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07-Bell (Environment)-45611:07-Bell (Environment) 5/17/2008 5:14 PM Page 175

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There are likely as many environmentalisms as Inglehart’s postmaterialism research, to which all there are people. Whose , then, of these critiques mentioned equally apply, does one choose as the standard? shift except for the last about historical evidence. researchers have tried to draw this standard from (Inglehart has amassed some impressive histori- the works of leading environmental writers.85 But cal by separating out age cohorts.) writers do not represent everyone (or there would Measuring and understanding public opinion is be no need to conduct a survey), nor do they an inherently difficult task. All survey-based always agree (or they probably wouldn’t bother to research faces these measurement problems. write). Inevitably, researchers have had to draw on Without some simplifying assumptions, the their own understandings of environmental writ- question of ideological change probably could ers and environmentalism. There is thus a danger not be researched. And even a grainy image of the that paradigm shift researchers are in part assess- overall state of the public mind is useful and ing the degree to which the rest of the world agrees important to have. with them about what environmentalism is. Moreover, it seems hard to deny that material Survey-based research also doesn’t give respon- factors must have ideological consequence. If our dents a chance to explain why they answered the patterns of thought, our mental reflexes, had no survey questions in the ways that they did. Survey bearing on our material conditions, we would researchers have to presume ahead of time the likely not last long. Or, to put it another way, if kind of phrases and questions that might reflect you keep stubbing your toe when you kick the the way people see things. But there is no oppor- environment, chances are you will eventually tunity on a survey to determine if a person inter- stop to reconsider why you were kicking it in the prets a question differently from the way the first place. And maybe that is what we are finally researchers intend. For example, I might reject the starting to do. notion that “the earth is like a spaceship, with lim- ited room and resources” because I don’t like the mechanical and technological image of a “space- .” I might see the Earth more as an organism. In other words, I might disagree with the state- Or so ecological modernization theorists would ment even though I agree with the the state- argue, but from a somewhat different standpoint. ment is meant to assess. Based in part on the earlier work of Ulrich Beck Finally, there is the difficulty of assessing long- (of whom we will hear much more in Chapter 9) term ideological change with surveys of current and Joseph Huber of Germany, among others, public opinion. Paradigm shift researchers have the Dutch environmental sociologists Arthur on only a couple of occasions been able to resur- Mol and Gert Spaargaren contend that the recog- vey the same at a later date, and have nition of environmental problems is starting to found only modest and somewhat inconsistent reshape the institutions and everyday social prac- shifts when they have done so.86 The kind of ideo- tices of modernity in fundamental ways. “The logical change that paradigm shift researchers basic premise,” writes Mol, “is the centripetal hope to evaluate may be taking place over too long movement of ecological interests, ideas and con- a time for surveys to document. The problem is, siderations...which results in the constant eco- you can’t go back and administer a questionnaire logical restructuring of modern societies.”87 to the people of the past. Thus, survey research Material conditions (environmental problems) needs to be balanced with historical research. shape ideas (those interests, ideas, and consider- These critiques do not invalidate paradigm ations), which in turn reshape material condi- shift research, however. Nor do they invalidate tions (the constant ecological restructuring). But 07-Bell (Environment)-45611:07-Bell (Environment) 5/17/2008 5:14 PM Page 176

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this shaping and reshaping is not just a matter of to the economy. For example, in 2003, the Bush individual of environmental concern, administration of the United States released a such as the theories of postmaterialism and par- report showing vast economic savings from envi- adigm shift discuss. This shaping and reshaping ronmental regulation. The study, by the Office of occurs as well at the level of our institutions and Management and Budget, found that the $23 to the social practices we find ourselves engaged in, $26 billion spent on retrofitting power plants to whatever we may think about them individually. meet clean air standards saved the economy $120 Central to the process of ecological modern- to $193 billion in money that didn’t need to be ization is what Mol terms the “emancipation” of spent on problems and lost work days. For “ecological rationality.”88 What he has in mind every dollar spent, $5 to $7 was saved.90 This here is that we increasingly consider more than recognition—particularly by an administration economic, technological, political, and social rea- with a reputation for being unfriendly to envi- sons in making decisions about how to organize ronmental concerns—is an indication of the wel- our lives. Ecological rationality has now come to coming of ecological rationality into our basic have an independent force in social debates. social institutions. We’re on the road—maybe just the beginning of Ecological modernization is also reshaping it, but on it nonetheless—to the huge, even radi- our daily practices. New standards are changing cal, changes that we need to make to maintain the machinery of our lives. Refrigerators, air con- what ecological modernization theorists call our ditioners, and plumbing systems are far more “sustenance base.” But the problem we faced was efficient on the whole than they used to be, using never modernization itself, say ecological mod- much less energy and water. People are experi- ernization theorists. The problem was “simple menting with new ways of living that reduce modernization” driven by economy, , their personal of the ecological ser- , and society that did not take into vices we were ignoring. Biking, car sharing, recy- account ecological rationality. Put in, in cling, precycling, composting, more efficient a serious and far-reaching way, and we can put urban design, and more are all on the our institutions and our daily lives on the eco- rise. Consumption and choices matter a logical path. Put ecology in, and we can repair the lot, say ecological modernists, and many citizens “design fault,” as Mol and Spaargaren term it, of are working hard on this, with some success. an economic and technological order based on One of the ways that ecological moderniza- the presumption that ecology is a free service we tionists believe we are moving in a direc- need not pay much attention to.89 Put ecology in, tion is, controversially, through . and we can overcome the long-standing conflict I say “controversially” because many environ- of business and the environment. mentalists (and indeed many environmental At first glance, ecological modernization can sociologists) are quite critical of globalization, as seem overly cheerful and hopeful. But many they fear it can weaken industries have made significant in by giving priority to trade above all else. But as retooling their businesses, embracing what has Mol argues in a recent book, many of our great- come to be called , and seeing est environmental problems are global in scope, as opportunities and as and many of our greatest environmental suc- indications of inefficiencies in their operations. cesses have been through global treaties that Most wealthy nations now have developed envi- address them.91 Take the Montreal Protocol, ronmental laws and regulations to encourage which has done so much to reduce the produc- their economies in recognizing the services we tion of CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) worldwide gain from the environment and in becoming and to protect the upper-atmosphere ozone more eco-efficient, often with substantial savings layer. Or take ISO 14000, the environmental 07-Bell (Environment)-45611:07-Bell (Environment) 5/17/2008 5:14 PM Page 177

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management guidelines of the International along. Also, Mol and Spaargaren have been usu- Organization for Standardization, which many ally forthcoming in responding to the critics and businesses are increasingly trying to follow, par- in accepting many of their points, so as to ticularly in Europe. Meeting ISO 14000 standards improve ecological modernization theory. gives businesses confidence in the supplies and Perhaps the main objection can be summed products they buy from each other, and thus up in one word: modernization. The theory’s greater confidence that consumers will trust embrace of that word and what it stands for—the the environmental practices behind their prod- value of science, technology, industry, capitalism, ucts. As of the end of 2006, some 130,000 ISO modern forms of , and modern value certifications in 140 countries and economies systems—seems to some to ask that environmen- had been awarded to public and private sector talists marry their enemies. Aren’t science and organizations.92 technology’s arrogance, industry’s obliviousness, Which doesn’t mean that ecological modern- capitalism’s treadmill and growth mania, govern- ization is a sure thing—that we can sit back and ment’s globalization dreams, and modernism’s let it happen, now that ecological rationality has universalistic values the roots of the environ- been emancipated and is starting to globalize. It mental litany? Ecological modernization theory, would be a serious misinterpretation of ecologi- say these critics, is at best accommodationist and cal modernization theory to assume that it will at worst a rhetorical ruse to allow the current happen on its own, through some kind of auto- power structures in society to have their merry matic process. It will take, and is taking already, a way, perhaps with a few minor reforms. It’s a lot of hard work by organiza- kind of Wonder Bread theory, some critics feel, tions, by politicians, by government agencies, that claims it builds stronger ecological societies and by imaginative businesses, building collabo- 12 ways, step by step, day by day. Still creating rations between them. It will require political at your factory? Just tell everyone modernization, as ecological modernizationists you’re doing your ecologically modernist best. call it—that is, forms of government that help Ecological modernizationists agree that they bring diverse interests and ideas together in a seek the solution to problems of science, tech nol- , and yet at times critical, way. And it ogy, industry, and capitalism in science, technol- will take the active engagement of citizens mak- ogy, industry, and capitalism. But these ing choices in their consumption that push the institutions won’t look the same anymore. government and the economy along in their “Ecological modernization theory puts forth a embrace of ecological rationality. No, ecological radical reform programme,” writes Mol. “The modernization is not an autonomous force. It is institutions of modern society, such as the something we have to do, ecological moderniza- market, the state and science and technology, will tionists argue, in both senses of the phrase. be radically transformed in coping with the envi- ronmental crisis, although not beyond recogni- 94 Questioning Ecological Modernization tion.” Ecological modernization theory may be , in other words, but it is radical Scholars have taken a great interest in ecolog- reformism. ical modernization theory in recent years and Or is it? Radical reformism seems to some a have subjected it to rather vociferous criticism.93 tremendously optimistic claim. As one critic put The volume of criticism, though, does not neces- it, ecological modernization is “hobbled by an sarily mean that a theory is a poor one. Rather, it unflappable sense of technological optimism”— can mean that a theory gets enough right that not to mention market optimism and govern- others pay attention to it, even if they disagree mental optimism.95 Ecological modernization with much of it. This is how scholarship moves theorists now accept this point, at least to a 07-Bell (Environment)-45611:07-Bell (Environment) 5/17/2008 5:14 PM Page 178

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degree. Early work on the theory was indeed mainly corporate interests systematically chip away hobbled by what the ecological modernization at them, as the American environmental sociolo- theorist Martin Hajer has called a “techno- gist Fred Buttel has argued.98 corporatist” vision. Hajer advocates instead a Ecological modernizationists respond that “reflexive” vision—that is, one that emphasizes yes, there’s a long way to go, and yes, ecological democratic institutions of discussion and debate modernization is currently most developed in that allow societies to “reflect” on where they are Western Europe. Yet with appropriate forms of going, rather than being blindly led along globalization, it could spread much further, through technological and corporate sleepwalk- much more rapidly. The current configuration of ing.96 You could call the early vision “weak” eco- the World Trade Organization is not a help. Nor logical modernization and Hajer’s “strong” is the North American Free Trade Act, the ecological modernization, or perhaps “thin” and Central American Free Trade Act, and other free “thick.”97 By embracing the necessity of democ- trade acts that put trade ahead of labor and ratic debate, ecological modernization theorists environmental concerns. Nor is a growing trend agree that we can’t just wait for this stuff to hap- toward unilateralism. But treaties like the pen. Building the institutions that enhance Montreal Protocol, , and the Kyoto democratic debate is what ecological moderniza- Accord can make a huge difference. As of 2007, tionists mean by “political modernization.” there were 464 international treaties that have an Besides, ecological modernizationists ask, environmental impact, and the list is growing.99 have you got a better idea—that is to say, a real- Moreover, many international development istic better idea? If we have to wait for capitalism organizations like the World Bank are adopting to fall before we get anywhere, we may have to greener policies. wait a very long time. By then, the ecological Another criticism is that ecological moderniza- mess could be insurmountable, as it indeed tion has little to say about issues of environmental may already be. At least ecological moderniza- justice. Nor does it have much to say about the tion theory works from within the general rights and beauty of habitat. Its focus is almost situation we’re likely to have for some time to entirely on issues of . Ecological come. And it claims that, while by no means modernization theorists accept these points, certain, ecological modernization is at least though, and are working on ways to incorporate . them into the theory.100 Really? Some critics also argue that ecological Finally, some critics worry that ecological modernization applies with any great success to modernization is normative—that it both only a few countries in Europe, most especially describes a direction it thinks it is possible we Germany, the Netherlands, and the Scandinavian could go and says that is the way we should go. To countries. It has little to say about the United which ecological modernizationists have a simple States, for example, where com- and direct answer: So? Don’t you want to make plain of virtually no progress since the great (and, the world a better place? at the time, ) acts of the 1960s and were passed: the Act (1964), the National Act (1969), the The Democratic Basis Clean Air Act (1970), the Act of Contemporary (1973), the Resource Conservation and Recovery Environmental Concern Act (1976), and the (1977). There has been little other than rear-guard action ever But why do people increasingly see that an since, trying to hold on to some of the gains as important way to make the world a better place is