NOTES

1 INTRODUCTION: CONTENDING VIEWS-MILITARISM, MILITARIZATION AND WAR 1. Ivo Feierabend and Rosalind Feierabend, "Aggressive Behaviors within Politics, 1948-1962: A Cross-National Study," Journal of Conflict Resolution 10, no.3 (September 1966): 249-270. 2. Patrick Morgan, "Disarmament," in Joel Krieger, ed., The Oxford Companion to the Politics of the World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993),246. 3. Stuart Bremer, "Dangerous Dyads: Conditions Mfecting the Likelihood of Interstate War, 1816-1965," Journal of Conflict Resolution 36, no.2 (June 1992): 309-341,318,330; The remainder of Bremer's study has to do with the impact of military spending and not with variations caused by regime type. 4. Thomas Lindemann and Michel Louis Martin, "The Military and the Use of Force," in Giuseppe Caforio, ed., Handbook of the Sociology of the Military (New York: Kluwer, 2003),99-109,104-109. 5. Alfred Vagts, Defense and Diplomacy-The Soldier and the Conduct of Foreign Relations (New York: King Crown's Press, 1958), 3. The concept was subsequently applied by Herbert Spencer, Otto Hintze, and Karl Marx. See Volker Berghahn, Militarism: The History of an International Debate, 1861-1979 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984). 6. Herbert Spencer, Principles of Sociology, Stanislav Andreski, ed. (London: Macmillan, 1969): 499-571. 7. Felix Gilbert, ed., The Historical Essays of Otto Hintze (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), 199. 8. Karl Liebknecht, Militarism (Toronto: William Briggs, 1917); Berghahn, 18,23,25. 9. James Donovan, Militarism U.S.A. (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1970),25. 10. Berghahn, 19. 11. Dan Reiter and Allan Starn, "IdentifYing the Culprit: Democracy, Dictatorship, and Dispute Initiation," American Political Science Review 97, no.2 (May 2003): 333-337; see also R. J. Rummel, "Democracies are 160 NOTES

Less Warlike than Other Regimes," European Journal of International Relations 1, no.4 (December 1995): 457--478; and "Libertarianism and International Violence," Journal of Conflict Resolution 27, no.l (March 1983): 27-71; Daniel Geller and J. David Singer, Nations at War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 52-53, 56; Linda Brady and Charles Kegley, Jr., "Bureaucratic Determinants of Foreign Policy: Some Empirical Evidence," International Interactions 3, no.l (1977): 33-50; Robert A. Hanneman, "Military Elites and Political Executives," Journal ofPolitical and Military Sociology 14, no.l (Spring 1986): 75-89. 12. T. Clifton Morgan and Sally Howard Campbell, "Domestic Structure, Decisional Constraints, and War," Journal ofConflict Resolution 35, no.2 (June 1991): 187-211, 193; James Lee Ray, Democracy and International Conflict: An Evaluation ofthe Democratic Peace Proposition (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1995); Jonathan Wilkenfeld, Michael Brecher, and Sheila Moser, Crises in the Twentieth Century. Volume II: Handbook of International Crisis (New York: Pergamon, 1988), 197. 13. Geller and Singer, 52-53, 55-56; Zeev Maoz and Nasrin Abdolali, "Regime Types and International Conflict, 1816-1976," Journal of Conflict Resolution 33, no.l (March 1989): 3-35,30-31; Erich Weede, "Democracy and War Involvement," Journal of Conflict Resolution 28, no.4 (December 1984): 649-664; Melvin Small and J. David Singer, "The War-Proneness of Democratic Regimes, 1816-1965," Jerusalem Journal ofInternational Relations 1, no.4 (Summer 1976): 50-69; Joe D. Hagan, "Domestic Political Systems and War Proneness." Mershon International Studies Review 38, no.2 (October 1994): 183-208. 14. Edward Mansfield and Jack Snyder, "Democratization and the Danger of War," International Security 20, no.l (Summer 1995): 5-38; On the impact of military influences on governing coalitions, see Jack Snyder, Myths of Empire-Domestic Politics and International Ambition (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1991), 31-60. 15. Berghahn, 42; There are studies on the narrower development of doc• trine. See Barry Posen, The Sources of Military Doctrine (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1984), and Jack Snyder, The Ideology of the Offensive (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1984). 16. Martin Shaw, Post-Military Society (Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 1991), 3, 9, 18; Andrew Ross, "Dimensions of Militarization in the Third World," Armed Forces and Society 13, no.4 ( Summer 1987): 562-564. 17. Bremer, 318, 330. 18. Militarism has not articulated a generalizable set of testable hypotheses. 19. R. Rummel, 1983; Rummel 1995; for the critics of this proposition, see Steve Chan, "Mirror, Mirror on the Wall ... Are the Freer Countries More Pacific," Journal of Conflict Resolution 28, no.4 (December 1984): 617-648, and Errol Henderson, Democracy and War (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 2002), 68-73. NOTES 161

20. Seung-Whan Choi and Patrick James, Civil-Military Dynamics, Democracy and International Conflict (New York: Palgrave, 2005), 148. 21. Democracies have not been shown to be more peaceful than other types of regimes. For more on this debate, see Sven Chojnacki, "Democratic Wars and Military Interventions, 1946-2002: The Monadic Level Reconsidered," in Anna Geis, Lothar Brock, and Harald Muller, eds., Democratic Wars (New York: Palgrave, 2006), 13-37, 14, and Henderson, 53-58. 22. Gilbert, 180-215. 23. Eliot Cohen, Supreme Command (New York: Free Press, 2002), 225-248; Eric Gartzke, "Democracy and the Preparation for War: Does Regime Type Affect States' Anticipation of Casualties?" International Studies Quarterly 45, no.3 (September 2001): 467-484,477; Ajin Choi, "Democratic Synergy and Victory in War," International Studies Quarterly 48, no.3 (September 2004): 663-682, 672; Michael Desch, "Democracy and Victory," International Security 27, no.2 (Fall 2002): 5-47,21,33. 24. Dan Reiter and Allan C. Starn, "Democracy and Battlefield Military Effectiveness," Journal of Conflict Resolution 42, no.3 (June 1998): 259-277, 272; Deborah Avant, Political Institutions and Military Change (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994); Thomas Scheetz, "Military Expenditure and Development in Latin America," in Jurgen Brauer and J. Paul Dunne, eds., Arming the South (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2002),51-70,61; D. Scott Bennett and Allan C. Starn, "The Declining Advantages of Democracy," Journal of Conflict Resolution 42, no.3 (June 1998): 344-366, 361. 25. Choi,663-682. 26. Chojnacki, 23; Dan Reiter and Allan C. Starn, Democracies at War (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002), chapter 2. 27. Bruce Bueno de Mesquita and Randolph Siverson, "Wars and the Survival of Political Leaders: A Comparative Study of Regime Types and Political Accountability," American Political Science Review 89, no.4 (December 1995): 841-855,852. 28. This definition is a hybrid of Andreski's military rule and preparation for war variants of militarism. Stanislav Andreski, Military Ot;JJanization and Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 168), 184-186. 29. For some, in contrast, budgeting is a good measure of a military's status within a state. Wendy Hunter, Eroding Military Influence in Brazil (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1997), 95-115; Stanislav Andreski, "On the Peaceful Disposition of Military Dictatorships," Journal ofStrategic Studies 3 no.3 (December 1980): 3-10, 5. 30. A. B. Assensoh and Yvette M. Alex-Assensoh, African Military History and Politics (New York: Palgrave, 2001), 143-168; Christina Fink, Living Silence-Burma under Military Rule (Bangkok: White Lotus, 2001),143-158. 162 NOTES

31. Kostas Messas, "Democratization of Military Regimes: Contending Explanations," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 20, no.2 (Winter 1992): 243-255, 251; Steve Chan, "Democratic Change and Defense Allocation in East Asia," in Frank Harvey and Ben Mor, eds., Conflict in World Politics (Houndsmill: Macmillan, 1998), 273-287; Marie-France Desjardins, Rethinking Confidence-Building Measures: Adelphi Paper 307 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), 16, 29. 32. James Macintosh, "Key Elements of a Conceptual Approach to Confidence Building," in James Boutilier, ed., Arms Control in the North Pacific: The Role for Confidence-Building and Verification (Ottawa: Verification Research Unit, Non-Proliferation, Arms Control and Disarmament Division, External Affairs and International Trade Canada, 1993), 65; Louis Kriesberg, "Consequences of Efforts at Deescalating the Arnerican• Soviet Conflict," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 14, no.2 (Fall 1986): 215-234, 231. 33. This is therefore not selecting on the dependent variable. Harry Eckstein, "Case Study and Theory in Political Science," in Fred Greenstein and Nelson Polsby, eds., Strategies of Inquiry-Handbook of Political Science, Vol.7(Reading: Addison-Wesley, 1975),79-135,124.

2 MILITARIZATION AND WAR 1. David Stevenson, Armaments and the Coming of War: Europe, 1904-1914 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996),40; Alfred Vagts, Defense and Diplomacy-The Soldier and the Conduct of Foreign Relations (New York: King Crown's Press, 1958), 18. 2. Vagts, 18; Raymond Aron, "Remarks on Lassell's 'The Garrison State,' "Armed Forces and Society 5, no.3 (April 1979): 347-359, 356. 3. Martin Shaw, Post-Military Society (Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 1991),67. 4. Morris Janowitz and Roger Little, Sociology and the Military Establishment (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1965), 31; Isabel Hull, Absolute Destruction (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005),199-203. 5. Harold D. Lasswell, "The Universal Peril: Perpetual Crisis and the Garrison State," in Lyman Bryson, Louis Finkelstein, and R. M. MacIver, eds., Perspectives on a Troubled Decade: Science, Philosophy and Religion, 1939-1949 (New York: Harper, 1950): 117-125, 118; Janowitz and Little, 31, 103. 6. Morris Janowitz, The Military in the Political Development of New Nations-An Essay in Comparative Analysis (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964),87. 7. Jonathan Wilkenfeld, Michael Brecher, and Sheila Moser, Crises in the Twentieth Century. Volume II: Handbook of International Crisis (New York: Pergamon, 1988), 197. NOTES 163

8. Aron, 356; Aaron Friedberg, "Why Didn't the United States Become a Garrison State?" International Security 16, no.4 (Spring 1992): 109-142,116-120. 9. Jay Stanley, "Introduction: An Invitation to Revisit Lasswell's Garrison State," in Jay Stanley, ed., Essays on the Garrison State-Harold Lasswell (New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 1997): 17-41,23. 10. Stanley, 34. 11. Lasswell, 118; Samuel Huntington, The Soldier and the State-The Theory and Politics of Civil-Military Relations (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1967),64-66,70; Janowitz and Little, 31, 103; Barry Posen, The Sources of Military Doctrine (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1984),224. 12. Huntington 1967,70; Janowitz and Little, 21,100. 13. Janowitz and Little, 21. 14. Janowitz and Little, 31, 100. 15. Lasswell, 118. 16. John Steinbruner, The Cybernetic Theory ofDecision (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974), 47-87; William Fox, "Representativeness and Efficiency-Dual Problem of Civil-Military Relations," Political Science Quarterly 76, no.3 (September 1961): 354-366, 360; B. H. Liddel Hart, Strategy (New York: Praeger, 1967), 339; Julian Lider, "War and Politics: Clausewitz Today," Conflict and Cooperation 12 (September 1977): 187-189; Richard Smoke, War-Controlling Escalation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1977), 14. 17. For an alternate view of civil-military relations, which views military effectiveness as varying with civilian noninterference, see Stephen Biddle and Robert Zirkle, "Technology, Civil-Military Relations, and Warfare in the Developing World," The Journal of Strategic Studies 19, no.2 (June 1996): 171-212; Stanislav Andreski, "On the Peaceful Disposition of Military Dictatorships," Journal ofStrategic Studies 3 no.3 (December 1980): 3-10, 5-6; Bruce Bueno de Mesquita and Randolph Siverson, "War and the Survival of Political Leaders: A Comparative Study of Regime Types and Political Accountability," American Political Science Review 89, no.4 (December 1995): 841-855; Dan Reiter and Allan C. Starn III, Democracies at War (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002); Dan Reiter and Allan C. Starn, "IdentifYing the Culprit: Democracy, Dictatorship, and Dispute Initiation," American Political Science Review 97, no.2 (May 2003): 333-337,336; Vagts, 3; Roger W. Benjamin and Lewis J. Edinger, "Conditions for Military Control over Foreign Policy Decisions in Major States: A Historical Exploration," Journal of Conflict Resolution 15, no.l (March 1971): 5-31, 17. 18. Huntington 1967,66. 19. Huntington 1967,66. 20. Huntington 1967,64-65. 164 NOTES

21. Carl von Clausewitz, On War, trans., Michael Howard and Peter Paret (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1976), 131-132. 22. On types of windows, see Stephen Van Evera, Causes of War (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999),74. 23. Vagts, 3. 24. Posen, 228. 25. Paul Schroeder argues that preventive war is a common motive for war, cited in Van Evera 1999, 79; Jack Levy, "Declining Power and the Preventive Motivation for War," World Politics 40, no.1 (October 1987): 82-107; for criticism of the importance of windows of opportunity, see Richard Ned Lebow, "Windows of Opportunity-Do States Jump Through Them?" International Security 9, no.1 (Summer 1984) 147-186, 149-150. 26. James Morrow, "A Twist of Truth-A Reexamination of the Effects of Arms Races on the Occurrence of War," Journal of Conflict Resolution 33, no.3 (September 1989): 500-529,503. 27. Van Evera 1999,81. 28. Woosang Kim and James Morrow, "When Do Power Shifts Lead to War?" American Journal ofPolitical Science 36, no.4 (November 1992): 896-922. 29. Lebow, 184. 30. Randall Schweller, "Domestic Structure and Preventive War: Are Democracies More Pacific?" World Politics 44, no.2 (January 1992): 235-269. 31. David Herrmann, The Arming of Europe and the Making of the First World War (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996),227. 32. Smoke, 23-25. 33. Smoke, 23-25. 34. Richard Betts, Soldier, Statesmen, and Cold War Crises (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1977), 5. 35. Wilkenfeld et ai., 197. 36. Christopher Daase, "Democratic Peace-Democratic Wars: Three Reasons Why Democracies are War-Prone," in Anna Geis, Lothar Brock, and Harald Muller, eds., Democratic Wars (New York: Palgrave, 2006), 74-89,81. 37. Jack Snyder, The Ideology of the Offensive-Military Decision Making and the Disasters of 1914 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1984); Posen, 65, 223. 38. John Lepingwell, "The Laws of Combat? Lanchester Reexamined," International Security 12, no.1 (Summer 1987): 89-127, 97; Jacques van Doorn, Military Profession and Military Regimes-Commitments and Conflicts (The Hague: Mouton & Co., 1969), 19. 39. Daase, 81. 40. Hart, 351. 41. Vagts, 28, vii, 3, 263; Russell Weigley, "Military Strategy and Civilian Leadership," in Klaus Knorr, ed., Historical Dimensions of National Security Problems (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1976), 39. NOTES 165

42. T. Clifton Morgan and Sally Howard Campbell, "Domestic Structure, Decisional Constraints, and War," Journal ofConflict Resolution 35, no.2 (June 1991), 193. 43. Jack Levy, "Misperception and Causes of War: Theoretical Linkages and Analytical Problems," World Politics 36, no.l (October 1983): 6-99,92. 44. Vagts, vii. 45. Robert Jervis, Perception and Misperception in International Politics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1976), 102. 46. Stephen Van Evera, "Primed for Peace: Europe after the Cold War," International Security 15, no.3 (Winter 1990/1991): 7-57,20. 47. Van Evera 1999, 75. 48. Michael Desch, "Democracy and Victory," International Security 27, no.2 (Fall 2002): 5-47,7. 49. Randolph Siverson, "Democracies and War Participation: In Defense of the Institutional Constraints Argument," European Journal of International Relations 1, no.4 (1995), 486. 50. Nondemocracies were subdivided as autocracies and totalitarian states. R. Rummel, "Democracies are Less Warlike than Other Regimes," European Journal of International Relations 1, no.4 (December 1995): 457-478; and "Libertarianism and International Violence," Journal of Conflict Resolution 27, no.l (March 1983): 27-71. 51. Scott Sigmund Gartner and Randolph M. Siverson, "War Expansion and War Outcome," Journal ofConflict Resolution 40, no.l (March 1996): 4--15. 52. Hart, 334. 53. Charles Fairbanks, Jr., "Arms Races: the Metaphor & the Facts," The National Interest 1, no.l (Fall 1985), 75-90, 79, 85; Barry Steiner, Arms Races, Diplomacy, and Recurring Behavior: Lessons from Two Cases (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1973),24. 54. Herbert Spencer, Principles of Sociology, Stanislav Andreski, ed. (London: Macmillan, 1969), 508. 55. Weapons may also playa generative role ifthey are facilitative of a given policy under one set of international circumstances which then change, indicating new goals that can be served by the available arsenal. Steiner, 25. 56. Robert Mallett, The Italian Navy and Fascist Expansionism 1935-1940 (London: Frank Cass, 1998), 13,30,75,215. 57. Stevenson 1996,413. 58. David Stevenson, "Militarization and Diplomacy in Europe before 1914," International Security 22, no.l (Summer 1997): 125-161,129. 59. How a given technology is perceived is left as an exogenous factor in each case. 60. For criticism of this, see Colin Gray, Weapons Don)t Make War-Policy, Strategy, and Military Technology (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1993),9,37. 61. Posen, 56, 59. 166 NOTES

62. For an elaboration on the relationship between battle and political goals, see Hart, 333, 335, 338. 63. Daase, 8l. 64. D. Scott Bennett and Alam Starn, "The Declining Advantages of Democracy," Journal of Conflict Resolution 42, no.3 (June 1998): 344-366, 361; Ajin Choi, "Democratic Synergy and Victory in War," International Studies Quarterly 48, no.3 (September 2004): 663-682, 674; Ajin Choi, "The Power of Democratic Cooperation," International Security 28, no.l (Summer 2003): 142-153,145,148; Desch, 23; Reiter and Starn 2002, 199; Dan Reiter and Allan C. Starn, "Understanding Victory-Why Institutions Matter," International Security 28, no.l (Summer 2003): 168-179,178. 65. Dan Reiter and Curtis Meek, "Determinants of Military Strategy," International Studies Quarterly 43, no.2 (June 1999): 363-387. 66. Philip Everts, Democracy and Military Force (Chippenham: Palgrave, 2002),16-27. 67. Robert Hanneman and Robin Steinback, "Military Involvement and Political Instability: An Event History Analysis 1940-1980," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 18, no.l (Summer 1990): 1-23. 68. Yorgos Kourvetaris, "Civil-Military Relations and Military Disengagement," in Constantine Danopoulos, ed., Military Disengagement From Politics (London: Routledge, 1988),269-279,270; Eric Nordlinger, "Soldiers in Mufti: The Impact of Military Rule upon Economic and Social Change in the Non-Western States," American Political Science Review 64, no.4 (December 1970): 1131-1148. 69. Colin Gray, "The Arms Race Phenomenon," World Politics 24, no.l (October 1971): 39-79; Colin Gray, "The Urge to Compete," World Politics 36, no.2 (January 1974): 207-233; Colin Gray, "Social Science and the Arms Race," The Bulletin ofthe Atomic Scientist 29, no.6 (1973): 25; Jervis, 75-76, 91; Morrow 1989, 506. 70. Russell Leng, "When Will They Ever Learn: Coercive Bargaining in Recurrent Crises," Journal ofConflict Resolution 27, no.3 (September 1983): 379-419. 71. Spencer, 504. 72. Lasswell, 118; Janowitz and Little, 31, 103; Weigley 39. 73. Stanley, 23. 74. For a survey of these views, see Tatu Vanhanen, Military Rule and Defense Expenditures: A Study of 119 States, 1850-1975 (Hong Kong: Asian Research Service, 1981); Morris Janowitz, Military Institutions and Coercion in Developing Nations (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1977),48. 75. S. E. Finer, "The Man on Horseback-1974," Armed Forces & Society 1, no.1 (November 1974): 5-27, 19-25; Samuel Finer, The Man on Horseback, 2nd ed. (Middlesex: Penguin Books, 1976), 78-80; For others who see no such link, see Huntington 1967, 193. NOTES 167

76. Janowitz, 48; Talukder Maniruzzaman, "Arms Transfers, Military Coups, and Military Rule in Developing States," Journal of Conflict Resolution 36, no.4 (December 1992): 733-755, 733-735; for criti• cism, see Samuel Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1969), 193. 77. Reeta Chowdhari Tremblay and Julian Schofield, "Institutional Causes of the Indo-Pakistan Rivalry," in T. V. Paul, ed., The India• Pakistan Conflict (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 225-250,229. 78. Tremblay and Schofield, 229. 79. Tremblay and Schofield, 230. 80. Daase, 81. 81. Tremblay and Schofield, 225-250. 82. D. Scott Bennett, "Toward a Continuous Specification of the Democracy-Autocracy Connection," International Studies Quarterly 50, no.2 (June 2006): 313-338, 335. 83. Herrmann, 37,227. 84. John Hoagland, "Arms in the Developing World," Orbis 12, no.l (Spring 1969): 167-184, 181. 85. Marc Trachtenberg, "The Meaning of Mobilization in 1914," International Security 15, no.3 (1990/1991), 120-150. 86. Stevenson 1996, 165; Herrmann, 37,227. 87. Janowitz and Little, 101. 88. Benjamin and Edinger 5-31; Stanley, 23. 89. Stanley, 23-24. 90. Stanley, 34. 91. John D. Stein bruner, The Cybernetic Theory of Decision (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974),47-87. 92. Von Clausewitz, 605; Lider, 187-189. 93. Jeffrey Record, Revising US Military Strategy: Tailoring Means to Ends (Washington, DC: Pergamon, 1984), 1. 94. Huntington 1967, 64-65, 69-70; Seung-Whan Choi and Patrick James, Civil-Military Dynamics, Democracy and International Conflict (New York: Palgrave, 2005), 26, 112-118; Kurt Dassel, "Civilians, Soldiers, and Strife: Domestic Sources of International Aggression," International Security 23, no.l (Summer 1998): 107-140,108. 95. Betts, 5; Peter Feaver and Christopher Gelpi, Choosing Your Battles (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004), 93-94, 184. 96. Betts, 217; for further evidence, see also Feaver and Gelpi, 5. 97. Huntington 1967,69. 98. Volker Berghahn, Militarism-A History of an International Debate 1861-1979 (London: Cambridge University Press, 1981),39. 99. Stanislav Andreski, Military Organization and Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968), 119-123; Brian Loveman, For la Patria• Politics and the Armed Forces in Latin America (Wilmington: SR Books, 168 NOTES

1999), xii, xiv; Brian Taylor, Politics and the Russian Army (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003),15-20.

3 PAKISTAN, DIRECT MILITARIZATION, AND THE 1965 WAR 1. Russell Brines, The Indo-Pakistani Conflict (London: Pall Mall Press, 1968),58,69. 2. Raju Thomas, Indian Security Policy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986),20-21. 3. News Chronicle (October 9, 1948), also cited in Hasan-Askari Rizvi, The Military and Politics in Pakistan, 1947-86 (New Delhi: Konark Publishers Limited, 1988),42. 4. Gul Hassan Khan, Memoirs (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1993),82,88. 5. Rizvi, 37. 6. Fazal Muqueem Khan, The Story of the Pakistan Army (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1963), 129; and "Pakistan Protests Indians on Border," New York Times (July 16, 1951). 7. M. S. Venkataramani, The American Role in Pakistan, 1947-1958 (New Delhi: Radiant Publishers, 1982), 120-121. 8. Mohammad Musa, Jawan to General-Recollections ofa Pakistani Officer (New Delhi: ABC Publishing House, 1985),97. 9. K. L. Kamal, Pakistan-The Garrison State (New Delhi: Intellectual Publishing House, 1982),26; Amjad Ali Khan Chaudhry, September' 65- before and after (Lahore: Ferozsons Ltd., 1977), 19. 10. Mohammad Ahmad, My Chiif(Lahore: Longmans, Green and Co., 1960), 46--47. 11. Stephen Cohen, Arms and Politics in Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan (Buffalo: Council on International Studies, 1973), 18; Wayne Wilcox, "Pakistan Coup d-Etat ofl958," Pacific Affairs 38, no.2 (Summer 1965): 142-163,147-148. 12. Wilcox, 145; Cohen 1973, 18. 13. K. Newman, "The Dyarchic Pattern of Government and Pakistan's Problems," Political Science Quarterly 75, no.l (March 1960): 94-108, 105. 14. Kamal,28. 15. Kamal, 55. 16. Ahmad,46-47. 17. Shirin Tahir-Kheli, "The Military in Contemporary Pakistan," Armed Forces and Society 6, noA (Summer 1980): 639-653,641. 18. P. V. R. Rao, Defence Without Drift (Bombay: Popular Prakashan, 1970),26. 19. Agha Shahi, interview by Julian Schofield, April 21, 1999, Islamabad. 20. M. S. Venkataramani, 81,120-121. NOTES 169

21. V. D. Chopra, Genesis of Indo-Pakistan Conflict on Kashmir (New Delhi: Patriot Publishers, 1990), 144; M. S. Venkataramani, 121, 185. 22. Kamal, 27; Robert McMahon, The Cold War on the Periphery-The United States, India and Pakistan (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994), 161. 23. The civil service had been a significant factor in Pakistan since independ• ence. See Khalid Sayeed, "The Political Role of Pakistan's Civil Service," Pacific Affairs 31, no.2 (June 1958): 131-146, 131; Shirin Tahir-Kheli, "Defense Planning in Pakistan," in Stephanie Neuman, ed., Defense Planning in Less-Industrialized States-The Middle East and South Asia (Lexington: Lexington Books, 1984): 209-230,222. 24. Tahir-Kheli 1980, 639-653, 641. 25. Dennis Dux, The United States and Pakistan-1947-2000-Disenchanted Allies (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001), 55. 26. Gen. Z. A. Khan, served in the armored directorate at General Headquarters from January 1964 to April 1965, electronic correspon• dence with Julian Schofield (from Rawalpindi), July 5, 1999; Dux, 104-105. 27. V. Longer, The Defence and Foreign Policies ofIndia (New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Private Limited, 1988), 72, 74; S. D. Verma, To Serve with Honour-My Memoirs (Bombay: New Thacker's Fine Art Press Pvt. Ltd., 1988), 84-85; Bhupinder Singh, 1965 War (Role of Tanks in India• Pakistan War) (Patiala: B.C. Publishers, 1982),26. 28. Sumit Ganguly, The Origins of War in South Asia (Boulder: Westview Press, 1994), 11-14; Marshall Bouton, William Clark, Jr., Stephen Cohen, Lewis Dunn, Francine Frankel, Sumit Ganguly, Thomas Graham, Richard Haass, David Hamburg, Selig Harrison, Neil Joeck, Rodney Jones, John Kelly, Geoffrey Kemp, Paul Kreisberg, Michael Krepon, Emily MacFarquhar, Robert Oakley, George Perkovich, Gowher Rizvi, Gideon Rose, Stephen Solarz, Leonard Spector, David Speedie, Shirin Tahir-Kheli, George Tanham, Raju Thomas, and Robert Wirsing, A New U.S. Policy Toward India and Pakistan (New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 1997), 38; Brines, 54. 29. Robert Wirsing, India, Pakistan and the Kashmir Dispute-On Regional Conflict and Its Resolution (Calcutta: Rupa and Co., 1995), 3. 30. Ganguly's model in his Origins of War in South Asia. 31. Gen. Gul Hassan did not believe Kashmir had strategic value worth risk• ing a war. Interview, April 23, 1999, Rawalpindi; Kashmir's strategic value, its headwaters for irrigation and access to China, had already been secured in the First Kashmir War in 1947-1948. Interview by Julian Schofield, de facto Pakistan Army Chief 1984-1987, Gen. K. M. Arif, April 26, 1999, Rawalpindi; Interview by Julian Schofield, Pakistan Army Chief 1988-1991, Gen. Mirza Aslam Beg, April 24, 1999, Rawalpindi; Gen. Mohammad Musa was reported to have said that after 1949, the 170 NOTES

Kashmir issue was dead. Gen. Yaqub Khan, interview by Julian Schofield, April 28, 1999, Islamabad. 32. Michael Brecher, The Struggle for Kashmir (New York: Oxford University Press, 1953), 195; see also "Short Shrift to Tall Promises," India Today (June 15, 1995),64. 33. Louis Hayes, The Impact of u.s. Policy on the Kashmir Conflict (Tucson: The University of Arizona Press, 1971),22. 34. Ganguly 1994, 61. 35. S. C. Tewari, Indo-US Relations-1947-1976 (New Delhi: Radiant Publishers, 1977), 51; Agha Shahi, interview by Julian Schofield, April 21, 1999, Islamabad. 36. Frank Trager, "The United States and Pakistan: A Failure of Diplomacy," Orbis9, no.3 (Fall 1965): 613-629, 624. 37. Kamal, 56; Robert Laporte, Jr., "Succession in Pakistan: Continuity and Change in a Garrison State," Asian Survey 9, no.11 (November 1969): 842-861, 860. 38. M. S. Venkataramani, 341, 390; Veena Kukreja, Civil-Military Relations in South Asia (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1991), 36-76; Ayesha J alal disagrees, and argues persuasively that the impetus for the military takeover was mainly external threat, not weak institutions. See Ayesha Jalal, The State of Martial Rule: The Origins of Pakistan)s Political Economy of Defence ( Lahore Vanguard, 1991),49, 30l. 39. G. W. Choudhury, The Last Days of United Pakistan (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1974), 17. 40. Reeta Chowdhari Tremblay and Julian Schofield, "Institutional Causes of the Indo-Pakistan Rivalry," in T. V. Paul, ed., The India-Pakistan Conflict (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 225-250, 229. 41. T. V. Paul, Asymmetric Conflicts: War Initiation by Weaker Powers (Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 122. 42. Tremblay and Schofield, 229. 43. Paul,120. 44. Ian Talbot, "Does the Army Shape Pakistan's Foreign Policy?" in Christopher Jaffrelot, ed., Pakistan-Nationalism Without A Nation? (New Delhi: Manohar, 2002): 311-336. 45. Bhupinder Singh, 1965 War (Role of Tanks in India-Pakistan War) (Patiala: B.C. Publishers, 1982),27. 46. Stephen Cohen, "U.S. Weapons and South Asia: A Policy Analysis," Pacific Affairs 49, no.l (Spring 1976): 49-69, 51. 47. Scott Gartner, Strategic Assessment in War (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997), 164, 166-175. 48. Hassan Khan, 102, 105, 173-4. 49. Hassan Khan, 112-113. 50. Iqbal Akhund, Memoirs ofa Bystander (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1998), 86; Shaukat Riza, Izzat-O-Iqbal (Nowshera: School of Artillery, NOTES 171

1980),133; Paul indicates that there were junior officers pushing for an attack on India. See Paul, 123. 51. Stephen Cohen, The Pakistan Army (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984), 141-142. 52. Not only did Ayub Khan refuse to attack India, but when he was warned shortly before the attack by the Chinese, he promptly informed the United States, who probably passed on the information to an unreceptive India. Ayub subsequently regretted his decision, particularly during the negotia• tions with India over Kashmir. In an interview with FaroukA. Rana, former Director-General, Asia & Pacific, in the Pakistan Foreign Office, interview by Julian Schofield, Ottawa, March 1999 Agha Shahi recalls that Ayub had once remarked that "there were a dozen better reasons to go to war than Kashmir," interview by Julian Schofield, April 21, 1999, Islamabad. 53. Mohammed Asghar Khan, The First Round Indo-Pakistan War-1965 (Sahibabad: Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd, 1979),7. 54. Hassan Khan, 178. 55. Sumit Ganguly, The Crisis in Kashmir-Portents of War-Hopes of Peace (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997). 56. Mohammed Asghar Khan, 1979 x. 57. Akhund, 86; Interview by Julian Schofield, Col. Saeed Akhtar Malik (Gen. Malik's son), April 21, 1999, Rawalpindi. 58. Akhund,86. 59. K. C. Praval, India)s Paratroopers-A History of the Parachute Regiment of India (New Delhi: Thomson Press (India) Limited, 1974),242. 60. K. P. Candeth, The Western Front: Indo-Pakistan War of1971 (New Delhi: Allied Publishers Private, 1984), 49. 61. Altaf Gauhar, Ayub Khan-Pakistan)s First Military Ruler (Lahore: Sang-e-Meel Publications, 1993), 312, 316; Syed Abid Ali Bilgrami, "Limited War and Likely Areas of Conflict," Pakistan Army Journal 1, no.5 (1959): 31-38,33. 62. Akbar Khan, Raiders in Kashmir (Karachi: Pak Publishers Limited, 1970),172-173. 63. Akhund, 91. The theoretical objection that the 1965 war would proba• bly not have occurred without the Pakistani perception of Chinese sup• port is disconfirmed by the absence of such support for operations in the Rann. Letter from Gen. Akhtar Malik to his brother, dated November 22, 1967. Interview by Julian Schofield, Saeed Akhtar Malik (Col.), Gen. Akhtar Hussain Malik's son, April 21, 1999, Rawalpindi; Russell Leng, Bat;gaining and Learning in Recurring Crises (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2000), 237. 64. Akhund, 87. 65. Guizar Ahmed, Pakistan Meets Indian Challenge (Rawalpindi: Al Mukhtar Publishers, 1967), 163. 66. Gauhar, 289, 351-354. 172 NOTES

67. Dux, 55. 68. McMahon, 325. 69. K. M. Arif, Khaki Shadows, Pakistan 1947-1997 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 47. 70. Paul, 118. 71. Khan, First Round Indo-Pakistan War, 1979, 111-112; Dilip Mukerjee, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto-Quest for Power (Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd, 1972),45; McMahon, 328. 72. Paul, 118. 73. Paul,119. 74. Mohammad Musa, My Version-India-Pakistan War of 1965 (Lahore: Wajidalis, 1983),2,5; On U.S. State Department awareness of the role of Bhutto, see "Reflections from Dacca on Indo-Pakistan Hostilities," September 23, 1965, cited in Roedad Khan, ed., The American Papers (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999),74-75,75; Agha Humayum Amin, The Pakistan Army Till 1965 (Lahore: Strategicus and Tacticus, 1999),138. 75. Arif, 46, 91; Agha Shahi, interview by Julian Schofield, April 21, 1999, Islamabad. 76. Musa 1983,4. 77. Gauhar, 168,203,312. 78. Musa 1983, 6. 79. Gauhar, 321; Letter from Gen. Malik to his brother, dated November 22, 1967. Gen. Malik was overruled by Ayub when he asked that Operation Grand Slam proceed directly to Jammu across the international boundary rather than through Kashmir. Interview by Julian Schofield, Saeed Akhtar Malik (Col.), Gen. Akhtar Hussain Malik's son, April 21, 1999, Rawalpindi. 80. Cohen 1984, 141-142; John Vasuqez, "The Indo-Pakistan Conflict in Light of General Theories of War, Rivalry and Deterrence," in T. V. Paul, ed., The India-Pakistan Conflict (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005),54-79,62-63,111-112. 81. Ambassador BowIe's telegram from the American Embassy in New Delhi: Indian Military and Political Objectives Unclear," September 6, 1965, and MAAG Chief Contacts General Musa, September 6,1965,21-31, 28, in Roedad Khan, 15-16, 15. 82. Brian Cloughley, A History of the Pakistan Army: Wars and Insurrections (London: Oxford University Press, 1999), 129.

4 INDIA, N ONMILITARIZATION, AND THE 1971 WAR 1. K. P. Candeth, The Western Front: Indo-Pakistan War of1971 (New Delhi: Allied Publishers Private Ltd, 1984), 38. NOTES 173

2. Theyiezelie Chakhesang, Goodbye, My Regiment (New Delhi: Lancer Books, 1985),21. 3. Apurba Kundu, Militarism in India (London: Tauris Academic Studies, 1998). 4. Department of State, Office of Intelligence Research, Intelligence Report No.7459, "Prospects and Problems for Pakistan's Ruling Group," (March 8, 1957), Diplomatic Branch, National Archives, cited in M. S. Venkataramani, The American Role in Pakistan, 1947-1958 (New Delhi: Radiant Publishers, 1982), 389. 5. Department of State, Office of Intelligence Research and Analysis, Intelligence Report No.7894, "Pakistan's Military Regime Faces Great Problems," (December 5,1958), Diplomatic Branch, National Archives, cited in M. S. Venkataramani, 397. 6. Kamal Matinuddin, Tragedy of Errors (East Pakistan Crisis, 1968-1971) (Lahore: Wajidalis, 1994),73. 7. Matinuddin, 75-76. 8. Shirin Tahir-Kheli, "Defense Planning in Pakistan," in Stephanie Neuman, ed., Defense Planning in Less-Industrialized States-The Middle East and South Asia (Lexington: Lexington Books, 1984), 209-230, 643. 9. Shawkat Ara Hussein, "Military in Politics: 1969 Coup d'Eata in Pakistan," The Dacca University Studies Part A 34, (1981): 83-90, 87. 10. Matinuddin, 82. 11. Matinuddin, 84. 12. G. W. Choudhury, The Last Days of United Pakistan (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1974),7. 13. Asoka Raina, Inside RAW-The Story of India's Secret Service (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd, 1981), 50; On the Intelligence Bureau's role, see Ea Vas, Fools and Infantrymen-One View of History (1923-1993) (Meerut: Kartikeya Publications, 1995), 111; Khalid Bin Sayeed, "Pakistan's Foreign Policy: An Analysis of Pakistani Fears and Interests," Asian Survey 4, no.3 (March 1964): 746-756,746. 14. Choudhury, 117, 222; Hassan-Askari Rizvi, "Pakistan-U.S. Security Relations: Pakistani Perceptions of Key Issues," in Noor Husain and Leo Rose, eds., Pakistan-U.S. Relations-Social, Political, and Economic Factors (Berkeley: University of California, 1988), 3-17, 7; Stephen Cohen, Arms and Politics in Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan (Buffalo: Council on International Studies, 1973),44. 15. Choudhury, 8; Khalid Sayeed, "The Capabilities of Pakistan's Political System," Asian Survey 7, no.2 (February 1967): 102-110, 104. 16. A. M. K. Maswani, Subversion in East Pakistan (Lahore: Amir Publications, 1979), 166; Mohammad Asghar Khan, Generals in Politics-Pakistan 1958-1982 (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1983), 19. 174 NOTES

17. Gul Hassan Khan, Memoirs (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1993),241; Siddiq Salik, Witness to Surrender (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1977), 222-223. 18. Gen. Rao Farman Ali, interview by Julian Schofield, April 26, 1999, Rawalpindi. 19. Salik,223. 20. See Mujib's television interview with David Frost (London Weekend Television), January 16, 1972; his press interview with Musa Ahmad of the Bangladesh Observer, Dacca, on March 23,1972, and Bangabandhu Speaks, published by the Ministry of Foreign Mfairs, Government of Bangladesh, Dacca, no date, cited in Choudhury, 25, 27. 21. Choudhury, 70-71, 99. 22. Russell Brines, The Indo-Pakistani Conflict (London: Pall Mall Press, 1968), 425; Choudhury 24. 23. Vas, 151. 24. Raju Thomas, "Defense Planning in India," in Stephanie Neuman, ed., Defense Planning in Less-Industrialized States-The Middle East and South Asia (Lexington: Lexington Books, 1984),239-264,249. 25. P. V. R. Rao, Defence Without Drift (Bombay: Popular Prakashan, 1970),6. 26. Bhupinder Singh, 1965 War (Role of Tanks in India-Pakistan War) (Patiala: B. C. Publishers, 1982),70-71. 27. Nisha Sahai Achuthan, Soviet Arms Transfer Policy in South Asia (1955-1981)-The Politics of International Arms Transfers (New Delhi: Lancer International, 1988), 38; Robert McMahon, The Cold War on the Periphery-the United States, India and Pakistan (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994),240. 28. Gurcharn Singh Sandhu, I Serve «Ich Dim')) Saga of the Eighteenth Cavalry (New Delhi: Lancer International, 1991), 167. 29. D. P. Dhar, Planning and Social Change (New Delhi: Arnold-Heinemann, 1976), 5; Mohammad Musa, My Version-India-Pakistan War of 1965 (Lahore: Wajidalis, 1983), 23; Y. Lakshmi, Trends in India's Defence Expenditure (New Delhi: ABC Publishing House, 1988),20; P. C. Lal and Ela Lal, My Years with the IAF (New Delhi: Lancer International, 1986), 80,84, 112; M. S. Chaturvedi, History ofthe Indian Air Force (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd, 1978), 114; Rao, 191; S. D. Verma, To Serve with Honour-My Memoirs (Bombay: New Thacker's Fine Art Press Pvt. Ltd., 1988), 105. 30. Rao,6. 31. Kundu, 102, 109. 32. Lloyd Rudolph and Susanne Rudolph, "Generals and Politicians in India," in Wilson McWilliams, ed., Garrisons and Government-Politics and the Military in New States (San Francisco: Chandler Publishing Company, 1967), 130-149, 141-142; Verma, 100. NOTES 175

33. Thomas 1984, 239-264, 250; Stephen Cohen, The Indian Army-Its Contribution to the Development of a Nation (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971), 174. 34. Brines 1968, 209. 35. George Tanham and Marcy Agmon, The Indian Air Force (Santa Monica: RAND, 1994), x; Lal and Lal, 160; Chaturvedi, 133, 151. 36. Singh 1982, 32-3, 216-217. 37. Sandhu, 196-197. 38. Raju Thomas, Indian Security Policy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986),22. 39. Brines, 355; Hassan-Askari Rizvi, The Military and Politics in Pakistan 1947-86 (New Delhi: Konark Publishers Pvt Ltd, 1988), 128. 40. Abdur Razzaq Khan Abbasi, "Pakistan's Relations with the People's Republic of China," in Noor Husain and Leo Rose, eds., Pakistan-U.S. Relations (Berkeley: Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, 1988),133-151, especially 140. 41. Vas, 209. 42. V. Longer, The Defence and Foreign Policies ofIndia (New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Private Limited, 1988), 186. 43. Richard Sisson and Leo Rose, War and Secession-Pakistan, India, and the Creation of Bangladesh (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), 137; Dilip Mukerjee, Zulftqar Ali Bhutto-Quest for Power (Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd, 1972), 107. 44. Brines, 439. 45. Lakshmi, 73. 46. Surjit Singh, India's Search for Power-Indira Gandhi's Foreign Policy 1966-1982 (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1984),213. 47. Sarbjit Johal, Conflict and Integration in Indo-Pakistan Relations (Berkeley: University of California at Berkeley, 1989), 149. 48. Choudhury, 7,148. 49. Matinuddin, 336. 50. Jadjit Singh, Indian Gunners at War-The Western Front-1971 (New Delhi: Lancer International, 1994), 14; Johal, 150. 51. Longer, 198; Lal and Lal, 152. 52. J. F. R. Jacob, Surrender at Dacca-Birth of a Nation (New Delhi: Manohar, 1997), 35-36. 53. Hindustan Times, New Delhi (April 1, 1971), cited and discussed in Salik,97. 54. Hindustan Times, New Delhi (April 1, 1971), cited and discussed in Choudhury, 211. 55. Hindustan Times, New Delhi (April 1, 1971), cited and discussed in Choudhury, 211. 56. Sisson and Rose, 149. 57. Johal,147. 176 NOTES

58. Henry Kissinger, White House Years (Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1979),856. 59. Mathew Thomas and J asjit Mansigh, Lt Gen P S Bhagat-A Biography (New Delhi: Lancer International, 1994),406. 60. Sisson and Rose, 208-209; H. H. Sodhi, Operation Windfall-Eme1lJence ofBangladesh (New Delhi: Allied Publishers, 1980), 105; D. R. Manekar, Pakistan Cut to Size (New Delhi: Indian Book Company, 1972), 145. 61. Kissinger, 857. 62. Sisson and Rose, 138-139; Longer, 207; Jacob, 69. 63. Manekar, 38; Sisson and Rose, 139. 64. Sisson and Rose, 181. 65. India was concerned that a prolonged insurgency would fan leftist move• ments in the region. See FOI document, "The 1971 Indo-Pakistani Contlict: A Study in Escalation," Defense Intelligence Agency (September 1971), cited in Sisson and Rose, 212-213, 303-304; Ayoob, Mohammed and K. Subrahmanyam, The Liberation War (New Delhi: S. Chand & Co. Ltd., 1972),160. 66. Singh 1984,216. 67. Johal,151. 68. D. K. Palit, The Lightning Campaign-The Indo-Pakistan War 1971 (New Delhi: Thomson Press (India) limited, 1972),43; Candeth, 16-17, 19. 69. Longer, 204; Kissinger, 868. 70. Longer, 205. 71. Kissinger, 860-861. 72. Salik, 112. 73. Rizvi, The Military and Politics in Pakistan, 1988, 190-191. 74. A junior Soviet Foreign Ministry official stated that India was put under pressure to windup the conflict (while Farouk A. Rana was deputy head of mission in Moscow, 1989-1992). Interview by Julian Schofield with Farouk A. Rana, former Director-General, Asia and Pacific, in the Pakistan Foreign Office, Ottawa, March 1999. 75. Interview by cited author with Ambassador Eric Gonsalves, January 11, 1991. Gonsalves at the time was the Ministry of External Mfairs repre• sentative on the interdepartmental group assessing Chinese intentions, cited in Dennis Dux, Estranged Democracies-India and the United States-1941-1991 (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1993), 303; Candeth, 117. 76. Dilip Mukerji, "India's Defence Perspectives," Survival 11, no.l (January 1969): 2-8, 3; Palit, 65-66; Choudhury, 209. 77. Ayoob and Subrahmanyam, 243; B. M. Kaul, Confrontation with Pakistan (Delhi: Vikas Publications, 1971),241; Pran Chopra, India)s Second Liberation (Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd, 1973), 110; Mukerji,4. 78. Jacob, 160. NOTES 177

79. Jacob, 61; Chopra 1973, 118; Matinuddin, 359. 80. V. D. Chopra, Genesis of Indo-Pakistan Conflict on Kashmir (New Delhi: Patriot Publishers, 1990),81. 81. Longer, 207. 82. Kissinger, 877. 83. Related to the cited author by Yahya, cited in Choudhury, 194. 84. Matinuddin, 481; Vinod Gupta, Anderson Papers-A Study of Nixon's Blackmail of India (New Delhi: ISSD Publication, 1972),227. 85. Mukerjee, 153. 86. H. C. Rai, Memories Still Linger (New Delhi: Reliance Publishing House, 1993),185,194.

5 ISRAEL, CIVILIAN MILITARIZATION, AND THE 1956 WAR 1. Yoram Peri, Between Battles and Ballots (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 29-30, 43; Yehuda Ben Meir, Civil-Military Relations in Israel (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995), 128. 2. Meir 1995, 39, 72; Peri 1983, 157. 3. Peri 1983,20. 4. Shimon Peres, Battling for Peace-A Memoir (New York: Random House, 1995),229-230. 5. Peres 1995,60. 6. Peres 1995,61. 7. Peri 1983,78. 8. Meir 1995, 144; Peri 1983, 131. 9. Peres 1995, 230; On sociopolitical indoctrination of militarism in Israel, see Sara Helman, "Militarism and the Construction of Community," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 25, no.2 (Winter 1997): 305-332; Daniel Maman and Moshe Lissak, "Occupational Patterns of Retired Officers: The Case ofIsrael," in Jurgen Kuhlmann, ed., Problems and Options ofthe Mass Armed Forces (Munchen: Sozialwissenschaftliches Institut Der Bundeswehr, 1990), 279-308, 284, 297; Peri 1983, 101; Meir 1995, 132. 10. Marlin Levin and David Halevy, "Israel," in Richard A. Gabriel, ed., Fighting Armies-Antagonists in the Middle East-A Combat Assessment (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1983),3-25,7-8; Shimon Peres, David's Sling (New York: Random House, 1970),29; Meir, 1995, 33-34. 11. Peri 1983, 80, 130; Meir 1995, 131. 12. Ze'ev Schiff, A History of the Israeli Army-1874 to the Present (New York: Macmillan, 1974),231. 13. Lewis Brownstein, "Decision Making in Israeli Foreign Policy: An Unplanned Process," Political Science Quarterly 92, no.2 (Summer 1977): 259-279,276. 178 NOTES

14. Michael Brecher, The Foreign Policy System of Israel: Settings, Images, Process (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1972), table 22, on page 221. 15. Brownstein, 259-279, 262; Peter Medding, Mapai in Israel: Political Owanization and Government in a New Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972),215. 16. Abba Eban, Personal Witness-Israel Through My Eyes (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1992), 317; Dan Kurzman, Soldier of Peace-The Life ofYitzhak Rabin 1922-1995 (New York: Harper Collins, 1998), 193. 17. Peres 1995,60-62. 18. Emanuel Wald, The Wald Report-The Decline of Israeli National Security Since 1967 (Boulder: Westview Press, 1992), 227; Moshe Dayan, Diary of the Sinai Campaign (New York: Harper & Row, 1965),20. 19. Yoav Gelber, "The Israeli-Arab War ofl948: History Versus Narratives," in Mordechai Bar-On, ed., A Never-Ending Conflict (London: Praeger, 2004): 43-68,60. 20. Benny Morris, Israel)s Border Wars 1949-1956-Arab Infiltration, Israeli Retaliation) and the Countdown to the Suez War (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993). 21. Kurzman, 208. 22. Brownstein, 259-279, 260; Schiff, 232. 23. Amos Perlmutter, "Israel's Fourth War, October 1973: Political and Military Misperceptions," Orbis 19, no.2 (Summer 1975): 434-460, 435. 24. Morris 1993,426. 25. Michael Brecher, Decisions in Israel's Foreign Policy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1975),234. 26. Peres 1970, 31. 27. Selwyn Ilan Troen, "The Sinai Campaign as a 'War of No Alternative': Ben-Gurion's View of the Israeli-Egyptian Conflict," in Selwyn Ilan Troen and Moshe Shemesh, eds., The Suez-Sinai Crisis 1956 Retrospective and Reappraisal (London: Frank Cass, 1990), 180-195, 183. 28. Eban 1992, 248-249; Orna Almog, Britain) Israel, and the United States, 1955-1958 (London: Frank Cass, 2003), 58. 29. Avi Shlaim, The Iron Wall (New York: W. W. Norton, 2000),153. 30. Brownstein, 259-279, 269, 273. 31. Brownstein, 259-279, 274; Yoram Peri, Generals in the Cabinet Room (Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace, 2006), 47-58. 32. Peres 1995, 104-105. 33. Ernest Stock, Israel on the Road to Sinai-1949-1956 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1967),96. 34. Eban 1992,268-269. 35. Eban 1992,276-278; Perlmutter, 434-460, 446. 36. Peri 1983,214. 37. Trevor Dupuy, Elusive Victory-The Arab-Israeli Wars, 1947-1974 (Dubuque: Kendall Hunt, 1992), 129, 131; Nadav Safran, From War to NOTES 179

War-The Arab-Israeli Confrontation, 1949-1967 (New York: Pegasus, 1969), 103. 38. Dupuy, 134; Robert McNamara, Britain, Nasser and the Balance of Power in the Middle East 1952-1967 (London: Frank Cass, 2003),74. 39. Morris 1993, 424; Anwar el-Sadat, In Search of Identity-An Autobiography (New York: Harper & Row, 1977), 135; David Rosser• Owen, "The Muslim World-Aiming for the Gulf?" in Ian Beckett, ed., Communist War Machine (London: Bison Books, 1985), 118-139, 133. 40. Jonathan Shimshoni, Israel and Conventional Deterrence (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1988), 74; Dupuy, 131; el-Sadat, 135. 41. Rosser-Owen, 204. 42. Shlaim, 144; Peri 1983, 160. 43. Dupuy, 132. 44. Jon Glassman, Arms for the Arabs (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1975), 12-13; these observations are part of a broader method• ological debate. Efraim Karsh, Fabricating Israeli History (London: Frank Cass, 2002). 45. Dupuy, 132. 46. Ian Hogg, Israeli War Machine-The Men; The Machines; The Tactics (London: Chartwell Books, 1983), 117; Brecher 1975, 230; Gunther Rothenberg, The Anatomy of the Israeli Army-The Israeli Defence Force, 1948-78 (New York, Hippocrene Books, 1979),97. 47. Peri 1983, 160-161. 48. Golda Meir, My Life (New York: A Dell Book, 1975),274; Janice Stein and Raymond Tanter, Rational Decision-Making-Israers Security Choices, 1967 (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1976), 103; Barry Blechman, A Quantitative Description of Arab-Israeli Interactions, 1949-1969: Data Sets and Processor (Arlington: Center for Naval Analyses, 1971), 18. 49. Samuel Katz, Israeli Elite Units since 1948 (London: Osprey Publishing, 1988),9-10; Stock, 69-71,114; Eban 1992,254; Morris 1993,28,46, 312,317,424. 50. Text of four-power proposal to Egypt on Middle East Command in U.S., Department of State Bulletin 25 (October 22, 1951),647, cited in Stock, 49. 51. Stein and Tanter, 108. 52. Stein and Tanter, 107. 53. Eban 1992,241; Morris 1993,22-23; Shlaim, 162. 54. Peres 1995, 104. 55. Dupuy, 133. 56. Interview with senior army office, cited in Stock, 192. 57. Rothenberg 1979, 104. 58. Troen, 180-195, 184. 59. Moshe Dayan, Story of My Life (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1976),147. 60. Dupuy, 133. 180 NOTES

61. Dupuy, 134. 62. J. N. Westwood, The History of the Middle East Wars (Greenwich: Bison Books, 1984),41. 63. Stock,I71-172. 64. Dayan 1976, 156. 65. Dayan 1976, 147. 66. Eban 1992,256-257,261. 67. David Eshel, Chariots of the Desert (London: Brassey's Defense Publishers, 1989),28; Brecher 1975, 263; Eban 1992,256-257,261. 68. Brecher 1975,262,264. 69. Steven Zaloga, Armour of the Middle East Wars 1948-78 (London: Osprey, 1981), 10. 70. Schiff 1974,87; Peres 1995, 104-105; Dayan 1976, 148; Ezer Weizman, On Eagle)s Wings-The Personal Story of the Leading Commander of the Israeli Air Force (New York: Macmillan, 1976), 139. 71. Schiffl974,120. 72. Edward Luttwak and Dan Horowitz, The Israeli Army (London: Allen Lane, 1975), 129-132; S. Teveth, The Tanks of Tammuz (New York: Viking, 1969), 189. 73. Stock, 155, 158, 162. 74. Stock,159. 75. Benny Morris, Righteous Victims (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1999),288-289. 76. Shlaim, 146. 77. Eban 1992,254; Victor Flintham, Air Wars and Aircraft-A Detailed Record of Air Combat) 1945 to the Present (London: Arms and Armour, 1989),47. 78. Dayan 1976, 159. 79. Westwood,35. 80. Westwood, 35,40-41. 81. Ben Gurion Documents (Bar-Zohar 1968), 192, cited in Brecher 1975, 258-259; Dupuy, 137; Dayan 1965, 197, discussed in Dupuy, 148. 82. Peres 1970,203. 83. Dayan 1976, 166-167; Dupuy, 142. 84. Westwood,40. 85. John Burtt, "Organized Chaos-Israeli Defense Doctrine and Tactics," Strategy and Tactics 168 (May 1994): 12-21, 15. 86. Dupuy, 147. 87. Dupuy, 179, 182. 88. Dayan 1976, 169. 89. Morris 1999,288-289. 90. Michael Handel, Israel)s Political-Military Doctrine (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, 1973), 32. 91. Handel, 32; David Tal, "Israel's Armistice Wars, 1949-1956," in Mordechai Bar-On, ed., A Never-Ending Conflict (London: Praeger, 2004): 69-86, 81. 92. Dupuy, 134-135. NOTES 181

93. Moshe Shemesh, "Abd ai-Latif al-Bughdadi's Memoirs," in Selwyn Han Troen and Moshe Shemesh, eds., The Suez-Sinai Crisis 1956 Retrospective and Reappraisal (London: Frank Cass, 1990), 333-356, 336. 94. Moshe Shemesh, "Appendix: the Operation Order for the Defence of Egypt, 1 September 1956," in Selwyn Han Troen and Moshe Shemesh, eds., The Suez-Sinai Crisis 1956 Retrospective and Reappraisal (London: Frank Cass, 1990), 373-390, 373. 95. Shemesh, "Abd aI-Latif al-Bughdadi's Memoirs," 1990, 333-356, 337; Mohamed Heikal, Cutting the Lion's Tail-Suez Through Egyptian Eyes (London: Andre Deutsch, 1986), 177-178. 96. James Lunt, Hussein ofJordan-Searching for a Just and Lasting Peace (New York: William Morrow and Company, 1989), 33; Patrick Seale, Asad of Syria-The Struggle for the Middle East (London: I. B. Tauris, 1988),139; Safran, 54. 97. Tal, 82.

6 ISRAEL, EMBEDDED CIVILIAN MILITARIZATION, AND THE 1967 WAR 1. Abba Eban, Personal Witness-Israel Through My Eyes (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1992), 396-397. 2. Moshe Dayan, Story of My Life (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1976),258. 3. Eban 1992, 345. 4. Yoram Peri, Between Battles and Ballots (Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 160-16l. 5. John Mearsheimer, Conventional Deterrence (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1983). 6. Nadav Safran, From War to War-The Arab-Israeli Confrontation, 1949-1967 (New York: Pegasus, 1969), 165. 7. Safran, 162; Russell Leng, Ba1lfaining and Learning in Recurring Crises• The Soviet-American, Egyptian-Israeli, and Indo-Pakistani Rivalries (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 2000),146. 8. A. J. Barker, Six Day War (New York: Ballantine, 1974), 8; Dan Kurzman, Soldier of Peace-The Life of Yitzhak Rabin 1922-1995 (New York: Harper Collins, 1998), 186, 193; Eban 1992, 288, 324; Shimon Peres, David's Sling (New York: Random House, 1970), 85; Yitzhak Rabin, The Rabin Memoirs (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979), 54; Gunter Rothenberg, The Anatomy ofthe Israeli Army• The Israeli Defence Force, 1948-78 (New York, Hippocrene Books, 1979),128. 9. Ian Hogg, Israeli War Machine-The Men; The Machines; The Tactics (London: Chartwell Books, 1983), 58; Rothenberg, 128; Elhannan Orren, "Changes in Israel's Concept of Security after Kadesh," in 182 NOTES

Selwyn Han Troen and Moshe Shemesh, eds., The Suez-Sinai Crisis 1956 Retrospective and Reappraisal (London: Frank Cass, 1990),218-229,225. 10. Orren, 218-229, 226; Safran, 157. 11. Michael Brecher, Decisions in Israel's Foreign Policy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1975), 349. 12. Uri Bar-Joseph, "Rotem: The Forgotten Crisis on the Road to the 1967 War," Journal of Contemporary History 31, no.3 (July 1996): 547-566; Robert McNamara, Britain, Nasser and the Balance of Power in the Middle East 1952-1967 (London: Frank Cass, 2003), 241. 13. Rabin, 56; Kurzman, 187. 14. Rabin, 57; Kurzman, 188; Janice Gross Stein and Raymond Tanter, Rational Decision-Making-Israel's Security Choices, 1967 (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1976), 109; see also Avner Yaniv, "Syria and Israel: The Politics of Escalation," in Moshe Ma'oz and Avner Yaniv, eds., Syria under Assad-Domestic Constraints and Regional Risks (London: Croom Helm, 1986), 157-178, 163, 177-178. 15. Ze'ev Schiff, A History of the Israeli Army-1874 to the Present (New York: Macmillan, 1974), 198. 16. There is an admission from Dayan that he sought repeatedly to provoke the Syrians to retaliate. See Avi Shlaim, The Iron Wall (New York: W. W. Norton, 2000),235. 17. Kurzman, 198-199; Rabin, 63. 18. Henry Kissinger, Crisis (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2003), 21. 19. Golda Meir, My Life (New York: A Dell Book, 1975),289. 20. Charles de Gaulle, Memoirs of Hope: Renewal and Endeavor, trans. Terence Kilmartin (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1970),265. 21. Patrick Seale, Asad of Syria-The Struggle for the Middle East (London: I. B. Tauris, 1988), 136. 22. Shimon Peres, Battling for Peace-A Memoir (New York: Random House, 1995),65. 23. Ezer Weizman, On Eagle's Wings-The Personal Story of the Leading Commander of the Israeli Air Force (New York: Macmillan, 1976), 164. 24. Avraham Tamir, A Soldier in Search of Peace-An Inside Look at Israel's Strategy, trans. Joan Comay (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1988), 170. 25. David Ben-Gurion, When Israel Fights (Tel-Aviv: Mapai Publishing House, 1950), cited in Amos Perlmutter, "Israel's Fourth War, October 1973: Political and Military Misperceptions," Orbis 19, no.2 (Summer 1975): 434-460, 441. 26. Kurzman, 196. 27. Brecher 1975, 176. 28. Safran, 46. 29. Safran, 47. 30. J. N. Westwood, The History of the Middle East Wars (Greenwich: Bison Books, 1984),69. 31. Dayan, 155. NOTES 183

32. Eban 1992, 276; Anwar el-Sadat, In Search ofIdentity-An Autobiography (New York: Harper & Row, 1977), 146. 33. Eban 1992,276. 34. Dayan, 190; Janet Morgan, ed., The Backbench Diaries of Richard Crossman (New York: Holmes & Meier Publishers, 1981), 544. 35. Peri,246. 36. Tamir, 170-171. 37. Eban 1992,403; Trevor Dupuy, Elusive Victory-The Arab-Israeli Wars, 1947-1974 (Dubuque: Kendall Hunt, 1992),224; Schiff, 199-200. 38. Dupuy, 225; George Gawrych, The Albatross ofDecisive Victory: War and Policy Between Egypt and Israel in the 1967 and the 1973 Arab-Israeli Wars (Westport: Greenwood, 2000), 4-12. 39. Dupuy, 225. 40. Dupuy, 227; A combination of weak Soviet intelligence about Israel and contempt for Israeli military capability may have encouraged this bold• ness. Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, The World Was Going Our Way (New York: Basic Books, 2005), 229. 41. Safran, 275, 277. 42. Mohamed Abdel Ghani EI-Gamasy, The October War (Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1989), 20, 34. Muhammad Fawzi, Harb al-thalath sanawat 1967-1970: mudhakkarat al-fariq awwal Muhammad Fawzi, wazir al-harbiyya al-ashaq (Cairo: Dar al-Mustaqbal al-'Arabi, 1984), 71-72 [Muhammad Fawzi, The Three Years War 1967-1970, Memoirs of M. Fawzi, Minister of Defense] cited in EI-Gamasy, 23. 43. Barker, 12-13; interview cited in Stein and Tanter, 146. 44. Rabin, 68; Kurzman, 201-202. 45. Rabin, 69. 46. Bar-Zohar, Michael, Embassies in Crisis: Diplomats and Demagogues behind the Six-Day War (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, n.d.), 12; New York Times (May 16, 1967); John Amos II, Arab-Israeli Political/Military Relations-Arab Perceptions and the Politics of Escalation (New York: Pergamon Press, 1979), 55. 47. Indicated by Nasser in the July 23,1967 speech at Cairo University, cited in Walter Laqueur, The Road to Jerusalem (New York: Macmillan, 1968), 197-207; cited in Ben Mor, "Nasser's Decision-making in the 1967 Middle East Crisis: A Rational-choice Explanation," Journal of Peace Research 28, no.4 (November 1991): 359-375, 365; also 50 percent estimate in al Ahram (July 24,1967), cited in Safran, 289. 48. Dupuy, 227. 49. Dupuy, 228. 50. Kurzman, 203. 51. Rabin, 70 and 76, cited in Stein and Tanter, 150. 52. Kurzman, 203. 53. Rabin, 70. 184 NOTES

54. Rabin, 71. 55. Dupuy, 328. 56. Eban 1992, 364-365. 57. Rabin, 72-73; Eban 1992, 369. 58. New York Times (May 18, 1967), cited in Amos, 59. 59. Amos, 59-60. 60. El-Gamasy, 28. 61. Safran, 292. 62. Laqueur, 107. 63. Sadiq al- 'Azm, Self-Criticism after the Defeat (Beirut: Dar al-Tali'a, 1968), cited in Amos, 60. 64. Amos, 290. 65. Dupuy, 228. 66. alAbram, May 27,1967, cited in Safran, 272. 67. Eban 1992, 368. 68. Eban 1992, 369. 69. Abba Eban, An Autobiography (New York: Random House, 1977), 372; Stein and Tanter, 215. 70. Eban 1992, 370, 374. 71. Eban 1992, 379. 72. Rabin, 87. 73. Kurzman, 210. 74. Eban 1992, 382-383. 75. William Quandt, Decade ofDecisions-American Policy Toward the Arab• Israeli Conflict, 1967-1976 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977), 49, 49; Steven Rosen and Martin Indyk, "The Temptation to Preempt in a Fifth Arab-Israeli War," Orbis 20, no.2 (Summer 1976): 265-285; Abraham Wagner, Crisis Decision-Making: Israel's Experiences in 1967 and 1973 (New York: Praeger, 1974), 50, cited in Amos, 56. 76. As recalled by Walt Rustow, described in Quandt, 49, 520; Eban 1992, 388, 392; In criticism, see Dennis Eisenberg, Uri Dan, and Eli Landau, The Mossad Inside Stories (New York: Signet, 1978), 158-165. 77. Lyndon Baines Johnson, The Vantage Point-Perspectives of the Presidency 1963-1969 (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971), 288; Eban 1992,406. 78. Barker, 15, 19; Benny Morris, Righteous Victims (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1999), 309; for disagreement with this, see also Rabin, 74-75. 79. Eban 1992, 364. 80. Rabin, 77. 81. Rabin, 77. 82. Rabin, 78. 83. Eban 1992, 368. 84. Eban 1992, 369; Rabin, 78. 85. Barker, 20. 86. Hogg,61. NOTES 185

87. Mor,368. 88. Barker, 20, 26. 89. Rabin, 84; Safran, 309. 90. Eban 1977, 333. 91. Weizman, 213. 92. Barker, 26. 93. Dayan, 259; Weizman, 216. 94. See debate Michael Oren, Six Days of War (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 92, 97, 146; Samuel Katz, Fire & Steel (New York: Pocket Books, 1996), 74; Abraham Rabinovitch, The Yom Kippur War (New York: Schoken, 2004), 13; Avigdor Kahalani, A Warrior)s Way (Bnei-Brak: Steinmatzky, 1999), 80, 100; Quoted in an interview with Akhir Sa'a Magazine, June 8, 1988, cited in EI-Gamasy, 32, 38, 43-44,418; Dennis Eisenberg, Uri Dan, and Eli Landau, The Mossad: Inside Stories (New York: NAL Penguin, 1979); Quandt, 49. 95. Rabin, 86. 96. Safran, 310. 97. Eban 1992, 383, 389; Eisenberg 1978, 158-165. 98. Eban 1992, 385, 389; Dayan, 275. 99. Dupuy, 228-229; Barker, 19,21. 100. Rabin, 89; Safran, 312; Barker, 19. 101. Dayan, 276. 102. Safran, 313. 103. Eban 1992,399; Uri Dan, Sharon)s Bridgehead (Tel Aviv: E. L. Special Edition, 1975),95; Rabin, 92, cited in Stein and Tanter, 215. 104. Rabin, 91. 105. Eban 1977, 371; Kurzman, 211. 106. Eban 1992,403; Rabin, 80; Safran, 312. 107. Eban 1992,397. 108. Eban 1992, 398,400. 109. Barker, 21; Dupuy, 234; Dayan states he was appointed June 1. See Dayan, 272. 1l0. Rabin, 97; Eban 1992,403. 111. Safran, 315; Barker, 21, 24. 112. Shlaim, 243. 113. Barker, 21. 114. Lyndon Baines Johnson, The Vantage Point-Perspectives of the Presidency 1963-1969 (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971), 288; Eban 1992,406. 115. Rabin, 98; Eban 1992, 397. 116. Rabin, 97-98; For the alternate date of June 3, see Barker, 27; Peres 1995,95. 117. Dayan, 270; Safran, 338. 118. Rabin, 102; Hogg, 61; Dupuy, 242-243; Schiff, 132-131, 133; Kurzman, 204; Barker, 80. 186 NOTES

119. Dayan, 256; Dupuy, 242-243; Kurzman, 205. 120. Barker, 75, 80. 121. Kurzman, 215; Gawrych, 27-33. 122. Rabin, 102. 123. Rabin, 103; Dayan, 285; Kurzman, 224; Dupuy, 233, 320. 124. Laqueur, 197-207; AI-Sadat, interview with Ms. Himmat Mustafa, October 6, 1977, FBIS (October 25, 1977), cited in Amos, 291; Dupuy, 234. 125. Barker, 77; Dupuy, 236. 126. Barker, 70,135. 127. Peri, 245. 128. Shlaim, 246. 129. David Eshel, Chariots of the Desert-The Story of the Israeli Armoured Corps (London: Brassey's, 1989), 34, 36; Leng, 146. 130. Stein and Tanter, 105. 131. AI Hamishmar (December 31, 1976) cited in Peri, 130. 132. Shlaim, 245.

7 EGYPT, ELITE MILITARIZATION, AND THE 1973 WAR 1. George Gawrych, The Albatross of Decisive Victory: War and Policy between Egypt and Israel in the 1967 and 1973 Wars (Westport: Greenwood Press, 2000). 2. Joseph Miranda, "The First Arab-Israeli War, 1947---49," Strategy & Tactics 185 (May/June 1997): 4-17,14,15; Nadav Safran, From War to War-The Arab-Israeli Confrontation, 1949-1967 (New York: Pegasus, 1969),207. 3. J. N. Westwood, The History ofthe Middle East Wars (Greenwich: Bison Books, 1984),24. 4. Kirk Beattie, "Egypt: Thirty-Five Years of Praetorian Politics," in Constantine Danpoulos, ed., Military Disengagement from Politics (London: Routledge, 1988),201-230,201. 5. Trevor Dupuy, Elusive Victory-The Arab-Israeli Wars, 1947-1974 (Dubuque: Kendall Hunt, 1992), 130. 6. Eliezer Be'eri, "The Changing Role of the Military in Egyptian Politics," in Harold Schiffrin, ed., Military and State in Modern Asia (Jerusalem: Academic Press, 1976), 269-275, 271; Raymond Baker, Egypt's Uncertain Revolution under Nasser and Sadat (London: Harvard University Press, 1978),48. 7. John Amos II, Arab-Israeli Political/Military Relations-Arab Perceptions and the Politics of Escalation (New York: Pergamon Press, 1979), 40; Anwar el-Sadat, In Search of Identity-An Autobiography (New York: Harper & Row, 1977), 135. NOTES 187

8. Amos, 40. 9. Beattie, 71, 201-230, 206. 10. el-Sadat, 118-119; Francis Tusa, "The Army and Egypt," Royal United Services Institution Journal and Brassey's Defense Yearbook 99 (1989): 117-129,117. 11. P. Vatikiotis, The Egyptian Army in Politics-Pattern for New Nations (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1961),214,239,243; el-Sadat, 17; Morroe Berger, Military Elite and Social Change-Egypt since Napoleon (Princeton: Center of International Studies, Princeton University, 1960),21. 12. Beattie, 72, 201-230, 206; Mohamed Heikal, Autumn of Fury-The Assassination of Sadat (London: Andre Deutsch, 1983), 61; Mohamed Abdel Ghani El-Gamasy, The October War (Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1989), 85. 13. Beattie, 70, 201-230, 206; El-Gamasy, 82. 14. Beattie, 71; Nazih N. M. Ayubi, Bureaucracy & Politics in Contemporary Egypt (London: Ithaca Press, 1980), 345-346; Gawrych 2000,12-15. 15. el-Sadat, 142. 16. Baker, 49,54. 17. Baker, 51, 54; el-Sadat, 101. 18. N. M. Ayubi, Nazih, Bureaucracy & Politics, in Contemporary Egypt (London: Ithaca Press, 1980), 351; Baker, 55. 19. Amos Perlmutter, Egypt the Praetorian State (New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1974), 112. 20. Perlmutter, 112. 21. Perlmutter, 112. 22. Ayubi, 347. 23. Ayubi, 348. 24. Dupuy, 239-240, 267; Beattie, 201-230, 210. 25. Tusa, 119; Robert Satloff, Army and Politics in Mubarak's Egypt-No.10 (Washington, DC: The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 1988),6. 26. Be'eri, 269-275, 271. 27. Perlmutter, 116; el-Sadat, 165. 28. Perlmutter, 116. 29. Robert Springborg, "The President and the Field Marshal-Civil• Military Relations in Egypt Today," MERIP Middle East Report 17, no.4 (1987): 4-16, 5. 30. Springborg, 5; Perlmutter, 176; Baker, 108. 31. Baker, 56. 32. Ayubi, 393-394; Gawrych 2000, 76-79. 33. Beattie, 201-230, 213; Be'eri, 274. 34. A. J. Barker, Six Day War (New York: Ballantine, 1974), 15. 35. Beattie, 201-230, 215; el-Sadat, 173; George Gawrych, "The Egyptian High Command in the 1973 War," Armed Forces & Society 13, no.4 (Summer 1987): 535-559,547; Dupuy, 34. 188 NOTES

36. Springborg, 5. 37. Gawrych 1987, 550. 38. Lawrence Whetten, The Canal War: Four-Power Conflict in the Middle East (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1974),480. 39. Dupuy, 361, 348-349. 40. Dupuy, 361. 41. Amos, 91; Ian Hogg, Israeli War Machine-The Men; The Machines; The Tactics (London: Chartwell Books, 1983),74. 42. Dupuy, 361-362. 43. Whetten, 82-84, 90, 93, 97, 117; Abraham (Bren) Adan, On the Banks ofthe Suez (An Israeli General)s Personal Account ofthe Yom Kippur War) (Novato: Presidio Press, 1991), 50-51; David Eshel, Chariots of the Desert-The Story of the Israeli Armoured Corps (London: Brassey's, 1989),91; Katz, Samuel, Israeli Elite Units since 1948 (London: Osprey Publishing, 1988), 18, 32; Dupuy, 363, 365; A. J. Barker, The Yom Kippur War (New York: Ballantine, 1974),21-22; Hogg, 68, 74. 44. el-Sadat, 205. 45. Baker, 126. 46. Dupuy, 373. 47. Mohammad Heikal, The Road to Ramadan (London: Quadrangle, 1975), 181; Amos 105. 48. Beattie, 201-230, 216. 49. el-Sadat, 219. 50. T. V. Paul, Asymmetric Conflicts: War Initiation by Weaker Powers (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 141. 51. Westwood, 132. 52. Arab World Daily (April 11, 1969), cited in Amos, 94. 53. Christian Science Monitor (October 7,1971), cited in Amos, 95. 54. Saad el Shazly, The Crossing of the Suez (San Francisco: American Mideast Research, 1980), 113; el-Sadat, 212, 221. 55. Westwood, 128. 56. Newsweek (April 9, 1973),43, cited in Amos, 325. 57. Raphael Israeli, The Public Diary of President Sadat-Part One-The Road to War (October 1970-0ctober 1973) (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1978), 145; Dupuy, 374. 58. Francis Fukuyama, The Soviet Union and Iraq since 1968-N-1524-AF (Santa Monica: RAND, 1980),41. 59. Dupuy, 376. 60. Paul,141. 61. Paul,141. 62. Dupuy, 376-377; Heikal1975, 181. 63. Mohamed Heikal, Secret Channels-The Inside Story of the Arab-Israeli Peace Negotiations (London: Harper Collins, 1996), 183; Dupuy, 388; Amos, 138. NOTES 189

64. Egyptian Ministry of War, al-Rijal wa-l-ma'raka: Uktubar 1972-Uktubar 1974 (Cairo, n.d.), 9-10, cited in El-Gamasy, 152 [Egyptian Ministry of War, The Men and the Battle, October 1972-0ctober 1974.] 65. el-Sadat, 232, 237, discussed in Dupuy, 387. 66. Paul, 141. 67. Heika11975, 157. 68. Philip Stewart, Margaret Hermann, and Charles Hermann, "Modeling the 1973 Soviet Decision to Support Egypt," American Political Science Review 83, no.l (March 1989): 35-59, 36-37. 69. Abba Eban, Personal Witness-Israel Through My Eyes (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1992), 515-516. 70. el-Sadat, 241; Dupuy, 391. 71. el-Sadat, 242; Barker, The Yom Kippur War, 1974, 27. 72. Barker, The Yom Kippur War, 1974,27. 73. Perry Moore, "Operation Shock Troop: The Drive on Damascus, October 1973," Strategy and Tactics 168 (May 1994): 4-11, 9; John Burtt, "Organized Chaos-Israeli Defense Doctrine and Tactics," Strategy and Tactics 168 (May 1994): 12-21, 18; Shazly, 83. 74. James Lunt, Hussein ofJordan-Searching for a Just and Lasting Peace (New York: William Morrow and Company, 1989), 155, 167; Barker, Six Day War, 1974,29,152. 75. Amos, 324. 76. el-Sadat, 242; Barker, The Yom Kippur War, 1974,30. 77. Victor Israelyan, Inside the Kremlin during the Yom Kippur War (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1995),2-3. 78. Heika11996, 183; Barker, The Yom Kippur War, 1974,97. 79. Uri Dan, SharonJs Bridgehead (Tel Aviv: E. L. Special Edition, 1975),62. 80. Shazly, 18. 81. Shazly, 19-20. 82. Shazly, 30. 83. Newsweek (April 9, 1973),43, cited in Amos, 325. 84. Shazly, 1l0. 85. Amos, 139; Jon Kimche, "Fall 1973: The Soviet-Arab Scenario," Midstream 19, no.l0 (December 1973): 9-22, cited in Amos, 325. 86. Shazly, 24-27. 87. Interview with al-Sadat by John Amos, cited in Amos, 137. 88. Margaret Herrmann, "Syria's Hafez AI-Assad," in Barbara Kellerman and Jeffrey Rubin, eds., Leadership and Negotiation in the Middle East (New York: Praeger, 1988),70-95,73-74,78. 89. Herrmann, 80; Patrick Seale, Asad of Syria-The Struggle for the Middle East (London: I. B. Tauris, 1988), 188; Hirsh Goodman and W. Seth Carus, The Future Battlefield and the Arab-Israeli Conflict (New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 1990), 15. 90. Seale, 186. 190 NOTES

91. Peter Mangold, "The Soviet-Syrian Military Relationshiop 1955-77," Royal United Services Institute for Defense Studies 122 (1977): 27-33, 29; Barker, Six Day War, 1974, 155; Benedict Fitzgerald, "Syria," in Richard Gabriel, ed., Fighting Armies-Antagonists in the Middle East• A Combat Assessment (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1983): 41-61, 44. 92. Mangold, 31; Barker, The Yom Kippur War, 1974, 17-18. 93. Amos, 118-119. 94. Westwood,135. 95. Dupuy, 390. 96. Toby Wrigley, "Conflicts in the Middle East," in Ray Bonds, ed., The Encyclopedia of Land Warfare in the Twentieth Century (London: Leisure Books, 1977),200-213,210. 97. Wrigley, 210; Burtt, 12-21, 18. 98. Dupuy, 391; Heika11983, 50; Hogg, 146. 99. Hogg, 77,146. 100. Kimche 1973, 14 cited in Amos, 325; Amos, 326. 101. el-Sadat, 242, 244; Barker, The Yom Kippur War, 1974,29,31,36. 102. Westwood,136. 103. EI-Gamasy, 135.

8 IRAN I ELITE MILITARIZATION I AND THE 1969-1975 CONFLICT 1. Robert Huyser, Mission to Tehran (New York: Harper & Row Publishers, 1986), 9; Rouhollah Ramazani, The Persian Gulf-Iran)s Role (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1972), 79. 2. Efraim Karsh, "Geopolitical Determinism: The Origins of the Iran-Iraq War," Middle East Journal 44 no.2 (Spring 1990): 256-268, 257; Majid Khadduri, Independent Iraq 1932-1958-A Study in Iraqi Politics (London: Oxford University Press, 1960), 324. 3. John Amos II, "The Iran-Iraq War: Calculus of Regional Conflict," Middle East Annual 1 (1981): 133-158, 133; Tareq Ismael, "Ideology in Recent Iraqi Foreign Policy," in Shirin Tahir-Kheli and Shaheen Ayubi, eds., The Iran-Iraq War-New Weapons) Old Conflicts (New York: Praeger, 1983), 109-125, 123. 4. Richard Schofield, Evolution of the Shatt AlJArab Boundary Dispute (Cambridgeshire: Middle East & North African Studies Press Limited, 1986),13-14. 5. K. R. Singh, Iran-Quest for Security (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1980),255. 6. Singh, 255. 7. Richard Nyrop, Iran-A Country Study (Washington, DC: The American University, 1978), 396. NOTES 191

8. Harry Almond, Iraqi Statesman-A Portrait of Mohammed Fadhel Jamali (Salem, NE: Grosvenor Books, 1993), 155. 9. The New Republic (December 1, 1973), 16, cited in Nozar Alaolmolki, Struggle for Dominance in the Persian Gulf-Past, Present and Future Prospects (New York: Peter Lang, 1991), 122. 10. Alaolmolki, 122. 11. Mohamed Heikal, Iran: The Untold Story (New York: Pantheon Books, 1981),68; Khalid Sayeed, "Policy Making Process in the Government of Iran," in Charles J. Adams, ed., Iranian Civilization and Culture (Montreal: McGill University-Institute of Islamic Studies, 1972): 91-110,99; Anthony Parsons, The Pride and the Fall-Iran 1974-1979 (London: Jonathan Cape, 1984), 32; A. H. H. Abidi, The Tehran Documents (New Delhi: Patriot Publishers, 1988), 13. 12. William Sullivan, Mission to Iran (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1981),75. 13. Singh, 323; Manoucher Parvin, "Military Expenditures in Iran: A Forgotten Question," Iranian Studies 1 (Fall 1968): 149-154; Sayeed, 91-110, 93. 14. Based on a CIA document detailed in Abidi, 13. 15. J. Kelly, Arabia, the Gulf and the West (New York: Basic Book, 1980), 302; See also Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Answer to History (Toronto: Clarke, Irwin & Company Limited, 1979),65. 16. C. Paul Bradley, Recent United States Policy in the Persian Gulf(1971-82) (Grantham: Tompson & Rutter, 1982), 35. 17. Shahram Chubin and Sepehr Zabih, The Foreign Relations of Iran-A Developing State in a Zone of Great-Power Conflict (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974); 302; Alaolmolki, 70. 18. Abidi, 300. 19. Chubin and Zabih, 107; Pahlavi, 140, 170. 20. Chubin and Zabih, 303-304, 306; Kayhan International (September 11, 1972), cited in Alaolmolki, 122. 21. Alaolmolki,124. 22. Asadollah Alam, The Shah and I-The Confidential Diary ofIran's Royal Court, 1969-1977 (London: I. B. Tauris & Co., 1991), 14. 23. Nikola Schahgaldian, The Iranian Military under the Islamic Republic• R-3473-USDP (Santa Monica: RAND, 1987), 13; Ann Tibbits Schulz, Buying Security: Iran under the Monarchy (Boulder: Westview Press, 1989),44. 24. Heikal,92. 25. R. M. Burrell, The Persian Gulf-I-The Washington Papers (New York: Library Press, 1972),21; William Griffith, "Iran's Foreign Policy in the Pahlavi Era," in George Lenczowski, ed., Iran under the Pahlavis (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1978),365-388,381; Uriel Dann, Iraq under Qassem-A Political History, 1958-1963 (Tel Aviv: Praeger, 1969),264. 192 NOTES

26. Interview in U.S. News and World Report, January 27,1959,49, cited in Chubin and Zabih, 103. 27. Singh,66. 28. Statement by Rear Admiral E. B. Grantham, joint director, Near East, South Asia, and Mrica Region, Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defence, Department of Defence, Mutual Security Appropriation for 1960. Hearings, Senate Committee on Appropriations, 86 Congress, 1 Session, H. R. 8385, GPO, Washington, 1959, 344, cited in Singh, 71. 29. Singh, 281-282; Mark Gasiorowski, "Security Relations between the United States and Iran, 1953-1978," in Nikki Keddie and Mark Gasiorowski, eds., Neither East nor West-Iran, the Soviet Union, and the United States (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990), 151-152; Arnir Taheri, The Unknown Life ofthe Shah (London: Hutchinson, 1991),203; General Reza Azimi in conversation with cited author in Paris, April 1989. General Azimi served as war minister between 1969 and 1978, cited in Taheri, 340. 30. Gasiorowski, 151-152; Taheri, 203. 31. Singh, 122. 32. Singh,279. 33. Burrell, 21. 34. Interview, Arnir Taheri of Kayhan with the Iranian foreign minister, Ardeshir Zahedi (March 17, 1971), Imperial Ministry of Foreign Mfairs, Press and Information Department, A Decade of Dynamic Diplomacy (no place, no date), 7, cited in Singh, 279. 35. Singh, 122,279. 36. Iran News and Documents (January 24, 1972), in News Review, West Asia 37 (March 1972), 10, cited in Singh, 280; For criticism, see Enver Koury, Oil and Geopolitics in the Persian Gulf Area: A Center of Power (Maryland: Institute of Middle Eastern and North Mrican Mfairs, 1973),42. 37. Singh, 121. 38. Arnin Saikal, The Rise and Fall of the Shah (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980), 139; Murray Gordon, Conflict in the Persian Gulf (New York: Facts on File, 1981), 30; Alvin Cottrel, "Iran, the Arabs and the Persian Gulf," Orbis 17 no.3 (Fall 1973): 978-988, 980. 39. Thomas Stauffer, "Economic Warfare in the Gulf," American-Arab Journal 14 (1985): 98-116, 102-103; Christopher Rundle, "The Iran/Iraq Conflict," Asian Affairs 17, part 2 (June 1986): 128-133,133. 40. Tareq Ismael, Iran and Iraq-Roots of Conflict (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1982), 18. 41. On the Shah's decision, see Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi, Mission for My Country (London: Hutchinson, 1961), 313-314. 42. Singh,127. 43. Behrouz Souresrafil, The Iran-Iraq War (United States: Guinan Co., 1989), 14. NOTES 193

44. John Marlowe, "Arab-Persian Rivalry in the Persian Gulf," Royal Central Asian Journal 51, no.l (January 1963), 26-27; Alexander Melamid, "Geographical Review: The Shatt aI-Arab Boundary Dispute," Middle East Journal 22, no.3 (Summer1968): 351-357,355. 45. Singh, 269. 46. Washington Post (July 21, 1961) Editorial; Hearings before the H. R. Committee on Foreign Mfairs on the Foreign Assistance Act of 1967, Ninetieth Cong., First Sess., 1967, 118; Hearings before the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations on the Foreign Military Sales Act of 1968, Ninetieth Cong., Second Sess., 1968 (remarks of Paul Warnke, assistant secretary of defense for International Security Mfairs), 109,116, cited in Chubin and Zabih, 104; Schulz 1989,44. 47. Singh, 121, 126. 48. Singh, 98, 267. 49. Schulz 1989,46; Kelly, 305-306. 50. Agwani 1978, 55. 51. Radio Tehran (April 19, 1969, and April 21, 1969), cited in Haim Shemesh, Soviet-Iraqi Relations, 1968-1988-In the Shadow of the Iran• Iraq Conflict (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1992),26; Khadduri 1960, 149. 52. Tareq Ismael, "The Iran-Iraq Conflict in Regional Perspective: A Systems Approach," in William Dowdy and Russell Trood, eds., The Indian Ocean-Perspectives on a Strategic Arena (Durham: Duke University Press, 1985): 158-169, 163; see also Peter Hunseler, "The Historical Antecedents of the Shatt aI-Arab," in M. EI Azhary, ed., The Iran-Iraq War-An Historical, Economic and Political Analysis (London: Croom Helm, 1984), 8-19; On Hardan Takriti's visit to Iran in December 1968 and Iraq-Iran talks on the Shatt al-Arab in the winter ofl969, see al-Thawra (December 8 and 10, 1968); Kayhan International (December 9, 1968 and December 18, 1968), Radio Baghdad (February 1, 1969 and February 6, 1969); Radio Tehran (February 13, 1969, February 19, 1969, April 19, 1969, and April 21, 1969), cited in Shemesh 1992,26; Khadduri 1960, 149; Syed Farooq Hasnat, Security Problems of the Persian Gulf-Conflicts and their Resolution (Lahore: Progressive Publishers, 1988), 40; Richard Schofield, "The Historical Problem of Iraqi Access to the Persian Gulf," in Clive Schofield and Richard Schofield, eds., The Middle East and North Africa-World Boundaries Vol.2 (London: Routledge, 1994), 163. 53. Khadduri 1960, 150; Souresrafil, 15. 54. Alam, 67. 55. Alam, 54; Souresrafil, 15. 56. Entry for October 5,1969, Alam, 94. 57. Arab Report and Record (June 1-15, 1969), 236; Arab Report and Record (April 16-30, 1969), 160; Mark Heller, "Iraq's Army: Military Weakness, Political Utility," in Amatzia Baram and Barry Rubin, eds., Iraq)s Road to War (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1993), 37-50, 194 NOTES

40; Shemesh, 27; for criticism of this interpretation, see Francis Fukuyama, The Soviet Union and Iraq Since 1968-N-1524-AF (Santa Monica: RAND, July 1980), 33-34. 58. Entry for May 2,1969, cited in Alam, 60. 59. Ibrahim Anvari Tehrani, "Iraqi Attitudes and Interpretation of the 1975 Agreement," in Farhang Rajaee, ed., The Iran-Iraq War-The Politics of Aggression (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1993), 11-23, 13; Gordon, 159; Abidi, 275. 60. Nyrop, 396; Taheri, 202; Souresrafil, 16; M. S. Agwani, Politics in the Gulf (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1978),55; Singh, 185; Alam, 310-11. 61. International Herald Tribune-[Paris] (March 7, 1974), cited in Agwani 1978, 56-57, 84; Middle East Watch, Genocide in Iraq-The Anfal Campaign against the Kurds (New York: Human Rights Watch, 1993), 33; Alam, 129; Ann Schulz, "The Gulf, South Asia and the Indian Ocean," in Mohammed Mughisuddin, ed., Conflict and Cooperation in the Persian Gulf (New York: Praeger, 1977), 16-17; Heikal, 102. 62. Victor Flintham, Air Wars and Aircraft-A Detailed Record ofAir Combat, 1945 to the Present (London: Arms and Armour, 1989), 179; Shahram Chubin and Charles Tripp, Iran and Iraq at War (Boulder: Westview Press, 1988), 22; Raful Eitan, A Soldier's Story-The Life and Times of an Israeli War Hero (New York: Shapolsky Publishers, 1991), 140; Gasiorowski 1990, 156; Alam, 39, 41; Souresrafil, 16; Shemesh, 33; J. Abdulghani, Iran & Iraq: The Years of Crisis (London: Croom Helm, 1984), 134; James Kinsman, "Kurds and Iran: Iraq's Changing Balance of Power," New Middle East 22 (July 1970),25; Saikal, 155-56. 63. John Amos III, "The Iran-Iraq War: Conflict, Linkage, and Spillover in the Middle East," in Robert Darius, John Amos II, and Ralph Magnus, eds., Gulf Security into the 1980s-Perceptual and Strategic Dimensions (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1984), 54-55. 64. Ismael, 20; Agwani 1978, 55; Taheri, 206; See also Ministry of Foreign Mfairs, The Iraqi-Iranian Dispute-Facts v. Allegations (Ministry of Foreign Mfairs of the Republic ofIraq, 1980),40-43,45-49; Heikal, 103. 65. Shemesh, 60-61, 73; Singh, 121. 66. Alam, 242. 67. Shemesh, 76; Kelly, 282; Schulz 1977, 16. 68. Souresrafil, 17; Khadduri 1960, 150; Christine Moss Helms, Iraq-Eastern Flank of the Arab World (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1984),147; Nyrop, 398. 69. Souresrafil,17. 70. Souresrafil 18; Karsh, 256-68, 264; Alam, 357; Khadduri 1960, 151; Flintham 1989, 184; Singh, 188. 71. Chubin and Tripp, 22; Amos 1984,54. 72. Alam, 391,418; Singh, 188. NOTES 195

73. Saddam Hussein, "Address to the Nation," Baghdad Radio (September 28, 1980); reported in FBIS, Middle East and Africa (September 29, 1980), cited in Amos 1984,64; Abdulghani 1984, 125. 74. Alam, 411; Agwani 1978, 57; Heikal, 107; Abbas Anasrawi, The Economy of Iraq-Oil, Wars, Destruction ofDevelopment and Prospects, 1950-2010 (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1994),41; Helms, 150. 75. Agwani 1978, 57; Khadduri 1960,58,181. 76. Tom Cooper and Farzad Bishop, Iran-Iraq War in the Air 1980-1988 (Atglen: Schiffer, 2000), 62. 77. Alam, 126. 78. See Taheri, 207. 79. For criticism, see Khalatbari in conversation with the cited author in Tehran in December 1974, and Jaafar Ra'ed in conversation with the author in London, 1989. Ra'ed served as the Shah's Ambassador to Saudi Arabia and was a member of the Khalatbari's team that negotiated with the Iraqis, described in Taheri, 208; T. Millar, "The Military-Strategic Balance," in Abbas Amirie, ed., The Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean in International Politics (Tehran: Institute for International Political and Economic Studies, 1975), 77-11 0, 86; Dilip Hiro, The Longest War-The Iran-Iraq Military Conflict (London: Paladin, 1990), 16. 80. Anoushiravan Ehteshami, Gerd Nonneman, and Charles Tripp, War and Peace in the Gulf-Domestic Politics and Regional Relations into the 1990s (Reading: Ithaca Press, 1991), 106. 81. Ken Booth, Navies and Foreign Policy (London: Crane, Russak and Co, 1977) 198. 82. Shirin Tahir-Kheli, "The Impact of Arms Transfers on Recipient Countries," in Alvin Rubinstein, ed., The Great Game-Rivalry in the Persian Gulfand South Asia (New York: Praeger, 1983), 194.

9 IRAQ, UNDERMILITARIZATION, AND THE 1980 WAR 1. George Harris, Iraq-Its People, Its Society, Its Culture (New Haven: Hraf Press, 1958), 150-151; Majid Khadduri, Independent Iraq 1932-1958- A Study in Iraqi Politics (London: Oxford University Press, 1960), 322; Stephen Hemsley Longgrig and Frank Stoakes, Iraq (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1958),227; J. Kelly, Arabia, the Gulfand the West (New York: Basic Book, 1980),276. 2. Arnold Toynbee, "The Controversies over the Frontier between Iran (Persia) on the One Side and Turkey and Iraq on the other; and the Four Power Middle Eastern Pact of 8th July, 1937," Survey of International Affairs (Annual 1936): 793-803,795. 3. Richard Schofield, "The Historical Problem ofIraqi Access to the Persian Gulf," in Clive Schofield and Richard Schofield, eds., The Middle East 196 NOTES

and North Africa-World Boundaries Vol.2 (London: Routledge, 1994), 158-160; Uriel Dann, Iraq under Qassem-A Political History, 1958-1963 (Tel Aviv: Praeger, 1969), 349. 4. Schofield, 158-160. 5. Dann 1969, 6, 19; Mark Heller, "Politics and the Military in Iraq and Jordan, 1920-1958," Armed Forces & Society 4, no.l (November 1977): 75-99,82. 6. Charles Kupchan, The Persian Gulf and the West-The Dilemmas of Security (Boston: Allen & Unwin, 1987), 26; Phebe Ann Marr, "The Iraqi Revolution: A Case Study of Army Rule," Orbis 14, no.3 (Fall 1970): 714-739, 717. 7. Dann 1969, 3. 8. Marr 1970, 718; Dann 1969,22,149. 9. Haim Shemesh, Soviet-Iraqi Relations, 1968-1988-In the Shadow of the Iran-Iraq Conflict (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1992), 2; Dann 1969,68. 10. Majid Khadduri, Republican Iraq-A Study in Iraqi Politics since the Revolution of 1958 (London: Oxford University Press, 1969), 181-82. 11. Leo Heiman, "Moscow's Export Arsenal: The Soviet Bloc and the Middle Eastern Arms Race," East Europe 13 (May 1964), 9; K. R. Singh, Iran• Questfor Security (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1980),265. 12. M. S. Agwani, Politics in the Gulf(New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1978),88. 13. The agreement with the UAR was signed in Damascus on July 19 by President Nasser and Iraqi deputy premier Arif, specified in Agwani, 88-89; Dann 1969, 184-186; Efraim Karsh, "Geopolitical Determinism: The Origins of the Iran-Iraq War," Middle East Journal 44, no.2 (Spring 1990): 256-268,262. 14. Heiman, 9. 15. Dann 1969,264; Agwani, 54-55; See especially, Marion Farouk-Sluglett and Peter Sluglett, Iraq since 1958-From Revolution to Dictatorship (New York: I. B. Tauris, 1990),66-70. 16. Murray Gordon, Conflict in the Persian Gulf(New York: Facts on File, 1981),159; Bruce Ingham, "Ethno-Linguistic Links between Southern Iraq and Khuzistan," in Keith McLachlan, ed., The Boundaries ofModern Iran (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994), 93-100, 95. 17. Stephen R. Grummon, The Iran-Iraq War-Islam Embattled (Washington, DC: Praeger, 1982), 6. 18. Dann 1969, 199,341; Victor Flintham, Air Wars and Aircraft (London: Arms and Armour, 1989), 179. 19. Dann 1969, 350-352; Khadduri 1969, 185; Adel Darwish and Gregory Alexander, Unholy Babylon-The Secret History ofSaddam's War (London: Victor Gollancz, 1991),33. 20. Agwani 1978, 89. NOTES 197

21. Mohammed Mughisuddin, "Arab Reaction to Communism and Soviet Policies," in Mohammed Mughisuddin, ed., Conflict and Cooperation in the Persian Gulf(New York: Praeger, 1977),156. 22. Syed Farooq Hasnat, Security Problems of the Persian Gulf-Gonflicts and their Resolution (Lahore: Progressive Publishers, 1988),90; A. Abbas, "The Iraqi Armed Forces, Past and Present," in CARDRI, Saddam's Iraq• Revolution or Reaction (London: Zed Books, 1986),203-226,210. 23. Agwani 1978, 89-90; Mughisuddin, 156; Sean McKnight, "Saddam Hussein and the Iraqi Army," in John Pimlott and Stepehn Badsey, eds., The Gulf War Assessed (London: Arms and Armour, 1992), 13-34, 19; Marr 1970, 729. 24. Abbas, 211; Amatzia Baram, Culture, History and Ideology in the Formation of Ba'thist Iraq, 1968-89 (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1991), 14; Behrouz Souresrafil, The Iran-Iraq War (Plainview, NY: Guinan Co., 1989), 14; Richard Nyrop, ed., Iraq: A Country Study (Washington, DC: American University, 1979),230. 25. Marr 1970, 729. 26. Marr 1970, 730. 27. Marr 1970, 731. 28. Marr 1970, 735. 29. Majid Khadduri, Socialist Iraq-A Study in Iraqi Politics since 1968 (Washington, DC: The Middle East Institute, 1978), 143. 30. The Pesh Merga could mobilize 50,000-60,000 men. See Nyrop, 226-227; discussed in John Amos II, "The Iran-Iraq War: Conflict, Linkage, and Spillover in the Middle East," in Robert Darius, John Amos II, and Ralph Magnus, eds., Gulf Security into the 1980s-Perceptual and Strategic Dimensions (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1984), 72. 31. Marr 1970, 730; Farouk-Sluglett and Sluglett 1990, 97-98. 32. Majid Khadduri, The Gulf War-The Origins and Implications of the Iran-Iraq Conflict (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988),48-49. 33. Marr 1970, 730; Shahram Chubin, "Iran's Foreign Policy 1960-1976: An Overview," in Hossein Amirsadeghi, ed., Twentieth-Century Iran (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1977), 197-222, 199; Souresrafil, 14. 34. Khadduri 1978, 172. 35. Khadduri 1988,48. 36. Marr 1970, 730; Farouk-Sluglett and Sluglett 1990, 97-98; Khadduri 1978, 143, 172. 37. Daniel Pipes, "A Border Adrift: Origins of the Conflict," in Shirin Tahir• Kheli and Shaheen Ayubi, eds., The Iran-Iraq War-New Weapons, Old Conflicts (New York: Praeger, 1983), 3-25, 9,19. 38. Phebe Marr, "The Political Elite in Iraq," in George Lenczowski, ed., Political Elites in the Middle East (Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute, 1975), 125-126. 39. Marr 1975,127-28. 198 NOTES

40. Marr 1975, 127-28. 41. Agwani 1978,91. 42. J. Abdulghani, Iran & Iraq: The Years of Crisis (London: Croom Helm, 1984),26; Darwish and Alexander, 29. 43. May Cahrtouni-Dubarry, "The Development ofInternal Politics in Iraq from 1958 to the Present Day," in Derek Hopwood, Habib Ishow, and Thomas Koszinowski, eds., Iraq: Power and Society (Reading: Ithaca Press, 1993), 19-36, 31. 44. Francis Fukuyama, The Soviet Union and Iraq since 1968-N-1524-AF (Santa Monica: RAND, 1980), 18. 45. Harvey Smith, et al., Area Handbook for Iraq (Washington, DC: The American University, 1971), ix-x; Khadduri 1988,49; Shahram Chubin and Charles Tripp, Iran and Iraq at War (Boulder: Westview Press, 1988), 16; James Quinlivan, "Coup-Proofing: Its Practice and Consequences in the Middle East," International Security 24, no.2 (Fall 1999): 131-165, 150-151; Nyrop, 195. 46. Marion Farouk-Sluglett and Peter Sluglett, "Ba'athist Power and the Future of Saddam," in John Gittings, ed., Beyond the Gulf War• The Middle East and the New World Order (London: CIIR, 1991), 60-66,61. 47. Ofra Bengio, Saddam)s Word-Political Discourse in Iraq (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 150; Chubin and Tripp, 19; Kanan Makiya, Republic of Fear-The Politics of Modern Iraq (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), 33; Quinlivan, 131-165, 144-145. 48. Smith et al. 1971, vii, xi-xii; Marr 1970,732. 49. Christine Moss Helms, Iraq-Eastern Flank ofthe Arab World (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1984),91. 50. Shemesh,33. 51. Agwani 1978, 52; Kelly, 284. 52. Abbas, 216; Chubin and Tripp, 19-20; McKnight, 21; Peter Heine, "Political Parties, Institutions and Administrative Structures," in Derek Hopwood, Habib Ishow, and Thomas Koszinowski, eds., Iraq: Power and Society (Reading: Ithaca Press, 1993), 37-50,93-95. 53. Abdulghani, 44; Stephen Pelletiere and Douglas Johnson II, Lessons Learned: The Iran-Iraq War (Carlisle Barracks: U.S. Army War College, 1991),30. 54. Heller, 37-50, 44; Phebe Marr, The Modern History of Iraq (Boulder: Westview Press, 1985),225-227. 55. Bengio 1998, 148. 56. Abbas Kelidar, "Iraq: The Search for Stability," Conflict Studies 59 (July 1975): 8-13; Heller, 37-50,44; Pelletiere and Johnson, viii; Chubin and Tripp, 16. 57. Heller, 37-50,45-46; Quinlivan, 155-156. 58. Chubin and Tripp, 7. NOTES 199

59. Chubin and Tripp, 21; some suggest there was a fierce debate between Saddam and Michel Aflaq. See FBIS MEA 10-16-70, cited in Fukuyama, 33. 60. Chubin and Tripp, 21. 61. McKnight, 20; Shemesh, 31. 62. Abbas Anasrawi, The Economy of Iraq-Oil, Wars, Destruction of Development and Prospects, 1950-2010 (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1994),90-91. 63. Chubin and Tripp, 20. 64. Saad el Shazly, The Crossing of the Suez (San Francisco: American Mideast Research, 1980), 145. 65. For criticism of this assertion, see Hanna Batatu, The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary Movements of Iraq (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978), 107-109. 66. Peter Mansfield, "Saddam Husain's Political Thinking: The Comparison with Nasser," in Tim Niblock, ed., Iraq: The Contemporary State (London: Croom Helm, 1982),62-73,65; Elaine Sciolino, The Outlaw State-Saddam Hussein)s Quest for Power and the Gulf Crisis (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1991), 64; Efraim Karsh and Inari Rautsi, Saddam Hussein-A Political Biography (New York: The Free Press, 1991),15. 67. Karsh 1990,257. 68. W. Thorn Workman, The Social Origins of the Iran-Iraq War (London: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1994),95; Nyrop, 215. 69. Helms 1984, 162. 70. Gholam Razi, "The Effectiveness of Resort to Military Force: The Case ofIran and Iraq," Conflict Quarterly 5, no.3 (Summer 1985): 44-57, 45; Claudia Wright, "Religion and Strategy in the Iran-Iraq War," Third World Quarterly 7, no.4 (May 1985), 839-852, 841-844. 71. Michael Fischer, Iran-From Religious Dispute to Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980), 123-125, 127. 72. Workman, 98. 73. Yitzhak Nakash, "The Conversion of Iraq's Tribes to Shi'ism," International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 26 (1994): 443-463, 443-444; Asghar Ali Engineer, "Shi'a-Sunni Interactions-Religo• Political Schism in the Gulf," in A. S. Agwani, ed., The Gulfin Transition (New Delhi: South Asian Publishers, 1987),26-33,27; Workman, 100; Yitzhak N akash, The Shi lis ofIraq (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994),25-28,44; Fischer, 108; Uriel Dann, "The Iraqi Officer Corps as a Factor for Stability-An Unorthodox Approach," in Harold Schiffrin, ed., Military and State in Modern Asia (Jerusalem: Academic Press, 1976),259-268,261. 74. Workman, 101; Graham Fuller, The «Center of the Universe))-The Geopolitics of Iran (Boulder: Westview Press, 1991), 33-39. 200 NOTES

75. Ofra Bengio, "Shi'is and Politics in Ba'thi Iraq," in James Piscatori, ed., Middle Eastern Studies 21, no.l (January 1985), 2. 76. Dilip Hiro, The Longest War-The Iran-Iraq Military Conflict (London: Paladin, 1990),30. 77. Fuller, 42. 78. Helms 1984, 161. 79. Helms 1984, 151-152. 80. See "Mubaraza Ba Nafs Ya Jihad-i-Akbar" [The Soul's Struggle or the Great Jihad, by Ayatollah Khomeini], discussed in Khadduri 1988, 67. 81. Nakash 1994,66-68,121; Adeed Dawisha, "The Stability of the Gulf: Domestic Sources and External Threats," in Alvin Rubinstein, ed., The Great Game-Rivalry in the Persian Gulf and South Asia (New York: Praeger, 1983), 11-12; Souresrafil, 27. 82. Pelletiere and Johnson, 28. 83. Stork 1981, 12, cited in Amos, 53; Arab Press Service (November 28, 1978), cited in Amos, 57. 84. Helms 1984, 17; Keith McLachlan and George Joffe, The Gulf War-A Survey of Political Issues and Economic Consequences (London: The Economist Intelligence Unit, 1984),35. 85. John Bulloch, and Harvey Morris, The Gulf war-Its Origins, History and Consequences (London: Methuen, 1989), 20, 29; Ralph White, "Empathizing with Saddam's Husein-Updated," in Herbert Blumberg and Christopher French, eds., The Persian Gulf War-Views from the Social and Behavioral Sciences (Lanham: University Press of America, 1994),171-189,175. 86. Middle East Watch, Genocide in Iraq-The Anfal Campaign against the Kurds (New York: Human Rights Watch, 1993),42. 87. Chubin and Tripp, 25; Bulloch and Morris, 27; Andrew Parasiliti, "Iraq's Military Containment of Iran," Journal of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies 13, no.l and 2 (FalljWinter 1989): 128-145, 130. 88. Helms 1984, 157; Judith Miller and Laurie Mylroie, Saddam Hussein and the Crisis in the Gulf(New York: Random House, 1990),42. 89. Bulloch and Morris, xvii. 90. Helms 1984, 161. 91. Mohssen Massarrat, "The Ideological Context of the Iran-Iraq War: Pan• Islamism versus Pan-Arabism," in Hooshang Amirahmadi and Nader Entessar, eds., Iran and the Arab World (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1993),28-41, 30; Pipes, 4-8; Edmund Ghareeb "Iraq in the Gulf," in Frederick Axelgard, ed., Iraq in Transition-A Political, Economic, and Strategic Perspective (Boulder: Westview Press, 1986), 59-85,29. 92. Confirmed by a conversation with Ezer Weizman ofIsrael. See FBIS, Daily Report: MEA (February 25, 1977), pp.E-1-E-2; and Documents from the Nest of Espionage, vol.l9: America, the Protector of Israel, Asnad Lanah-I Jasusi (Spy-nest Documents) (Tehran: Danishijuyan-i Musalmanam Pirut Khatt Imam, 1982), cited in Helms 1984, 152; Nyrop, 215. NOTES 201

93. See these interviews respectively in Monday Morning (January 22-28, 1979), and from al-Mustaqbal (February 2, 1979), in FBIS, Daily Report: MEA (February 2, 1979), EI-E7, and FBIS, Daily Report: MEA (February 9, 1979), E6, cited in Helms 1984, 152-53; for criti• cism, see Chubin and Tripp, 35. 94. Abol Hassan Bani-Sadr, My Turn to Speak-Iran, the Revolution & Secret Deals with the U.S. (New York: Brassey's, 1989),2; Helms 1984, 152; Souresrafil, 23. 95. Souresrafil, 23-24; Ghareeb, 73. 96. Chubin and Tripp, 31. 97. Helms 1984, 154. 98. Helms 1984, 155. 99. U.S. hostages were released shortly after the ayatollah's statement on September 12, 1980. See Richard Cottam, "Revolutionary Iran and the War with Iraq," Current History 80, no.462 (1981): 5-9, 38-39, 40--42,9; Helms 1984, 156. 100. Souresrafil, 32. 101. Souresrafil, 33. 102. Souresrafil, 36; Philip Sabin and Efraim Karsh, "Escalation in the Iran• Iraq War," Survival 31, no.3 (May/June 1989): 241-154, 248; From interviews with refugees and as seen by the cited author in 1980. See Simon Henderson, Instant Empire-Saddam Hussein's Ambition for Iraq (San Francisco, Mercury House, 1991), 103. 103. B. K. Narayan, General IN. Chaudhuri-An Autobiography. (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd, 1978), 45, 47; Christopher Rundle, "The Iran/Iraq Conflict," Asian Affairs 17, Part 2 (June 1986): 128-133, 129; Arab Press Service (January [no date] 1981), cited in Amos, 60; Souresrafil, 36-37; Helms 1984, 17; Gordon, 152; Keith McLachlan, "Analyses of the Risks of War: Iran• Iraq Discord, 1979-1980," in Farhang Rajaee, ed., The Iran-Iraq War-The Politics ofAggression (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1993),24-31,28; Grummon, 13. 104. Islamic Republic of Iran, The Imposed War (Tehran: Islamic Republic of Iran, 1984), cited in Keith McLachlan, "Territoriality and the Iran-Iraq War," in Keith McLachlan, ed., The Boundaries of Modern Iran (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994), 57-71, 62. 105. Chubin and Tripp, 29; Grummon, 13; Souresrafil, 25; Amos, 57; Syed Farooq Hasnat, Security Problems of the Persian Gulf• Conflicts and their Resolution (Lahore: Progressive Publishers, 1988),44-45. 106. Schofield, 165; William Olson, "The Iran-Iraq War: A Dialogue of Violence," Defense Analysis 2, no.3 (1986): 235-246, 236-37. 107. Amos, 57-58; Supported groups included the Movement for the Liberation of Arabistan, the Popular Front for the Liberation of Ahvaz, and the Arab People's Organization. See Arab Press Service (April 18, 202 NOTES

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Articles Andreski, Stanislav, "On the Peaceful Disposition of Military Dictatorships," Journal of Strategic Studies 3, no.3 (December 1980): 3-10. Aron, Raymond, "Remarks on Lassell's 'The Garrison State,'" Armed Forces and Society 5, no.3 (Apri1l979): 347-359. Benjamin, Roger, and Lewis Edinger, "Conditions for Military Control over Foreign Policy Decisions in Major States: A Historical Exploration," Journal of Conflict Resolution 15, no.l (March 1971): 5-3l. Bennett, D. Scott, "Toward a Continuous Specification of the Democracy• Autocracy Connection," International Studies Q;tarterly 50, no.2 (June 2006): 313-338. Bennett, D. Scott, and Allan Starn, "The Declining Advantages of Democracy," Journal of Conflict Resolution 42, no.3 (June 1998): 344-366. Biddle, Stephen, and Robert Zirkle, "Technology, Civil-Military Relations, and Warfare in the Developing World," Journal of Strategic Studies 19, no.2 (June 1996): 171-212. Brady, Linda, and Charles Kegley, Jr., "Bureaucratic Determinants of Foreign Policy: Some Empirical Evidence," International Interactions 3, no.l (January-March 1977): 33-50. Bremer, Stuart, "Dangerous Dyads: Conditions Affecting the Likelihood of Interstate War, 1816-1965," Journal of Conflict Resolution 36, no.2 (June 1992): 309-34l. Chan, Steve, "Mirror, Mirror on the Wall ... Are the Freer Countries More Pacific," Journal ofConflict Resolution 28, no.4 (December 1984): 617-648. Choi, Ajin, "Democratic Synergy and Victory in War," International Studies Quarterly 48, no.3 (September 2004): 663-682. ---, "The Power of Democratic Cooperation," International Security 28, no.l (Summer 2003): 142-153. Dassel, Kurt, "Civilians, Soldiers, and Strife: Domestic Sources of International Aggression," International Security 23, no. 1 (Summer 1998): 107-140. de Mesquita, Bueno, Bruce, and Randolph Siverson, "War and the Survival of Political Leaders: A Comparative Study of Regime Types and Political Accountability," American Political Science Review 89, no.4 (December 1995): 841-855. Desch, Michael, "Democracy and Victory," International Security 27, no.2 (Fall 2002 ): 5-47. Fairbanks, Jr., Charles, "Arms Races: The Metaphor & the Facts," National Interest 1 no.l (Fall 1985): 75-90. Feierabend, Ivo, and Rosalind Feierabend, "Aggressive Behaviors within Politics, 1948-1962: A Cross-National Study," Journal ofConflict Resolution 10, no.3 (September 1966): 249-27l. Finer, S. E., "The Man on Horseback-1974." Armed Forces and Society 1, no.l (November 1974): 5-27. BIBLIOGRAPHY 207

Fox, William, "Representativeness and Efficiency-Dual Problem of Civil-Military Relations," Political Science Quarterly 76, no.3 (September 1961): 354-366. Gartner, Scott Sigmund, and Randolph M. Siverson, "War Expansion and War Outcome." Journal of Conflict Resolution 40, no.l (March 1996): 4-15. Gartzke, Eric, "Democracy and the Preparation for War: Does Regime Type Mfect States' Anticipation of Casualtiesr" International Studies Quarterly 45, no.3 (September 2001): 467-484. Gray, Colin, "The Urge to Compete," World Politics 36, no.2 (January 1974): 207-233. ---, "Social Science and the Arms Race," Bulletin ofthe Atomic Scientist 29, no.6 (1973):23-26. ---, "The Arms Race Phenomenon," World Politics 24, no.l (October 1971): 39-79. Hagan, Joe D., "Domestic Political Systems and War Proneness," Mershon International Studies Review 38, no.2 (October 1994): 183-208. Hanneman, Robert A., "Military Elites and Political Executives," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 14, no.l (Spring 1986): 75-89. Hanneman, Robert, and Robin Steinback, "Military Involvement and Political Instability: An Event History Analysis 1940-1980." Journal of Political and Military Sociology 18, no.l (Summer 1990): 1-23. Jones, Stephen, "The Power Inventory and National Strategy," World Politics 6, no.4 (July 1954): 421-452. Kim, Woosang, and James Morrow, "When Do Power Shifts Lead to Warr" American Journal of Political Science 36, no.4 (November 1992): 896-922. Kriesberg, Louis, "Consequences of Efforts at Deescalating the American• Soviet Conflict," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 14, no.2 (Fall 1986): 215-234. Lebow, Richard Ned, "Windows of Opportunity-Do States Jump through Themr" International Security 9, no.l, (Summer 1984): 147-186. Leng, Russell, "When Will They Ever Learn: Coercive Bargaining in Recurrent Crises." Journal of Conflict Resolution 27, no.3 (September 1983): 379-419. Lepingwell, John, "The Laws of Combatr Lanchester Reexamined," International Security 12, no.l (Summer 1987): 89-127. Levy, Jack, "Declining Power and the Preventive Motivation for War," World Politics 40, no.l (October 1987): 82-107. ---, "Misperception and Causes of War: Theoretical Linkages and Analytical Problems," World Politics 36, no.l (October 1983): 6-99. Lider, Julian, "War and Politics: Clausewitz Today," Conflict and Cooperation 12, no.3 (September, 1977): 187-189. Maniruzzaman, Talukder, "Arms Transfers, Military Coups, and Military Rule in Developing States," Journal of Conflict Resolution 36, no.4 (December 1992): 733-755. 208 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Mansfield, Edward, and Jack Snyder, "Democratization and the Danger of War," International Security 20, no.4 (Summer 1995): 5-38. Maoz, Zeev, and Nasrin Abdolali, "Regime Types and International Conflict, 1816-1976," Journal of Conflict Resolution 33, no.1 (March 1989): 3-35. Messas, Kostas, "Democratization of Military Regimes: Contending Explanations," Journal ofPolitical and Military Sociology 20, no.2 (Winter 1992): 243-255. Morgan, T. Clifton, and Sally Howard Campbell, "Domestic Structure, Decisional Constraints, and War," Journal of Conflict Resolution 35, no.2 (June 1991): 187-211. Morrow, James D., "A Twist of Truth: A Reexamination of the Effects of Arms Races on the Occurrence of War," Journal ofConflict Resolution 33, no.1 (September 1989): 500-529. Nordlinger, Eric, "Soldiers in Mufti: The Impact of Military Rule upon Economic and Social Change in the Non-Western States," American Political Science Review 64, no.4 (December 1970): 1131-1148. Ray, James Lee, "R.J. Rummel's Understanding Conflict and War: An Overlooked Classic?" Paper presented at the 36th Annual Convention of the International Studies Association, Chicago, Illinois, February 21-25,1995. Reiter, Dan, and Allan C. Starn, "Understanding Victory-Why Institutions Matter," International Security 28, no.1 (Summer 2003): 168-179. ---, "IdentifYing the Culprit: Democracy, Dictatorship, and Dispute Initiation," American Political Science Review 97, no.2 (May 2003): 333-337. ---, "Democracy and Battlefield Military Effectiveness," Journal of Conflict Resolution 42, no.3 (June 1998): 259-277. Reiter, Dan, and Curtis Meek, "Determinants of Military Strategy," International Studies Quarterly 43, no.2 (June 1999): 363-387. Ross, Andrew, "Dimensions of Militarization in the Third World," Armed Forces and Society 13, no.4 (Summer 1987): 562-564. Rummel, R., "Democracies Are Less Warlike than Other Regimes," European Journal of International Relations 1, no.4 (December 1995): 457-478. ---, "Libertarianism and International Violence," Journal of Conflict Resolution 27, no.1 (March 1983): 27-71. Schweller, Randall, "Domestic Structure and Preventive War: Are Democracies More Pacific?" World Politics 44, no.2 (January 1992): 235-269. Siverson, Randolph, "Democracies and War Participation: In Defense of the Institutional Constraints Argument," European Journal of International Relations 1, no.4 (December 1995): 481-489. Small, Melvin, and J. David Singer, "The War-Proneness of Democratic Regimes, 1816-1965," Jerusalem Journal of International Relations 1, no.4 (Summer 1976): 50-69. Stevenson, David, "Militarization and Diplomacy in Europe before 1914," International Security 22, no.1 (Summer 1997): 125-161. BIBLIOGRAPHY 209

Trachtenberg, Marc, "The Meaning of Mobilization in 1914," International Security 15, no.3 (1990/1991): 120-150. Van Evera, Stephen, "Primed for Peace: Europe after the Cold War," International Security 15, no.3 (Winter 1990/1991): 7-57. Weede, Erich, "Democracy and War Involvement," Journal of Conflict Resolution 28, no.4 (December 1984): 649-664.

CHAPTER 3 Books Ahmad, Mohammad, My Chief(Lahore: Longmans, Green and Co., 1960). Ahmed, Guizar, Pakistan Meets Indian Challenge (Rawalpindi: Al Mukhtar Publishers, 1967). Akhund, Iqbal, Memoirs of a Bystander (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1998). Bouton, Marshall, William Clark, Jr., Stephen Cohen, Lewis Dunn, Francine Frankel, Sumit Ganguly, et aI., A New U.S. Policy toward India and Pakistan (New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 1997). Brecher, Michael, The Struggle for Kashmir (New York: Oxford University Press, 1953). Chaudhry, Amjad Ali Khan, September )65-Before and after (Lahore: Ferozsons Ltd., 1977). Cloughley, Brian, A History of the Pakistan Army: Wars and Insurrections (London: Oxford University Press, 1999). Cohen, Stephen, The Pakistan Army ( Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984). Dux, Dennis, The United States and Pakistan-1947-2000-Disenchanted Allies (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001). Ganguly, Sumit, The Crisis in Kashmir-Portents of War-Hopes of Peace (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997). ---, The Origins of War in South Asia (Boulder: Westview Press, 1994). Gartner, Scott, Strategic Assessment in War (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997). Gauhar, Altaf, Ayub Khan-Pakistan)s First Military Ruler, (Lahore: Sang-e• Meel Publications, 1993). Hayes, Louis, The Impact of u.s. Policy on the Kashmir Conflict (Tucson: The University of Arizona Press, 1971). Jalal, Ayesha, The State of Martial Rule: The Origins of Pakistan)s Political Economy ofDefence ( Lahore: Vanguard, 1991). Khan, Akbar, Raiders in Kashmir (Karachi: Pak Publishers Limited, 1970). Khan, Fazal Muqueem, The Story of the Pakistan Army (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1963). Khan, Gul Hassan Khan, Memoirs (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1993). 210 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Khan, Mohammed Asghar, The First Round Indo-Pakistan War-1965 (Sahibabad: Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd, 1979). Kukreja, Veena, Civil-Military Relations in South Asia (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1991). Leng, Russell, Bargaining and Learning in Recurring Crises (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2000). Musa, Mohammad, Jawan to General-Recollections of a Pakistani Officer (New Delhi: ABC Publishing House, 1985). Praval, K C., India's Paratroopers-A History of the Parachute Regiment of India (New Delhi: Thomson Press (India) Limited, 1974). Riza, Shaukat, Izzat-O-Iqbal (Nowshera: School of Artillery, 1980). Rizvi, Hasan-Askari, The Military and Politics in Pakistan, 1947-86 (New Delhi: Konark Publishers Limited, 1988). Thomas, Raju, Indian Security Policy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986). Venkataramani, M. S. The American Role in Pakistan, 1947-1958 (New Delhi: Radiant Publishers, 1982). Wirsing, Robert, India, Pakistan and the Kashmir Dispute-On Regional Conflict and Its Resolution (Calcutta: Rupa and Co., 1995).

Journals Bilgrami, Syed Abid Ali, "Limited War and Likely Areas of Conflict," Pakistan ArmyJournal 1 no.5 (1959): 31-38. Cohen, Stephen, "U.S. Weapons and South Asia: A Policy Analysis," Pacific Affairs 49, no.1 (Spring 1976): 49-69. Laporte, Jr., Robert, "Succession in Pakistan: Continuity and Change in a Garrison State," Asian Survey 9, no.ll (November 1969): 842-861. Newman, K, "The Dyarchic Pattern of Government and Pakistan's Problems," Political Science QJtarterly 75, no.1 (March 1960): 94-108. Sayeed, Khalid B., "The Political Role of Pakistan's Civil Service," Pacific Affairs 31, no.2 (June 1958): 131-146. Tahir-Kheli, Shirin, "The Military in Contemporary Pakistan," Armed Forces and Society, 6, no.4 (Summer 1980): 639-653. Trager, Frank, "The United States and Pakistan: A Failure of Diplomacy," Orbis9, no.3 (Fall 1965): 613-629. Wilcox, Wayne, "Pakistan Coup d-Etat of 1958," Pacific Affairs 38, no.2 (Summer 1965): 142-163.

News Media India Today Oral and Primary Sources Gen. Rao Farman Ali Gen. K M. Arif BIBLIOGRAPHY 211

Gen. Mirza Aslam Beg Gen. Gul Hassan Gen. Yaqub Khan Gen. Z. A. Khan Col. Saeed Akhtar Malik Agha Shahi Letter from Gen. Malik to his brother, dated November 22,1967.

CHAPTER 4 Books Achuthan, Nisha Sahai, Soviet Arms Transfer Policy in South Asia (1955-1981)-The Politics of International Arms Transfers (New Delhi: Lancer International, 1988). Amin, Agha Humayum, The Pakistan Army till 1965 (Lahore: Strategicus and Tacticus, 1999). Arif, K. M., Khaki Shadows, Pakistan 1947-1997 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001). Ayoob, Mohammed, and K. Subrahmanyam, The Liberation War (New Delhi: S. Chand & Co. Ltd., 1972). Brines, Russell, The Indo-Pakistani Conflict (London: Pall Mall Press, 1968). Brzoska, Michael, and Frederic Pearson, Arms and Warfare-Escalation, De-escalation, and Negotiation (Columbia: University of Southern Carolina Press, 1994). Candeth, K. P., The Western Front: Indo-Pakistan War of 1971 (New Delhi: Allied Publishers Private Ltd, 1984). Chakhesang, Theyiezelie, Goodbye, My Regiment (New Delhi: Lancer Books, 1985). Chaturvedi, M. S., History of the Indian Air Force (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd, 1978). Chopra, Pran, India's Second Liberation (Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd, 1973). Chopra, V. D., Genesis of Indo-Pakistan Conflict on Kashmir (New Delhi: Patriot Publishers, 1990). Choudhury, G. W., The Last Days of United Pakistan (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1974). Cohen, Stephen, Arms and Politics in Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan (Buffalo: Council on International Studies, 1973). ---, The Indian Army-Its Contribution to the Development of a Nation (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971). Dhar, D. P., Planning and Social Change (New Delhi: Arnold-Heinemann, 1976). Dux, Dennis, Estranged Democracies-India and the United States-1941-1991 (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1993). 212 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Gupta, Vinod, Anderson Papers-A Study of Nixon's Blackmail of India (New Delhi: ISSD Publication, 1972). Husain, Noor, and Leo Rose, eds., Pakistan-U.S. Relations (Berkeley: Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, 1988). Jacob, J. F. R., Surrender at Dacca-Birth ofa Nation (New Delhi: Manohar, 1997). Johal, Sarbjit, Conflict and Integration in Indo-Pakistan Relations (Berkeley: University of California at Berkeley, 1989). Kaul, B. M., Confrontation with Pakistan (Delhi: Vikas Publications, 1971). Khan, Gul Hassan, Memoirs (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1993). Khan, Mohammad Asghar, Generals in Politics-Pakistan 1958-1982 (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1983). Khan, Roedad, The American Papers (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999). Kissinger, Henry, White House Years (Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1979). Kundu, Apurba, Militarism in India-The Army and Civil Society in Consensus (London: Tauris Academic Studies, 1998). Lakshmi, Y., Trends in India's Defence Expenditure (New Delhi: ABC Publishing House, 1988). Lal, P. c., and Ela Lal, My Years with the lAP (New Delhi: Lancer International,1986). Longer, v., The Defence and Foreign Policies of India (New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Private Limited, 1988). Manekar, D. R., Pakistan Cut to Size (New Delhi: Indian Book Company, 1972). Maswani, A. M. K., Subversion in East Pakistan (Lahore: Amir Publications, 1979). Matinuddin, Kamal, Tragedy of Errors (East Pakistan Crisis, 1968-1971) (Lahore: Wajidalis, 1994). McMahon, Robert, The Cold War on the Periphery-The United States, India and Pakistan (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994). McWilliams, Wilson, ed., Garrisons and Government-Politics and the Military in New States (San Francisco: Chandler Publishing Company, 1967). Mukerjee, Dilip, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto-Quest for Power (Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd, 1972). Musa, Mohammad, My Version-India-Pakistan War of 1965 (Lahore: Wajidalis, 1983). Neuman, Stephanie, ed., Defense Planning in Less-Industrialized States• The Middle East and South Asia (Lexington: Lexington Books, 1984). Palit, D. K., The Lightning Campaign-The Indo-Pakistan War 1971 (New Delhi: Thomson Press [India] Limited, 1972). Paul, T. v., Asymmetric Conflicts: War Initiation by Weaker Powers (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994). BIBLIOGRAPHY 213

Rai, H. C., Memories Still Linger (New Delhi: Reliance Publishing House, 1993). Raina, Asoka. Inside RAW-The Story of India)s Secret Service (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1981). Rao, P. V. R., Defence Without Drift (Bombay: Popular Prakashan, 1970). Salik, Siddiq, Witness to Surrender (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1977). Sandhu, Gurcharn Singh, I Serve (((Ich Dien») Saga ofthe Eighteenth Cavalry (New Delhi: Lancer International, 1991). Singh, Bhupinder, 1965 War (Role of Tanks in India-Pakistan War) (Patiala: B. C. Publishers, 1982). Singh, Jadjit, Indian Gunners at War-The Western Front-1971 (New Delhi: Lancer International, 1994). Singh, Surjei, India)s Search for Power-Indira Gandhi)s Foreign Policy 1966-1982 (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1984). Sisson, Richard, and Leo Rose, War and Secession-Pakistan) India, and the Creation of Bangladesh (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990). Sodhi, H. H., Operation Windfall-Emergence of Bangladesh (New Delhi: Allied Publishers, 1980). Tanham, George, and Marcy Agmon, The Indian Air Force (Santa Monica: RAND,1994). Thomas, Mathew, and Jasjit Mansigh, Lt Gen P S Bhagat-A Biography (New Delhi: Lancer International, 1994). Thomas, Raju, Indian Security Policy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986). Vas, Ea, Fools and Infantrymen-One View of History (1923-1993) (Meerut: Kartikeya Publications, 1995). Verma, S. D., To Serve with Honour-My Memoirs (Bombay: New Thacker's Fine Art Press Pvt. Ltd., 1988).

Journals Hussein, Shawkat Ara, "Military in Politics: 1969 Coup d'Etat in Pakistan," Dacca University Studies 34, Part. A (1981): 83-90. Mukerji, Dilip, "India's Defence Perspectives," Survival 11, no.1 (January 1969): 2-8. Sayeed, Khalid Bin, "Pakistan's Foreign Policy: An Analysis of Pakistani Fears and Interests," Asian Survey 4, no.3 (March 1964): 746-756. Sayeed, Khalid, "The Capabilities of Pakistan's Political System," Asian Survey 7, no.2 (February 1967): 102-110.

News Media The New York Times 214 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Oral and Primary Sources Farouk A. Rana

CHAPTER 5 Books Beckett, Ian, ed., Communist War Machine (London: Bison Books, 1985). Ben-Gurian, David, When Israel Fights (Tel-Aviv: Mapai Publishing House, 1950). Ben Meir, Yehuda, Civil-Military Relations in Israel (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995). Blechman, Barry, A Quantitative Description of Arab-Israeli Interactions, 1949-1969: Data Sets and Processor (Arlington: Center for Naval Analyses, 1971). Brecher, Michael, Decisions in Israel's Foreign Policy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1975). ---, The Foreign Policy System of Israel: Settings, Images, Process (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1972). Dayan, Moshe, Story of My Life (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1976). ---, Diary of the Sinai Campaign (New York: Harper & Row, 1965). Eban, Abba, Personal Witness-Israel Through My Eyes (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1992). el-Sadat, Anwar, In Search of Identity-An Autobiography (New York: Harper & Row, 1977). Flintham, Victor, Air Wars and Aircraft-A Detailed Record of Air Combat, 1945 to the Present (London: Arms and Armour, 1989). Glassman, Jon, Arms for Arabs-The Soviet Union and War in the Middle East (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1975). Handel, Michael, Israel's Political-Military Doctrine (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, 1973). Heikal, Mohamed, Cutting the Lion's Tail-Suez Through Egyptian Eyes (London: Andre Deutsch, 1986). Hogg, Ian, Israeli War Machine-The Men; The Machines; The Tactics (London: Chartwell Books, 1983). Katz, Samuel, Israeli Elite Units since 1948 (London: Osprey Publishing, 1988). Leng, Russell, Bargaining and Learning in Recurring Crises-The Soviet• American, Egyptian-Israeli, and Indo-Pakistani Rivalries (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 2000). Luttwak, Edward, and Dan Horowitz, The Israeli Army (London: Allen Lane, 1975). Ma'oz, Moshe and Avner Yaniv, eds., Syria under Assad-Domestic Constraints and Regional Risks (London: Croom Helm, 1986). BIBLIOGRAPHY 215

Medding, Peter, Mapai in Israel: Political Or;ganization and Government in a New Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972). Meir, Golda, My Life (New York: A Dell Book, 1975). Morris, Benny, Righteous Victims (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1999). ---, Israel's Border Wars 1949-1956-Arab Infiltration, Israeli Retaliation, and the Countdown to the Suez War (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993). Peres, Shimon, Battling for Peace-A Memoir (New York: Random House, 1995). ---, David's Sling (New York: Random House, 1970). Peri, Yoram, Generals in the Cabinet Room (Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace, 2006). ---, Between Battles and Ballots (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983). Rabin, Yitzhak, The Rabin Memoirs (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979). Rothenberg, Gunter, The Anatomy of the Israeli Army-The Israeli Defence Force, 1948-78 (New York, Hippocrene Books, 1979). Schiff, Ze'ev, A History of the Israeli Army-1874 to the Present (New York: Macmillan, 1974). Shimshoni, Jonathan, Israel and Conventional Deterrence (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1988). Stein, Janice Gross, and Raymond Tanter, Rational Decision-Making-Israel's Security Choices, 1967(Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1976). Stock, Ernest, Israel on the Road to Sinai-1949-1956 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1967). Tamir, Avraham, A Soldier in Search of Peace-An Inside Look at Israel's Strategy, Joan Comay, trans. (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1988). Teveth, S., The Tanks of Tammuz (New York: Viking, 1969). Troen, Selwyn llan, and Moshe Shemesh, eds., The Suez-Sinai Crisis 1956 Retrospective and Reappraisal (London: Frank Cass, 1990). Wald, Emanuel, The Wald Report-The Decline of Israeli National Security since 1967 (Boulder: Westview Press, 1992). Weizman, Ezer, On Eagle's Wings-The Personal Story of the Leading Commander of the Israeli Air Force (New York: Macmillan, 1976). Westwood, J. N., The History of the Middle East Wars (Greenwich: Bison Books, 1984). Zaloga, Steven, Armour of the Middle East Wars 1948-78 (London: Osprey, 1981).

Journals Bar-Joseph, Uri, "Rotem: The Forgotten Crisis on the Road to the 1967 War," Journal of Contemporary HistoryVo1.31, no.3 (July 1996): 547-566. Brownstein, Lewis, "Decision Making in Israeli Foreign Policy: An Unplanned Process," Political Science Quarterly 92, no.2 (Summer 1977): 259-279. 216 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Perlmutter, Amos, "Israel's Fourth War, October 1973: Political and Military Misperceptions," Orbis 19, no.2 (Summer 1975): 434--460.

CHAPTER 6 Books al-'Azm, Sadiq, Self-Criticism after the Defeat (Beirut: Dar al-Tali'a, 1968). Almog, Oran, Britain, Israel, and the United States, 1955-1958 (London: Frank Cass, 2003). Amos II, John, Arab-Israeli Political/Military Relations-Arab Perceptions and the Politics ofEscalation (New York: Pergamon Press, 1979). Andrew, Christopher, and Vasili Mitrokhin, The World Was Going Our Way (New York: Basic Books, 2005). Bar-On, Mordechai, ed., A Never-Ending Conflict (London: Praeger, 2004). de Gaulle, Charles, Memoirs of Hope: Renewal and Endeavor, Terence Kilmartin, trans. (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1970). Eban, Abba, An Autobiography (New York: Random House, 1977). Eisenberg, Dennis, Uri Dan, and Eli Landau, The Mossad: Inside Stories (New York: NAL Penguin, 1979). ---, The Mossad Inside Stories (New York: Signet, 1978). El-Gamasy, Mohamed Abdel Ghani, The October War (Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1989). Eshel, David, Chariots of the Desert-The Story of the Israeli Armoured Corps (London: Brassey's, 1989). Finer, Samuel, The Man on Horseback, 2nd ed. (Middlesex: Penguin Books, 1976). Gabriel, Richard A., ed., Fighting Armies-Antagonists in the Middle East• A Combat Assessment (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1983). Gawrych, George, The Albatross of Decisive Victory: War and Policy between Egypt and Israel in the 1967 and the 1973 Arab-Israeli Wars (Westport: Greenwood,2000). Johnson, Lyndon Baines, The Vantage Point-Perspectives of the Presidency 1963-1969 (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971). Kahalani, Avigdor, A Warrior's Way (Bnei-Brak: Steinmatzky, 1999). Karsh, Efraim, Fabricating Israeli History (London: Frank Cass, 2002). Katz, Samuel, Fire & Steel (New York: Pocket Books, 1996). Kissinger, Henry, Crisis (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2003). Kuhlmann, Jurgen, ed., Problems and Options of the Mass Armed Forces (Munchen: Sozialwissenschaftliches Institut Der Bundeswehr, 1990). Kurzman, Dan, Soldier of Peace-The Lift of Yitzhak Rabin 1922-1995 (New York: Harper Collins, 1998). Laqueur, Walter, The Road to Jerusalem (New York: Macmillan, 1968). McNamara, Robert Britain, Nasser and the Balance of Power in the Middle East 1952-1967 (London: Frank Cass, 2003). BIBLIOGRAPHY 217

Mearsheimer, John, Conventional Deterrence (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1983). Morgan, Janet, ed., The Backbench Diaries of Richard Crossman (New York: Holmes & Meier Publishers, 1981). Morris, Benny, Righteous Victims (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1999). Oren, Michael, Six Days of War (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002). Peri, Yoram, Between Battles and Ballots (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983). Quandt, William, Peace Process-American Diplomacy and the Arab-Israeli Conflict Since 1967 (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1993). ---, Decade of Decisions-American Policy toward the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 1967-1976 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977). Rabinovitch, Abraham, The Yom Kippur War (New York: Schoken, 2004). Schiff, Ze'ev, A History of the Israeli Army-1874 to the Present (New York: Macmillan, 1974). Shimon Peres, David's Sling (New York: Random House, 1970). Shlaim, Avi, The Iron Wall (New York: W. W. Norton, 2000). Stein, Janice Gross, and Raymond Tauter, Rational Decision-Making-Israel's Security Choices, 1967 (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1976). Troen, Selwyn Ilan, and Moshe Shemesh, eds., The Suez-Sinai Crisis 1956 Retrospective and Reappraisal (London: Frank Cass, 1990). Wagner, Abraham, Crisis Decision-Making: Israel's Experiences in 1967 and 1973 (New York: Praeger, 1974). Yehuda Ben Meir, Civil-Military Relations in Israel (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995).

Journals Rosen, Steven, and Martin Indyk, "The Temptation to Preempt in a Fifth Arab-Israeli War," Orbis20, no.2 (Summer 1976): 265-285.

News Media alAhram New York Times

CHAPTER 7 Books Adan, Abraham (Bren), On the Banks of the Suez (An Israeli General's Personal Account of the Yom Kippur War) (Novato: Presidio Press, 1991). Amos II, John, Arab-Israeli Political/Military Relations-Arab Perceptions and the Politics ofEscalation (New York: Pergamon Press, 1979). 218 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ayubi, Nazih N. M., Bureaucracy & Politics in Contemporary Egypt (London: Ithaca Press, 1980). Baker, Raymond, Egypt's Uncertain Revolution under Nasser and Sadat (London: Harvard University Press, 1978). Barker, A. J., Six Day War (New York: Ballantine, 1974). --, The Yom Kippur War (New York: Ballantine, 1974). Berger, Morroe, Military Elite and Social Change-Egypt since Napoleon, (Princeton: Center ofInternational Studies, Princeton University, 1960). Bonds, Ray, ed., The Encyclopedia of Land Warfare in the Twentieth Century (London: Leisure Books, 1977). Dan, Uri, Sharon's Bridgehead (Tel Aviv: E. L. Special Edition, 1975). Danpoulos, Constantine, ed., Military Disengagement from Politics (London: Routledge, 1988). Dupuy, Trevor, Elusive Victory-The Arab-Israeli Wars, 1947-1974 (Dubuque: Kendall Hunt, 1992). El-Gamasy, Mohamed Abdel Ghani, The October War (Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1989). Eshel, David, Chariots of the Desert-The Story of the Israeli Armoured Corps (London: Brassey's, 1989). Gabriel, Richard, ed., Fighting Armies-Antagonists in the Middle East• A Combat Assessment (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1983). Goodman, Hirsh, and W. Seth Carus, The Future Battlefield and the Arab• Israeli Conflict (New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 1990). Heikal, Mohamed, Secret Channels-The Inside Story ofthe Arab-Israeli Peace Negotiations (London: Harper Collins, 1996). ---, Autumn of Fury-The Assassination of Sadat (London: Andre Deutsch,1983). ---, The Road to Ramadan (London: Quadrangle, 1975). Hogg, Iann, Israeli War Machine-The Men; The Machines; The Tactics (London: Chartwell Books, 1983). Israeli, Raphael, The Public Diary ofPresident Sadat-Part One-The Road to War (October 1970-0ctober 1973) (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1978). Israelyan, Victor, Inside the Kremlin during the Yom Kippur War (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1995). Katz, Samuel, Israeli Elite Units since 1948 (London: Osprey Publishing, 1988). Kellerman, Barbara, and Jeffrey Rubin, eds., Leadership and Negotiation in the Middle East (New York: Praeger, 1988). Lunt, James, Hussein of Jordan-Searching for a Just and Lasting Peace (New York: William Morrow and Company, 1989). Paul, T. v., Asymmetric Conflicts: War Initiation by Weaker Powers (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994). Perlmutter, Amos, Egypt the Praetorian State (New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1974). BIBLIOGRAPHY 219

Safran, N adav, From War to War-The Arab-Israeli Confrontation, 1949-1967 (New York: Pegasus, 1969). Sadoff, Robert, Army and Politics in MubaraH Egypt-No. 10 (Washington, DC: The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 1988). Schiffrin, Harold, ed., Military and State in Modern Asia (Jerusalem: Academic Press, 1976). Seale, Patrick, Asad of Syria-The Struggle for the Middle East (London: I. B. Tauris, 1988). Vatikiotis, P., The Egyptian Army in Politics-Pattern for New Nations (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1961). Westwood, J. N., The History of the Middle East Wars (Greenwich: Bison Books, 1984). Whetten, Lawrence, The Canal War: Four-Power Conflict in the Middle East (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1974).

Journals Burtt, John, "Organized Chaos-Israeli Defense Doctrine and Tactics," Strategy and Tactics 168 (May 1994): 12-2l. Gawrych, George, "The Egyptian High Command in the 1973 War," Armed Forces & Society 13, no.4 (Summer 1987): 535-559. Kimche, Jon, "Fall 1973: The Soviet-Arab Scenario," Midstream 19, nO.l0 (December 1973): 9-22. Mangold, Peter, "The Soviet-Syrian Military Relationship 1955-77," Royal United Services Institutefor Defense Studies 122 (1977): 27-33. Miranda, Joseph, "The First Arab-Israeli War, 1947-49," Strategy & Tactics 185 (May/June 1997): 4-17. Moore, Perry, "Operation Shock Troop: The Drive on Damascus, October 1973," Strategy and Tactics 168 (May 1994): 4-1l. Springborg, Robert, "The President and the Field Marshal-Civil-Military Relations in Egypt Today," MERIP Middle East Report 17, no.4 (1987): 4-16. Stewart, Philip, Margaret Hermann, and Charles Hermann, "Modeling the 1973 Soviet Decision to Support Egypt," American Political Science Review 83, no.l (March 1989): 35-59. Tusa, Francis, "The Army and Egypt," Royal United Services Institution Journal and Brassey)s Defense Yearbook 99 (1989): 117-129.

News Media Arab World Daily Christian Science Monitor Newsweek 220 BIBLIOGRAPHY

CHAPTER 8 Books Abdid, A. H. H., The Tehran Documents (New Delhi: Patriot Publishers, 1988). Adams, Charles J., ed., Iranian Civilization and Culture (Montreal: McGill University-Institute ofIslamic Studies, 1972). Alam, Asadollah, The Shah and I-The Confidential Diary of Iran's Royal Court, 1969-1977(London: I. B. Tauris & Co., 1991). Alaolmolki, Nozar, Struggle for Dominance in the Persian Gulf-Past, Present and Future Prospects (New York: Peter Lang, 1991). Almond, Harry, Iraqi Statesman-A Portrait of Mohammed Fadhel Jamali (N. E. Salem: Grosvenor Books, 1993). Amirie, Abbas, ed., The Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean in International Politics (Tehran: Institute for International Political and Economic Studies, 1975). Baram, Amatzia, and Barry Rubin, eds., Iraq's Road to War (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1993). Booth, Ken, Navies and Foreign Policy (London: Crane, Russak and Co., 1977). Bradley, C. Paul, Recent United States Policy in the Persian GUlf(1971-82) (Grantham: Tompson & Rutter, 1982). Burrell, R. M., The Persian Gulf-I-The Washington Papers (New York: Library Press, 1972). Chubin, Shahram, and Sepehr Zabih, The Foreign Relations of Iran• A Developing State in a Zone of Great-Power Conflict (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974). Cooper, Tom, and Farzad Bishop, Iran-Iraq War in the Air 1980-1988 (Atglen: Schiffer, 2000). Dowdy, William, and Russell Trood, eds., The Indian Ocean-Perspectives on a Strategic Arena (Durham: Duke University Press, 1985). Ehteshami, Anoushiravan, Gerd Nonneman, and Charles Tripp, War and Peace in the Gulf-Domestic Politics and Regional Relations into the 1990s (Reading: Ithaca Press, 1991). Eitan, Raful, A Soldier's Story-The Life and Times of an Israeli War Hero (New York: Shapolsky Publishers, 1991). El Azhary, M., ed., The Iran-Iraq War-An Historical, Economic and Political Analysis (London: Croom Helm, 1984). Gordon, Murray, Conflict in the Persian Gulf (New York: Facts on File, 1981 ). Heikal, Mohamed, Iran: The Untold Story (New York: Pantheon Books, 1981). Huyser, Robert, Mission to Tehran (New York: Harper & Row Publishers, 1986). BIBLIOGRAPHY 221

Ismael, Tareq, Iran and Iraq-Roots of Conflict (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1982). Keddie, Nikki, and Mark Gasiorowski, eds., Neither East nor IDst-Iran, the Soviet Union, and the United States (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990). Kelly, J., Arabia, the Gulfand the West (New York: Basic Book, 1980). Koury, Enver, Oil and Geopolitics in the Persian GulfArea: A Center ofPower (Maryland: Institute of Middle Eastern and North Mrican Mfairs, 1973). Lenczowski, George, ed., Iran under the Pahlavis (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1978). Ministry of Foreign Mfairs. The Iraqi-Iranian Dispute-Facts v. Allegations (Ministry of Foreign Mfairs of the Republic ofIraq, 1980). Mughisuddin, Mohammed, ed., Conflict and Cooperation in the Persian Gulf (New York: Praeger, 1977). Nyrop, Richard, Iran-A Country Study (Washington, DC: The American University,1978). Pahlavi, Mohammad Reza, Answer to History (Toronto: Clarke, Irwin & Company Limited, 1979). Pahlavi, Mohammad Reza Shah, Mission for My Country (London: Hutchinson, 1961). Parsons, Anthony, The Pride and the Fall-Iran 1974-1979 (London: Jonathan Cape, 1984). Rajaee, Farhang, ed., The Iran-Iraq War-The Politics of Aggression (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1993). Ramazani, Rouhollah, The Persian Gulf-Iran's Role (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1972). Rubinstein, Alvin, ed., The Great Game-Rivalry in the Persian Gulf and South Asia (New York: Praeger, 1983). Saikal, Amin, The Rise and Fall of the Shah (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980). Schahgaldian, Nikola, The Iranian Military under the Islamic Republic• R -3473-USDP (Santa Monica: RAND, 1987). Schofield, Clive, and Richard Schofield, eds., The Middle East and North Africa-World Boundaries VoI.2 (London: Routledge, 1994). Schofield, Richard, Evolution of the Shatt Al-'Arab Boundary Dispute (Cambridgeshire: Middle East & North Mrican Studies Press Limited, 1986). Schulz, Ann Tibbits, Buying Security: Iran under the Monarchy (Boulder: Westview Press, 1989). She mesh, Haim, Soviet-Iraqi Relations, 1968-1988-In The Shadow of the Iran-Iraq Conflict (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1992). Singh, K. R., Iran-Quest for Security (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1980). Souresrafil, Behrouz, The Iran-Iraq War (Plainview, NY: Guinan Co., 1989). 222 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Sullivan, William, Mission to Iran (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1981). Taheri, Amir, The Unknown Life of the Shah (London: Hutchinson, 1991). Tahir-Kheli, Shirin, and Shaheen Ayubi, eds., The Iran-Iraq War-New Weapons, Old Conflicts (New York: Praeger, 1983).

Journals Amos II, John, "The Iran-Iraq War: Calculus of Regional Conflict," Middle EastAnnuall (1981): 133-158. Cottrel, Alvin, "Iran, the Arabs and the Persian Gulf," Orbis 17, no.3 (Fall 1973): 978-988. Karsh, Efraim, "Geopolitical Determinism: The Origins of the Iran-Iraq War." Middle East Journal 44 no.2 (Spring 1990): 256-268. Kinsman, James, "Kurds and Iran: Iraq's Changing Balance of Power," New Middle East 22 (July 1970). Marlowe, John, "Arab-Persian Rivalry in the Persian Gulf," Royal Central Asian Journal 51, no.1 (January 1963): 23-31. Melamid, Alexander, "Geographical Review: The Shatt al-Arab Boundary Dispute," Middle East Journal 22, no.3 (Summer 1968): 351-357. Parvin, Manoucher, "Military Expenditures in Iran: A Forgotten Question," Iranian Studies 1 (Fall 1968): 149-154. Rundle, Christopher, "The Iran/Iraq Conflict," Asian Affairs 17, part 2 (June 1986): 128-133. Stauffer, Thomas, "Economic Warfare in the Gulf," American-Arab Journal 14 (1985): 98-116.

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CHAPTER 9 Books Abdulghani, J., Iran & Iraq: The Years of Crisis (London: Croom Helm, 1984). Agwani, A. S., ed., The Gulf in Transition (New Delhi: South Asian Publishers, 1987). BIBLIOGRAPHY 223

Agwani, M. S., Politics in the Gulf (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1978). Alaolmolki, Nozar, Struggle for Dominance in the Persian Gulf-Past, Present and Future Prospects (New York: Peter Lang, 1991). Amirahmadi, Hooshang, and Nader Entessar, eds., Iran and the Arab World (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1993). Amirsadeghi, Hossein, ed., Twentieth-Century Iran (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1977). Anasrawi, Abbas, The Economy ofIraq-Oil, Wars, Destruction ofDevelopment and Prospects, 1950-2010 (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1994). Axelgard, Frederick, ed., Iraq in Transition-A Political, Economic, and Strategic Perspective (Boulder: Westview Press, 1986). Bani-Sadr, Abol Hassan, My Turn to Speak-Iran, the Revolution & Secret Deals with the U.S. (New York: Brassey's, 1989). Baram, Amatzia, Culture, History and Ideology in the Formation of Ba)thist Iraq, 1968-89 (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1991). Baram, Amatzia, and Barry Rubin, eds., Iraq)s Road to War (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1993). Bar-Zohar, Michael, Embassies in Crisis: Diplomats and Demagogues behind the Six-Day War (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, undated). Batatu, Hanna, The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary Movements of Iraq (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978). Bengio, Ofra, Saddam)s Word-Political Discourse in Iraq (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998). Ben-Gurion, David, When Israel Fights (Tel-Aviv: Mapai Publishing House, 1950). Blumberg, Herbert, and Christopher French, eds., The Persian Gulf War• Views from the Social and Behavioral Sciences (Lanham: University Press of America, 1994). Brzoska, Michael, and Frederic Pearson, Arms and Warfare-Escalation, De-escalation, and Negotiation (Columbia: University of Southern Carolina Press, 1994). Bulloch, John, and Harvey Morris, The Gulf War-Its Origins, History and Consequences (London: Methuen, 1989). CARDRl, Saddam)s Iraq-Revolution or Reaction (London: Zed Books, 1986). Chubin, Shahram, and Charles Tripp, Iran and Iraq at War (Boulder: Westview Press, 1988). Dann, Uriel, Iraq under Qassem-A Political History) 1958-1963 (Tel Aviv: Praeger, 1969). Darius, Robert, John Amos II, Ralph Magnus, eds., Gulf Security into the 1980s-Perceptual and Strategic Dimensions (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1984). Darwish, Adel, and Gregory Alexander, Unholy Babylon-The Secret History of Saddam)s War (London: Victor Gollancz, 1991). 224 BIBLIOGRAPHY el Shazly, Saad, The Crossing of the Suez (San Francisco: American Mideast Research, 1980). Farouk-Sluglett, Marion, and Peter Sluglett, Iraq since 1958-From Revolution to Dictatorship (New York: 1. B. Tauris, 1990). Fischer, Michael, Iran-From Religious Dispute to Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980). Fukuyama, Francis, The Soviet Union and Iraq since 1968-N-1524-AF (Santa Monica: RAND, 1980). Fuller, Graham, The ((Center of the Universe»-The Geopolitics of Iran (Boulder: Westview Press, 1991). Gittings, John, ed., Beyond the Gulf War-The Middle East and the New World Order (London: CIIR, 1991). Gordon, Murray, Conflict in the Persian Gulf(NewYork: Facts on File, 1981). Grummon, Stephen R., The Iran-Iraq War-Islam Embattled (Washington, DC: Praeger, 1982). Harris, George, Iraq-Its People, Its Society, Its Culture (New Haven: Hraf Press, 1958). Hasnat, Syed Farooq, Security Problems of the Persian Gulf-Conflicts and Their Resolution (Lahore: Progressive Publishers, 1988). Helms, Christine Moss, Iraq-Eastern Flank ofthe Arab World (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1984). Henderson, Simon, Instant Empire-Saddam Hussein's Ambition for Iraq (San Francisco, Mercury House, 1991). Hiro, Dilip, The Longest War-The Iran-Iraq Military Conflict (London: Paladin, 1990). Hopwood, Derek, Habib Ishow, and Thomas Koszinowski, eds., Iraq: Power and Society (Reading: Ithaca Press, 1993). Karsh, Efraim, and Inari Rautsi, Saddam Hussein-A Political Biography (New York: The Free Press, 1991). Khadduri, Majid, The Gulf War-The Origins and Implications of the Iran• Iraq Conflict (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988). Khadduri, Majid, Socialist Iraq-A Study in Iraqi Politics since 1968 (Washington, DC: The Middle East Institute, 1978). ---, Republican Iraq-A Study in Iraqi Politics Since the Revolution of 1958 (London: Oxford University Press, 1969). --, Independent Iraq 1932-1958-A Study in Iraqi Politics (London: Oxford University Press, 1960). Kupchan, Charles, The Persian Gulf and the West-The Dilemmas of Security (Boston: Allen & Unwin, 1987). Lenczowski, George, ed., Political Elites in the Middle East (Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute, 1975). Longgrig, Stephen Hemsley, and Frank Stoakes, Iraq (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1958). Makiya, Kanan, Republic of Fear-The Politics of Modern Iraq (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). BIBLIOGRAPHY 225

Marr, Phebe, The Modern History of Iraq (Boulder: Westview Press, 1985). McLachlan, Keith, ed., The Boundaries of Modern Iran (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994). McLachlan, Keith, and George Joffe. The Gulf War-A Survey of Political Issues and Economic Consequences (London: The Economist Intelligence Unit, 1984). Middle East Watch, Genocide in Iraq-The Anfal Campaign against the Kurds (New York: Human Rights Watch, 1993). Miller, Judith, and Laurie Mylroie, Saddam Hussein and the Crisis in the Gulf (New York: Random House, 1990). Mughisuddin, Mohammed, ed., Conflict and Cooperation in the Persian Gulf (New York: Praeger, 1977). Nakash, Yizhak, The Shi'is of Iraq (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994). Niblock, Tim, ed., Iraq: The Contemporary State (London: Croom Helm, 1982). Nyrop, Richard, ed., Iraq: A Country Study (Washington, DC: American University,1979). Pelletiere, Stephen, and Douglas Johnson II, Lessons Learned: The Iran-Iraq War (Carlisle Barracks: U.S. Army War College, 1991). Pimlott, John, and Stepehn Badsey, eds., The Gulf War Assessed (London: Arms and Armour, 1992). Rajaee, Farhang, ed., The Iran-Iraq War-The Politics of Aggression (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1993). Rubinstein, Alvin, ed., The Great Game-Rivalry in the Persian Gulf and South Asia (New York: Praeger, 1983). Schiffrin, Harold, ed., Military and State in Modern Asia (Jerusalem: Academic Press, 1976). Schleifer, Abdullah, The Fall ofJerusalem (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1972). Schofield, Clive, and Richard Schofield, eds., The Middle East and North Africa-World Boundaries Vol.2 (London: Routledge, 1994). Schofield, Richard, Evolution of the Shatt AVArab Boundary Dispute (Cambridgeshire: Middle East & North Mrican Studies Press Limited, 1986). Schulz, Ann Tibbits, Buying Security: Iran under the Monarchy (Boulder: Westview Press, 1989). Sciolino, Elaine, The Outlaw State-Saddam Hussein's Quest for Power and the Gulf Crisis (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1991). Smith, Harvey, Irving Kaplan, Donald Bernier, Rinn-Sup Shinn, Frederica Bunge, Suzanne Teleki, Richard Nyrop, Newton Parker, and Beryl Benderiy Area Handbook for Iraq (Washington, DC: The American University,1971). Workman, W. Thorn, The Social Origins ofthe Iran-Iraq War (London: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1994). 226 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Academic Journals Amos II, John, "The Iran-Iraq War: Calculus of Regional Conflict," Middle EastAnnuall (1981): 133-158. Bengio, Ofra, "Shi'is and Politics in Ba'thi Iraq," in James Piscatori, ed., Middle Eastern Studies 21, no.l (January 1985): 1-14. Cottam, Richard, "Revolutionary Iran and the War with Iraq," Current History 80, noA62 (1981): 5-9,38-39,40-42. Friedberg, Aaron, "Why Didn't the United States Become a Garrison State?" International Security 16, no.4 (Spring 1992): 109-142. Haggerty, J., "The Seeds of Qadisizah-The Iraqi-Iranian War," Army Quarterly 111 (January 1981): 37-43. Heiman, Leo, "Moscow's Export Arsenal: The Soviet Bloc and the Middle Eastern Arms Race," East Europe 13 (May 1964). Heller, Mark, "Politics and the Military in Iraq and Jordan, 1920-1958," Armed Forces & Society 4, no.l (November 1977): 75-99. Helms, Christine Moss, "The Iraqi Dilemma: Political Objective versus Military Strategy," American-Arab Affairs 5 (SeptemberI983): 76-85. Hoagland, John, "Arms in the Developing World," Orbis 12, no.l (Spring 1969): 167-184. Karsh, Efraim, "Geopolitical Determinism: The Origins of the Iran-Iraq War," Middle East Journal 44, no.2 (Spring 1990): 256-68. Kelidar, Abbas, "Iraq: The Search for Stability," Conflict Studies 59 (July 1975): 8-13. Kevin Woods, James Lacey, and Williamson Murray, "Saddam's Delusions-The View from the Inside," Foreign Affairs 85, no.3 (May/June 2006): 2-26. Marr, Phebe Ann, "The Iraqi Revolution: A Case Study of Army Rule," Orbis 14, no.3 (Fall 1970): 714-739. Mor, Ben, "Nasser's Decision-Making in the 1967 Middle East Crisis: A Rational-Choice Explanation," Journal of Peace Research 28, noA (November 1991): 359-375. Morrow, James D., "A Twist of Truth: A Reexamination of the Effects of Arms Races on the Occurrence of War," Journal of Conflict Resolution 33, no.l (September 1989): 500-529. Nakash, Yitzhak, "The Conversion ofIraq's Tribes to Shi'ism," International Journal ofMiddle Eastern Studies 26 (1994): 443-463. O'Ballance, Edgar, "Khuzistan: Another Casus Belli?" Army Quarterly 110 (1980): 139-144. Olson, William, "The Iran-Iraq War: A Dialogue of Violence," Defense Analysis 2, no.3 (1986): 235-246. Parasiliti, Andrew, "Iraq's Military Containment of Iran," Journal of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies 13, no.l and 2 (Fall/Winter 1989): 128-145. Quinlivan, James, "Coup-Proofing: Its Practice and Consequences in the Middle East," International Security 24, no.2 (Fall 1999): 131-165. BIBLIOGRAPHY 227

Razi, Gholam, "The Effectiveness of Resort to Military Force: The Case of Iran and Iraq," Conflict Quarterly 5, no.3 (Summer 1985): 44-57. Sabin, Philip, and Efraim Karsh, "Escalation in the Iran-Iraq War," Survival 31, no.3 (May/June 1989): 241-154. Wright, Claudia, "Religion and Strategy in the Iran-Iraq War," Third World Quarterly 7, no.4 (May 1985): 839-852.

News Media Arab Press Service New York Times INDEX

1965 Indo-Pakistan War, 8-9, 33, 195-196,203,221,225 51,54-55,57,171-172,176, Agartala, 54 210,211-212 Ahmed Fuad II, 99 1967 Arab-Israeli War, 8-9, 79, Ahund Akhund, 44,170-171, 97-99,131,178,183-184, 209 186,216,217-219 Akhnur bridge, 47 1969-1975 Iran-Iraq War, 8, Aksai Chin, 42-43, 56 134-135,190,192-202, Aksai China, 42 220-222,224-227 Al Ahwaz National Popular Front, 1969-1975 Iran-Iraq border 130 conflict, 9 Al Fatah, 84 1971 Indo-Pakistan War, 8-9, 33, Al Sabri, 103 51,54-55,57,171-172,176, Algeria, 71-72 210-212 Algiers, 114, 122-123, 137-139, 1973 Arab-Israeli War, 8-9, 79, 145 97-99,131,178,183-184, Algiers Accord, 114, 123, 137-139, 186,216-219 145 1979 Iraqi invasion ofIran, 9 Ali Sabri, 103 1980 Iran-Iraq War, 8, 134-135, Al-Najaf, 135 190,192-202,220-222, Al-Qa border, 121 224-227 Al-Sadat's,86 Al-Samu,84 Abadan, 117-118, 120, 149 Amer, 89, 92,100-101 Abadan and Bandar Shahpur (not Amman, 72 Bandar Abbas), 118 Amritsar,47 Abbasid (750-945),114 Ankara, 117 Abd aI-Nasir, 86 Anwar Sadat, 97, 99,102-103 Abdal Rahman al-Bazzaz, 118 Arab states, 65-67, 71, 74, 81, 104, Abdel Hakim, 87 111,116,142 Abdel Karim Qassem, 117, 129 Arabistan (Iranian Khuzistan), 121, Abdel Khabir, 105 201 Abu Musa, 118, 145, 149 Ariel Sharon, 90-91, 107 Admiral Abdul Rahman Fahmy, 105 Arif, 102, 118, 130-132, 139, 169, Afghanistan, 39, 114, 125, 154-155 172,196,210-211 Africa, 88, 161, 190, 192-193, Assam, 55 230 INDEX

Austria, 62 Chief of Ops Ezer Weizman, 89, 90, Avraham Tamir, 84, 182 93,180,182,200 Avraham Yaffee, 90 Chief of StaffYaacov Dori, 68 Ayatollah Khomeini, 135,200 China, 9, 33-34, 38, 39,42--43, Ayatollah Sadiq, 137 45--47,52,54,56,58,61-63, Ayub Khan, 36, 38,40--42,44--46, 142-143,146,148,151,154, 53,171,209 169, 175 Aziz Ahmad, 44 Clausewitz, 16,23,163-164,167, 205,207 B.N. Mullik's Indian Intelligence Cold War, ii, 38, 154, 164-165, Bureau (IE), 54 169,174,203,209,212 Baath Iraq, 151 Cuba, 137 Badra,121 Czech, 70-73, 76, 77, 81, 143 Baghdad, 117, 120-122, 129, Czechoslovakia, 77 131,136-138,146,193, Czechoslovaks, 70 195,222 Bahrain, 137 Damascus, 78, 84, 108, 189, 196, Baluchistan, 114 219 Bangladesh, 54, 59, 61, 145, 168, Dean Rusk, 90 173-176,211,213 Defense Minister Amer, 101 Bar-Lev line, 102, 108 Defense Minister Amir, 86 Basra, 121 Defense Minister Jagjivan Ram, 60 Beijing, 45 Defense Minister Krishna Menon, Belgium, 62 52 Bengalis, 53-54 Defense Minister Moshe Dayan, 81 Ben-Gurion, 65-69, 71-75, 77-78, Defense Minister Swaran Singh, 62 80,82-83,85,88,90-91,178, Defense Secretary Robert 182,214,223 McNamara, 90 Betts, ix, x, 18, 30, 164, 167,203 Dhaka, 38 Bhutto,40--41,43--44,46,49,149, Diala region, 121 172,175,212 Brecher, 13, 68, 83, 160, 162, 170, East Bengali, 53 178-179,180,182,205,209, East Pakistan, 38,45, 51, 53-55, 214 57,59,60-63,142,144-145, British colonial, 35 151,173,212 British Prime Minister Harold Eastern India, 55, 59 Wilson, 88 Egypt, iv, v, 8,31-32,65-112,116, Burma, 39, 161,203 129,130,138,141-146, 148-154,178-179,181,183, Cairo, 85,98,183, 187, 189,216, 186-187,189,214,216,218, 218 219 Calcutta, 57, 169,210 Egyptian President Gamal Nasser, Caliphates, 114 80,97 Caspian Sea, 125 Eilat, 85, 87-89 INDEX 231

Ein Gev, 84 General Jangjit Singh Aurora, 62 England, iv, 65-66, 76, 89 General Manekshaw, 60-61 Eric Johnston, 83 General Mohammad Fawzi, 101 Eshkol, 68, 81, 85, 87, 88, General Mohammad Khatemi, 119 90-93 General Mohammad Naguib, 99 Ezer Weizman, 89, 90, 93,180, General Mohammed 182,200 Ahmed Sadiq, 103 General Moshe Dayan, 68 Fao, 120 General Naguib, 99 Finance Minister Y.B. Chavan, 60 General Nuri, 129 First World War, 164,204 General P.S. Bhagat, 60 Foreign Minister Abba Eban, 69, General Riadh, 103 81,85-87 General Saad el-Shazli, 105 Foreign Minister Gorshkov, 62 General Shazli Ismail, 103, 105-106 Foreign Minister Swaran Singh, 60 General Shazly, 107 Foreign Secretary T.N. Kaul, 58, 62 General Toufanian, 115 France, 2, 62, 65, 66, 70-73, 76, General Yigal Allon, 81 78,80-81,88-89,138,162, General Yitzhak Rabin, 203 81-82 General Zahedi, 136 Gadot,84 General Zvi Zur, 90 Gaza Strip, 83 German, 2, 22, 62, 80, 82 General Ahmed Ismail Ali, 106 Germany, 2, 62, 80, 82 General Berar Singh, 54 GHQ, 34, 40, 44 General Rao Farman Ali, 54, 174, 210 Gibraltar, 34, 44, 46-47, 49,88, General A.A.K. Niazi, 62 149 General Abd aI-Rahman Arif, Giddi Pass, 108 130-131 Giza, 105 General Abd aI-Salam Arif, 130 Golan Heights, 82-83, 89, 91-92, General Abd el Hakim Amer, 100 94,97,108,145 General Abd el Kader, 105 Golda Meir, 68, 83,179,182 General Ahmad Isma'il, 106 Governor General Ghulam General Ahmed Ismail, 105-106 Mohammad,37 General Akhtar Malik, 43-44, 46, Great Britain, 62 49 Gulf of Aqaba, 79, 83, 86 General Ariel Sharon, 91, 107 General Bahram Aryana, 122 H.C. Sarin Defence Secretary, 58 General Djam, 122 Hafiz Ismail, 106 General el-Gamasy, 106 Haganah,68 General Gul Hassan, 42 Haji Pir, 47 General Hassan, 105, 119 Haon, 84 General Hassan Toufanian, 119 Hari Har, 55 General Ismail, 103 Harold Lasswell, 13,28, 163,205 General Israel Tal, 81 Hashemite Monarchy, 128 232 INDEX

Hassan, 42,105,119,132, Iraq, iv, v, 8-9, 31-32,70,72,74, 168-175,201,209,211-212, 91,106,113-114,116-125, 223 127-132,134-146,148-153, Hazbani River, 83 155-156,188,190-202, Hazratbal Shrine, 44 220-227 Henry Kissinger, 60, 82, 176, 182 Iraqi, 9, 72, 91,113-114,117-123, Herbert Spencer, 1, 159, 165 128-139,145,151,190-197, Himalaya, 42,52,56,61-62,63 199,202,220-221,224,226 Himalayan border, 52 Iraqi President Qassem's, 119 Hungary, 73 Iskander Mirza, 40 Huntington, ix, 16,30, 163, Islam-secular Baathism, 114 166-167,204 Island ofPerim, 118 Israel, iv, v, ix, 8-9, 31, 32,65-112, 11 Duce's, 22 118,131-132,134,141-149, Imperial Japan, 2 151-154,157,177-184,186, India, iv, v, ix, 8-9, 31, 33, 34-39, 188-189,194,200,203, 41-63,116,142-155, 214-220,223 167-177,187,193,194-195, Israel Ber, 68 204,209-213,219-220 Israeli, 8-9, 65-94, 97-99, Indian Ocean, 116, 193-195,220 102-109,111-112,131, Indian Prime Minister Jawarhalal 145-149,177-184,186, Nehru, 45, 52, 55-58,63 188-189,194,214-220 Indian Prime Minister Shastri, 47 Italy, 2, 22 Indian-occupied Kashmir, 33, 42--43,47,56 Jack Levy, 164-165 Indira Gandhi, 33, 53, 58, 60,175, Jacob, 62, 175-177,212 213 Janowitz, 13, 162-163, 166-167, Indo-Pakistan, 8-9, 33-35, 39,41, 204 43,51,54-55,57,157,167, Janowitz and Little, 162-163, 168-172,174-176,181, 166-167 210-212,214 Jenin,76 Indo-Pakistan Wars, 9 Jerusalem, 82-84, 92,145,160, Indo-Pakistani and Arab-Israeli 183,186,199,208,216 cases, 9 Jordan, 30,66,71-73,76,78, Indus Waters, 39, 43 82-85,88,91-93,95,106, Indus Waters Treaty, 39 108-109,129,134,138,181, Interior Minister Chaim Shapira, 90 189,196,218,226 Iran, iv, v, 8-9, 31-32, 70, 86-87, Jordan River, 82-83 89,113-125,127-150,153, 155-156,186,190-202, K. Subrahmanyam, 59-60, 219-227 176,211 Iranian Foreign Minister Sadegh Karim Kassem, 129 Ghotbzadeh,137 Kashmir, 33, 35, 36, 39,41--49,51, Iran -Iraq cases, 9 55-56,143-145,147-149, INDEX 233

155,169,170-172,177,209, Madame de Chastenay's, 1 210-211 Mahatma Gandhi, 35 Kassem,129 Majlis,116 Kathmandu, 62 Major General Yehoshofat Harkabi, Kemal Attaturk, 99 72 Kermanshah, 118, 137 Mandali, 121 Khana oil deposits, 131 Marshal (previously Major-General) Khanaqin oil deposits, 121, 131 Ahmad Hassan AI-Bakr, 132 Khanaqin region, 121 Marshal Chen Yi, 46 Kharg Island, 117-118 Marshal Grechko, 105 Khomeini, 116, 135-136, 139, Marshal Kutakov, 62 200 Matityahu Peled, 90 Khuzistan, 117-118, 121, 130, Mediterranean, 22, 84 136-137,139,145,196,202, Mehran,121 226 Meir Amit, 88 King Farouk, 70,99,102 Menachem Begin, 73, 90 King Hussein ofJordan, 76, 106 Michael Brecher, 68, 83, 160, 162, Kissinger, 60, 62, 82,176-177, 170,178,182,205 182,212,216 Middle East, ii, iv, 66, 69, 70-71, Krishna Menon, 52, 55-56 102,116,125,169,173-174, Kurds, 113, 118-119, 121-122, 177,179,180-183,186-190, 124,130-133,135,138-139, 192-200,212,214-216, 194,200,222,225 218-219,221-222,224-226 Kutch, 33-34,43-46,48-49, 52, Minister for Education Zalman 57,63,142,144 Aranne,90 Kuwait, 119, 128-130, 132, 138 Minister of Interior Moshe Haim Shapira,90 Lahore, 47, 168,170-174,193, Mitla, 73-74, 76,108 197,201,209,211-212,224 Mitla Pass, 73-74, 76 Lal Bahadur Shastri, 45, 57 Mizo in Assam, 55 Lanchester square law, 18 Mohamed Heikal, 104, 181, Laos, 30 187-188,191 Lasswellian, 65 Mohammad Ali Bogra's, 37 Lavan Island, 118 Mohammad Ali Jinnah, 35 Lavon Mfair, 146 Mohammad Baqr al-Sadr, 136 Lebanon, 83, 109 Monarchy of King Farouk, 99 Leh,42 Morocco, 106, 138 Lieutenant-Colonel Anwar Sadat, 99 Moscow, 45, 62, 102, 105, 108, Lieutenant-Colonel Gamal Abdul 176,196,226 Nasser, 99 Moshe Dayan, 11,70,72-73,75, Lok Sabha, 59 81,90,178-179,181 Lt. Gen Mohammad Ayub Khan, Mossad, 88, 115, 123, 184-185,216 36,38,40-42,44-47,50,54, Mujib's, 54, 174 171-172 Mukti Bahini, 60, 61 234 INDEX

Muslim Brotherhood, 99 Praval, 60,171,210 Muslim South Asian, 51 Premier Hoveyda ofIran, 118 Premier Zhou En-lai, 46 Naft-e-Shah oilfields, 130 President Anwar Sadat, 97 Nafti-Shah oil deposits, 131 President Assad, 106, 108 Naga and Mizo revolts, 54 President Ayub Khan's, 53 Nagas, 55 President Baqr's, 134 Naguib, 99,129 President Charles de Gaulle, Napoleonic France, 2 81-82,88 Nationalist Wafd, 99 President Eisenhower, 83 Negev, 85 President Gamal Abdul Nasser, 70 New Delhi, 59, 63,168-177, President Johnson, 88,90 190-191,194,196,199, President Lyndon Johnson, 88 201,205,210-213,220, President Richard Nixon, 62 221-223 President Saddam Hussein al-Tikriti, North Korea, 106, 155-156 127 President Yahya Khan, 58 OP Ablaze, 57 Prime Minister Abd ar- Rahman Op Kilshon, 91 Bazzaz, 131 Operation 41 (later Operation Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion, 67 Spark),107 Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, Operation Dawn, 89 33,53 Operation Gibraltar, 34, 44, Prime Minister Khwaja 46-47,49 Nazimmudin's, 37 Operation Grand Slam, 34,47, Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastr, 57 49,172 Prime Minister Levi Eshkol, 68, 81, Oriana Fallaci, 115 85,87 Ottoman Empire, 128, 135 Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan, 35-36 Pakistan, 4-5, 8-9, 31-63, Prime Minister Moshe Sharett, 68 141-155,157,167-177,181, Prime Minister Shahpour Bakhtiar, 204-205,209-214 135 Pakistan President General Yahya Principal Secretary P.N. Haksar, 62 Khan, 54, 58 Punjab, 35-36, 40, 42, 145 Pakistan Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan, 35-36 Qajjar dynasty, 114 Palestine, 67,102 Qom, 116 Palestinian, 67, 78, 134 Qum, 135 Palmach,68 Persian-Arab, 114 R.J. Rummel, 159,208 Popular Militia (al-Jaish al-Sha'bi), Rabin, 81-82, 85, 88-91, 94,178, 133 181-186,215-217 Port Khorramshahr, 117 Raju Thomas, 58, 168-169, Ports of Abadan, 117 174-175 INDEX 235

Rann of Kutch, 34,43-46,48-49, Sialkot,47 52,57,63,142,144 Siliguri, 62 Ras aI-Tin, 108 Sinai, 65-67, 70-74, 76, 78-83, Ras Nasrami, 70 85-89,91-94,97-98, Rawalpindi, 40,169,171-172, 103-105,107,111,145,178, 174,209 181-182,214-215,217 Reza Shah's, 114 Sino-Indian war, 42, 48,55 Richard Betts, 9-10,30,164 Sirri Island, 118 River Banias, 83 Smoke, 18, 163-164,205 River Yarmuk, 83 Snyder and Mansfield, 2 Rosa Luxemburg, 2 South Asia, 9, 51-52, 56, 169-170, Rotem, 81, 182,215 173-174,192,194-195, Russia, 114, 125, 136, 156, 199-200,209-212,221-222, 168,205 225-226 Soviet Defence Minister Marshals Samuel Huntington, 9,30,163, Brechko,62 167 Soviet Union, 9, 45-46,58,61-62, Saudi Arabia, 106, 108, 129, 138, 74,84,87,89,104-106, Ill, 195 113-114,117,119-121,123, SayfSa'ad town, 138 125,129-131,133,188,192, Sea of Galilee, 69 194,198,214,221,224 Secretary General U Thant, 85 Srinagar, 44 Secretary Leonid Brezhnev, Steiner, 165,205 105 Stevenson, 22, 162, 165, 167,205, Shah, 113-125, 130-132,135-137, 208 142,145,147-151,168, Strait of Mandeb, 118 170-172,190-192,194-195, Strait of Tiran, 86 197-198,211,220-223 Stuart Bremer, 1, 159 Shah Pahlevi's, 114 Suez Canal, 70, 74, 81, 106-108, Shah's Iran, 147 111,145 Shahpour Bakhtiar, 135-136 Syria, 69,79, 81-85,88,91-93, 106, Shaikh Ali Kashif Ghita, 135 108-109,129,132,138,144, Shaikh Ali Saghir, 135 181-182,189-190,214,219 Sharm el-Sheikh, 74, 83, 85, 88 Syrian, 69, 82-84,92, 106, 108, Sharon, 90-91, 107, 185, 189, 182,190,219 218 Shatt al-Arab, 114, 116-118, 120, T.N. Kaul Foreign Secretary, 58,62 122,128-132,145,149,193, Tabriz,118 222 Taiwan Straits, 30 Sheikh Mujib Rahman, 54 Tal, 81,180-181 Shii-Sunni,114 Tariq Aziz, 136 Shimon Peres, 68, 91,177, Tawafik,81 181-182,217 Tehran, 115, 137, 190-191, Shuubiya Movement, 114 193-195,200-201,220,222 236 INDEX

Thawra City, 136 146-147,151, 154-156, 163, The Canal, 66, 73-74, 83, 91, 94, 169-171,174,176,178, 103-104,107-109,188,219 191-192,209-212,215-216, The Nile Valley, 78 221,226 The Persian Gulf, 114, 117-118, US, 108,120,167-170 120-121,125,128,130,138, 145,149,190-197,200-201, Vagts, 9,16,20,159,162-165, 220-225 205 Tunb islands, 118 Vijay,55 Turkey, 7, 99,120,125,195 Warsaw Understanding, 45 U.S, 2, 86, 88, 90, 93,104,106, West Bank, 71, 78, 82-84, 89, 91, 117-119,124-125,137-138, 94, 145, 149 146,154-156,159,169-170, West Germany, 62, 82 172-173,175,179,192,198, West Pakistan, 46,53-54,59 201,205,209-210,212,223, Westpoint, 2 225 Wilkenfeld et aI, 18, 164 U.S. Army Chiefs of Staff, 30 U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, 2 Ya'qov Meridor, 73 Umayyad (661-750),114 Yadin,82 United Arab Republic (UAR), 81 Yasser Arafat, 106 United Kingdom, 4, 9, 47, 65 Yemen, 116, 138 United Nations, 61, 63, 80-81, Young Mapai deputy 83-84,106-107,120 Shlomo Hillel, 73 United Nations Secretary General, YusufSayid Muhsin Tabataba'I, 135 Dag Hammarskjold, 83 United States, 4, 9,30,33-35, Z.A. Phizo, 55 37-38,42,45-48,54-56, Zachria Mohieddin, 101 61-63,65,69,71-76,80-81, Zayn al-Qaws town, 138 83,88-91,94,98,104, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, 40, 46,172, 110-111,117-119,131-132, 175,212