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I

Roman History: Its Geographic and Human Foundations

Introduction to Roman History When most inhabitants became a single entity, the populus people think of , they envision the Rome Romanus, the . This expansion, of Julius and the that however, eventually carried Roman power so succeeded him. That is the Rome entertainingly, far beyond its advantageous Italian base that it but not always accurately, portrayed in shows could no longer maintain the cohesion achieved and films like the HBO series Rome, the at its height. It eventually disintegrated in the Masterpiece Theater production of I , face of both internal and external pressures. or famous Hollywood -and-sandal epics like , Ben Hur, , The Fall Geography Modern technology often seems of the Roman Empire, and Gladiator. Prior to to have given human beings mastery over the Caesar, however, the extends physical world. Therefore, many people overlook back from the Republic to foundations laid in geographic factors in historical developments. prehistoric . The prehistoric foundations will Also, modern historians rightly wish to avoid the be outlined briefly in this chapter. Subsequent simplistic fallacies of geographic determinism. chapters will cover the full scope of Roman Nevertheless, geography and the physical history from the beginnings of the city of Rome environment are important in shaping the course in primitive villages on some hills beside the of human events and should not be ignored River to the disintegration of the Roman in trying to explain the past. For example, the Empire about 1300 to 1400 years later. reason why Italy, unlike Crete and mainland To understand this whole complex history, , did not reach a high level of civilization it is necessary to begin with its geographic, in the Age is that the latter were closer demographic, and ethnic context. That con- to the even earlier centers of civilization in the text shaped the development of Rome from a and . It simply took longer for collection of prehistoric villages to the urban the influence of older civilizations to spread republic whose citizens and allies embraced farther west to Italy. Nevertheless, once Italy all the peoples of Italy. That accomplishment had achieved an internal level of development on gave the Romans the resources and outlook par with that of the older centers of civilization that helped them conquer a vast overseas em- in the eastern Mediterranean basin, a number of pire. They eventually united the greater part geographic factors contributed to its becoming of western , much of the Ancient Near the center of a Mediterranean-wide empire East, and most of North , whose free under the control of Rome.

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Maritime Orientation and Advantages (cappellaccio, Peperino, Grotta Oscura, and Separated from the rest of Europe by the to travertine); and volcanic pozzolana for making the north, Italy is naturally oriented toward the cement. not only possessed these re- sea. The west coast has access to the Tyrrhenian sources but also was rich in valuable metals. It Sea, the southeast coast overlooks the Ionian produced lead, zinc, copper, silver, and tin. On Sea, and the east coast from the “heel” of the off-shore island of (Ilva), it controlled the peninsula’s “boot” northward fronts the most of ancient Italy’s ore. Adriatic. Italy juts out like a giant pier from No Serious Physical Barriers to Internal the continental mass of Europe southeastward Unity Topography made it possible for a 750 miles into the middle of the Mediterranean single, centrally located, and populous city proper. Also, the island of is separated to unite Italy and utilize its great resources from the “toe” of Italy by only the narrow Straits and strategic position to expand in the wider of Messana (Messena, Messina) and from North Mediterranean. Although the Apennine Africa by only ninety miles of . Therefore, Mountains cut through Italy in a great arc Italy and Sicily naturally the sea lanes swinging out from the northwest southeastward that link the eastern and western Mediterranean along the Adriatic coast and then back to the basins and the lands around them. Before the southwest coast along the , they rise of greater powers to the north and west, are not a serious barrier to internal unity. On the power that controlled Italy was in an ideal average, they are 4000 to 6000 feet high and are strategic and economic position for dominating pierced by numerous easy passes. Moreover, the whole Mediterranean world. most of Italy is easily accessible by water, the most efficient avenue of transport and Natural and Human Resources Bounded communication in ancient times. With its long by the Alps to the north and northwest and by coasts and a width no greater than 150 miles the Apennines to the south, the northern part south of the valley, much of Italy could be of Italy is a vast alluvial plain watered by the Po reached directly by ancient ships. Navigable and Adige rivers. On the west coast, between rivers like the Po, , Tiber, , and the Apennines and the Tyrrhenian Sea, are Volturnus provided convenient water routes the wide lowland plains of Etruria, , between the sea and the interior. The Tiber and . They are fertilized by a layer of River, its tributaries, and their valleys were volcanic ash and weathered lava ejected by the particularly helpful to Rome in uniting the many volcanoes that had been active in earlier peoples of under its control. After geologic times. The Arno, the Tiber, the Liris, that, Rome had the resources to dominate the and the Volturnus river systems provide them rest of Italy. water. The fertile and well-watered plains of northern and western Italy are among the largest The Site of Rome As the Roman historian and best agricultural areas in the Mediterranean noted, Rome occupied “a site uniquely world. They supported dense populations and adapted to the growth of a great city” (Book made Italy, in Vergil’s words, the “mother of 5.45.5). Rome was centrally located in the men,” the main source of ancient military might. fertile plains of western Italy fifteen miles from Ancient Italy also had other valuable re- the mouth of the Tiber River on the northern sources. Although it was not rich by modern edge of Latium. Here the Tiber River makes a standards, it was for its time. Extensive forests big eastward bend and is slowed somewhat by provided abundant wood for fuel and timber midstream. Near this same spot, for ships and buildings until they were over- seven hills ranging from 200 feet to 700 feet cut in the late first millennium b.c. The most above sea level rise near the east (left) bank of abundant mineral resources were stone build- the river. They make the site easily defensible. ing materials: hard stones like marble, granite, The hills nearest the Tiber are the Capitoline, basalt, and flint; softer, more easily worked the Palatine, and the Aventine, which are types like sandstone and various kinds of tufa separated from one another by intervening

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valleys. Farther to the east and enclosing the The Tiber River and its valley provided three foregoing hills in a kind of arc, stand Rome with communications north into central the other four: the Quirinal, the Viminal, the Italy. Possession of the bridgehead nearest to Esquiline, and the Caelian. On those seven the mouth of the Tiber also gave the Romans hills eventually stood the city of Rome. Two easy access to the coastal route between Etruria other hills across the river, the and and the plains of Latium and Campania. Thus, the Vatican, were ultimately incorporated, too. Rome’s geographic position in Italy made it Although the importance of the Tiber River the focal point of the natural communication for Rome’s growth and success as a city can routes running up, down, and across the pen- be exaggerated, it was great. Opposite Tiber insula. Even in early times, the Tiber and its Island, the river’s slowed current and gently valley were major routes for bringing salt from inward-curving left bank provided an ideal the coast into central Italy. landing place for ancient merchant ships and Control of crucial water and land routes river boats. The island also provided the first for communications in Italy also permitted convenient ford and bridgehead nearest to the Rome’s armies to strike in almost any direction river’s mouth. Sandbars at the Tiber’s mouth at will with minimum expenditure of effort. and Rome’s location some distance upstream The seven hills made possible the observation protected the city from attack by large war of enemy movements, and the proximity of the ships and sudden sea raids by smaller vessels. hills to one another facilitated the fusion of Eventually, Rome became Italy’s largest river several village communities into a single city. port as Greek, Phoenician, and Etruscan mer- Ultimately, it became the largest in area and chants took advantage of its ideal location for population not only in Italy but also, perhaps, trade. in the whole premodern world.

PINCIAN 4th Century B.C. wall

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T L L A A N N N I s I u Campus i

A R M E I I p C s i

I Martius U V S Q T Q C

A U V Subura I

L E

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N N I L E

O IT P Fagutal A Romanum C a m li Op s ru e piu J ab A Vel V N Forum PALATINE I C Boarium U C L ir U cu CAELIAN M s M a xi r mu e s b i AVENTINE T

0 400 800 METERS

Site of

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Strategically located for both defense and central Italy at , about twenty offense, Rome was a river port, bridge town, miles northwest of Rome, a large road center, and magnet of trade and popula- village dated to ca. 5700 b.c. has been discov- tion. It was thus favored by in ancient ered under the present water level. It seems times to be the capital of a unified Italy. Then, to have been settled by people who brought given Italy’s central location, natural resources, with them a fully developed Neolithic farming and large population, Rome became the seat culture. Their large seaworthy canoes may in- of a Mediterranean empire. dicate that they originally came some distance by sea, perhaps from previously settled south- The Peoples and Cultures of Pre-Roman eastern Italy, which had large concentrations Italy Demographic factors are another of Neolithic villages. source of economic, social, political, military, Painted Neolithic from southern and cultural strength. The population of Italy Italy has links eastward to and the by the beginning of the Peloponnese and westward to Capri and the (ca. 500 b.c.) was the product of a diverse Lipari Islands. In , there were peo- ethnic and cultural heritage that stretched back ple who produced small clay female figurines thousands of years. Although later Roman and dark, polished, square-mouthed pottery myths and legends are not literally historical, decorated with incised geometric designs. They they do reflect an understanding that the early had cultural links with people on the northeast- Romans had heterogeneous origins. They ern Adriatic coast and possibly eastern central stand in sharp contrast with the ethnically Europe. People in northwestern Italy, however, exclusive myths of origin embraced by ancient had stronger connections with peoples of west- Greek city-states. Conflict and violence not ern and eastern . withstanding, the Romans were more willing It is clear that there were flourishing internal to assimilate other people. They united Italy and external trade networks during the middle into a strong federation based on a degree of and late Neolithic periods. Southeastern vil- equality and fairness unusual for ancient times. lages obtained obsidian from the Lipari Islands in the southwest. Stone axes of polished ser- From Times to the End of the pentine and jadeite came from both south- : 700,000 to 1000 b.c. Human western and northwestern Italy. In northern habitation in Italy goes back to at least Italy, during the transition to the Bronze Age 700,000 b.c. during the Lower Paleolithic from around 2500 b.c. onward, artifacts first of period (2,500,000–200,000 b.c.). Numerous copper and then of bronze have parallels with finds from the Upper Paleolithic period those from . Southern Italian (40,000—10,000 b.c.) are associated with copper and bronze goods from the same period human beings of the present type, Homo have similarities with those from the Aegean. sapiens sapiens. How much, if at all, groups Material culture and the technology of metal- from these periods contributed to the later working advanced more rapidly in the Italian population of Italy is not known, but from North. There, the trade in from northern the (10,000–6000 b.c.) and the Europe crossed the Alps into the on Neolithic (6000–2500 b.c.), there seems to its way to the Aegean world via the Adriatic. have been a continuous development of By ca. 1700 b.c., Bronze Age culture was peoples and cultures within Italy from both flourishing throughout Italy. It can be seen in internal growth and external influences. the substantial villages of the Peschiera and Changes occurred rapidly in early Neolithic Terramara cultures in northern Italy. They were times. Genetic evidence supports the the- built on pilings beside Alpine lakes and in the Po ory that Neolithic farmers, building on the valley. There are several contemporary sites in “Agricultural Revolution” that had originated Campania in the vicinity of Mt. Vesuvius. One in Southwest , migrated from and of them, near Nola, is a Bronze Age . the Levant to the and then to Italy. In It is preserved to an amazing degree by the ash

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and mud that buried it during a massive erup- physical and cultural assimilation and modifi- tion of Vesuvius ca. 1700 b.c. Another major cation as they migrated to new regions. Thus, site was recently discovered at Poggiomarino on new Indo-European tongues arose. the Sarno River It is ca. fifteen miles south of The various Indo-European-speaking groups Nola and only six miles northeast of Pompeii. that evolved over time seem to have shared some Settled ca. 1500 b.c., it was continuously inhab- other important cultural characteristics besides ited during the rest of the Bronze Age and the the linguistic. Words relating to weapons, horses, early . Then, it was overwhelmed by a and are prominent in their vocabularies, flood ca. 500 b.c. and buried in mud. The houses but there are few terms relating to farming and were built on pilings, as at the Peschiera and even fewer connected with seafaring. Probably, Terramara sites and the even earlier Neolithic therefore, early Indo-European-speaking people site at Lake Bracciano. The pilings were used originated as warlike, seminomadic pastoral- to create artificial islets linked together by a so- ists. They appear to have had a patriarchal so- phisticated system of canals. The site seems to cial structure, often organized in tribal kinship have been a center of manufacturing connected groups. A king and his council usually provided with the long-distance trade in high-status goods leadership, but ultimate sovereignty often re- like bronze and Baltic amber. sided in an assembly of adult males. A polythe- istic religion that prominently featured a patriar- Indo-European-Speaking Peoples and the chal sky also seems to have been common. Late Bronze Age: 1300 to 1100 b.c. The late At the beginning of the late Bronze Age Bronze Age seems to have witnessed the arrival (ca. 1300 b.c.), the first Indo-European speak- of Indo-European-speaking peoples into Italy. ers to enter Italy may have crossed the Alps and The term Indo-European has no biological mixed with the existing inhabitants of the Po significance. It has replaced earlier labels like valley. At the very least, major cultural changes , Indo-Aryan, and Indo-German, which took place that could be associated with an are associated with untenable nineteenth- influx of Indo-European speakers: domestic and early-twentieth-century racist ideas. horses and certain types of pottery appear for Indo-European is primarily a linguistic label the first time in the archaeological record of used to identify the family of closely related Italy. Also, representations of and languages that include in India, Persian, four-wheeled wagons that many scholars associ- Armenian, the Slavic tongues, Greek, the Celtic ate with Indo-European culture were carved in dialects, the , English, , Alpine rocks on the borders of northern Italy. and all the Latin-derived . As yet, however, no actual remains of such ve- Linguistic scholars have reconstructed a hy- hicles from that period have been found in Italy. pothetical Indo-European mother tongue from At the same time, the fairly uniform spread the common characteristics of these languages. of what is called the Apennine culture through- It seems to have originated among people liv- out the Apennine range may reflect an influx of ing between the Black and Caspian seas in other Indo-European speakers. They could have what is now southern Russia. Probably in the come from the Balkans and entered Italy on the third millennium b.c., various groups of Indo- east and southeast coasts by way of the Ionian European speakers began to migrate. Some Sea. Their pottery is similar in style and decora- headed south. Others went north and west. tion to that from the same period in Greece and They resettled and intermingled—sometimes the Balkans. On the other hand, the Apennine peacefully, sometimes violently—with the ex- culture could also have grown out of the previ- isting inhabitants of territories into which they ous Bronze Age cultures and been influenced migrated. Their language and culture became through trading contacts with Greece and the modified in ways that gradually distinguished Balkans. The people of the Apennine culture them from other Indo-European-speaking and the other Bronze Age peoples of Italy had groups. Eventually, some people from the new access to late Bronze Age trade goods, such as groups would undergo a similar process of pottery and metalware that were brought from

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Greece by Mycenaean traders along the Italian name from the ancient town of Ateste (Este) coast. In fact, the stimulus of Mycenaean trade ca. fifty-five miles northeast of . In created a common style of bronze artifacts from much of the rest of Italy, the central Europe, across Italy, and around the marks the transition from the Bronze to the Aegean. Iron Age during the tenth century b.c. in Italy. The spread of what is called the Urnfield cul- The term Villanovan does not signify any ethnic ture from central Europe across the Alps into group. It from Villanova, a small hamlet Italy around 1100 b.c. much more clearly rep- five miles east of Bologna, where many of the resents an influx of Indo-European speakers artifacts typically associated with Villanovan than does the spread of the Apennine culture. culture were first discovered. The earliest This development probably was associated with examples of Villanovan culture have been the widespread disturbances and movements of found farther south, in southern Etruria and peoples that characterized the late Bronze Age northern Latium, including the site of Rome. all over central Europe and the eastern half of The peoples who produced the Villanovan the Mediterranean. The name Urnfield is taken culture probably evolved from interaction from the distinctive practice of cremating the between those associated with the earlier dead and placing their ashes in urns that were and various other peoples with buried close together in . These urns whom they traded and intermingled. were all variations of a general design called bi- The Villanovan culture carried on many of conical because they were tapered toward the the traditions associated with the Urnfield cul- top and bottom. The upper part was usually ture. People continued to live in curved-sided covered with a top shaped like a bowl or helmet. The Indo-European evolved north of the Alps in association with the later stages of the Urnfield culture. The Italic Indo-European dialect group evolved south of the Alps in the areas where Urnfield material culture appears even later. Both groups have certain common linguistic elements that they do not share with other Indo-European languages. Therefore, it is hard to deny some significant influx of Indo-European-speaking people into Italy from north of the Alps. In the predigital age, people did not adopt significant elements of a new language through mere cultural con- tact nearly so readily as they adopted a new ma- terial culture to which they were exposed. The Urnfielders, as they are called, spread rapidly from the Po valley to the southern lim- its of Italy. They seem at times to have taken over existing communities and at other times to have been assimilated into them. While Urnfield settlements were numerous, they in no way replaced or overwhelmed previous populations. Instead, they and the older inhab- itants interacted to produce several distinctive local cultures and populations in the Iron Age.

Early Iron Age Italy: 1000 to 750 b.c. In A typical biconical cinerary urn for northeastern Italy, the Iron Age culture of the in the Villanovan period. (Courtesy SEF/ Atestines emerged around 950 b.c. It takes its Art Resource, NY)

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huts made of on a frame of River. Their linguistic affiliations are unclear. poles, cremated their dead, and buried their They were probably descended in large part ashes in tall, biconical urns placed in round from the early Neolithic inhabitants of the area. holes or rectangular stone-lined tombs. Various In their predominantly mountain terrain, most metal tools, weapons, and small ornaments, of the Ligurians never reached a high level of such as brooches, bracelets, and razors, were development. In the second century b.c., they placed inside or around the tombs. In the South, were often the convenient targets for Roman the ashes of the dead were sometimes placed in commanders looking for easy triumphs. On the clay hut-urns, which were miniature versions of coast, however, several fine harbors like Genua the curved-sided huts used by the living. (Genoa), Savo (Savona), and Albingaunum Evidence of the kinds of cultural interac- (Albegna) offered their inhabitants the chance tions that took place can be seen at or near to become skilled sailors and merchants and to southern Villanovan sites where some people establish prosperous communities. did not cremate their dead but buried them in Etruscans To the east and south of the long, rectangular pits or trenches, fossae (sing. Ligurians were located people collectively known fossa), lined with stone. This tradition is prob- as Etruscans. Like their Greek contemporaries, ably derived from the Apennine culture that they shared a common language and general appeared earlier in this region. Nevertheless, culture but were politically fragmented and had to distinguish so-called Fossa People from many local differences. They spoke a non-Indo- Villanovans as different ethnic groups on the European language. The words of surviving basis of their different practices is meth- texts can be read because they are written odologically unsound. in an alphabet borrowed from the . On the other hand, these texts (long ones in The Peoples of Italy ca. 750 to 400 b.c. particular) cannot be fully understood, because The various prehistoric cultures of Italy are the language has no identifiable connection with known only from archaeological evidence. They any better-known language. The Etruscans were eventually evolved into a number of distinctive concentrated in Etruria, between the Arno and groups identified in the written sources of the Tiber rivers. Some extended north across the Roman history and further understood through Apennines into the Po valley from the Rubicon archaeological research. Numerous factors River to . Others moved contributed to their evolution: first, specific southward into Campania. They all developed a local conditions; then, commercial contact with rich, powerful urban culture and will be treated outsiders like the Phoenicians, Greeks, and more fully in the next chapter. emerging Celtic peoples north of the Alps; and, eventually, the heavy immigration of newer Veneti In the northeast, bounded by the settlers, such as the Greeks in the South and Atesis (Adige) River, the Alps, and the Adriatic the in the North. The Romans themselves eastward to Histria (), were the Veneti. came into existence through this same process. They eventually gave their name to . The process would continue as the Romans They were descended from the Atestines, and interacted with and absorbed (often violently) were excellent metalworkers, horse-breeders, the peoples identified in ancient historical and merchants. Their language was an Indo- sources. The names of these peoples will occur European dialect closely related to Latin but frequently in the next few chapters. It will be originally written in an alphabet borrowed helpful to give a brief overview of them now directly from the Etruscans. (see map, p. 8). (Celts) By the late fifth century Ligurians () The Ligurians were b.c., the central part of the Po valley, between composed of several different subgroups. They the Ligurians and the Veneti, had been heavily inhabited the northwest corner of Italy between settled by Gauls (Galli). They overwhelmed the Alps, the Ticinus River, and the western the earlier Etruscan inhabitants and eventually flank of the Apennines down to the Arno caused the Romans to call this area Cisalpine

M01_WARD6795_06_SE_C01.indd 7 20/06/13 4:17 PM Ligurians Phoenicians Gauls (Celts) Faliscans- Greeks Oscans Veneti

Etruscans Piceni () .

R ) e s Umbro- i d

A VENETI (

s T i i C s c I e i N E t n N u S O A s U M R BR A . E NI S Po R.

F R L I N I I A N LI T B G E G U S O A R I O P E I I U S N N A E U N S A I A G E N I Ariminum d T S E U N r R O rno R. M A B N i R ES U IA N a T S S ib e r t C Arretium R . P i A I C c E N S A N B I S S I N E V e S E ST IN a FALISCANS I A M E A Q F R U R Rome S E H I I NT LATINS E S AN R AM I NI N CI I VO L TE L iris S S R. CI Volturnus R.

ETRUSCANS O I A SC P A LUC Y G PITHECUSAE N S I A (AENARIA, ISCHIA) N Tarentum S CAMPANI Gulf of Tarentum Sybaris Tyrrhenian Thurii

Sea Petelia

Croton

LIPARI Ionian ISLANDS Messana Naulochus Sea

Mt. Locri Rhegium M AEGATES e ISLANDS d Lilybaeum S SICELS I A N i N I C O E t H e Agrigentum (Acragas) Syracuse P r r COSSURA a n e 0 50 100 150 MILES a n 050 100 150 KILOMETERS MELITA () S e a

Peoples of Early Italy

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Gaul, “ this of the Alps.” The Gauls each dialect retained a large element of the non- were a branch of the Indo-European Celts. Indo-European language spoken by earlier in- The Celtic family of languages and the Italic habitants of the region. The tribes represented dialects seem to share a common origin among by these dialects were primarily pastoralists and the Indo-European-speaking people of the peasant farmers. They constantly needed more Urnfield culture of the late Bronze Age (p. 6). land to support their growing populations. The Spreading out from central Europe, the Celts wealthier, more urbanized people of the neigh- had first moved west into France, the British boring plains, especially Latium and Campania, Isles, and Spain. Then they moved south and also often sought to expand their own territo- east into Italy, the Balkans, and finally Asia ries. The result was frequent and bitter conflict. Minor, where they became known as the Thus, the external history of Rome during the Galatians. early Republic (509–264 b.c.) revolves primarily around wars with neighboring tribes, particu- Latins On the west coast of central Italy larly the , , , and Samnites. south of the Tiber lies the fertile, well-watered plain of Latium, home of the Latins. They Oscans and Iapygians The Oscans origi- were another Indo-European-speaking group nally dwelt in the part of Lucania around that had evolved out of the general spread of Campania. They were largely descendants such speakers throughout most of Italy in the of an earlier, non-Indo-European-speaking late Bronze and early Iron Ages. Their Italic people. Sabellic speakers, particularly the dialect and that of the neighboring Faliscans Samnites, gradually moved into their terri- to the north made up one of the two major tory and superimposed their Sabellic, Indo- Italic dialect-groups that predominated in European dialect. Even before that, however, the central Apennine region. The foothills the Oscans already may have been influenced of the Apennines in eastern Latium and the by earlier Indo-European-speaking migrants. rolling central plain were ideal for herding Across the Apennines, along the lower and the cultivation of grain. Latium was well Adriatic and around the Gulf of Tarentum, forested until late in the first millennium b.c. were several tribes known collectively as and provided an abundant supply of wood for Iapygians. They had evolved in close cultural building and fuel. Accordingly, the Latins grew and commercial contact with Mycenaean and in numbers and developed many prosperous post-. There may well have individual towns— (destroyed been some admixture of migrants from the ca. 600 b.c.), Antium, Ardea, Aricia, Cora, Balkans, but certainty on this matter is impossi- , , Praeneste, Rome, ble. The Massapii were one of these tribes. They Tibur, and . Rome would eventually gave their name to Massapian, the language of unite all of the Latins. Through Rome, their the Iapygians. It, too, was Indo-European but Italic dialect would become one of the most was not part of the two Italic dialect-groups. important languages in the world. Umbro-Sabellians Throughout the ­central Piceni (Picentes) Various subgroups gen- Apennines, from the Rubicon in the North, erally identified as Piceni or Picentes inhab- where the mountains come close to the Adriatic ited the mid-Adriatic coast north and south at Ariminum (), and down through of between the Aesis and Campania and Lucania, dwelt various tribes of (Aternus) rivers. Their culture is not so uniform people called Umbro-Sabellians. They spoke as once thought, but there are enough similari- related Italic dialects previously called Osco- ties to continue to treat them together. They had Umbrian and now often referred to as Sabellic. a long tradition of stock raising supplemented Among these tribes were the Umbrians, with hunting and fishing. From the ninth cen- , , , Aequi, Marsi, Volsci, tury b.c. onward, they maintained active trade Campani, Lucani, and Samnites. Although their networks: across the Adriatic, north and south family of Italic dialects was Indo-European, along the Italian coast, and even west into

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Etruscan territory. The abundance of weapons The Greater Picture Geographic and de- found in early graves is compatible with their mographic factors greatly benefitted the later reputation among the Romans as tough Romans. First, Rome’s strategic location on and warlike people. Linguistic evidence for the the Tiber in west-central Italy enabled them northern area is not clear, but the people in the to create a powerful city. Then, Italy, which southern region seem to have spoken a tongue was rich in natural resources, posed few seri- firmly linked to the Sabellic dialects. A number ous topographical obstacles to control from of leading men from became impor- Rome’s central location. Also, by the fifth tant at Rome in the second and first centuries century b.c., Italy’s land supported an exten- b.c., the most important of whom was Pompey sive population of diverse ethno-linguistic the Great. groups. Their disunified descendants were absorbed by the centrally located Romans Greeks All around the coast of southern through either peaceful alliance or, more Italy from the Bay of to Tarentum, often, violent conquest. By the end of the first Greeks had established important colonies century b.c., they had all become citizens of since the end of the ninth century b.c. Several Rome, members of the populus Romanus. By were prosperous trading centers and exercised the same time, Roman armies had used Italy’s significant cultural and economic influence manpower, natural resources, and central lo- upon the other peoples in Italy. They will be cation in the to conquer a discussed further in the next chapter. Mediterranean-wide empire.

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