“Unavoidable”? - Tacit Rationality and the Reinforcement of Informal Institutions in China

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“Unavoidable”? - Tacit Rationality and the Reinforcement of Informal Institutions in China Why does Corruption Appear to be “Unavoidable”? - Tacit Rationality and the Reinforcement of Informal Institutions in China Von der Fakultät für Gesellschaftswissenschaften der Universität Duisburg-Essen zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades Dr. phil genehmigte Dissertation von GE, Ningjing aus Shenyang, V. R. China 1. Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Christiansen, Flemming 2. Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Ngo, Tak-Wing Tag der Disputation: 11/05/2020 Diese Dissertation wird über DuEPublico, dem Dokumenten- und Publikationsserver der Universität Duisburg-Essen, zur Verfügung gestellt und liegt auch als Print-Version vor. DOI: 10.17185/duepublico/71802 URN: urn:nbn:de:hbz:464-20200525-123450-4 Alle Rechte vorbehalten. Contents Abstract i Zusammenfassung iii Preface v Abbreviations xiii Introduction 1 Topic and Hypothesis 1 Theories of Corruption in View of Hypothesis 5 Research Significance 19 Chapter 1 Theoretical Framing and Methodological Approach 27 1.1 Theoretical Framing of the Research 27 1.2 Applying Tacit Rationality to Explaining Corruption in China: An Alternative View of the Reinforcement of Informal Institutions, Cooperative Commitment and Transactional Corruption 40 1.3 Methodological Approach: Critical Discourse Analysis 50 Chapter 2 Perceiving the Idealised Values Associated with CPC Cadres’ Multiple Roles through a Critical Examination of Official and Unofficial Discourses about Corruption 65 2.1 Loyalty to the Party Organisation Associated with the Cadres’ Political Role 72 2.2 Renqing and Mianzi Associated with the Cadres’ Social Role 79 2.3 Equivalent Exchange Principle Associated with the Cadres’ Economic Role 86 Chapter 3 How do Cadres Totalise Different Idealised Values? – The Structure and Expressive Capacity of the Corruption-inclusive Informal Institutional Complex 93 3.1 A Soul Character in Each Group and a Delicate Art of Naming 94 3.2 Favour Exchange as Symbolic Social Action rather than Habitus or Goal 98 3.2 Symbolic Meaning Embodied in the Selection of Counterpart, Object and Means 101 Chapter 4 Participant Observation of a Constructive Drinking – A Live Example of the Establishment and Rationalisation of a Potential Corrupt Exchange Network 109 Conclusion 149 Appendix 163 List of References 173 Abstract This dissertation aims at disentangling an empirical puzzle: Why does corruption – especially in forms of transaction – appear to be “unavoidable”? Building upon my research on the case of China, I argue that when corruption becomes an expected action that goes beyond individual choice, “unavoidable” does not signify legally-identified instances of corruption per se, but a series of informal institutions which do not exclude corruption. The crux of understanding why people consciously break or bypass formal constraints is to explain why certain informal patterns of behaviour sharing similar operating logic with corruption are constantly getting reinforced while formally-coded rules appear to be merely nominal. Ultimately, behind the empirical puzzle of “unavoidable” corruption lies the theoretical inquiry into what determines the effectiveness of an institution, which entails a frame that can link the analysis of an individual decision-making process to the larger social contextual structure. To address the question, I propose a thesis that incorporates Mannheim’s relationist view of thinking, Polanyi’s idea about the tacit knowing and Goffman’s dramaturgical approach to social interaction. I suggest that the reinforcement of corruption-inclusive informal institutions could be accounted for by their compliance with tacit rationality – a deep rationalising-oriented reasoning that helps to sustain the smooth operation of cooperative interaction. Specifically, what justifies an institution is not certain given legal or moral criterion but the meaning it helps to convey. As Goffman indicated, all social subjects are performers – “merchants of morality” – and an institution can be seen as a set of expressive equipment whose effectiveness comes from its capacity of expressing idealised values. There is no such thing as absolute rightness or truth, but individuals concerned with the amoral issue of convincing their audience that commonly accepted values are realised rather than the moral issue of realising those values. As for China, it is well recognised that the pervasiveness of corruption is closely related to a series of informal institutions based upon highly individualised personal networks. I hypothesise that these corruption-inclusive informal institutions are constantly reinforced because they are effective in totalising the multiple roles of the cadres of the Communist Party of China (CPC). With critical discourse analysis (CDA) as the methodological approach and based on the empirical data collected through semi- structured interviews and participant observation during my eight-months fieldwork in China, this study demonstrates the empirical argument by identifying the structure of informal institutions and demonstrating how they serve the expression of different idealised values. i ii Zusammenfassung Diese Dissertation zielt darauf ab, ein empirisches Rätsel zu lösen, das Korruption – wo immer allgegenwärtig und routiniert – aufgibt: Warum ist Korruption „unvermeidlich“ ? Aufbauend auf meinen Nachforschungen zum Fall China gehe ich davon aus, dass, erstens, mit einem lediglich rechtlichen Begriff von Korruption wenig Erkenntnis gewonnen ist, und zweitens, Korruption als erwartete Handlung, die über die individuelle Entscheidung hinausgeht, eine Reihe von unvermeidlichen korruptionsisomorphen informellen Institutionen inkludiert. Der entscheidende Punkt, warum Menschen bewusst formelle Institutionen brechen oder umgehen und an korrupten Praktiken teilnehmen, besteht daher darin, zu erklären, warum bestimmte informelle Verhaltensmuster, die derselben operativen Logik folgen wie Korruption, ständig verstärkt werden, während formal kodierte Regeln nur nominell erscheinen. Hinter dem empirischen Rätsel der unvermeidlichen Korruption steckt letztlich die theoretische Frage, was die Wirksamkeit einer Institution ausmacht. Diese Untersuchung entwickelt einen alternativen Rahmen, der erlaubt die Analyse des individuellen Entscheidungsprozesses mit dem großen sozialen Situationskontext zu verknüpfen. Zur Beantwortung der Frage nach der unvermeidlichkeit von Korruption schlage ich eine These vor, die auf Mannheims relativistischer Denkweise, Polanyis Vorstellung von der stillschweigenden Dimension des Wissens und dem dramaturgischen Ansatz von Goffman in Bezug auf soziale Interaktion basiert. Genauer gesagt, die Stärkung gewisser informeller Institutionen, die Korruption einschließen, ist auf die Einhaltung impliziter Rationalität zurückzuführen. Meiner These folgt einer rationalitätsorientierten Argumentation, die letztend-lich das menschliche Handeln dominiert und das reibungslose Funktionieren der kooperativen Interaktion innerhalb der Gesellschaft unterstützt. Im Besonderen ist das, was eine Institution rechtfertigt oder rationali-siert, kein rechtliches oder moralisches Kriterium, sondern die von ihr vermittelte Bedeutung. In Bezug auf Goffman sind alle sozialen Subjekte Darsteller - „Händler der Moral“ - und Institutionen können als Ausdrucksmittel betrachtet werden, deren Wirksamkeit darin besteht, idealisierte Werte auszudrücken, die die Rollen der Darsteller anstelle ihrer technischen oder logischen Perfektion beanspruchen. Mit anderen Worten, es gibt keine absolute Richtigkeit oder Wahrheit. Der Einzelne beschäftigt sich mit der amoralischen Frage, das Publikum davon zu überzeugen, dass allgemein akzeptierte Werte verwirklicht werden, und nicht mit der moralischen Frage der Verwirklichung dieser Werte. Im Hinblick auf China wird allgemein angenommen, dass die Auswucherung von iii Korruption eng mit einer Reihe informeller Institutionen zusammenhängt, die in stark individualisierten persönlichen Netzwerken errichtet wurden. Ich gehe davon aus, dass diese informellen Institutionen, die Korruption einschließen, ständig verstärkt werden, weil sie die vielfältigen Aufgaben der Kader der Kommunistischen Partei Chinas effektiv zusammenfassen. Mit Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) als methodischem Ansatz identifiziert und demonstriert diese Studie die Logik und Struktur informeller Insitutionen, und wie sie dazu dienen, verschiedene idealisierte Werte auszudrücken. Die empirischen Daten dieser Forschung wurden hauptsächlich durch halbstrukturierte Interviews und Teilnehmerbeobachtung während meiner acht-monatigen Feldforschungsarbeit in China gewonnen. iv Preface An empirical puzzle: Why does corruption appear to be “unavoidable”? Focusing the scope of analysis on China and paying special attention to transactional forms of corruption, this dissertation attempts to solve an empirical puzzle: Why does corruption appear to be “unavoidable”? By “unavoidable” I do not imply that all anti-corruption effort is in vain because corruption is rooted in selfishness as part of human nature. Instead, being unavoidable means that corruption is no longer the exception to the rule, but is the rule (Persson et al. 2013, 449). To be more exact, some informal patterns of behaviour bearing similar forms of logic and structure as corruption become the rule. Some scholars have defined this scenario as systemic corruption or endemic corruption.1 With China as an apropos case, this empirical puzzle does not exclusively effect China but also many other places where corruption appears to be normalised. The most typical feature of such
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