I Roman History: Its Geographic and Human Foundations INTRODUCTiON TO ROMAN HiSTORY When most inhabitants became a single entity, the populus people think of Rome, they envision the Rome Romanus, the Roman People. This expansion, of Julius Caesar and the Roman Empire that however, eventually carried Roman power so succeeded him. That is the Rome entertainingly, far beyond its advantageous Italian base that it but not always accurately, portrayed in shows could no longer maintain the cohesion achieved and films like the HBO series Rome, the at its height. It eventually disintegrated in the Masterpiece Theater production of I Claudius, face of both internal and external pressures. or famous Hollywood sword-and-sandal epics like Cleopatra, Ben Hur, Quo Vadis, The Fall GEOgRAPhY Modern technology often seems of the Roman Empire, and Gladiator. Prior to to have given human beings mastery over the Caesar, however, the history of Rome extends physical world. Therefore, many people overlook back from the Republic to foundations laid in geographic factors in historical developments. prehistoric Italy. The prehistoric foundations will Also, modern historians rightly wish to avoid the be outlined briefly in this chapter. Subsequent simplistic fallacies of geographic determinism. chapters will cover the full scope of Roman Nevertheless, geography and the physical history from the beginnings of the city of Rome environment are important in shaping the course in primitive villages on some hills beside the of human events and should not be ignored Tiber River to the disintegration of the Roman in trying to explain the past. For example, the Empire about 1300 to 1400 years later. reason why Italy, unlike Crete and mainland To understand this whole complex history, Greece, did not reach a high level of civilization it is necessary to begin with its geographic, in the Bronze Age is that the latter were closer demographic, and ethnic context. That con- to the even earlier centers of civilization in the text shaped the development of Rome from a Near East and Egypt. It simply took longer for collection of prehistoric villages to the urban the influence of older civilizations to spread republic whose citizens and allies embraced farther west to Italy. Nevertheless, once Italy all the peoples of Italy. That accomplishment had achieved an internal level of development on gave the Romans the resources and outlook par with that of the older centers of civilization that helped them conquer a vast overseas em- in the eastern Mediterranean basin, a number of pire. They eventually united the greater part geographic factors contributed to its becoming of western Europe, much of the Ancient Near the center of a Mediterranean-wide empire East, and most of North Africa, whose free under the control of Rome. 1 M01_WARD6795_06_SE_C01.indd 1 20/06/13 4:17 PM 2 CHAPTER I Roman History: Its Geographic and Human Foundations Maritime Orientation and Advantages (cappellaccio, Peperino, Grotta Oscura, and Separated from the rest of Europe by the Alps to travertine); and volcanic pozzolana for making the north, Italy is naturally oriented toward the cement. Etruria not only possessed these re- sea. The west coast has access to the Tyrrhenian sources but also was rich in valuable metals. It Sea, the southeast coast overlooks the Ionian produced lead, zinc, copper, silver, and tin. On Sea, and the east coast from the “heel” of the off-shore island of Elba (Ilva), it controlled the peninsula’s “boot” northward fronts the most of ancient Italy’s iron ore. Adriatic. Italy juts out like a giant pier from No Serious Physical Barriers to Internal the continental mass of Europe southeastward Unity Topography made it possible for a 750 miles into the middle of the Mediterranean single, centrally located, and populous city proper. Also, the island of Sicily is separated to unite Italy and utilize its great resources from the “toe” of Italy by only the narrow Straits and strategic position to expand in the wider of Messana (Messena, Messina) and from North Mediterranean. Although the Apennine Africa by only ninety miles of water. Therefore, Mountains cut through Italy in a great arc Italy and Sicily naturally dominate the sea lanes swinging out from the northwest southeastward that link the eastern and western Mediterranean along the Adriatic coast and then back to the basins and the lands around them. Before the southwest coast along the Tyrrhenian Sea, they rise of greater powers to the north and west, are not a serious barrier to internal unity. On the power that controlled Italy was in an ideal average, they are 4000 to 6000 feet high and are strategic and economic position for dominating pierced by numerous easy passes. Moreover, the whole Mediterranean world. most of Italy is easily accessible by water, the most efficient avenue of transport and Natural and Human Resources Bounded communication in ancient times. With its long by the Alps to the north and northwest and by coasts and a width no greater than 150 miles the Apennines to the south, the northern part south of the Po valley, much of Italy could be of Italy is a vast alluvial plain watered by the Po reached directly by ancient ships. Navigable and Adige rivers. On the west coast, between rivers like the Po, Arno, Tiber, Liris, and the Apennines and the Tyrrhenian Sea, are Volturnus provided convenient water routes the wide lowland plains of Etruria, Latium, between the sea and the interior. The Tiber and Campania. They are fertilized by a layer of River, its tributaries, and their valleys were volcanic ash and weathered lava ejected by the particularly helpful to Rome in uniting the many volcanoes that had been active in earlier peoples of central Italy under its control. After geologic times. The Arno, the Tiber, the Liris, that, Rome had the resources to dominate the and the Volturnus river systems provide them rest of Italy. water. The fertile and well-watered plains of northern and western Italy are among the largest The Site of Rome As the Roman historian and best agricultural areas in the Mediterranean Livy noted, Rome occupied “a site uniquely world. They supported dense populations and adapted to the growth of a great city” (Book made Italy, in Vergil’s words, the “mother of 5.45.5). Rome was centrally located in the men,” the main source of ancient military might. fertile plains of western Italy fifteen miles from Ancient Italy also had other valuable re- the mouth of the Tiber River on the northern sources. Although it was not rich by modern edge of Latium. Here the Tiber River makes a standards, it was for its time. Extensive forests big eastward bend and is slowed somewhat by provided abundant wood for fuel and timber Tiber Island midstream. Near this same spot, for ships and buildings until they were over- seven hills ranging from 200 feet to 700 feet cut in the late first millennium b.c. The most above sea level rise near the east (left) bank of abundant mineral resources were stone build- the river. They make the site easily defensible. ing materials: hard stones like marble, granite, The hills nearest the Tiber are the Capitoline, basalt, and flint; softer, more easily worked the Palatine, and the Aventine, which are types like sandstone and various kinds of tufa separated from one another by intervening M01_WARD6795_06_SE_C01.indd 2 20/06/13 4:17 PM CHAPTER I Roman History: Its Geographic and Human Foundations 3 valleys. Farther to the east and enclosing the The Tiber River and its valley provided three foregoing hills in a kind of arc, stand Rome with communications north into central the other four: the Quirinal, the Viminal, the Italy. Possession of the bridgehead nearest to Esquiline, and the Caelian. On those seven the mouth of the Tiber also gave the Romans hills eventually stood the city of Rome. Two easy access to the coastal route between Etruria other hills across the river, the Janiculum and and the plains of Latium and Campania. Thus, the Vatican, were ultimately incorporated, too. Rome’s geographic position in Italy made it Although the importance of the Tiber River the focal point of the natural communication for Rome’s growth and success as a city can routes running up, down, and across the pen- be exaggerated, it was great. Opposite Tiber insula. Even in early times, the Tiber and its Island, the river’s slowed current and gently valley were major routes for bringing salt from inward-curving left bank provided an ideal the coast into central Italy. landing place for ancient merchant ships and Control of crucial water and land routes river boats. The island also provided the first for communications in Italy also permitted convenient ford and bridgehead nearest to the Rome’s armies to strike in almost any direction river’s mouth. Sandbars at the Tiber’s mouth at will with minimum expenditure of effort. and Rome’s location some distance upstream The seven hills made possible the observation protected the city from attack by large war of enemy movements, and the proximity of the ships and sudden sea raids by smaller vessels. hills to one another facilitated the fusion of Eventually, Rome became Italy’s largest river several village communities into a single city. port as Greek, Phoenician, and Etruscan mer- Ultimately, it became the largest in area and chants took advantage of its ideal location for population not only in Italy but also, perhaps, trade. in the whole premodern world. PINCIAN 4th Century B.C. wall r e i b T L L A A N N N I s I u Campus i A R M E I I p C s i I Martius U V S Q T Q C A U V Subura I L E I N N I L E O IT Forum P Fagutal A Romanum C a m li Op s ru e piu J ab A Vel V N Forum PALATINE I C Boarium U Pons Sublicius C L ir U cu CAELIAN M s M a xi r mu e s b i AVENTINE T 0 400 800 METERS Site of Ancient Rome M01_WARD6795_06_SE_C01.indd 3 20/06/13 4:17 PM 4 CHAPTER I Roman History: Its Geographic and Human Foundations Strategically located for both defense and central Italy at Lake Bracciano, about twenty offense, Rome was a river port, bridge town, miles northwest of Rome, a large Neolithic road center, and magnet of trade and popula- village dated to ca.