960-1961.New York and London: Columbia ment with Egypt to define the relation- to cooperate”.4 The view of the United University Press 1975, pp. 471-489. ship of the first UN peacekeeping force Nations as a work in progress, a “crea- 4 Quoted from Andrew W. Cordier and Wilder with its host country. When criticised tive evolution” which, especially at the Foote (eds), Public Papers of the Secretaries- General of the United Nations. Volume 4: Dag for spending so much time and energy most critical times, must be believed in, Hammarskjöld 1958-1960.New York and Lon- on this he replied that if the agreement supported, and sustained by innovative don: Columbia University Press 1974, p. 592. 30 New Routes 2/2011 personal reflection Leading by example

For most Swedish diplomats Dag Ham- These words of Hammarskjöld have A role model marskjöld is the ultimate role model. followed me through my diplomatic During his tenure in office he had com- He combined sharp intellect with depth life, in many negotiations and media- plicated relationships to the Permanent and cultural sensitivity. He was a man tion efforts. I have frequently quoted Members on various occasions. Examples of action and a man of reflection. He his words in lectures to students and are differences of view with France and personified courage and integrity. young diplomats in order to instill in the United Kingdom on the Suez crisis, His violent death in September 1961 them Hammarskjöld’s strong plea for with the US on Guatemala and with the was a painful chock to millions of peo- the respect of the word as well as his Soviet Union on Hungary and the Congo. ple around the world. I heard the news stern warnings for misusing them. His General Assembly confrontation on the radio during a navy exercise in with the Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev the north of the Baltic Sea. It happened The importance of prevention is legendary. Hammarskjöld knew, of to be the day after my 21st birthday, giv- Another aspect of Hammarskjöld’s con- course, that a Secretary-General serves at ing this day of entering maturity a spe- tribution to diplomacy and the conduct the mercy of the Permanent Members, cial meaning. Since then, I have been of international affairs is his emphasis especially if he wants to get re-elected a diligent student of Hammarskjöld’s on prevention – early warning and early (a strong reason, in my view, to give the personal and professional life. action to achieve “pacific settlement of Secretary-General one extended term of His posthumously published “Mark- disputes” in the language of Chapter VI 7 years instead of the possibility of two ings” (“Waymarks” would have been a of the UN Charter. I have myself tried 5-year terms – as proposed by the UN better translation of “Vägmärken”, the to make prevention a priority both for veteran and icon, Sir Brian Urquhart). Swedish original) made a deep, albeit Swedish and UN diplomacy. But Hammarskjöld also knew that a confounding impression on me as In his work as Secretary-General of Secretary-General must defend the in- a young man. I was struck by Ham- the UN Hammarskjöld showed deep in- terests of the large majority of states, big marskjöld’s intense search for mean- sight in preventive diplomacy. He also and small. His principled approach vis- ing and direction in his life from the proved the value of dialogue and cul- à-vis the Permanent Members won him perspective of Christian mysticism. In tural sensitivity. His meetings and in- wide support and a very high degree of those early days I could not fully iden- teraction with i.a. the Chinese Premier legitimacy as Secretary-General. tify myself with many of his reflections. Chou En-lai on the release of American I know that Hammarskjöld is a role Later in life, they took on more mean- pilots captured after the Korea war is a model to many and not only to Swed- ing and clarity, perhaps reflecting per- case in point. ish diplomats. ”Leave it to Dag” was the sonal development and experiences on Lastly, Hammarskjöld’s courage and line often quoted in the 1950s by many my part. integrity has been a constant source national politicians. Kofi Annan, who of admiration and inspiration for me. perhaps more than any other Secretary- Respect for words and humans A Secretary-General of the UN is ul- General has been guided by Hammar- I have always been fascinated by the timately dependent on the Member skjöld’s conduct in office, often said centrality of language, the power of the States and among those, in particular in crisis situations: “What would Dag word, in life and society. Hammarskjöld the five Permanent Members of the Se- Hammarskjöld do?” had a deep respect for the word and he curity Council. This, to me is a solid confirmation of used it with utmost care. He showed Hammarskjöld never waivered in the role Hammarskjöld plays and will little tolerance toward the abuse of the his convictions and beliefs which to a play in a changing, tumultuous world. word – our main tool to influence and large degree were anchored in the UN communicate. If some of his “Mark- Charter. Jan Eliasson ings” were difficult to grasp, the text on The Word is crystal clear: ld Respect for the word is the first require­ ment in the discipline through which a arskjö human being can be nurtured to maturity mm – intellectually, emotionally and morally. ag ha d Respect for the word – using it with strictest care and in uncompromising inner love of truth – is also for the society Photo: and the human race a condition for “It is more important growth. to be aware of the grounds for your own behaviour To misuse the word is to show contempt than to understand for man. It undermines the bridges and the motives of another.” poisons the springs. In this way it leads us backward on the long road of human (From Markings, evolution. November 1955) values and legacy New Routes 2/2011 31 Much of Dag Hammarskjöld’s inner life and thoughts are unknown, but in his book Markings, he recounts some of his beliefs and doubts. He was a man of steadfast principles and a very high degree of integrity, which sometimes made him unpopular but always respected. During his years as Secretary-General, the United Nations (UN) strengthened its role as an instrument of collaboration among states and peoples. Since then, the world has undergone enormous changes that pose new challenges to the UN. However, today as well as fifty years ago, the UN is as strong as the support from its Member States.

Dag Hammarskjöld: His values and legacy Kiyo Akasaka

Fifty years ago, when tragedy struck self – and to all those who sought to Hammarskjöld’s time or now. Ham- Dag Hammarskjöld, I was thirteen serve the UN – Hammarskjöld wrote marskjöld’s reflections also provide in- years old. I was in middle school, in a in Markings what have subsequently sight into the kind of person he was: a small village in Osaka, Japan. We were come to be known as his “command- man of great intelligence, honesty and deep in the Cold War. The Berlin wall ments” on how a diplomat of the world conviction. was built. The Soviet Union had sent body should behave. They were a mod- When one thinks about Hammar- the first man into space. Carole King’s est eight in number – appropriately skjöld, another word that most often hit song, “Will You Still Love Me Tomor- fewer than the ten that Moses brought comes to mind is integrity. In his bio­ row”, played in our ears. “West Side down from the mountain top. Story”, starring Natalie Wood, was all Here is a selection of those general the rage. The United Nations (UN) was rules of conduct that guided him in his The UN has never still a new organisation. It was develop- job: had a shortage of ing its identity, based on a set of almost – It is more important to be aware of the impossible ideals. How far away those grounds for your own behaviour than problems, either in days seem, and yet, how close they are to understand the motives of another. “ to those of us who remember these mo- Hammarskjöld’s ments from that special year, 1961! Why – The other’s ‘face’ is more important time or now. does it feel that people then, in those than your own. times, seemed to have all been young, – All first-hand experience is valuable energetic, innocent, decent, idealistic – […] a closed mind is a weakness. graphy of Hammarskjöld, Brian Urqu- and deeply motivated? hart, a former Under-Secretary-General Hammarskjöld, a profoundly mys- – If, while pleading another’s cause, of the United Nations, writes that Ham- tical man, strongly believed that there you are at the same time seeking some- marskjöld’s “integrity, disinterested- was a direct correlation between mo- thing for yourself, you cannot hope to ness, and purity of intention were clear tives and consequences. His book Mark- succeed. even to those – and there were many ings, published after his death, reflected Hammarskjöld also provided his views – with whom he frequently and strongly his constant questioning of his own mo- on the qualities required for his office: disagreed. He was not always liked, but tives. He described this notebook as the “perseverance and patience, a firm grip he was almost invariably respected”. “only true profile” of himself – it was an on realities, careful but imaginative Today, we see a tendency by Mem- exploration of his inner life, which was planning, a clear awareness of the dan- ber States and institutions alike to talk the source of all his strength. For Ham- gers but also of the fact that fate is what a great deal about “accountability”. But marskjöld, his inner life had to be the we make of it”. the life of integrity of which Hammar- guide for his outer life, which had to be skjöld spoke and which he lived, was, by in harmony with his beliefs. A conscience of its own its very nature, “accountable”. It needed Hammarskjöld understood that Fifty years after his death, and several no external auditors to certify it as be- in diplomacy, as in life, the outcomes Secretaries-General later, these reflec- ing so. Indeed, Hammarskjöld’s con- of one’s efforts would be lasting and tions continue to provide a profound cept of “integrity”, by which he meant good only if the motives of all those and practical guide to all those involved that UN officials should have only one involved were pure and disinterested. in seeking solutions to seemingly in- loyalty – to the United Nations in the Otherwise, the results would prove to tractable problems. The UN has never performance of their duties – would be transient and bad. In advice to him- had a shortage of problems, either in ensure an organisation accountable to 32 New Routes 2/2011 values and legacy

Hammarskjöld, through his own be- ognise the true meaning of the Charter, The UN General haviour and values, helped to articulate namely, that states needed to accept the and give shape to a new understanding limits put on their national ambitions Assembly boasts 192 of the UN – one that shifted it from a by the very existence of the UN and by members, almost static organisation to a dynamic instru- their membership in the organisation. “ ment for constructive international In an organisation of competing sover- double the 104 cooperation. Brian Urquhart credits eign states and opinions, this was, and members in 1961. him for making “a new art of multi- remains, a lofty vision – one that was to lateral diplomacy” through his skill, be tested over and over again. stamina, and resourcefulness. It was its Member States and to the peoples as if Hammarskjöld, over the course Unchallengeable values it serves. This personal belief, together of his Secretary-Generalship, gave the The world is a vastly different place to- with other qualities that Hammarskjöld organisation a conscience of its own, a day than when Hammarskjöld lived. possessed, like a fierce desire for inde- conscience that sought to transcend the Power is no longer locked in the old pendence and for objectivity, helped to narrow interests of individual states. A East-West rivalry. The UN General As- define the very nature of the UN. conscience that called on states to rec- sembly boasts 192 members, almost double the 104 members in 1961 – with more needs to be met, and more views to be reconciled. China is now the second largest economy in the world. Wealth is concentrated in the so-called er Debebe d “Group of 20” countries, which col- skin lectively represent 85 per cent of the E global GNP. Wars and conflicts mostly take place within nations, not between Photo/

N them. UN peacekeeping has evolved from maintaining a ceasefire to a fight- ing role for the enforcement of peace. Photo: U Roughly 120,000 UN personnel serve in 14 peace operations on four conti- nents today. People’s access to information – and to each other – is greater and faster than ever before. More than two billion people use the Internet. People spend over 700 billion minutes per month on Facebook. Environmental degradation continues unabated, with the threat of catastrophic climate change the greatest problem facing the human family. Yet despite these enormous changes, the values that Hammarskjöld embodied and provided to the UN 50 years ago remain unchallengeable. Moreover, the conscience that he inspired in the UN – of active service in the common interest – is now mani- fested in many of its greatest undertak- ings: in the embrace of human rights, the fight against impunity, the spread of democratic principles, the preserva- tion of our global commons, and in the Millennium Development Goals, which aim to lift the most vulnerable of the hu- man family out of the circumstances that have denied them lives worthy of dignity and opportunity. This conscience is living and breath- ing. We see it most dramatically in the revolutionary changes taking place On 28 June 2006, the Republic of Montenegro became the 192nd, and so far newest, in North Africa and the Middle East. Member State of the UN. A flag-raising ceremony was held at UN Headquarters Starting in Tunisia, we were witness- in New York. ing an upheaval across the region. Led values and legacy New Routes 2/2011 33 largely by young women and men, the ld desire for freedom, for participation, and for a voice, is expanding. People arskjö mm are increasingly aware of their political, a H civil, social, and economic rights – and they are fighting for them. They are fighting for an end to despotic rulers, and for the right to choose their own Photo: Dag leaders. Their vision is one that is con- tained in the Charter and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights: that all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. Their demands for their inalienable rights and funda- mental freedoms are shattering the idea that state stability and improvements in wealth, alone, are enough to satisfy peo- ple’s aspirations for a better life. In 2009, the independent Arab Hu- man Development Report, sponsored by the UN Development Programme, warned that “spreading poverty, unem- ployment, civil wars, sectarian and eth- nic conflicts and authoritarian repres- sion have exposed the limits of many states in guaranteeing their citizens’ rights and freedoms”. The peoples’ movements have been powered by in- formation and by new communications tools and by an insistence on freedom of the press, freedom of information and freedom of expression.

A world of crises and transformation With regard to Libya, on 17 March, the UN Security Council took a historic decision. Resolution 1973 affirms the international community’s determina- tion to fulfil its responsibility to protect civilians from violence brought upon them by their own government. The “Weep if you can, weep, but do not complain. The way chose you – concept of responsibility to protect has and you must be thankful.” (From Markings, July 1961) been gaining acceptance in the inter- national community. Responsibility to protect means that dictators will no 1980s, to more universal ones today. and restrictions on the free exchange longer be allowed to kill their citizens The “Asian values” of which I speak of ideas and of the press. The stated with impunity. were advocated mostly in the countries need to maintain social order and peace The sweep of change across the Arab of East Asia, like Japan, Malaysia and among different ethnicities and cul- region reminds us of the transforma- Singapore, which placed a premium tures was used as an excuse to restrict tion of Eastern Europe after 1989. Then, on group orientation and on placing human rights and political opposition. too, people were demanding democratic the interests of the community before The Asian financial crisis of 1997-98 and economic development and values those of the individual. “Asian values” put an end to the “Asian miracle”. And more closely in line with those promot- were associated with self-effacement, the same “Asian values” that were once ed by the UN. More than 20 years later, self-discipline and personal sacrifice to said to have been the source of the re- Europe is still working out the impact the greater good. They were identified gion’s success were now attributed to be of the transformation that took place at as the reason for the region’s enormous a source of its collapse. the end of the Cold War and with the economic successes and advances in de- Over the past ten years and more, subsequent reintegration of Europe. velopment. many countries in East Asia and the In Asia, in the region where I am But they were also associated with region are differentiating the good from, we have also witnessed a shift in strong or authoritative government, and bad aspects of Asian values. They ideas and political philosophy, from so- the curtailment of some political and are moving away from some of the called “Asian values”, promoted in the civil rights in the interest of society, more restrictive habits, and are slowly 34 New Routes 2/2011 values and legacy

that are dear to their national identity. It undertaking measures to improve our The values that is a debate that requires the ability – and efficiency and effectiveness – from im- the will – to listen to all sides. It is also plementing new administrative systems unite us must one that must avoid hatred, fear, and backed by modern technology, to initia- continue to be the jingoism, and that instead looks to find tives aimed at more rapid resourcing “ ways to build inclusive societies. Since and service delivery of field missions, to ones that motivate 2005, the UN, through the Alliance of ensuring that our staff have the integrity the UN. Civilizations, has been working towards embodied by Hammarskjöld and can this goal – to unite different cultures in perform at the highest level. common cause. But, ultimately, for the organisation embracing universal values – values to be strong and to continue to make a such as freedom, tolerance, human Strengthening the UN difference in the world, it needs the sup- rights and democracy. The universal- Brian Urquhart described Hammar- port of its Member States. And it will ity of such values is still the subject skjöld as “a man of great vision and continue to require that governments of debate in some countries, but I am compassion who desperately wanted to give priority to the general global good confident that the “Asian century”, if it strengthen the United Nations as a pro- rather than to specific national inter- emerges at all in the near future, will tection and insurance against the great ests. This is not an abstract statement. embrace the universal values embod- storms of the future”. The list of storms, Member States and governments are ied by the UN. problems, and challenges facing the composed of individuals whose vision Meanwhile, here in Europe, the ques- UN today is daunting. You hear or read and compassion create the institutions tion of values is also alive. A number of about them in the news every day. “But, and spirit that animates the UN European leaders have recently spoken although the dangers may be great and The UN is us. And the values that about the failure of “multiculturalism” although our role may be modest, we unite us must continue to be the ones – about whether policies that support can feel that the work of the Organisa- that motivate the UN. Dag Hammar- the right of all groups to live by their tion is the means through which we skjöld, the second Secretary-General of traditional values have failed to promote all, jointly, can work so as to reduce the the UN, was ahead of his time. His ideas a sense of common identity centred on dangers.” These were among Hammar- and his values remain valid – and use- values such as human rights, democ- skjöld’s last words to the staff of the UN, ful – today. His was an enduring legacy. racy, social integration and equality be- just ten days before his death. Hammarskjöld continues to inspire all fore the law. These views have triggered The UN is constantly adapting and of us with his conviction that our “fate an enormous amount of debate – about recreating itself to better meet the chang- is what we make of it”. The UN is proud immigration and integration, about ing times and demands placed on it by to have had such a remarkable leader, cultural and religious intolerance, and the world. We have seen this in its contri- one who, in the simple words of the poet about whether states have been too butions to peace, development, and the W.H. Auden, was “a great, good, and lov- “neutral” in defending certain values spread of human rights. The UN is also able man”. +

Slower global rise of military spending

World military expenditure in 2010 is estimated to have been military expenditure began after 2001. Between 2001 and $1630 billion, an increase of 1.3 per cent. The region with 2009, the annual increase averaged 5.1 per cent. In many the largest increase was South America, with a 5.8 per cent cases, the falls or slower increases represent a delayed reac- increase, reaching a total of $63.3 billion, according to new tion to the global financial and economic crisis that broke data published by Stockholm International Peace Research in 2008. Institute (SIPRI). SIPRI’s Yearbook 2011 is launched in June In Europe, where military spending fell by 2.8 per cent, and presents comprehensive information and analysis of governments began to address soaring budget deficits, hav- military spending. ing previously enacted stimulus packages in 2009. Part of the explanation for this rise is to be found in the In Asia, even though most economies did not experience strong economic growth that the region has experienced in a recession, economic growth slowed down in 2009, while recent years, while in other regions the effects of the global military spending continued to rise rapidly. Thus, the slower economic recession caused military spending to fall or at increase of 1.4 per cent in military spending in 2010 partly re- least rise more slowly in 2010. adjusts growth in military spending to economic growth rates. Although the rate of increase in US military spending slowed The Middle East spent $111 billion on military expenditure in 2010, to 2.8 per cent compared to an annual average increase in 2010, an increase of 2.5 per cent over 2009. The largest of 7.4 per cent between 2001 and 2009, the global increase absolute rise in the region was by Saudi Arabia. in 2010 is almost entirely down to the United States, which Estimated spending in Africa increased by 5.2 per cent, accounted for $19.6 billion of the $20.6 billion global increase. led by major oil-producers such as Algeria, Angola and The global increase in military spending of 1.3 per cent is Nigeria. the slowest annual rate of increase since the surge in global Source: SIPRI press release 11 April 2011 personal reflection New Routes 2/2011 35 An unforgettable moment

At the end of August 1961 I travelled Suddenly the door to the left of the po- smile at us. My heart grew and became to New York together with my father. It dium opened and a solitary man entered. warm. I smiled back. was a must for us to visit the United Na- He had some papers in his hands and At that moment it was impossible to tions. Walking around in this building stood for a moment pondering over them, think that Dag Hammarskjöld only had of such importance to the world, we felt arranged the papers and finally placed three more weeks to live. On 18 Septem- deeply impressed. them on the small platform. I felt my ber 1961 his plane crashed near Ndola We looked down from the balcony of heart jump – it was Dag Hammarskjöld! in Africa. the General Assembly Hall on all the It felt like a blessing to see this great Maria Barck-Holst empty seats. In the front we saw the yel- man on stage in the General Assembly low wall with the round UN emblem be- Hall of the United Nations, where he hind the large podium. Along the side- so brilliantly mastered conflicts in our walls were long rows of windows for the world. interpreters. The walls were decorated He looked up, spotted my father and with yellow lines – like sunbeams. me and, despite the distance, seemed to hia Paris p o S Photo/ N Photo: U

The empty UN General Assembly Hall, the site of an unforgettable memory of the author. 36 New Routes 2/2011 the limits of the r2p The United Nations Security Council Resolutions 1970 and in particular 1973 marked a new chapter in the history of internationally decided and endorsed military interventions. But while some celebrate this as a break through, the reality is far more dangerous. The dangers of another western intervention in a Muslim Arab country in the Middle East-North Africa region, despite the UN endorsement, are at the core of the following reflections. They show the dilemma if not impossibility of peace keeping in times of war.

Libya and the limits to the R P Phyllis Bennis 2

The United Nations Charter begins with often denied by those same UN mem- were initially denied entry to the coun- the commitment to ending the “scourge ber governments. try, apparently in response to South of war”. And just as the Charter serves On issues of war and peace, that sov- Africa’s vote supporting the UN resolu- as the core repository of international ereignty vs human rights challenge is tion. A ceasefire didn’t seem to be at the law, the United Nations (UN) itself no easier. And the capacity of the UN – top of anyone’s agenda, and certainly should serve as the broadest and most including its legitimacy – to act against the UN’s most powerful members did representative institution of the inter- war and in defense of peace is especially not put negotiations anywhere close to national community as a whole. That compromised when the UN itself, most the top of their agenda. should mean the UN playing the cen- often through Security Council actions, The western countries’ process of tral role in ending wars and imposing becomes a belligerent actor on one side gaining international – read: UN Se- ceasefires, in establishing the primacy of an internal conflict or a civil war. In curity Council – approval for the use of diplomacy and negotiating peace. the case of Libya in 2011, the possibil- of military force against Qaddafi was ity of a UN peacemaking role, encour- somewhat different than the approach aging, negotiating or even imposing a used in earlier efforts to legitimize The UN is an ceasefire, was thwarted by its involve- armed interventions in countries of the organization ment as a participant in the military global south. To his credit, President effort to overthrow Muammar Qaddafi. Obama essentially recognized that of governments while Security Council approval may “ Military escalation instead of provide legal authority, it does not, by – based on the political dialogue itself, assure international legitimacy. It principle of The UN Security Council resolution is too widely understood as an undemo- that aimed at protecting civilians in cratic bastion of power, where the veto sovereign Libya started with the call for “the im- of the five permanent members looms independence. mediate establishment of a ceasefire as a constant reminder of all the other and …the need to intensify efforts to countries’ disenfranchisement. This find a solution to the crisis which re- The problem is, domination of the sponds to the legitimate demands of the UN, and especially of the Security Libyan people”. It then took note of the The opposition’s Council by its most powerful member goal of “facilitating dialogue to lead to states, means that too often UN actions the political reforms necessary to find a sudden call for a are neither representative of the global peaceful and sustainable solution”. ceasefire began to community as a whole, nor legitimate Those were important goals. But “ reflections of international law. Since for the first two weeks the only action significantly change its founding, the UN has faced – or, taken by the powerful countries that more often, ignored – the contradic- orchestrated the UN response was to the terrain. tion between absolute national sover- escalate military engagement: a no-fly eignty and human rights. That is, the zone, air strikes, “all necessary means”, time was to be unlike George Bush I’s UN is an organization of governments ostensibly for the narrow goal of pro- success in gaining endorsement for war – based on the principle of sovereign tecting civilians. The US, UK, France against Iraq in 1990-91, or Bill Clin- independence. But the UN also stands, and other western countries continued ton’s instrumentalizing of the Council especially through the Universal Decla- calling openly for regime change. Some to win support for interventions in Hai- ration of Human Rights, for the defense African Union (AU) heads of state tried ti, Somalia and Bosnia (even while the of people, including the human rights to go to Libya to begin negotiations, but US and France prevented the UN from the limits of the r2p New Routes 2/2011 37 er d chnei S van E Photo/ N Photo: U

Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon meeting with Muammar Qaddafi, President of Libya, in spring 2011 in focus of the world community’s (misguided?) efforts to protect civilians. acting against genocide in Rwanda). tary role in Libya, we were hearing only gon, Congress, and other US elites be- This time President Obama, with other of the need for the Arab League’s back- lieved a no-fly zone would not protect western allies, acknowledged that sup- ing The AU was out of the picture. civilians, and would pull the US into port from the Arab League and the AU a quagmire with no clear exit strategy would be necessary to legitimize a UN- From civilian uprising to civil war or basis to declare “victory”. But after backed military assault on Libya. The Libyan opposition, reflecting the in- a few days of internal debate, the pro- The response from the two regional dependent spirit of the Arab Spring up- intervention forces, largely based in bodies was telling. The Arab League, risings in other Arab countries, initially Hillary Clinton’s State Department, made up of 22 governments of which rejected any foreign intervention. But won the day. They told the British and most are dependent on US political, fairly quickly, after the Qaddafi regime’s the French that they could not support military and/or economic support, soon initial military attack on the democratic the no-fly zone plan, but that instead of offered a cautious and rather tepid en- protesters followed by the spontane- simply vetoing the proposed resolution, dorsement of a “no-fly zone” in Libya. ous action of the opposition to take up they would redraft it to fit US require- Despite its dubious nature, the Arab arms itself had largely transformed the ments. League vote provided much-needed Libyan conflict from a civilian uprising The result was a vastly expanded political cover for US, UK, French and into a civil war that changed. First there resolution that not only endorsed a no- broader NATO involvement. The AU, was the call for “just a no-fly zone, but fly zone, but authorized “all necessary on the other hand, rejected the idea of a no foreign intervention”. Then that es- measures” to be used in the name of UN-endorsed “no-fly zone”, let alone an calated to the call for UN or NATO or protecting civilians. While the regional even broader military campaign against US or British or French or somebody’s and global discussions focused on the the Libyan regime. military to attack Qaddafi’s armor and no-fly zone, the resolution actually went This was not surprising, since the ground forces. much further. The language “all neces- organization’s 2001 founding, Muam- Ironically, because it quickly became sary measures” legalized unlimited mar Qaddafi had been its biggest cheer- the leit-motif of the overall call for hu- military force, and because “to protect leader and certainly its biggest funder. manitarian intervention, the no-fly civilians” was not defined, it was left to Qaddafi had also provided huge contri- zone itself was never likely to provide the US-NATO coalition forces them- butions to African countries, much of it the main civilian protection, since most selves to decide how far they wanted to for schools, clinics and other infrastruc- of Qaddafi’s attack came from tanks go. The public urgency that limned the ture projects, but much of it inevitably and other ground-based forces. The US UN debate focused on threats Qaddafi going straight to the pockets of corrupt had initially rejected the British-French had made, as his forces continued their government officials. And as soon as initiative in the UN calling for a no-fly assault on cities, primarily in eastern the AU made clear it did not intend to zone, because influential forces within Libya, still under opposition control. embrace the US-NATO plan for a mili- the Obama administration, the Penta- The language was dire, threatening 38 New Routes 2/2011 the limits of the r2p

“‘no mercy or compassion’ for those confronted. Military intervention is al- position’s shift may have reflected their who fight”1 against his regime. But the ways selective. This isn’t about weigh- growing realization that even the mas- threatening language was distorted fur- ing all the various humanitarian crises, sive US-NATO attacks against the re- ther, beyond its actual meaning by the deciding where and how to respond gime and the possibility of CIA arms constant repetition of threats to search on the basis of which ones impact the and training could not ensure – let “alley by alley” and the words “no mer- most people, which ones are the bloodi- alone consolidate – a real victory over est, which ones are closest, which ones the far better-armed and better-trained Certainly the UN’s have the most brutal dictator … This is forces of Qaddafi’s military. about moving directly to military inter- This new position may have also most powerful vention in a few select cases, while other reflected a growing uncertainty as members did not humanitarian crises are not responded to whether the vastly disparate com- “ to at all, even by non-military means ponents of the opposition – young put negotiations – because the primary motivation for democratically-oriented professionals, the governments involved, unlike the unemployed workers, a range of Islam- anywhere close to motivation for people, is not humani- ists possibly including some identify- the top of their tarian at all. It would be easier to accept ing with al Qaeda, defecting regime that military intervention in Libya really soldiers, newly returned Libyan CIA agenda. was based on humanitarian motives if assets and more – can unify enough to non-military but active intervention was continue fighting. They also may have already underway in other similar (if so been watching the rapidly disintegrat- cy”. The result, deliberate or not, was to far smaller) crises. ing public international support for the convince a broad swathe of Americans For example, if the US had immedi- western coalition fighting on their side and others in western countries that ately cut all military and economic aid of the civil war, and judging that they Qaddafi was threatening to slaughter to Bahrain at the first sign of its king dare not rely too much on their current the entire population of Benghazi – bringing in foreign troops to suppress threatening a genocide. the uprising. If the US had immedi- The notion that the threat was direct- ately ended all arms sales and stopped The no-fly zone ed against civilians, or that a genocidal the current weapons pipeline to Saudi assault on the city was either imminent Arabia when its soldiers crossed the itself was never or inevitable, simply is not borne out causeway. If the US had announced a likely to provide by the facts. There was a threat, but its complete halt in all military aid to Yem- “ severity could not be known. Weighed en when Saleh’s forces first attacked the main civilian against that was the known conse- the demonstrators. Not to mention the quences of “humanitarian” military possibility of a decision to cut military protection. interventions by the most powerful aid to Israel and end the decades of US- countries in the world, even beyond the granted impunity for war crimes. All of allies. Finally, the opposition may have likely inadequacy of military protection those actions were possible, appropri- recognized the increasing danger to ci- for civilians. Consequences include ate, non-military, and would have had vilians across Libya posed by the esca- directly-caused civilian casualties, esca- huge humanitarian impacts. When lating fighting. Even NATO was warn- lation of the existing humanitarian or none of them is done, it’s difficult to ac- ing its partners, the Libyan opposition, human rights crisis, and legitimation cept the claim that military intervention against attacking civilians. of unilateral military interventions, and in Libya is really grounded in humani- the sidelining of diplomacy. And then of tarian motives. Rejected proposals course there is the problem of increas- So far, even the combination of But Qaddafi rejected the opposition’s ing the economic and strategic power of massive air strikes, CIA agents on the proposal, despite its unexpected nar- imperial countries while escalating the ground coordinating with the opposi- row focus that would have allowed the power disparities, dispossession and tion, Obama’s authorization to arm long-time Libyan dictator to remain in disenfranchisement of civilian popula- the rebels, and the defection of Moussa power. The next move came from the tions left in occupied and/or destroyed Koussa and other key Qaddafi regime AU, whose representatives proposed a states, as well overall military/political/ officials, has not been sufficient to de- “roadmap” for a ceasefire and political humanitarian failure and years of lethal feat the regime. Claiming they simply reforms “to eliminate the causes of the and costly US-NATO occupations. “hoped” Qaddafi’s regime would crum- current crisis”. The opposition rejected ble from within, international actors’ that proposal, although its text bore Selective military intervention military involvement resulted in a posi- similarities to the Benghazi leader- Foreign military intervention by pow- tion that essentially ruled out negotia- ship’s own earlier offer. erful northern governments, especially tions while the long-time Libyan leader Clearly urgent negotiations are that of the US, against far weaker coun- remained in power. needed. There have been choruses tries of the global South, is a dangerous, The opposition’s sudden call for a of enraged cries – “Negotiate?! With risky proposition, whether couched in ceasefire began to significantly change Qaddafi?!” – mostly coming from US the language of humanitarianism or the terrain. Clearly this was a moment and European officials. That disingenu- not. And that very real danger emerges for a rapid international move towards ous outrage needs to be answered with even before the broad political challenge new negotiations aimed at establish- the quick reminder that until about six of hypocrisy and double standards is ing the immediate ceasefire. The op- or seven weeks ago, that same Muam- the limits of the r2p New Routes 2/2011 39 mar Qaddafi was their guy. They need to claim and it will have to be challenged. or the government controlling them be reminded that starting in 2002, US A ceasefire does not provide for the in illegal occupations – remains to be and European diplomats managed to kind of real accountability so desper- answered. But it must be answered in negotiate quite nicely with their Libyan ately needed to hold not only Qaddafi a way that does not create more hu- counterparts, and, in just about a year but other dictators across the region, manitarian, human rights, political, reached an agreement in which Qaddafi those already overthrown and those economic and other problems than surrendered his nascent nuclear weap- still holding on to power, to account for it solves. Libya is not a model for the ons program and paid huge compensa- their human rights violations and other “R2P” doctrine – it is a model of why tion claims to victims of Libyan terror- crimes. The situation in Libya has been we need a different one. + ist attacks. The US in return removed referred to the International Criminal Libya from its “anti-terrorism” blacklist Court, where prosecutors are already in- and ended sanctions, while European vestigating possible violations. A cease- 1 David D. Kirkpatrick & Kareem Fahim, governments rushed to embrace the fire should not end those investigations, “Qaddafi Warns of Assault on Benghazi as Libyan dictator and European oil com- but the timing of accountability efforts U.N. Vote Nears”. New York Times, 17 March 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/18/ panies flooded Libya with new oil con- always has to take into consideration world/africa/18libya.html?pagewanted=1&_ tracts. And those western officials need the requirements of ending bloodshed. r=1&src=mv. to be reminded that Qaddafi’s repres- The limits of UN peacemaking and sion is nothing new, it was well known UN diplomacy have been open and vis- back then too. So yes, negotiations are ible throughout the Libyan crisis. The possible – and urgent. legality created by a Security Council A ceasefire alone does not answer resolution authorizing force was not all the critical questions. A real cease- matched by real legitimacy. The very fire should mean an end to US claims real challenge that led to the UN’s adop- that somehow the UN resolutions’ un- tion of the “responsibility to protect” equivocal demand for a complete arms doctrine – the fact that many people embargo does not apply to weapons the face dire human rights violations, war US might provide to strengthen the op- crimes, even crimes against humanity position, but the US may continue that at the hands of their own government hana O d /Davi OCHA Photo/ N U

The humanitarian crisis in the aftermath of the riots in Libya spring 2011 made hundreds of refugees line up for food at a transit camp near the Tunisia-Libya border. 40 New Routes 2/2011 50 ans après dag hammarskjöld Il y a cinquante ans, Dag Hammarskjöld mourrait dans un accident d’avion en Rhodésie du Nord (aujourd’hui Zambie). Il se déplaçait pour une réunion avec Moïse Tshombe, chef des sécessionnistes Katangais. Malgré sa mort tragique, Hammarskjöld a joué un rôle déterminant dans les premières années turbulentes d’après l’indépendance de la RD Congo et dans les missions Onusiennes de maintien de la paix. Aussi, son habileté diplomatique, sa façon courageuse et intègre d’intervenir, ses qualités d’homme compétent au capital relationnel étendu et d’une culture politique et générale élevée constituent une source d’inspiration pour la société civile congolaise vouée à la cause de la population.

République Démocratique du Congo 50 ans après Dag Hammarskjöld Acquis à valoriser et leçons tirées

Murhega Mashanda

Après l’indépendance du Congo, Dag l’Afrique en général s’il la poursuivait suédois et irlandais pour rassurer les Hammarskjöld, Secrétaire Général de et, d’autre part ce qu’elle peut inspirer belges contre la colère de la population l’Organisation des Nations Unies (ONU), à la société civile vouée à la cause de la congolaise révoltée à l’égard de l’admi- a astucieusement évité au Congo, aussi population. nistration belge, et des soldats congo- bien la guerre civile que l’émiettement lais qui n’obéissaient plus aux ordres en de petits États autonomes. Aussi, le Rôle de Hammarskjöld dans la des officiers belges. Aussi, lors des Congo était déjà en instance d’être un crise congolaise émettes quelques Européens avaient champ de bataille de grandes puissances L’indépendance du Congo (30 juin péri. lors du conflit Est-Ouest. Au fait, il avait 1960) est suivie des tensions entre Il exige la rapidité de l’action du mis en exergue tous ses talents et ses Lumumba, premier ministre, et Kasa- Conseil de Sécurité, l’empressement des multiples qualités d’homme compétent, vubu, le premier président. Les soldats Etats à envoyer des troupes et à disponi- au capital relationnel étendu, d’une cul- congolais de la Force Publique refu- biliser les moyens pour éviter au Congo : ture politique et générale élevée et d’une sent d’obéir aux officiers belges. Des – une guerre civile ; diplomatie habile. émeutes éclatent, quelques européens La perte inopinée de cet artisan de la sont violés ou assassinés. L’armée belge – une guerre contre l’URSS ; paix et de la sécurité internationales en intervient sans l’autorisation du gouver- – l’émiettement total en territoires peu plein exercice d’une mission de ”salut nement central (pour protéger les eu- étendus mais autonomes ; et public” pour le Congo a brutalement ropéens). – l’éclatement et qu’il ne devienne un préjudicié l’évolution harmonieuse de Le 11 juillet 1960, Tshombe pro- champ de bataille Est-Ouest. Sans ce pays. En effet, si l’Eternel lui prê- clame la sécession katangaise, Katanga l’ONUC, le Congo aurait sombré tait vie et que l’ONU accompagnait le étant la province la plus riche du Congo dans la déliquescence qu’il a connue Congo dans la voie qu’il avait tracée, où se trouvaient beaucoup d’intérêts plus tard, après la guerre froide des hypothèses optimistes se vérifie- industriels et commerciaux belges. (1997-2002). raient. Le paradoxe de pays ”scanda- L’armée belge le soutient. Devant cette leusement riche avec une population agression Kasavubu et Lumumba de- Hammarskjöld a milité pour obtenir scandaleusement pauvre” serait déjà mandent la protection de l’ONU. En une résolution des ONU exigeant le dé- contredit. En outre, dira Frantz Fanon, même temps, les années 1960 sont ca- part des troupes belges en vue de placer dans son ouvrage, Les damnés de la ractérisées par une tension Est-Ouest le Katanga sous le contrôle des Nations terre, ”l’Afrique a la forme d’un fusil et des mouvements des libérations afri- Unies. Cette rapidité dans la mise en dont la gâchette est placée au Congo”. cains. Hammarskjöld se rapproche des place de l’ONUC permit de mesurer Ce géant au centre de l’Afrique avec positions africaines face à cette crise, l’aptitude de Hammarskjöld à attirer neuf pays voisins pourrait jouer un mais il évite la confrontation avec les et à mobiliser l’attention des grandes rôle déterminant ”de gâchette” dans le grandes puissances. puissances. développement du continent. Se sou- Le 14 juillet 1960, Hammarskjöld En septembre 1960, Kasavubu dé- venir de Hammarskjöld au travail avec met sur pied l’ONUC (Opération des met Lumumba, Lumumba désavoue ses qualités permet d’imaginer, d’une Nations Unies au Congo) qui débarque également Kasavubu. Pour éviter la part, ce que son œuvre pourrait engen- à Léopoldville le 15 juillet 1960. Ham- guerre civile l’ONU traite les deux drer pour le Congo en particulier et marskjöld engage aussi des soldats camps au même pied d’égalité. 50 ans après dag hammarskjöld New Routes 2/2011 41

La tragédie sage pour peu après minuit. A 00h10, aidé au cours des années 90 à désarmer Novembre 1960, l’Assemblée Générale le pilote signale qu’il voit les lumières plus de 400.000 anciens combattants. vote une résolution attribuant au gou- de la piste d’atterrissage de Ndola, puis La force de maintien de la paix est un vernement Kasavubu le siège du Congo le contact est rompu. Il faut 16h de re- élément central de réponse interna- à l’ONU. Pendant que Kasavubu fête sa cherche pour retrouver l’épave à 19 km tionale aux conflits armés. Ses soldats victoire, Lumumba fuit de sa maison de l’aéroport. Les montres de l’avion sont envoyés dans des régions en proie protégée de l’ONUC pour Stanleyville. s’étaient arrêtées à 00h20 heure locale, à des conflits dans lesquelles personne L’armée congolaise le capture. L’URSS le 18 septembre 1961 soit 22h20 GMT d’autre n’est disposé ou capable d’aller accuse l’ONU de complicité. le 17 septembre. pour empêcher la reprise ou la recru- A mi-janvier 1961, Kasavubu et Les corps retrouvés dans l’épave descence des combats. Mobutu remettent à Tshombe trois étaient en partie carbonisés, mais celui De 1960 à 1964, la RD Congo a été prisonniers dont Lumumba. A mi-fé- de Hammarskjöld était éjecté de l’avi- prise en charge par l’ONUC. Depuis vrier, après l’assassinat de Lumumba, on, il avait de nombreuses blessures, sa la guerre de 1996, le Conseil de sécu- Valerian Zarine, nouvel ambassadeur colonne vertébrale brisée en plusieurs rité suit la situation de la RD Congo. soviétique à l’ONU, exige des sanctions endroits. Hammarskjöld est mort et La Résolution 1234 du 9 avril 1999, contre la Belgique, l’arrestation de Mo- plusieurs hypothèses sont émises, mais qui nomme un envoyé spécial du Se- butu et de Tshombe, la cessation de aucune ne semble convaincante. Il est crétaire Général, exige l’arrêt des hos- l’opération de l’ONUC et la démission inhumé au caveau familial au cimetière tilités, le cessez-le-feu et la médiation. de Hammarskjöld. d’Upsala. La résolution 1258 du 6 août 1999, Nikita Khrouchtchev, Secrétaire Gé- Les négotiations de paix que Ham- qui déploie 90 membres du personnel néral du parti communiste soviétique marskjöld avait commencées se poursui- militaires de liaison de l’ONU, person- condamne l’action de l’ONUC et pro- vent après sa mort pendant trois ans et la nel civil, humanitaire et administratif, pose un « troïka » comprenant un re- sécession du Katanga prend fin en 1963. illustre un nouveau début des actions présentant de l’Occident, un de l’État de l’ONU pour la paix en RD Congo. La socialiste et celui des pays neutres Heritage de Hammarskjöld Mission de l’Organisation des Nations pour remplacer le Secrétaire Général en RD Congo Unies en RD Congo (MONUC) est née. (aucune autre puissance n’opte pour la Hammarskjöld s’est immortalisé. En Le 28 mai 2010, le Conseil de Sécurité position de l’URSS). effet, depuis 1948, les soldats de paix adopte la Résolution 1925 qui donne Hammarskjöld refuse la trainée par des ONU ont mené 63 missions de ter- une nouvelle orientation au mandat de l’Union soviétique : il rejette l’idée de rain qui ont permis aux populations de la MONUC. Elle devient la Mission de la troïka, il refuse de démissionner. plusieurs dizaines de pays de participer l’Organisation des Nations Unies pour Son discours est suivi d’acclamations aux élections libres et honnêtes et ont la Stabilisation au Congo (MONUSCO) des participants à la session ordinaire d’automne 1960. Le 30 mai 1961, à Ox- ford, sur base de l’expérience acquise au Congo, il définit les tâches qui incom- bent au Secrétaire Général et son rôle comme fonctionnaire international. Il insiste sur les notions du devoir et de responsabilité. Photo/Martine Perret

Le 21 février 1961 une résolution de N l’ONU autorise la force pour éviter une guerre civile au Congo et exige le départ des conseillers belges. En mars 1961, Photo: U l’URSS et la France refusent de payer leurs contributions à l’ONU à cause de cette résolution. En application de la ré- solution du 21 février 1961, le nouveau Représentant des ONU à Lubumbashi, Conor Cruise O’Brien, nommé par Hammarskjöld, fit arrêter et expulser les conseillers belges de Tshombe. La sécession katangaise nécessite un armistice. Hammarskjöld doit amener Cyrille Adoula représentant le gouver- nement central et Tshombe, le leader de la sécession, à négocier. La rencontre est fixée au 18 septembre 1961 à Ndola, en Rhodésie du Nord (Zambie actuelle). L’avion de Hammarskjöld quitte Léopoldville. Le 17 septembre 1961 à 23h35, heure locale, le pilote annonce à Members of the Patriotic Force of Resistance in Ituri, DRC, in front of the military la tour de contrôle de Ndola son atterris- personnel of MONUC during a disarmament, demobilisation, and rehabilitation exercise. 42 New Routes 2/2011 50 ans après dag hammarskjöld

In the early hours of the morning in Léopoldville in July 1960, Dag Hammarskjöld sketched out his ideas of the organisation of the UN operations in the Congo.

à partir du 1 juillet 2010. Son mandat sein de la société civile. Celle-ci renforce publique) suivie d’une campagne de dé- porte sur deux priorités majeures, à les actions de maintien de paix par des sobéissance civique refusant de payer savoir la protection des civils ainsi que interventions de consolidation de la les impôts et boycottant les institutions la stabilisation et la consolidation de la paix. Pour ce faire, la société civile doit coloniales. paix. être forte. C’est ce courant de la population ci- Les résolutions successives tradui- vile qui, malgré la dictature de Mobutu, sent les difficultés rencontrées, les Rôle de la société civile a fini par s’organiser en Société Civile avancées opérées par l’ONU et son en- Depuis l’indépendance, la RD Congo structurée en 1980, et dont la mission gagement à accompagner la RD Congo traverse une série des guerres dont les sera l’encadrement de la population à recouvrer la paix. Il convient de re- sécessions katangaise et kasaïenne, la jusqu’à la proclamation de la démo- connaitre les progrès réalisés et le défis rébellion muleliste … La société civile a cratisation du pays le 4 octobre 1990. relevés ces 15 dernières années avec la joué un grand rôle pour la restauration La société civile se cristallise lors de MONUC (arrêt de la guerre, mise en de la paix. la conférence nationale souveraine en place d’un gouvernement élu en 2006 Dans ses débuts, un peu avant l’indé- 1991 en jetant des bases théoriques de mettant fin à la crise de légitimité, le pendance, la société civile congolaise a la démocratie bien qu’elles soient res- retour des armées étrangères, la réuni- commencé par la création des ADAPES tées lettre morte. Ses actions se multi- fication du pays) et les défis qui restent à (clubs d’évolués, cercles d’études, asso- plièrent après. surmonter sous l’accompagnement de ciation d’anciens élèves), APIC (Asso- Ainsi, pendant les deux dernières la MONUSCO (la présence des FDLR, ciation du Personnel Congolais), des guerres, celles de 1996 et 1998, les de la LRA, Mbororo, la présence des mouvements religieux tels que le Kim- populations civiles ont créé des mou- groupes armés nationaux, la stabilisa- banguisme et le Kitawala, la conscience vements de résistance populaire (Maï tion et la consolidation de la paix). C’est africaine de l’Abbé Joseph Malula et des Maï). La société civile a mené la Cam- dans les ornières de l’ONUC, initiative mouvements politiques comme l’Asso- pagne Nationale pour la Paix Durable, de Hammarskjöld, que l’histoire s’est ciation des Bakongo (ABOKO) de Jo- tributaire de l’Agenda de la Paix élaboré répétée. seph Kasavubu, le Mouvement National (le 5 et 7 Novembre 1998) en vue de Cependant, il faut souligner que l’ef- Congolais (MNC) de Lumumba. contribuer à mettre fin aux conflits et ficacité et la durabilité de l’intervention Depuis 1957, la Belgique a été obligée à la relance du processus de la démo- des ONU dans la construction de la paix d’organiser la première élection popu- cratisation. Elle a mené ou participé au en RD Congo dépend des facteurs in- laire, puis la table ronde de Bruxelles. Le plaidoyer/lobbying pour la tenue des ternes notamment de l’implication de 4 janvier 1959 a lieu la révolte populaire différentes rencontres (Gaberonne, Ad- la population congolaise organisée au (avec 300 personnes tuées par la force dis Abeba, Lusaka, Prétoria, Sun City …) 50 ans après dag hammarskjöld New Routes 2/2011 43 et la signature des accords auxquels elle – développer les capacités d’identifi- les valeurs, accompagner la population a participé (accord de cessez-le-feu, ac- cation des piliers pour la paix et le pour ne pas se résigner et identifier cord global et inclusif). Elle a fait partie développement durables; leurs besoins fondamentaux, plaider des institutions de transition dont l’ob- pour une bonne gouvernance, veiller – favoriser l’accès à l’information ; et jectif principal était l’organisation des aux interventions de la communauté élections pour mettre fin à la crise de – mettre en place des mécanismes de internationale et renforcer toutes les légitimité. Elle a encadré la population suivi-évaluation des réalisations du initiatives porteuses de sens pour faire dans les élections de 2006. gouvernement. la transition entre le travail de maintien Par diverses actions, elle accompagne de la paix et celui lié à la consolidation la population dans le plaidoyer auprès Au fait, si la société civile peut jouer le de la paix et au développement. + des pouvoirs publics, pour la mise en rôle de catalyseur dans cette synergie, place d’un état de droit. Elle a amené la elle peut, à la manière de Hammars- population à maintenir l’unité nationale kjöld, apporter des bases à la consoli- Notes bibliographiques et le sentiment d’appartenance à une dation de la paix, à la démocratie et au Ki-Zerbo J., Histoire de l’Afrique noire, même nation ainsi que la Communauté développement du pays et s’allier aux ef- Hatier, Paris, 1972 Internationale à reconnaître l’agression forts de la communauté internationale. du pays et à mettre en place des méca- MONUSCO, Comprendre le mandat nismes d’accompagnement vers la sta- Conclusion de la MONUSCO, Résolution 1925 bilité de l’État. Il convient de reconnaître que l’ONU du Conseil de Sécurité, sl, Division de Aujourd’hui, en dépit des avancées s’est préoccupée de la RD Congo depuis l’information publique, Octobre 2010. significatives, il se révèle d’autres dé- l’indépendance. A l’époque, l’interven- MONUSCO, Fiche technique sur le fis à relever : la protection des civils, tion de l’ONU au Congo était l’œuvre de maintien de paix par les Nations Unies, la stabilisation et consolidation de la Hammarskjöld, un Secrétaire Général sl, Division de l’information publique, paix. La situation du Congo interpelle plein de plusieurs qualités et auprès de janvier 2011. et de graves problèmes persistent à qui la communauté internationale d’au- cause des enjeux économiques des ac- jourd’hui ainsi que le pouvoir public Nations Unies-Conseil de sécurité, teurs nationaux et internationaux : la et la société civile congolaise peuvent Monuc, Résolutions adoptées du 14 juin présence de groupes armés étrangers beaucoup apprendre tant sur le plan au 30 mars 2005, Kinshasa, Division de (FDLR, LRA, FNL, Mbororo), l’impu- individuel qu’institutionnel. l’information publique, 2010 nité, la corruption, le non paiement des D’une part, l’exercice de hautes fonc- Nations Unies-Conseil de sécurité, Réso- salaires des fonctionnaires de l’État et tions nécessite un ensemble d’atouts et lution 1258 adoptée le 6 août 1999. des militaires, les assassinats, les viols, de qualités, notamment l’expérience les violations des droits humains, le dans le domaine professionnel avec Peter Wallesteen, Dag Hammarskjöld, chômage, la mauvaise condition de un niveau de culture générale élevé, Suède, Institut Suédois, 2005. vie, les conflits intercommunautaires, la capacité d’analyser rapidement les PREFED, La société civile congolaise à un le détournement des deniers de l’État. situations et de proposer des pistes de tournant. Kinshasa, Médiaspaul, 2004. Il y a encore beaucoup à faire. Au fait, solutions appropriées aux problèmes, cinquante ans après l’indépendance, le la bonne santé mentale et l’endurance Rapport de la commission préparatoire bilan est encore insatisfaisant. physique, le capital relationnel étendu de la Conférence Nationale Souveraine, Au regard de cette situation d’un État et diversifié, le sentiment de devoir et de Kinshasa, 18 juin 1991. malade confronté à toute sorte de crises redevabilité, le sentiment de sacrifice de Rapport du forum de réflexion sur le et devant l’absence de repères, en dépit soi, la fidélité à soi-même, etc. processus électoral de 2011 en RDC ; de tous les efforts de la communauté A ces qualités individuelles des ac- Pretoria, le 10-11 mars 2011. internationale, le pouvoir public, la so- teurs, soubassement de l’efficacité, il ciété civile et le secteur privé devraient : convient, d’autre part, que la société Robert Minani Bihuzo s.j., Du veiller au respect de la constitution et civile, comme contrepoids au pouvoir pacte de stabilité de Nairobi à l’acte des lois de la République ; public et intermédiaire entre la base et d’engagement de Goma, enjeux et défis le politique, veille à la protection de l’in- du processus de paix en RDC, Kinshasa, – promouvoir les valeurs démocra- tégrité des institutions du pays, à leur CEPAS et RODHECIC, 2008. tiques telles que : justice, vérité, liber- impartialité, leur compétence, leur in- té, respect du bien commun, trans- dépendance et leur légitimité. parence, représentativité, alternance, Ainsi, pour jouer efficacement son participation citoyenne, tolérance ... ; rôle et avoir de l’influence sur la situa- – lutter contre les antivaleurs dont la tion du pays ainsi que son évolution so- corruption, l’impunité ; ciopolitique et économique, la société civile, à travers ses composantes, devra – se mobiliser pour que les élections éviter des amalgames, des confusions, prochaines soient libres, démocra- des complicités avec le pouvoir … ; tout tiques et transparentes ; ce qui est dommageable à son impar- – promouvoir une expertise technique, tialité, son objectivité, sa neutralité, son une bonne capacité d’analyser le indépendance, sa non violence .... Elle contexte, de récolter les données, de ne se laissera pas traîner par le pouvoir planifier et formuler des priorités ; à tous les niveaux mais elle devra prôner 44 New Routes 2/2011 50 years after dag hammarskjöld

The DRC 50 years after Dag Hammarskjöld’s death A tribute and a current assessment Summary in English of Murhega Mashanda’s article

50 years ago, Dag Hammarskjöld died Hammarskjöld creates the Unit- the public authorities, civil society and in a plane crash in Northern Rhodesia ed Nations Operation in the Congo the private sector in Congo should: (today Zambia). He was on his way to a (ONUC) as a means of action to avoid a – ensure respect for the constitution meeting with Moise Tshombe, leader of civil war, to prevent a conflict with the and laws of the Republic; the Katangese secessionists. Despite his USSR, to avoid Congo splitting up into untimely and unfortunate death, Ham- a number of small independent states, – promote democratic values ​​such as marskjöld has played a significant role and to prevent the country from be- justice, truth, freedom, respect for in Congo’s turbulent first years after coming a battle-field between the super the common good, transparency, independence, as well as in a number powers. representativeness, alternation of of UN-led peace keeping missions. Hammarskjöld’s involvement draws office-holders, citizen participation, Moreover, his courageous and honest the attention of the international com- tolerance, etc; way of intervening was and remains a munity to the alarming situation in – fight against harmful tendencies,​​ in- source of inspiration for the Congolese Congo. cluding corruption and impunity; civil society. In his article République In late 1960, Lumumba is arrested, – mobilise the population so that the Démocratique du Congo 50 ans après then tortured and finally murdered, and upcoming elections are free, demo- Dag Hammarskjöld, here summarised the Soviet Union claims that Mobutu cratic and transparent; in English, Professor Murhega Mashan- and Tshombe should be arrested, the da, partner of the Life & Peace institute ONUC suppressed and Hammarskjöld – promote technical expertise and ana- in DRC, gives his view on these topics. dismissed. Nikita Khrushchev suggests lytical capacity, collect data, plan and The early loss of this remarkable the creation of a “troika” that would re- formulate priorities; peacebuilder has had unfortunate place Dag Hammarskjöld. The idea – develop the capacity to identify the consequences for the development of is rejected by the majority of member pillars of peace and sustainable de- Congo after its independence. Instead states in the UN. velopment; of being a centre of renewal for itself The peace negotiations Hammar- – promote access to information, and and for its nine neighbouring countries skjöld had started continued after his (a “trigger” in Central Africa, as Frantz death and the Katanga secession ended – create mechanisms for the monitor- Fanon would have it in his book The in 1963. ing/evaluation of governmental ac- Wretched of the Earth, this “scandal- In the following years and in spite tivities. ously rich country with a scandalously of many difficulties, a great number In fact, provided that Congolese civil poor population” has not witnessed the of initiatives were taken by Congolese society is able to play a catalytic role in awakening, the stability and the pros- civil society to end the civil war, organ- this synergy, it can also, in the same way perity it would have known if Dag Ham- ise general elections, protect people as Dag Hammarskjöld did in his time, marskjöld had still been alive. Yet the against internal or external threats, and provide a basis for the consolidation of memory of his career, his exceptional ensure that Hammarskjöld’s engage- peace, democracy and development in qualities and his remarkable action re- ment would provide a starting point for the country, and ultimately take part mains a source of inspiration for civil the further development of the country. in the efforts of the international com- society in its work in defence of, and for Moreover, a new peacekeeping organi- munity. the sake of, the Congolese people. sation, MONUSCO, was created. Bertrand Ligny After independence on 30 June But the public authorities and civil 1960, a rivalry arises between Prime society in Congo still have many chal- Minister Lumumba, and Kasavubu, lenges to face: the presence in the the first elected President. The Congo- country of foreign armed forces, the lese soldiers rebel, riots break out, and non-payment of salaries to civil servants a number of Europeans are raped and and servicemen, murders, rapes, civil killed. The Belgian army intervenes to rights violations, unemployment, poor protect the Europeans. In July 1960, living conditions, internal conflicts be- Tshombe proclaims Katanga’s seces- tween communities, corruption, etc. sion, and both Kasavubu and Lumumba Fifty years after independence was pro- ask for the intervention of the United claimed, the results are still inadequate Nations (UN). At the same time, the and there is much left to do. Cold War between East and West goes Given this situation of a sick state on, while liberation movements operate confronted with all sorts of crises, with- throughout Africa in their anti-colonial out any benchmarks, and despite all the struggles. efforts of the international community, my sister’s keeper New Routes 2/2011 45 Before UN resolution 1325 was adopted in 2000, the Security Council had only focused on traditional security threats. In addressing the special hardships of women in violent conflict, the UN recognised the needs for participation, gender mainstreaming and protection of women. Looking back to the days of Dag Hammarskjöld, the issue of individual actors played a minor role compared to the considerations of states. However, his belief that peaceful coexistence among states would lead to liberty for every individual is worth taking into consideration when reflecting on the background of UNSC resolution 1325 and the challenges it poses today.

My sister’s keeper Angela Ndinga-Muvumba

Remembering Dag Hammarskjöld in and prescriptions for the international 39.6 per cent of country-specific UN the context of women’s peace and se- system’s response to the problem. In Security Council resolutions contained curity is a mystical affair. The record three areas, participation, gender main- specific language on women or gender left behind by the United Nations’ re- streaming and protection, the UN faces (Peacewomen.org, 2010). According to nowned second Secretary-General challenges about how to move forward. my own preliminary review of Peace- does not overtly deal with the question Although 1325 was unanimously Women’s online record of Security of gender equality, but it does cover a adopted by the Security Council’s mem- Council resolutions, the percentage had range of metaphysical, political, social bers, the resolution was passed under risen to 45 per cent by September 2010. and legal issues regarding peace and Chapter VI of the UN Charter. Coun- Signalling that gender has become a justice. This article explores the UN cil resolutions under Chapter VI are legitimate security concern at the high- Security Council 1325 agenda, defined meant to induce good behaviour from est plane, the Council now deals with to include the body of resolutions, poli- member states following violations of these issues as part of its functions and cies and practices designed to address international peace and security.1 As powers. women, gender, peace and security such, 1325 has “no mechanisms for rat- Illustratively, 1325 is now a major challenges. ification, compliance or verification”.2 component of most conflict resolution But according to PeaceWomen’s Reso- policy rhetoric and in some instances, Participation, gender lution Watch, as of November 2009, policy activities and planning. The Af- mainstreaming and protection Resolution 1325 situated a social prob- lem – the inequality of women and the IRIN disproportionate hardships they face in t/ l o

contemporary conflict – in the Security H

Council, a body that had never before ate addressed issues beyond ‘traditional’ K security threats. The resolution came about following a long line of processes Photo: and international agreements includ- ing the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (1979), the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (1995), and the Windhoek Declaration and the Namibia Plan of Action on Mainstreaming a Gender Perspective in Multidimension- al Peace Support Operations (2000). Decades of difficult work coalesced in a standard-setting framework in 1325 which would at last draw politi- cal, economic and security resources to address the way women’s inequality intersected with exceptional suffering Helen does her homework together with her brother Jacob in Kaduna State, Nigeria. in war. In this regard, 1325 was norma- Respect, collaboration and protection are cornerstones in building a peaceful life for tive, because it established expectations women, men, girls and boys. 46 New Routes 2/2011 my sister’s keeper IRIN an/ m ver l i S rica E Photo:

Education is an important prerequisite for enhanced women’s participation in decision-making. Female students get their training at the Islamic University in Gaza City. rican Union (AU) has a new gender the same time, concentrated lobbying this issue). Resolution 1820 recognised policy (2009). A central commitment for greater participation through high- sexual violence as a security problem is to increase the level of gender equal- level designations limits the scope for that required a more robust approach ity within peacekeeping operations. change and ignores the need for gender during all phases of conflict resolu- The AU Commission will also produce equality and women’s empowerment at tion. In subsequent resolutions 1888 a training manual for AU peacekeep- the local level. and 1960 (2010), the Council further ers. A number of countries have put underscored that armed actors (state in place National Action Plans (NAPs) Gender mainstreaming and non-state) must not be allowed to for the systematic implementation and Early on, the UN adopted a code of con- participate in peace processes. monitoring of the 1325 agenda. Yet, out duct for its peacekeeping forces and But are peace processes conducive of 19 NAPs in existence, 12 are in Eu- appointed gender advisers to its opera- to dealing with the problem of sexual rope, 5 in Africa and one each in Latin tions in the field of war. But these focal violence? While amnesty and impunity America and Asia. Because armed vio- points (sometimes offices rather than is a common concern for international lence has been particularly persistent single individuals) have wide mandates justice, the UN and its member states in Africa, the delay in developing and that may include mainstreaming gen- must also navigate the challenges of po- implementing national policies is cause der into personnel matters, integrating litical transition after civil war or armed for concern. gender into reports, liaising within the conflict. Armed actors that carry out mission and with local women’s groups, systematic human rights crimes, in- Participation and training troops, police and civil- The job of increasing women’s partici- ian observers in gender mainstream- pation has been particularly difficult at ing.5 Without adequate funding, the Without adequate the international level. A UN Develop- capacities of gender focal points are ment Fund for Women study of 24 ma- constrained.6 funding, the jor peace processes since 1992 found capacities of gender that “only 2.5 per cent of signatories, 3.2 Protection “ per cent of mediators, 5.5 per cent of In June 2008, the UN Security Council focal points are witnesses and 7.6 per cent of negotia- adopted resolution 1820, which, among constrained. tors are women”.3 Of the foreign min- other key normative claims, recognised isters sitting in the Executive Council sexual violence as a security problem. of the African Union in 2006, only six Two additional UN Security Council cluding sexual violence, legally, should were women, while there were no more Resolutions, 1888 and 1889, went fur- be excluded from amnesty regimes. Yet, than three women members of the Per- ther to deal with the mechanisms for amnesty regimes may in turn provide manent Representatives Council.4 Al- implementation of 1325. These resolu- incentives to actors to buy into peace though women leaders have represent- tions have led to important steps in- processes.7 Out of 300 peace agree- ed their governments across the globe, cluding the appointment of the UN ments in 45 conflicts from 1989 to they remain outnumbered at every level Secretary-General’s first Special Repre- 2008 only 18 – in total dealing with by men. This has allowed peacemaking sentative on Sexual Violence in Conflict, ten conflicts – dealt at all with sexual to continue to be dominated by men. At Margot Wallström (see her article in violence.8 Mediators have failed to get my sister’s keeper New Routes 2/2011 47 the parties to include sexual violence order to achieve his objectives. Sir 4 Winnie Byanyima, “Africa and Gender because they are faced with, among Brian Urquhart stated that Hammar- Equality”, in John Akokpari, Angela Ndinga- other things, the need to use amnesties skjöld espoused the idea of balancing Muvumba and Tim Murithi (eds.), The African Union and Its Institutions, Cape Town and 9 in order to “hasten conflict resolution”. the binding nature of the Charter and Auckland: Centre for Conflict Resolution and international law, along with momen- Jacana Media 2008, pp. 324-325. Remembering Hammarskjöld 11 tary dynamics and circumstances. 5 Adibeli Nduka-Agwu, “’Doing Gender’ After During Hammarskjöld’s time interna- In the quest to stop sexual violence in the War: Dealing with Gender Mainstreaming tional law and the resolution of conflicts armed conflict for example, the legacy and Sexual Exploitation and Abuse in UN were drawn around the parameters of of Hammarskjöld points to a careful Peace Support Operations in Liberia and Sierra Leone”, Civil Wars, 11, 2 (2009), pp.179-199. the state as a unit of analysis – less so balance between what is practical and UNIFEM/UN Department of Peacekeeping (if at all) on the role of non-state actors, what is fundamental, with an empha- Operations (UN-DPKO), Addressing Conflict- civil society, and least of all, individual sis on protecting the rights and liberties related Sexual Violence: An Analytical Inventory security. Hammarskjöld’s speech at of people. I contend that in the conun- of Peacekeeping Practice, New York, June 2010. the University of Chicago in 1960, drum between amnesties and peace ne- 6 Erin Mobekk, “Gender, Women and Security “The Development of a Constitutional gotiations, for example, Hammarskjöld Sector Reform”, International Peacekeeping, 17(2010)2, pp. 278-291; Amy Barrow, “‘[It’s] Framework for International Coopera- would have urged that women and men Like a rubber band.’ Assessing UNSCR tion”, maps out his views that human must first be protected from violence. 1325 as a Gender Mainstreaming Process”, social development, having produced Therefore the capacity, mandate and International Journal of Law in Context, 5 units of nation states was not the end strength of blue helmets should be (2009) 1, pp. 51-68. radically improved in order to protect 7 Louise Mallinder, Amnesty, Human Rights and civilians. Political Transitions: Bridging the Peace and For Hammarskjöld, Coming before the Commission on Justice Divide, Oxford: Hart Publishing 2008. the Status of Women in 1954 Hammar- 8 The ten conflicts are Burundi, Indonesia the coexistence of skjöld seemed enthusiastic about the (Aceh), the Democratic Republic of Congo, Sudan (South), Sudan (Darfur), Nepal, the states would mean urgency of ratification of the Conven- Philippines, Uganda, Guatemala and Mexico “ tion of the Political Rights of Women. (Chiapas). Robert Jenkins and Anne-Marie liberty for every He did, however, in 1955 express that Goetz, “Addressing Sexual Violence in it would be difficult to ‘give priority to Internationally Mediated Peace Negotiations”, woman, man and International Peacekeeping, 17 (2010) 2, p. 262. women’ in the staffing of positions at child. the secretariat, because this would be 9 Ibid., p. 271. tantamount to reverse discrimination.12 10 Elizabeth Odio-Benito, 2006. “No Peace of humanity’s evolution, but a new be- At the same time, Hammarskjöld ad- Without Justice”, in Sten Ask and Anna ginning. He argued that these nations vised Sture Linnér, who served as head Mark-Jungkvist (eds.), The Adventure of Peace. Dag Hammarskjöld and the Future of the – through the UN and the challenges of the UN’s civil activity in the Demo- United Nations, Houndmills, Basingstoke, facing the world at that time – were cratic Republic of Congo in 1960 to pay Hampshire: Palgrave MacMillan 2006, pp. 257 being forged into a system of states in- attention to the status of women.13 and 260. creasingly interdependent and capable For Hammarskjöld, with the UN 11 Ibid., p. 266. of enjoying peaceful coexistence and, serving as peacemaker, the coexistence 12 Angela E.V. King, “Gender Equality and the eventually, cooperation. of states would mean liberty for every UN”, in ibid., p. 273. In this respect, it would be revision- woman, man and child. It is that aspect 13 Sture Linnér and Sverker Åström, UN ist to try to establish a link between of his personality which has imbued the Secretary-General Hammarskjöld: Reflections Hammarskjöld and climate change as legend of Hammarskjöld with qualities and Personal Experiences, Dag Hammarskjöld a cause of armed conflict, for example. suggesting he would have been his sis- Lecture, 15 October 2007, Uppsala: The Dag Nevertheless, what we can say about ter’s keeper. That perhaps is the main Hammarskjöld Foundation and Uppsala University. Hammarskjöld, and the UN that he lesson from remembering Hammar- left behind, is that the system of justice skjöld in the context of today’s debates within the international community about 1325. + was strengthened through his advocacy. In particular, one important aspect of his conduct of conflict resolution was that he adhered to, and urged submis- 1 Torunn Tryggestad, “Trick or Treat? The UN sion to the UN Charter, even under and Implementation of Security Council Resolution 1325 on Women, Peace, and enormous political pressure from ma- Security”, Global Governance, 15 (2009), p. 554. jor world powers. 2 Susan Willett, “Introduction: Security Council He is, however, also portrayed as Resolution 1325: Assessing the Impact on having been very capable of a kind of Women, Peace and Security”, International practical flexibility when dealing with Peacekeeping, 17 (2010) 2, p.142. 10 complex problems. In the workings 3 Pablo Castillo Diaz with significant of the UN, he was not partial to allow- contributions from Samina Anwar, Hanny ing bureaucratic rules to ruin well-in- Cueva Beteta, Colleen Russo and Stephanie Ziebell, Women’s Participation in Peace tentioned actions. He was, just as were Negotiations: Connections between Presence subsequent Secretary-Generals, forced and Influence, UN Development Fund for to navigate the art of the possible, in Women (UNIFEM), August 2010, p.3. 48 New Routes 2/2011 personal reflection The magic of Africa and a white guy in a suit

On my daily way from home to the pri- There was also a white guy, a Swede sies. We realised there was war, which mary school in the Southern German whose name we did not even try to involved blacks and whites. Images of city near Stuttgart I passed the editorial memorise, since being too long and dark nights lit by fire, wild animals and offices of the local daily newspaper Ess­ complicated. But wasn’t he the one who adventures of all sorts occupied our fan- lingerZeitung. At times I paused in front made the Russian leader hammer with tasies. of the news related photos and captions his shoe and his fists on the desk at the One day we heard about the wreck- at display outside of the building. Hav- United Nations? We were deeply im- age of a plane, combined with the news ing just acquired reading skills good pressed by the scenes of angry outburst that the white guy had died in a crash enough to catch an interest not only in we could witness in the weekly news deep in Africa. Pictures showed sol- the pictures of athletes, singers and ac- documentaries, which were shown be- emn mourning and reports presented tors I started to pick up the illustrated fore the Wild West movies in cinema a world disturbed. We did not compre- headlines from the big world. finally started. For us such rude behav- hend the full meaning. But we realised “Africa” became the magic word, ior would have ended in severe punish- that the guy, who looked like Gary Coop- and Tshombe (for us in the local dialect ment. But we were no leaders and al- er in a suit, was no more. “Schoombe”, which seemed by coinci- ready realised that you can do a lot more dence close to the correct pronuncia- things if you had power. Henning Melber tion), as well as Lumumba moved close Then came the news of white refu- to the status previously held by the In- gees and massacres in a place named dians. “Lumumba” echoed the sound of Congo, from soldiers and mercenaries. drums in the wilderness, the roaring of The imagined scenery of the African lions and the heat of the African sun. jungle added to our Wild West fanta- asson l attias m F/ H D

The Dag Hammarskjöld Foundation provides a forum for free and frank debate, and plays a catalysing role through seminars, publications and public events on topics such as development, security, human rights and democracy. Our activities focus on United Nations- related issues. We promote the values of Dag Hammarskjöld, the second UN Secretary- General, within the current global development discourse. Development Dialogue is the The Dag Hammarskjöld Foundation’s main Foundation was established in publication. 1962 in memory of the second Secretary-General of the United Nations. According to the charter the broad purpose of the Foundation is to promote, in the spirit of Dag Hammarskjöld, social, political, economic, environmental and cultural development in the South and globally.

Read more about our activities and download The Dag Hammarskjöld Centre is located in a historic our publications at mansion in the heart of the academic town of Uppsala, www.dhf.uu.se where Dag Hammarskjöld spent most of his young life. It houses the secretariat and also provides the premises for most seminars organised in Sweden. ending sexual violence New Routes 2/2011 49 In the fifty years since Dag Hammarskjöld died, the world has changed a lot. In the UN context, the nature of conflict has perhaps changed the most: Whereas war traditionally could be described as being a fight over territory between two countries by armies facing each other on the battlefield, modern warfare is predominantly intrastate or domestic with more than 75 per cent of those killed or wounded in wars being non-combatants. Had Hammarskjöld lived today, I am convinced that protecting civilians also from conflict-related sexual violence would have been one of his top priorities.

Ending sexual violence: From recognition to action Margot Wallström

Sexual violence in conflict has tradition- a reference to virgins as prizes of war: therefore within the Council’s mandate. ally been absent from the global policy- ‘Moses said to them: “Have you let all The Resolution also requires us to ex- making level – despite its horrible and the women live? […] Now, therefore, kill pose these claims that fuel continued very real existence on the ground. UN every male among the little ones, and sexual violence. No other human rights Security Council Resolution (SCR) 1325 kill every woman who has known man violation is routinely dismissed as in- from the year 2000 was the first to rec- by lying with him. But all the young evitable. ognise the impact of war on women and girls who have not known man by lying to emphasise the importance of wom- with him keep alive for yourselves.”’ In The changing nature of en’s contributions to conflict resolution more recent history, we have numerous armed conflict and sustainable peace. It would, how- examples of rape and sexual violence The nature of armed conflict has ever, take almost another decade until from the Thirty Years War, the US Civil changed dramatically in recent times. the specific issue of sexual violence in War, colonial wars in Africa, the Cen- Whereas war traditionally could be de- conflict became the subject of its own scribed as being a fight over territory SCR. between two countries through the in- Earlier this year I visited the Demo- Sexual violence in struments of well-trained, disciplined cratic Republic of Congo (DRC), whose armies facing each other on the battle- eastern parts have been referred to as conflict is neither field, modern warfare is predominantly the ‘rape capital’ of the world. A 70- cultural nor sexual. intrastate or domestic, waged by non- year old woman who shared her story “ state actors and triggered by issues of told me how she had tried – in vain – to It is criminal. identity, ethnicity, religion and compe- convince the rapists to leave her alone, tition for land or resources, particularly pointing out to the perpetrators that tral European Counterrevolution in the oil and mineral wealth. This has also they could be her own grand-children. 1920s, and the Second World War (both led to a transformation in terms of who Why is it that sexual violence in con- in Asia, Russia and Europe) including is most affected by the hostilities: Dur- flict and post-conflict situations keeps the post-conflict situation in the coun- ing the Russo-Japanese War of 1904- taking place, and what can be done to tries affected. And from our days, we 1905, for example, civilian casualties prevent similar atrocities in the future? know of horrible accounts of rape on were almost non-existent, while today an unprecedented scale in the Western more than 75 per cent of those killed or Historical phenomenon Balkans, Rwanda, Timor Leste, and the wounded in wars are non-combatants.1 Sexual violence in conflict is, I am of- DRC. In contemporary low-intensity wars, ten told, unavoidable. That it should All of this can certainly make rape rebel groups – and government forces be considered collateral damage. That and sexual violence seem unavoidable, – often kill civilians and defy interna- the phenomenon is nothing new. The as if it were something we would have tional law.2 It has been said that most latter is certainly true: Already Homer to accept as part or consequence of any civilians tend to die from war rather in the Iliad has described how Trojan conflict. But we cannot and should not than in battle.3 And women have ended women were treated as war prizes, the accept these false premises. Sexual vio- up on the front-line – not as soldiers but most famous of whom is Briseis, the lence in conflict is neither cultural nor as victims. princess of Lyrnessus, who was given sexual. It is criminal. Security Council Since war in the DRC started over a to Achilles for having led the assault on Resolution 1820 acknowledges that decade ago, more than 200,000 rapes that city during the Trojan War. Also sexual violence in conflict is a matter have been reported.4 For each rape re- the Bible, Numbers 31:15-18, contains of international peace and security and ported, up to 50 are likely to go unre- 50 New Routes 2/2011 ending sexual violence ported. Sexual violence in conflict has disorders, flashbacks, and difficulties in the ashes of conflict can realise its full become the weapon of choice. The re-establishing intimate relationships, potential unless women and girls are reason is as simple as it is wicked: be- sexual violence is also an obstacle to free to realise theirs. For many in po- cause it is cheap, silent and effective. sustainable peace for several reasons: sitions of power women are seen only One does not need bullets or bombs, as victims and not as agents of change. • Long-term sexual violence under- only individuals with cruel intent. Acts Despite women’s active engagement in mines social safety through the de- of sexual violence do not only maim its informal efforts to build peace, they are struction of families and societies; victims mentally and physically, they often excluded from any formal peace- also sow the seeds of destruction of an • The fear of assaults is an impedi- building efforts. entire community: female survivors in ment to women’s participation in some instances become pregnant, often economic activities and girls’ school What has been done? get infected with sexually-transmitted attendance; and We as the United Nations are often diseases including HIV/Aids, and are criticised for our shortcomings and • If impunity reigns, the faith in a regularly rejected by their own families. mistakes. The systematic acts of mass country’s judicial system and its abil- Traditionally, the risks for the architects rape committed in the end of July and ity to protect its citizens is seriously behind the atrocities have been negligi- beginning of August 2010 in the ter- undermined. ble. While the women walk in shame, ritory of Walikale in the eastern parts the perpetrators walk free. Women must be active participants dur- of the DRC were no different. This has ing the peace process and its aftermath also been acknowledged. Rather than Sexual violence as obstacle to and must take an equal role in shaping trying to present excuses, we need to sustainable peace decision-making. Lack of a reconcili- look at explanations and at what we can The challenges to overcome, on an in- ation process which includes women improve. I also think it is important that dividual level, the physical and psycho- might jeopardise the long-term stabil- we start looking at what we already do logical trauma of rape and other forms ity of a society after a conflict is over. well, and how these actions can be fur- of sexual violence in conflict should not No peace agreement engineered solely ther strengthened. In response to the be underestimated. In addition to the by men will ever be legitimate as long changing dynamics of conflict outlined long-term psychological injuries that as wars affect the lives and livelihoods above and in light of lessons learned, I may include fear, depression, anxiety of women. No society emerging from believe it is vital to start operationalis- IRIN / m raha G brey Au Photo:

Women sit together outside the Heal Africa Transit Center in Goma, DRC, for victims of sexual violence. While they have received humanitarian and medical assistance for their immediate needs, they are unlikely to receive consistent humanitarian programming for prevention or reintegration. ending sexual violence New Routes 2/2011 51 ing promising practices used by peace- During my visits to the DRC, for exam- aran

keepers to protect civilians from sexual ple, the need for a disciplined and well- B violence – as captured earlier this year trained national army presence in the in ‘Addressing Conflict-Related Sexual eastern parts of the country was made Violence – An Analytical Inventory of obvious. But as more soldiers from the Peacekeeping Practice’, developed by the national army (FARDC) are deployed UN Action network. What the Inventory on the ground, there is a shortage of Photo: Martin suggests, among other things, is: food (rations) and housing (barracks). In addition to this, soldiers do not re- • the value of having community liai- ceive their salaries regularly. The conse- son officers who can build a relation- quences? Soldiers take refuge in villag- ship of trust with the community, ers’ houses and huts, and pillaging and including with women; ideally we rapes follow. A similar pattern is true need women as well as men to serve for the police. in these positions; I believe that donor governments • deploying foot patrols that actively must impose tougher terms when pro- engage with the population and are viding assistance to the DRC and other accessible/approachable; countries with a similar situation. Do- nors and different parts of the UN sys- • ensuring that peacekeepers on those Although military and police officers in tem must also be better coordinated. In patrols know how to recognise and DRC have received excellent training, the the DRC, we have military and police of- react to reports of sexual violence; need for coordination and harmonisation ficers who have received excellent train- must not be overlooked. • establishing early warning/distress ing from a number of both donor and call systems; neighbouring countries, but the train- • signalling a night presence in areas ing is not necessarily harmonised. The lence. More recently, the Security Coun- at risk of attack; result risks being an army and police cil adopted resolutions 1820 and 1888. force with a different understanding of SCR 1820 demands nothing less than • using joint patrols which include how their job should be carried out. the ‘immediate and complete cessation peacekeepers, while acknowledging Although the issue of women’s par- that the primary responsibility rests ticipation in efforts to prevent and ad- with the national and regional au- dress sexual violence as a threat to their Women must be thorities. security and impediment to peace still has a very long way to go, some achieve- active participants States bear primary responsibility for ments have been made in the last two during the peace protecting their citizens from violence. decades: The Beijing Platform for Ac- “ I see my role as helping to build the tion, to which 189 countries are sig- process and its capacity of governments to meet their natories, in 1995 agreed to strengthen aftermath. obligations. The UN and no matter how the participation of women in national many peace keepers can ever substitute reconciliation and reconstruction and a state. Capacity-building means im- to investigate and punish those who by all parties to armed conflict of all acts proving data collection, statistics, moni- perpetuate violence against women in of sexual violence against civilians’, and toring, evaluation, and better reporting armed conflict. was a historic response to a horrific re- mechanisms. The data, once available, ality. Resolution 1888 then followed in must also be widely publicised in order 2009, which established the position I to educate communities. Having the States bear primary am the first to hold, to act as an advo- right monitoring and reporting in turn cate, coordinator and leader within the makes it safer and easier for women to responsibility for UN system to address the issue. It also report these crimes. In some countries, protecting their requested that the United Nations Ac- building capacity can have a more com- “ tion against Sexual Violence in Conflict prehensive reach and include overhaul- citizens from – a network of 13 UN entities – assist the ing their entire judicial system. This is violence. SRSG in this task. Finally, in December no small challenge. 2010, resolution 1960 was adopted by One of the most important elements a unanimous Council. This most recent of building or recreating a viable judi- The Security Council, which bears resolution contains concrete proposals cial system is the issue of Security Sec- the primary responsibility for maintain- on how the international community tor Reform (SSR), which often takes as ing international peace and security, es- can create a comprehensive monitor- its starting point a dysfunctional secu- tablished SCR 1325 ten years ago. For ing and accountability system to fight rity sector which is unable to provide se- the first time, the UN Security Coun- conflict-related sexual violence. Instead curity to the state and its citizens effec- cil did not only recognise the gender- of being considered a cheap, silent and tively and under democratic principles. biased impact of internal or country effective weapon, sexual violence must And as we try to address one of many conflict, but also mandated that the UN be seen as the crime it is. Those respon- challenges of SSR, we typically realise itself and its Member States to monitor sible will be exposed and the corridors that other components are missing: enforceable protection from such vio- of power and all career options will be 52 New Routes 2/2011 ending sexual violence closed for the individuals who commit, sexual violence in conflict that we are early-warning indicators. Crimes on command or condone such acts. aware of the atrocities they commit, and this scale are no accident; often they The outlined system is structured that justice will ultimately prevail. And are strategic, planned and therefore pre- around four pillars: The first means en- this goes back to the goals I have set for dictable – which we were painfully re- suring better and more consistent infor- my mandate. minded of from the Walikale atrocities. mation through a monitoring and analy- In response to the changing dynam- Far from being a niche issue, sexual sis mechanism. The second calls for the ics of conflict outlined above and in violence is part of a larger pattern. Rule listing (naming and shaming) of perpe- light of lessons learned, I have framed by sexual violence is used by political trators. The third pillar means gaining a five point agenda which I have also and military leaders to achieve politi- concrete commitments from perpetra- outlined to the Security Council: cal, military and economic ends. These tors to cease and prevent sexual violence. crimes present a security crisis that de- The fourth and last implies that, when mands a security response. To me, the no commitments have been made, tar- Women have no ‘Analytical Inventory of Peacekeeping geted measures can be imposed against rights, if those who Practice’ and Security Council Reso- persistent perpetrators, including sanc- lution 1960 represent the start – not tions by the UN Security Council. violate their rights the end – of a process to identify what “ works in preventing sexual violence The road ahead go unpunished. and improving women’s security. Much Although several UN Security Council more must yet be done to promote ac- resolutions during the last decade have My first point is ending impunity, tions that have real impact, as we move stated that international peace and secu- i.e. ensuring that perpetrators do not from recognition to action and from rity also must bring peace and security remain at the helm of security institu- best intentions to best practice. for women, impunity for crimes related tions and that amnesty is not an option. Women have no rights, if those who to sexual violence in war and conflict has If women continue to suffer sexual vio- violate their rights go unpunished. I am reigned for too long. For this reason, I lence, it is not because the law is inad- still haunted by what I heard in the DRC have made ending impunity my top equate to protect them, but because it is and in Bosnia and Herzegovina – that priority. We have seen that this is now inadequately enforced. women are still not safe, under their starting to yield results: During my sec- Secondly, women must be em- own roofs, in their own beds, when ond visit to the DRC in October 2010, powered to become agents of change: night falls. Our aim must be to uphold UN peacekeepers played an active role A ceasefire is not synonymous with international law, so that women – even in apprehending ‘Lieutenant Colonel’ peace for women if the shooting stops in war-torn corners of our world – can Mayele, one of the rebel leaders suspect- but rapes continue unchecked. Women sleep safe and sound. + activists should never have to risk their lives to do their work. Instead of being The third point is to mobilise politi- 1 Walter C. Clemens Jr., and J. David Singer, The cal leadership: Resolutions 1325, 1820 Human Cost of War. Scientific American, vol. considered a cheap, and 1960 are tools in the hands of polit- 286, no. 6, June 2000, pp. 56-57. silent and effective ical leaders, and should be used as such. 2 Human Security Report Group, The “ Both traditional and non-traditional Causes of Peace and the Shrinking Costs stakeholders need to feel accountable of War. Part II of the Human Security weapon, sexual Report 2009/2010. Vancouver: Simon for the success of this agenda. Fraser University, p. 2 (available at http:// violence must be Fourth is increasing recognition www.hsrgroup.org/docs/Publications/ seen as the crime of rape as a tactic and consequence of HSR2009/2009HumanSecurityReport_ conflict: Those who tolerate sexual ter- Overview.pdf ) it is. ror should be notified that they do so in 3 Hugo Slim, Killing Civilians. Method, Madness, defiance of the Security Council, which and Morality in War. New York: Columbia University Press 2008. ed of being involved in the mass rapes holds the power to enact enforcement in Walikale. Only a week later, French measures. The Council, for its part, 4 United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), Secretary-General Calls Attention to Scourge of authorities acting on an arrest warrant should not underestimate the tools it has Sexual Violence in DRC, UNFPA News, 1 March issued by the International Criminal at its disposal and be ready to use them. 2009 (available at http://www.unfpa.org/ Tribunal (ICC) arrested Callixte Mba- Finally, I will drive and empower ef- public/News/pid/2181). rushimana, an FDLR leader suspected forts to ensure a coordinated response of having committed war crimes and from the entire UN system: The inter­ crimes against humanity in the DRC. agency network mentioned above, UN And last November I attended the open- Action, has proven a successful means ing of the principally important ICC to not only ‘act as one’, but also to ‘deliv- case against Jean-Pierre Bemba, former er as one’ – and a network that I intend Vice President of the DRC, suspected of to draw on as SRSG. Making use of the not having prevented sexual violence in entire UN system means having more the Central African Republic. resources, and utilising the strengths of Why is this important? It is crucial, the individual entities for one common because it sends a strong message to goal – stop rape now. My vision includes these and other perpetrators of acts of ensuring the UN system is attuned to developing the united nations New Routes 2/2011 53 During its 65 years of existence, the United Nations has undergone profound changes in terms of its structure and mission. Dag Hammarskjöld urged the Member States to consider how they could best make use of the organisation in their approaches to challenges in the world. An often overlooked passage in the UN Charter says of the UN that its role is “to be a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations …” This short passage is powerful enough to be central in the discussions about the reform and effectiveness of the UN, as well as the role and potential of the UN civil service.

Renewing the choice: Developing the United Nations further Marco Toscano-Rivalta1

Dag Hammarskjöld took office as the as members of the UN, were facing: ance with the law, and that all those who second United Nations (UN) Secretary- Should the UN be used only as a confer- can contribute to decisions and actions General in 1953. Starting with his first ence facilitator or also as an instrument have an opportunity to actually do so. Report on the Work of the Organiza- for executive action? In his closing re- A critical question then is: who does tion to the General Assembly in Au- marks, he exhorted Member States to take decisions and action at the UN? gust 1953, Hammarskjöld focused on clarify their views on the direction in Broadly speaking, decision-making the role of the UN and its potential. which they wanted to see the future in the UN is the result of interaction Through his nine Introductions to the work of the UN develop. among four different constituencies: Reports on the Work of the Organiza- Fifty years later, it is evident that the Member States, non-governmental or- tion, he tried to stimulate UN Member Member States have chosen and prac- ganisations, independent experts, and States’ considerations on how to make ticed the latter option. The number of UN civil servants. UN actions are car- the best use of the organisation in order operations and programmes executed ried out by Member States directly or to tackle existing and emerging world by the UN is a confirmation. World civil through other governmental organi- challenges with full respect for the rule society and public opinion at large have sations, by international civil servants of law. supported this approach. throughout the numerous UN de- During Hammarskjöld’s leadership partments, funds, programmes, and from 1953 to 1961, the UN member- Changes in reality – specialised agencies, as well as inde- ship increased from 60 to 110 states changes in expectations? pendent experts and envoys. Others, with some significant challenges to the During the same period the world has including civil society organisations decision-making process. It also under- gone through enormous changes in and business, may also join the execu- went some important developments, social, economic, cultural, political and tive entities of the UN in appropriate including the creation of peacekeeping scientific terms – a natural consequence forms. In broader terms, an increasing operations and of the system of Mem- of evolution. Among these changes is number of civil society actors, while act- ber States’ permanent representations the increase of public, private, profit ing independently from the UN execu- at the UN as well as the further devel- and non-profit organisations, compe- tive entities, find inspiration from and opment of the theory and practice of in- tent, committed to, and active in all the motivate their actions on the basis of ternational civil service. These changes fields of international cooperation, and the UN Charter and Resolutions. were made possible by the close cooper- rightfully expecting to play their role in As one can see, the expression of the ation that Hammarskjöld inspired and the betterment of humanity and living will of the UN, as manifested through harnessed among some of his visionary conditions in the world. As a conse- its decision-making and actions, is a colleagues within the UN, and outside quence, Member States are in the in- rather challenging process, full of risks in governments, academia, scientific in- creasingly challenging position of no as well as opportunities. It is certainly stitutions and civil society organisations longer being the “owners” of the Unit- something new in the history of hu- as well as the arts. ed Nations, but rather the “trustees” manity, and thus it deserves further at- on behalf of the “peoples of the United tention for the development of its full The choice in 1961 Nations” in the attainment of the Pur- potential. In the Introduction to his last Report poses and the practice of the Principles to the General Assembly, dated 17 Au- enshrined in the UN Charter. As such, A new choice gust 1961, just a month before the in- they have to ensure that the decisions Against this background, it is legiti- cident in Ndola, Hammarskjöld clearly and actions taken by the UN are as in- mate to ask ourselves, as Hammar- delineated a critical choice that states, formed as possible and in full accord- skjöld did in 1961, whether there are 54 New Routes 2/2011 developing the united nations new choices that Member States and 1.4 To be a centre for harmonizing the entities, and within the agreed common the world community at large are con- actions of nations in the attainment of frameworks? Therefore, what are the re- fronted with. These choices concern these common ends. quired changes in the working methods the efficiency and effectiveness of the of the UN and in the international coop- UN and, most of all, its relevance in However, the often mixed results eration framework at large? Ultimately, addressing global challenges which in attaining the ends enshrined in the what are the margins for further im- require collective thinking, decision- initial three paragraphs demand that provement and thus the opportunities making and action. due attention be given to causes be- to be seized? Whereas reforming the UN has been yond those normally considered in the The answers to these questions may a topic for discussion since its creation, context of realpolitik. The UN Charter also have important financial conse- a question for consideration is whether contains an important indication to quences: a more effective international we really need to keep the focus only on this end. In a mighty understatement, system, with new and competent actors, the “form” aspects and how to imple- article 1, paragraph 4 seems to indicate may permit a reduction of the UN exec- ment the necessary changes or whether that the UN needs to become a centre utive machinery, its complexity, volume we should also try to identify and under- for harmonizing the actions of nations and costs. stand other potentialities enshrined in in order to effectively attain the com- Certainly there are already interest- the idea behind the creation of the UN, mon ends enshrined in the earlier ing examples of this “harmonising and thus work for its further develop- paragraphs. In other words, until and function”, such as: international confer- ment. unless the UN becomes such a centre, ences with critical contributions from The UN Charter in all its parts has it cannot effectively decide and act to at- civil society in the 1990s on key issues been the focus of important commen- tain the ends enshrined in paragraphs such as children’s rights, environment, taries. One element, however, has re- 1, 2 and 3 of the same article. population and development, women’s ceived comparatively little attention. It A legitimate question is whether the equality and rights, least developed is the last part of article 1, namely para- often-cited mixed results of the UN are countries, human settlements, and hu- graph 4, which enshrines what could be an indication that it is unfit to meet glo- man rights. Other examples include the considered as the “essence” of the UN: bal challenges, or whether it is just a re- work of the International Law Commis- “To be a centre for harmonizing the ac- flection of the still partial development sion and similar bodies for the develop- tions of nations in the attainment of of the UN due to the scarce attention ment of international law, the role of the these common ends”. Understandably, given to the specific purpose enshrined UN Office for the Coordination of Hu- the compelling challenges faced by hu- in article 1, paragraph 4, and its practi- manitarian Affairs, the UN Humanitar- manity and the use of the UN as an in- cal consequences and requirements. ian Coordinators and the Inter-Agency strument for executive action have kept Standing Committee (a body composed the focus on the first three paragraphs Harmonised decision-making by UN agencies and non-governmental of the same article: capacity and action organisations) in the field of humani- The harmonising function calls into tarian relief operations, the Resident 1.1 To maintain international peace question the very quality and capacity Coordinators and UN Country Teams and security, and to that end: to take of the UN’s decision-making. How are in the development field, and the latest effective collective measures for the its acts of will generated? Who contrib- very interesting example, the Global prevention and removal of threats to utes to them and how are they executed? Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction, the peace, and for the suppression of How much do Member States invest in the field of building resilience to acts of aggression or other breaches of in ensuring high quality and well-in- natural hazards. the peace, and to bring about by peace- formed decision-making? How do the At the same time, there is room for ful means, and in conformity with the Secretary-General and the UN civil serv- further. Most Permanent Missions in principles of justice and international ants support the decision-making and New York have – with a few exceptions law, adjustment or settlement of inter- actions? – a relatively small number of delegates, national disputes or situations which The purpose enshrined in article 1, a fact that undermines the countries’ ca- might lead to a breach of the peace; paragraph 4 thus strikes at the heart pacity to fully engage in every process of the discussions on UN reform and and decision. This is in itself an inter- 1.2 To develop friendly relations among its effectiveness in achieving the other esting indicator of the overall equality, nations based on respect for the principle three purposes. Considering what is at capacity and quality of the decision- of equal rights and self-determination stake, it seems critical to give it careful making in the UN. of peoples, and to take other appropri- and practical consideration. Another indicator is the frequent use ate measures to strengthen universal A number of very concrete questions of “agreed language” in the preparation peace; emerge. What does “To be a centre for of new Resolutions, i.e. language used harmonizing the actions of nations” in past Resolutions and therefore not 1.3 To achieve international co-oper- mean, require, and entail? If the UN problematic or requiring negotiations. ation in solving international prob- needs to be such a harmonising centre, Whereas this can be useful to reiterate lems of an economic, social, cultural, what are the consequences for, and legit- certain positions, it also highlights the or humanitarian character, and in imate expectations of, UN civil servants, limited capacity and, occasionally, the promoting and encouraging respect for and what is the role they are expected to limited will of Member States to fully human rights and for fundamental play? To what extent are Member States engage in negotiations which fully and freedoms for all without distinction as really willing to fully cooperate, through holistically address new and existing to race, sex, language, or religion; their governmental agencies and other challenges, with clear consequences developing the united nations New Routes 2/2011 55 for the quality of the decision-making ttar and the relevance of the Resolutions A adopted. Delegates have a complex job, often misunderstood and unrecognised. One could also question whether it is fair to Photo/Maher N expect, from the small number of del- egates in most Permanent Missions, the knowledge and ability to negotiate Photo: U on all the issues that are on the General Assembly, Economic and Social Coun- cil and Security Council’s agendas. The above-mentioned challenges are certainly not only delegates’ responsi- bility. International civil servants have a large responsibility too, as do Ministries for Foreign Affairs that are to support delegates and the way a country’s posi- tion is formulated. The apparent vast- ness of the decision-making question cannot be a reason for not tackling it. Attempts were made with the “Agenda for Reform” under Secretary-General Kofi Annan, and it is critical that these be continued.

Strengthening the tenants of cooperation One may argue that, at the time of the adoption of the UN Charter, collective decision-making and cooperation were an aspiration, an option. Today, how- ever, given the challenges that human- ity faces, they are a must, regardless of the existence of legal obligations. As a consequence, there is a need for a con- tinued renewal of international politics and its spirit and foundations. An open-minded and close consid- eration of the quality and effectiveness of collective decision-making and ac- tion for the attainment of the common good articulated in the UN Charter, vari- ous UN General Assembly Declarations and Resolutions and international law A United Nations peacekeeper during exchanges between the French UNIFIL needs to be guided by certain princi- contingent and the Shiite militia of Hizbollah in Marrakeh, Lebanon. ples. These include “cooperation based on universality” – a firmly established principle, as Hammarskjöld put it in his tion of the “common good” of human- the growth of the potential of each na- Introduction to the Report on the Work ity requires developing new forms of tion. This will, in turn, strengthen their of the Organisation in 1959. Other criti- cooperation. ability to contribute to the collective cal principles include “domestic juris- Cooperation for the common good efforts toward achieving the common diction”, “national interest” and “self- of humanity requires an uncompromis- ends expressed in the UN Charter. With determination”. ing commitment and the best that every this new meaning and intent only, they Cooperation can be driven by selfish country can express and offer. In this should be invoked and respected, as and partisan interests or the effort to context, principles like “national inter- they are instrumental to an ever greater achieve a set common goal that tran- est”, “domestic jurisdiction” and “self- global cooperation. scends partisan interests. Throughout determination” need new connotations Through the UN humanity is con- the millennia human beings, groups, and interpretations. These principles ducting an unprecedented experiment. tribes, peoples, and nations have de- can no longer be misused to justify Although it was established 65 years veloped forms of cooperation charac- and perpetuate selfish behaviour and ago, this timeframe is certainly noth- terised by a variety of purposes. We departures from agreed frameworks. ing vis-à-vis humanity’s lifespan. It is need to ask ourselves whether the no- Yet, they are fundamental in allowing the first time in history that humanity is 56 New Routes 2/2011 developing the united nations

On 4 December 1953, the UN Staff Day, Dag Hammarskjöld challenged the Photo/x

N UN staff: “…Why are the standards and the independence of the Secretariat so important? The more I see of the work Photo: U in the United Nations, the more con- vinced I feel of this importance. Coun- tries are arming in order to negotiate from a position of strength. The Secre- tariat too has to negotiate, not only in its own interest, but for the cause of peace and a peaceful development of our world. The weight we carry is not deter- mined by physical force or the number of people who form the constituency. It is based solely on trust in our impartial- ity, our experience and knowledge, our maturity of judgment. Those qualities are our weapons, in no way secret weap- ons but as difficult to forge as guns and bombs. The Secretariat has an essential part to play in the world affairs today. We will play it if we accept the price for building up our position of strength. We must reject a role of insignificance subject to constant criticism and shirk- ing the risks of a full part in our world. We must choose a role of responsibility Dag Hammarskjöld at one of the observation posts along the Armistice Demarcation and independence, sacrificing part of Line in Gaza, December 1958 manned by the 2nd Battalion of the Grenadiers Regiment the illusory safety you may derive from of the Indian UNEF contingent. a locked door.”3 UN civil service is a relatively new concept in the history of international trying to collectively organise itself and civil servants are instrumental and thus relations and exchanges among peo- plan and execute actions for the com- share accountability for the outcomes. ples. A deeper understanding of the mon good on a global scale. Such an UN civil servants need to be “trusted” in UN civil service, of its role and poten- experiment needs to be fully compre- order to be “entrusted” with this respon- tial, by UN civil servants, governments hended in its grandiosity, and requires sibility. A well-informed assumption of and civil society at large is necessary. the uncompromising and full commit- responsibility is of paramount impor- Hence the need for an open and public ment of all those who feel ready and tance and requires a lot of professional debate, study, research, training, and want to contribute and engage. The and personal preparation. UN civil serv- academic teaching, within and outside UN needs to be geared up to make sure ants serve, and are therefore account- the UN, on the further development of that all those who are able to contribute able not only to Member States, but also international civil service. Dag Ham- to well-informed decisions and actions other constituencies, and ultimately to marskjöld placed a lot of importance on can do so. Changes may also involve the the “Peoples of the United Nations”. and dedicated considerable work to this, UN leaving operational tasks to more On the day of his arrival to New York as indicated in his speeches, including effective organisations of governmen- to take up his functions as the Secre- the famous lecture in Oxford in May tal and non-governmental, public and tary-General of the UN, on 9 April 1953, 1961. It is critical to bring this legacy private nature, in order to focus on and Dag Hammarskjöld affirmed: “The forward. + utilise its political capital to leverage in- public servant is there in order to as- ternational cooperation. sist, so to say from the inside, those who take the decisions which frame The role and potential of the 1 The author is a UN staff member. The views history. He should – as I see it – listen, expressed in this article are not necessarily UN civil service analyze and learn to understand fully the views of the United Nations. Feedback is The UN civil servants have a special the forces at work and the interests at welcome – please, write to: duty and role to play in these collective stake so that he will be able to give the [email protected] efforts in decision-making and action right advice when the situation calls for 2 The International Public Servant, in Dag in the attainment of the common good, it. Do not think that he – in following Hammarskjöld – Servant of Peace, edited by W. Foote, Harper and Row Publishers, New York, as articulated by the UN Charter and this line of personal policy – takes but 1962, pa 27. Resolutions and international law, and a passive part in the development. It is 3 The Weapons of the Secretariat, in Dag in making the UN “a centre for harmo- a most active one. But he is active as Hammarskjöld – Servant of Peace, edited by W. nizing the actions of nations in the at- an instrument, a catalyst, perhaps an Foote, Harper and Row Publishers, New York, tainment of these common ends”. UN inspirer – he serves.”2 1962, pp 32-33. reviews New Routes 2/2011 57 The relevance of normative global frameworks Reviews Indivisible Human Rights. A History, by Daniel J. Whelan. Philadelphia and Oxford: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010 Decolonization and the Evolution of International At the side of Hammarskjöld Human Rights, by Roland Burke. Philadelphia: University of Robert A. Hill/Edmond J. Keller (eds.), Trustee for the Human Pennsylvania Press, 2010 Community. Ralph J. Bunche, the United Nations, and the De- Universal Human Rights and Extraterritorial Obligations, colonization of Africa. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press 2010 edited by Mark Gibney/Sigrun Skogly. Philadelphia: University Ralph Bunche (1904-1971) was a scholar of African studies of Pennsylvania Press, 2010 who, in 1934, became the first Afro-American to receive a These three titles published during 2010 in the “Pennsylva­ doctorate in political science. As a key diplomat in the US nia Studies in Human Rights” series deserve recognition. American Foreign Service he was involved in the establish­ They should all be relevant reference books on the shelves ment of the United Nations (UN) in 1945, where he had of libraries and offices dealing with human rights and global main responsibility for drafting the chapters of the Charter, governance-related subject matters. Their focus on norma­ dealing with trusteeship and non-self governing territo­ tive frameworks as designed, adopted and at times even im­ ries. He served as chief aid to the UN-appointed Swedish plemented by the United Nations (UN) and within domestic mediator Count Folke Bernadotte in the efforts to establish politics as well as bi- and multinational relations presents a peaceful solution to the conflict over Palestine. After incisive overviews of the emergence of an international legal Bernadotte’s assassination in 1948 he achieved an armi­ order and its relevance (and at times irrelevance) for human stice between Israel and the Arab states and was awarded well being. the Nobel Peace Prize in 1950 as the first recipient coming The historical discourses and stages of contestation over from outside of Europe. A few years later he became one of the definition and applicability of the Universal Charter of the closest UN officials at the side of the second Secretary- Human Rights is a fascinating case in point, which shows General of the UN, Dag Hammarskjöld, and played a major that ‘the South’ (and in particular representatives from the role in establishing the UN peacekeeping mission during the colonised world, not least from Africa) was indeed able to Suez crisis. claim ownership of these fundamental princples during the Bunche’s pioneering role both as a remarkable scholar in 1950s and 1960s – principles which were also created for the African studies as well as an international civil servant con­ sake of their own emancipation – if only to later forget about tributing to the UN’s role in the decolonisation processes on them at times or dismiss them as instruments of Eurocen­ the African continent is at the centre of this volume, pub­ tric cultural imperialism when the same conventions were lished with the intention “to situate Bunche within African applied to the new governments. Double standards are, so American intellectual history and within the focused world to say, among the universally shared techniques for those in of the UN’s critical role in the end of European empires in power. This makes the thorough stock taking exercise by all sub-Saharan Africa”, as the editors state in their Introduc­ three of these volumes a valuable undertaking, since it helps tion (p. x). to remind us how much has already been established, at As a student exposed to, among others, Melville J. Her­ least in principle, if not in practice. skovits, Bronislaw Malinowski and Isaac Shapera, Ralph Daniel J. Whelan presents a concise and in-depth analy­ Bunche displayed the ambiguities of a radically minded, sis of the various generations of human rights as codified anti-imperialist inspired Afro-American, who at the same within the UN since their beginning. It is a meticulously time tended towards pragmatism. This tension, if not documented source book with regard to the different stages discrepancy, is sensibly observed and sketched in some of and thematic foci in the development of the contemporary the five chapters in the first part, focusing on “Bunche the international standards. Africanist Intellectual”. Equally enlightening are the four Roland J. Burke pays special attention to the role of the chapters in the second part on “Bunche the Statesman for human rights discourse in the decolonisation processes. Africa”, which concentrate on Bunche’s role in the Congo. The book’s merits lie especially in its documentation of the Bunche’s interaction with Lumumba highlights a mis­ views from the so-called Third World countries during the match due mainly to clashes in the personal chemistry, various stages of their struggles for emancipation and the suspicion on both sides and miscommunication. Taken shifts of emphasis – if not fundamental change in views – together, this escalated into a toxic personal relationship as a result of securing a new position. It is a fascinating characterised by animosity and mutual contempt. This re­ narrative of how power corrupts and how perceptions sulted in deadly consequences for Lumumba and one of the change with the change of power relations. biggest failures of a mission in the history of the UN. The volume edited by Mark Gibney and Sigrun Skogly This is a timely tribute in recognition of an outstand­ shifts the focus to the international arena and issues which ing Afro-American with an exceptional career, who notably know no borders. The contributors are highly authoritative contributed as much to the state of the art in US-American and competent when dealing with issues such as torture, African Studies as to the transition to independence on arms trade, international refugee law, environmental rights, the African continent, even though at times not with much health, food, labour standards, housing and water. fortune, as the sad story of the Congo illustrates. All three volumes underline that rights of people are al­ ways also obligations by states and their governments, that Henning Melber the ratification of treaties, conventions and other normative Executive Director of the Dag Hammarskjöld Foundation frameworks imply entitlements by human beings and duties and Research Associate with the University of Pretoria by institutions if they are relevant in their implementation. 58 New Routes 2/2011 reviews But even if ratified without direct consequences in terms of Celebrating a legendary peacemaker their applicability, they create a normative reality, which is useful as a reference point for those seeking to benefit and Experiments with Peace: Celebrating Peace on Johan Galtung’s continue their struggles for a better life. 80th Birthday. Edited by Jørgen Johansen and John Y. Jones. Pambazuka Press, Networkers SouthNorth and the Dag Ham- Henning Melber marskjöld Program at Voksenåsen, 2010 Executive Director of the Dag Hammarskjöld Foundation and Research Associate with the University of Pretoria On celebrating Johan Galtung’s 80th birthday, what could be more appropriate than having 36 well known scholars and thinkers in the field of peace research illustrate different experiments with peace inspired by the work of Professor Galtung, ‘the father of peace and conflict studies’ and the The mechanisms of transitional justice founder of the International Peace Research Institute? The articles present a broad picture of the thoughts, theories Judging War, Judging History – Behind Truth and Reconciliation and actions taken by ‘El Profesore’ to the field of peace by Pierre Hazan. Stanford University Press, 2010 (originally research. published in French in 2007 under the title Juger la guerre, juger Archbishop Desmond Tutu praises Galtung as a peace­ l’histoire: Du bon usage des commissions vérité et de la justice maker and activist who has dedicated his life to the ongoing internationale. Presses Universitaires de France) processes of understanding, spreading and making peace. The post-Cold War era has witnessed a rise of truth com­ Narayan Desai, chancellor of Gujarat Vidyapith University missions and international courts on several continents, established by Mahatma Gandhi, thinks of Galtung as one endeavouring to pave the way for reconciliation and recon­ of those personalities born to this earth to meet a need of struction by bringing justice to victims and re-establishing the hour. Gandhi and his unarmed struggle for India was the state of law in war torn societies. the need of the hour for an India struggling for freedom and “Judging War, Judging History – Behind Truth and Recon­ lacking weapons to fight for it. Inspired by Ghandi, Galtung ciliation” examines the challenges of reconstructing shat­ saw peace and ‘peace learning’ as the road, a way of living, tered societies in the era of globalisation by taking a critical not a milestone at the end of the road. His personality as look at the processes and mechanisms behind transitional an improviser and a creative person determined to carry justice and reconciliation. The author questions the ideologi­ out what he had set his mind on is well captured in eco- cal foundation of transitional justice which he claims to be philosopher Sigmund Setreng’s article about Galtung on anchored in “the politics of punishment and pardon”, aiming the road to India. Born between the two world wars, he took to condemn the perpetrators of violent crimes and to recon­ upon himself at a young age to understand, analyse and cile and heal torn societies. find solutions to conflicts and to do it in a scientific and This is further illustrated in three case studies that explore systematic way. experiences of truth and reconciliation commissions in the Many associate Galtung with the ‘conflict triangle’ as a beginning of the 21st century, with the focus on the world‘s means to understand the dynamics of a conflict: attitudes third conference against racism in Durban, South Africa, (A), behaviour (B), and the conflict issue (C). Students of organised by UNESCO, Morocco´s Equity and Reconciliation peace and conflict all over the world are familiar with the Commission, which was established on the initiative of King ABC of a conflict. Galtung also presented an approach to Mohammad VI of Morocco to examine human rights viola­ conflict resolution divided into the stages of peacemaking, tions committed by the government, and the International peacebuilding and peacekeeping. Several of the authors Criminal Court, which investigated war crimes and crimes illustrate how he taught and dealt with these three phases. against humanity committed by the leaders of the Lord’s Peace journalism is another concept developed by Gal­ Resistance army in Uganda. tung, which is commonly recognised. As opposed to war Example by example, the author carefully lays the journalism, used by many journalists, peace journalism is groundwork for his criticism, pointing out the difficulties truth oriented, profound and should present a more accu­ in reinforcing social cohesion among the victims of vio­ rate picture of what is going on. lence and injustice and the ambiguity of the legal basis for Returning to Galtung as a peacemaker and looking at UN contemporary transitional justice. He discusses the chal­ Peacemaking 50 years after the death of Dag Hammarskjöld, lenge with growing claims of victimhood and continuous Henning Melber, Executive Director of the Dag Hammar­ demands for recognition of suffering by those who identify skjöld Foundation, compares the two great peacemakers themselves as victims, and argues that instruments and and stresses that both of them felt responsibility for the institutions applied in contemporary transitional justice, welfare of the people. i.e. international tribunals, courts and resolutions, have an Both Galtung and Hammarskjöld also felt strongly for undermining effect on a sovereign state’s legal, political nature. Hammarskjöld loved spending time in nature and and symbolic influence. Galtung engaged in climate change conferences. Professor The book raises questions that have no clear-cut answers Peter Wallensteen gives examples of how peace research­ and it reveals built-in weaknesses in the machinery of tran­ ers can be useful for peacemaking. Galtung has dedicated sitional justice that need to be addressed so that it can con­ his life to peace and he is still going strong. His plan for the tribute to nationwide reconciliation while implementing new coming 20 years is to write fiction! value systems and institutional structures in torn societies. Helena Grusell MA in Political Science, teacher and research assistant, Tiina Saksman Harb Department of Peace and Conflict Research, Uppsala Desk Officer, Swedish Civil Contingencies Agency University reviews New Routes 2/2011 59

Power and conflict in Sri Lanka investigates the politics of political reform and comes to Power and politics in the shadow of Sri Lanka’s armed conflict. the conclusion that the end of the war was not accompa­ Edited by Camilla Orjuela, Sida Studies No.25, 2010 nied by an end to the reform-resistance of the Sri Lankan The study can be downloaded in PDF format from www.sida.se. state. Power analysis also has to take gender aspects into account, and this perspective is provided by Sepali Kotta­ On 19 May 2009, after 26 years of civil war, Sri Lanka’s Presi­ goda, a civil society representative with wide academic and dent Mahinda Rajapaksa declared that his armed forces had practical experience. She discusses the poor representa­ defeated the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam. The defeat tion of women in politics and portrays civil society efforts of one of the belligerents meant that the war had ended. to change this. Finally, political economist Sunil Bastian However – as this volume shows – many of the underlying focuses on the nexus between market economy and politi­ causes of the war remained unresolved. Edited by Camilla cal power. Orjuela, Associate Professor at the School of Global Studies, This publication shows how different determinants shape University of Gothenburg, this analysis aims to contribute to the struggle for power in a post-war reconstruction proc­ an understanding of the complexities of power in Sri Lanka ess. It highlights that much of the uneven power relations, and the dynamic nature of post-war reconstruction. The as well as attempts to challenge them, remain and will introduction by the editor lays the analytical basis for the in- continue to shape Sri Lanka’s political future. International depth examination of different spheres of power in war-time actors inevitably become part of the struggle for power – as and post-war Sri Lanka. Orjuela defines power with reference they have in the past – and therefore need to be highly aware to i.a. Foucault’s power concept – emphasising that power is of the dynamics in place. In-depth understanding is thus as much a capacity of an actor to influence as it is produced crucial for devising strategies for contributing to a positive by those who obey – and outlines major causes of war and transformation of structures of power. key determinants of power dynamics in post-war Sri Lanka. One of the authors in this volume, Jayadeva Uyangoda, Charlotte Booth Professor of Political Science at the University of Colombo, Programme Advisor, the Life & Peace Institute

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