The Case of Falkland War with Argentina

THE ESSENCE OF IDIOSYNCRATIC FACTORS IN INFLUENCING MARGARET THATCHER’S CHARACTERISTICS: THE CASE OF FALKLAND WAR WITH ARGENTINA

(1979-1982)

BUNGA ANGGIA PRAMESWARI ID no. 016201000018

A thesis presented to Faculty of International Relations, Communication and Law President University In partial fulfillment of the requirements for Bachelor’s Degree in International Relations Concentration of Diplomacy Studies

January 2014

PANEL OF EXAMINER

APPROVAL SHEET

The panel of examiners declare that the thesis entitled “The Essence of Idiosyncratic Factors in Influencing Margaret Thatcher’s Characteristics: The Case of Falkland War with Argentina from 1979-1982” that was submitted by Bunga Anggia Prameswari majoring in International Relations from the Faculty of International Relations, Law and Communications was assessed and approved to have passed the Oral Examinations on (January 27th 2014)

Teuku Rezasyah, Ph.D Chair - Panel of Examiners

Nabilla Sabban, S.IP., MA Examiner

Prof. Anak Agung Banyu Perwita, Ph.D Thesis Adviser

DECLARATION OF ORIGINALITY

I declare that this thesis, entitled “The Essence of Idiosyncratic Factors in Influencing Margaret Thatcher’s Characteristics: The Case of Falkland War with Argentina from 1979-1982 is, to the best of my knowledge and belief, an original piece of work that has not been submitted, either in whole or in part, to another university to obtain a degree.

Cikarang, Indonesia, ______

______Bunga Anggia Prameswari

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ABSTRACT

Title: The Essence of Idiosyncratic Factors in influencing Margaret Thatcher’s Characteristics: The Case of Falkland War with Argentina (1979-1982)

The issue of war has interested being discussed since it has become world’s major problem. Most people feel afraid and worry since its impact not merely affecting an aspect but also some aspects such as economic, politics, state relationship, human living and death. One of the massive wars that has been discussing is between Argentina and United Kingdom, called as Falkland war or Las Malvinas (Spanish language). These islands are separated between East and West part which have potential oil resource. For this case, there is also important message saying that the time when the war happened, United Kingdom was under Margaret Thatcher’s control who just elected to be the first woman prime minister in 1979. Some people might doubt to her, because at that time women still struggling to earn their rights to be more empowered. The purpose of this research is to analyze the idiosyncratic factors of Margaret Thatcher who was give influence to Britain government during the war.

This research is significant in providing the information regarding the history of Falkland war, the factors to influence idiosyncratic factors analysis, the concept of the use power, the difference perspective from Argentina and United Kingdom, the efforts to prevent the war and the concept to create decision making. This research takes timeframe from 1979-1982 since the author will explain Margaret Thatcher’s earlier years as prime minister until Falkland war happened in 1982. The author shall analyze the research by qualitative method supporting by some pictures to depict the research for easily understandable. The result of this research proves that idiosyncratic factors are very significant to influence someone in taking decisions.

Keywords: Falkland War, Argentina, United Kingdom, Margaret Thatcher, Idiosyncratic Factors

ABSTRAK

Isu perang menarik untuk didiskusikan karena hal ini sudah menjadi masalah utama dunia. Banyak masyarakat merasa takut dan khawatir karena dampaknya tidak hanya ke satu aspek tetapi ke banyak aspek seperti ekonomi, politik, hubungan antar negara, kehidupan masyarakat dan kematian manusia. Salah satu perang besar yang pernah dibicarakan adalah antara Argentina dengan Inggris yang disebut sebagai perang Falkland atau Las Malvinas (dalam bahasa Spanyol). Kedua negara tersebut berperang untuk mendapatkan hak atas wilayah tersebut. Untuk kasus ini, terdapat satu pesan khusus bahwa pada saat perang terjadi, Inggris berada di bawah kekuasaan Margaret Thatcher yang terpilih menjadi Perdana Menteri wanita pertama di tahun 1979. Beberapa orang mungkin ragu terhadapnya karena pada saat itu wanita masih berjuang untuk mendapatkan hak mereka untuk lebih diberdayakan. Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk menganalisa faktor individu analisis atau idiosyncratic factors dari Margaret Thatcher yang mempengaruhi Inggris pada saat perang terjadi.

Penulisan ini bersifat signifikan karena menyajikan informasi berdasarkan sejarah perang Falkland, faktor-faktor untuk mempengaruhi individu analisis, konsep penggunaan kekuatan, perbedaan perspektif dari Argentina dan Inggris, usaha untuk mencegah perang terjadi sampai konsep dalam membuat keputusan. Penelitian ini mengambil jangka waktu dari tahun 1979 sampai 1982 karena penulis akan menjelaskan tahun awal pada saat menjadi Perdana Menteri sampai terjadi perang Falkland. Penulis akan menggunakan metode kualitatif ditambah dengan beberapa analisa dalam bentuk gambar untuk lebih dipahami. Hasil dari penelitian ini akan membuktikan bahwa faktor individu analisis terbukti dalam memepengaruhi seseorang saat mengambil keputusan.

Kata kunci: Perang Falkland, Argentina, Inggris, Margaret Thatcher, faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi seorang individu

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Alhamdulillahirabbil’alamin. Finally, I have finished this thesis to make me completed as being a student. This thesis would not finish without prayers, support, assistance and faith. Luckily, I am surrounded by people who always ask when thesis could be submitted, and also they support me a lot that I have never imagined before. Therefore, in this page, I would like to express my gratitude to them. I realize these two pages are not enough to reward all people kindness, but I always pray to God for always giving all good things.

I would like thank to God for giving me the greatest blessings to my life. I believe Allah never sleeps to hear wishes and prayers for give me strength through some obstacles to make me better person. I am very blessed.

There is no word that can be spelled other than an expression of gratitude to my parents. To my father, Dadang Makmun and my mother, Lily Sulistyawati for your support and prayers in every second given to me, and also to my brother, Aldy Novalino Ramadhan. Thank you for provide some snacks to make me awake every night. Hopefully, I can still make you proud. I also send the gratitude to my whole family who always pray for me.

I would like to send gratitude to my super advisor, Mr. Anak Agung Banyu Perwita, who always patient to read my midnight-early morning-email and always guide me to the right direction of writing process. I hope can follow his success. And also send gratitude to Ms. Nabilla Sabban, who always hear my stories about thesis and directed in good way.

Then, I would like to show gratitude to others lecturers in International Relations faculty who deserve good education to all students especially: Mr Teuku Rezasyah Ph,D, Alm. H.E. Mr Sulaiman Abdul Manan, and H.E Mr. Makmur Widodo. I also send the gratitude to President University for rector, all lecturers from different majors, and staff for togetherness for 3,5 years which already provided comfortable university and unforgettable memories at dormitory area.

Special thanks to all IR family from batch 2009-2013 for sharing love, laugh, care, events, and stories which can make closer to our relationship. I would like to thank for all IR friends batch 2010 especially for having gossip together: Atin, Manda, Raiza, Patricia, Monde, Denisa, Brimoresa, Andre, Muda, Salim, Kai, Meydi, Ayu Shofa, Zay and Odis. Thank you for PUMUN family, AIESEC PresUniv and Charity Club for our togetherness. I also would like to send thanks for Dwini, Ira, Astien, Saras, Natasia, Ika, Zerlyn, and Vanya who always share stories. To my friends who always have time to hang out such as Annisa, Rizky, Ridha, and Eilsa.

To Rhiza Adiprabowo, thank you for always cheer me up.

Last but not least, I would like to express gratitude to my previous internship place which taught me many unforgettable experiences: The Centre for Education and Training of Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Indonesia especially at Senior Diplomatic Course Unit and United Nations Development Program especially at Procurement Unit.

Cikarang, 19 January 2014

Bunga Anggia Prameswari

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TABLE OF CONTENT

PANEL OF EXAMINER ...... ii APPROVAL SHEET ...... ii DECLARATION OF ORIGINALITY ...... iii ABSTRACT ...... iv ABSTRAK ...... v ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...... vi TABLE OF CONTENT ...... viii LIST OF PICTURES ...... x LIST OF ACRONYMS ...... xii CHAPTER 1 ...... 2 INTRODUCTION ...... 2 I.1. Background of study ...... 2 I.2. Problem of Identification ...... 6 I.3. Statement of Problem ...... 9 I.4. The Objective of the Research ...... 10 I.5. Significance of Study ...... 10 I.6. Theoretical Framework ...... 10 I.7. Literature Review...... 12 I.8. Research Methodology ...... 16 I.8.1 Research Instruments ...... 17 I.9. Scope and Limitations of the Study Assumptions ...... 18 I.10. Definition of Terms...... 18 I.11. Thesis Outline ...... 20 CHAPTER II ...... 24 THATCHER’S POWER IN BRITAIN GOVERNMENT: HER PROFILE AND IDIOSYNCRATIC FACTOR (1925-1980) ...... 24 II.1. Margaret Thatcher’s Profile ...... 24 II.1.1. Earlier Years...... 25

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II.1.2. Minister of Education ...... 27 II.1.3. General Election in 1979 ...... 28 II.1.4. Early Decisions as Prime Minister ...... 29 II.1.5. Further Agenda...... 33 II.1.6. Leadership’s Style ...... 35 II.2. Foreign Policy Analysis ...... 36 II.2.1. Foreign Policy in International Relations Study ...... 37 II.2.2. State-level Analysis ...... 38 II.2.3. Idiosyncratic Factors Analysis ...... 39 II.3. Chapter Summary ...... 43 CHAPTER III ...... 45 FALKLAND WAR IN 1982 ...... 45 III.1. The Location of Falkland Islands ...... 45 III.2. Falkland’s History ...... 46 III.3. Struggle for Natural Resources ...... 51 III.4. Root Causes of War: Mutual Misunderstanding ...... 52 III.5. British’s argument of Falkland War ...... 54 III.5.1. Sovereignty ...... 55 III.5.2. Diplomacy ...... 56 III.6. Argentina’s argument of Falkland War ...... 56 III.6.1. Sovereignty ...... 56 III.6.2. Diplomacy ...... 58 III.7. Road to War ...... 58 III.8. Chapter Summary ...... 61 CHAPTER IV ...... 62 The Influence of Margaret Thatcher’s Idiosyncratic Factors: The Victory for United Kingdom in 1982 ...... 62 IV.1. United Kingdom Respondto Argentina’s Invasion in Falkland Islands ...... 62 IV.2. Key Steps of MargaretThatcher’s Decisions during the Invasion ...... 65 IV.3. The Correlation with Power’s Concept ...... 75 IV.3.1. Hard Power...... 76 IV.3.2. Soft Power ...... 77

IV.3.3 The Implementation of the Use of Power...... 77 IV.4. The Influence of Triangle Relationship ...... 81 IV.5. Chapter Summary ...... 84 CHAPTER V ...... 85 CONCLUSION ...... 85 APPENDICES ...... 96 Written Statement launching Education White Paper (A Framework for Expansion) ...... 102 A 10-YEAR PLAN FOR EDUCATION ...... 102 NURSERY EDUCATION ...... 104 SCHOOL BUILDING ...... 105 SPECIAL SCHOOLS FOR HANDICAPPED CHILDREN ...... 106 THE SIZE OF THE TEACHING FORCE ...... 106 THE JAMES REPORT ...... 106 IN-SERVICE TRAINING ...... 107 INDUCTION OF TEACHERS ...... 107 PATTERN OF COURSES IN TEACHER TRAINING ...... 108 TRAINING FURTHER EDUCATION TEACHERS ...... 109 ORGANISATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF TEACHER TRAINING ...... 109 DIPLOMA OF HIGHER EDUCATION ...... 110 NUMBERS AND COSTS IN HIGHER EDUCATION ...... 110 UNIVERSITIES ...... 111 POLYTECHNICS AND OTHER COLLEGES ...... 112 COLLEGES OF EDUCATION ...... 112 THE ORGANISATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION...... 113

LIST OF PICTURES

Picture 1. 1 Decision making as Steering...... 11 Picture 3. 1 Map of Falkland Islands ...... 45

Picture 4. 1 Diagram of Margaret Thatcher’s Action ...... 66 Picture 4. 2 Triangle Relationship ...... 82

LIST OF ACRONYMS

CEDAW Convention on The Elimination of All Forms of

Discrimination against Women

CIA Central Intelligence Agency

EEC European Economic Community

FCO Foreign and Commonwealth Office

FIG Falkland Islands Government

FPA Foreign Policy Analysis

MoD Ministry of Defence

NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization

UN United Nations

UNSCR United Nations Security Council Resolution

US United States

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

I.1. Background of study

The issue of human rights has become an essential topic that is integral to all lives regardless of the nationality, ethnicity, social background and gender. Another right that should be acknowledged is gender equity. Discrimination against women has often occurred because of the stereotyping of women into menial roles such as wives and household managers.1 This stereotyping deprived woman of opportunities to find professional occupations. The concept of participation in politics was never on the agenda for women. The main reason was that globally all positions of authority were dominated by men. This statement was supported by Eleanor Roosevelt who argued that international politics was a world characterized by exclusively male diplomats, soldiers and civil servants. Roosevelt also found little evidence that supported any significant contributions by women in shaping foreign policy making in any country in the twentieth century.2

The problem of gender separation between women and men has still remained fascinating recent issue to be discussed. Nowadays, women are starting to attest their existence in participating to politics. Development of women’s status is noticed by Convention on The Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) which was adopted in 1979.3 States committed to eliminate discrimination against women and ensured that women

1ModulPengarustamaan Gender dalam Pembangunan Nasional di Indonesiateoridanaplikasi.(2007). KementerianNegara PemberdayaanPerempuan RI kerjasamadengan UNDP. page 22 2Tickner, J. Anne. (1992). Gender in International Relations, Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Security. Columbia University Press, p 6. Retrieved on August 7, 2013 at 11:18pm 3 About CEDAW, retrieved fromhttp://womenshistory.about.com/od/laws/a/cedaw.htm on August 7 2013 at 11:18pm

2 have same opportunities for everything. 4 In order to support CEDAW, United Nations member states were also committed to promote elimination for discrimination on Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing in 1995 which delivered Beijing Action Platform.5 This means that the principle of shared power and responsibility should be established between women and men at home, in the workplace and in the wider national and international communities, so that women and men can work together for themselves, for their children and for society to meet the challenges of the twenty-first century. 6

To convince the existence of women’s movement from discrimination, we cannot ignore to discuss feminist theories of International Relations’ that have been discussed by some researcher. One of the discussions was about contemporary feminist theory in International Relations by Joan Scott. On her book “Gender and the Politics of History” has explained that most contemporary feminist theories belief gender difference could be essential part in structuring of social inequalities which will give result in self-identification, human understanding, social status, and power relationships, but all results are unjustified.7 Additionally, western understanding of gender is based on a set of culturally determined binary distinctions such as public versus private, objective versus subjective, self-versus other, reasons versus emotion, autonomy versus relatedness and culture versus nature, for first word of each pair is characteristically belong to masculinity while second word is belong to femininity.8

4 The Purpose of CEDAW, retrieved fromhttp://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/history.htm on August 7 2013 at 22:05pm 5 About Fourth World Conference on Women, retrieved from http://www.stopvaw.org/beijing_declaration_and_platform_for_action on August 7 2013 at 22:00pm 6 The United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women, retrieved from http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/beijing/platform/plat1.htm on February 8 2014 at 23:18pm 7Scott, Joan W. (1986). Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis. American Historical Review, Vol 91, No 5 8Broverman et al., (1972). "Sex-Role Stereotypes: A Current Appraisal." Although the original study was published in 1972, replication of this research in the 1980s confirmed that these perceptions still held in the United States, took this source on August 7, 2013 at 6:30pm

In supporting women’s involvement in politics, indeed some states already permitted women to participate in government institution for example in United Kingdom. United Kingdom’s government form is a constitutional monarchy with parliamentary system hence the Prime Minister is given a mandate to lead the government 9. The role of woman’s leadership in Britain could be seen when Margaret Thatcher elected to be the first woman Prime Minister of Britain in 1979. At that time, there were only two big parties such as Conservative Party and Labour Party that should be responsible serving the country after winning the election. Actually, she was Conservative’s member in parliament and had served as junior minister for Harold Macmillan’s government.

But when Labour Party was in power, Edward Heath was elected to be Prime Minister in 1970 wherein Thatcher was in his cabinet and appointed to be secretary for education.10 But in 1974, Conservative Party was defeated by Labour Party thus it made Thatcher had more motivation to challenge Heath in the next election, and fortunately she won. So, the Conservative came to power and Thatcher became prime minister in 1979.11 Under her leadership, she made some policies to reduce inflation such as concerning state-owned industries and utilities, reforming trade unions, reducing taxes and social expenditure across the board.12 In early 1980, Thatcher was successfully also could decrease budgetary distributions to European Economic Community (EEC)13 which also established her image as ‘Iron Lady’ because it may have increased tension of political union and will cause conflicts in the future.

Synchronized with successful earlier policies that have been made by Margaret Thatcher, she had mischance to face one territory problem with

9 United Kingdom government, retrieved from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world- factbook/geos/uk.html, on September 25, 2013 at 10:00pm 10 Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/people/margaret_thatcher, on September 26, 2013 at 10:26pm 11 Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/people/margaret_thatcher, on September 26, 2013 at 10:26pm 12 Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/people/margaret_thatcher on September 26, 2013 at 10:26pm 13 Morris, Stewart & College, Christ’s. Did the Thatcher government change Britain? p. 2 retrieved from http://www.stewartmorris.com/essays/14Ingham3.pdf on September 27, 2013 at 12:46am

Argentina; it was called Falkland Islands or Las Malvinas (in Spanish language). Geographically, Falkland Islands are located in the Southern Atlantic Ocean about 300 miles (480 km) east of South America and 700 miles (1,100 km) north of Antarctica.14 Based on that fact, these Islands seem quite close to Argentina so it was proper for Argentina to claim.

On the other hand, British did not concern based on the closest place, but they argued to be the first to recognize the existence of Falkland Islands thus John Strong came first to the land in 1690.15 At that time, French also had willingness to take control East Falkland but at the end French was ceded it to Spanish. During Spanish colonization, they also focused to take over Argentina’s government. But in 1816 Argentine was succeed to get their independence from Spanish; hence the Islands under Spanish government were become to Argentina’s government in 1820.16 Before conflict happened, United Nations as one key important actor in international organizations which expected could prevent the conflict, had tried to involve for having negotiations between United Kingdom and Argentina, but there was no resolution to prevent the conflict.17 Nonetheless, conflict could not be prevented by both states in 1982.

The reason British had willingness to control Falkland Islands from Argentine since they believed Falkland to be their owned before 1833 and strengthen by the appearance of John Strong to discover first. In order to make other people believe on Britain, British had strategy to give self determination to Falkland people (islanders).

14 Falkland Islands, retrieved from http://geography.about.com/od/unitedkingdommaps/a/falklandislands.htm on September 27, 2013 at 11:35am 15 About Falkland Islands, retrieved from http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/plaintexthistories.asp?historyid=ac51, on September 27, 2013 at 8:51pm 16 About Falkland Islands, retrieved from http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/plaintexthistories.asp?historyid=ac51 , on September 27, 2013 at 8:51pm 17Zarza, MAJ Leonardo Arcadio. A Monograph, Malvinas: The Argentine Perspective of the Falkland Conflict, School of Advanced Military Studies United States Army Command and General Staff College Fort Leavenworth. Kansas 5

When Falkland war happened, Thatcher also had close diplomatic relationship with Ronald Reagan as President of United States; at that time United States supported Britain’s side to be the owner of the Islands. Regarding the conflict that has been existed in Falkland Island, as woman leader in a state, Thatcher was highlighted for settle this conflict toward Argentina, since she was being a leader who responsible to decide choices and take responsibility for the consequences. Falkland conflict was a great challenge for Thatcher because she is a woman who naturally does not like war, but on the other side she should be able to do some efforts for getting those Islands. Even though Britain won for a war, but still she must responsible to manage the relationship with Argentina for preventing any other sovereignty issue.

I.2. Problem of Identification

Establishment of CEDAW was a successful result for women to start their role in the society. It is proved that women are permitted to participate in politics like Margaret Thatcher as Prime Minister. Women’s existence in politics is increasing continuously. But, some people are consider that participating in politics still a paradigm that mentions women could not deliver any policies since they are assumed using inner self as their soft power such feelings and intuition comparing to use harshness.

United Kingdom as the great state in western states did not see this paradigm as the obstacle because many women also have potential to contribute more in politics and Margaret Thatcher proved that statement. In 1979, Conservative party won the election over Labour Party thus Margaret Thatcher elected to be the first woman Prime Minister. As constitutional monarchy state, Thatcher was responsible to be head of government that handle any kind of problems in domestic problem even relationship with other states.

Three years after she elected, Thatcher was faced territory’s right with Argentina known as Falkland Islands. Indeed, this conflict has been sounded by her from few years ago. She knew that between her state and Argentina claimed

Falkland to be their territory and convinced to maintain its natural resources. In Argentina’s perspective explained that they landed first since Falkland’s location is very close to South America thus Argentina had the right to maintain Falkland Islands. While in Britain’s perspective declared that they discovered the Islands before 1833 and there was no one claimed so that Britain was promise to islanders to maintain the Islands. They added their argument by telling British were not colonized the Islands therefore Britain trusted to control Falkland’s government. Another aspect in the dispute is the Islands’ geopolitical value and the potential revenue that state might gain by maintaining sovereignty over the Islands. The potential revenue from the natural resources will provide the country that holds sovereignty over the Islands with a vast economic profit.

Day by day, the tension from both countries was getting higher and hard to find any good resolutions, even United Nations (UN) as international organization involved to the conflict but still both states were agree to execute war and made Britain won over Argentina. Through Falkland War, Margaret Thatcher as Prime Minister at that time was really expected to be strong leader who could keep the Islands on British’s side. Discussing about her leadership in war, it will not be separated with policies under her power, so that this research will be more completed if discuss further about the role of individual decision maker (idiosyncratic factors analysis) to create foreign policy.

Moreover, it is more understandable if also familiar with the standard definition of foreign policy:

“Reduced to its most fundamental ingredients, foreign policy consists of two elements: national objectives to be achieved and means for achieving them. The interaction between national goals and the resources for attaining them is the perennial subject of statecraft. In its ingredients the foreign policy of all nations, great and small, is the same”18

18 Cecil V. Grabb. (1972).Jr.,American Foreign Policy in the Nuclear Age, 3rd ed. (New York: Harper and Row,), p 1 for a comprehensive review of the state of the art in foreign policy analysis.,

As you can see from this definition, it describes us only about the objectives of foreign policy, so that there will be some questions can appear such as the person who really responsible to create foreign policy and the factors that can affect in foreign policy making. We can distinguish decisions in terms of issue categories such as military, political, economic, environmental, and so on. James N Rosenau analyzed for variables that can affect the making of foreign policy into categories such as idiosyncratic, role, bureaucratic, national and systemic. 19

As group variables that explained above by Rosenau, the author will more focus to explain about idiosyncratic variables since it related to the explanation earlier about the role of Margaret Thatcher as a single actor in handling the Falkland War. Idiosyncratic variables are concerned with the perceptions, images, and personal characteristics of decision makers:20

This research is aim to analyze actions or policies that published by Thatcher when she was Prime Minister during Falkland war. Since we recognize that she was single actor who could make any decisions or policies which expected to answer a paradigm that woman are able to take big role internationally. As decision maker, Thatcher might received another opinion from other people, but the most important point was she should belief to all decisions will cause to good result and responsible to the consequences after the decisions made.

The author wants to giveevidence that Thatcher can be one example as individual foreign policy maker who was successfully to maintain the territory conflict with Argentina. We are expected this research can be lesson learned from any policies by Thatcher’s era to develop further development.

see Charles F. Hermann, Charles W. Kegley, Jr, and James N. Rosenau, New Directions in the Study of Foreign Policy (Boston: Allen & Unwin, 1987) 19Rosenau, James N. (1973). The Scientific Study of Foreign Policy. New York:Holt, Rineheart and Winston 20 Hermann, Margaret G. (1980) Explaining Foreign Policy Behavior Using the Personality Characteristic of Policy Leaders. International Studies Quarterly, 24, 1, pp 7-46

I.3. Statement of Problem

As mentioned above, this research is designed to analyze the foreign policies that have been made by Margaret Thatcher after she elected to be Prime Minister in 1979 especially her role in Falkland war with Argentina. Actually, the war happened in 1982 after some failed negotiations from both states. The main problem was because the claim between both sates to have the territory while British already established administration under British power and suddenly invaded by Argentina to the island. The existence of potential natural resources in Falkland Islands also became supporting problem so both states wanted to take over the Islands for getting some benefits.

The dispute over the Falkland Islands is not only a political issue between United Kingdom and Argentina, but also an international dispute. Because the war affected some states and biggest international organization should be involved to settle the conflict. UN has provided a platform where Argentina and the Britain can put forward their arguments, discuss their differences and try to negotiate a peaceful solution. The war was in British’s power, and at the end both states agreed to sign agreement for joint cooperation regarding natural resources due to improve the relationship among the states. Thus, the UN has played and continues to play a prominent role in handling the dispute. However, this thesis does not focus on the political game that existed but more focus about the basic reasons the war happened and the factor which proved could settle the conflict to overall argumentation. Thereby, the role of UN and some states will also include to know the result of this conflict for strengthen this research is interesting to be discussed.

This research will not only explain about the history of Falkland war but still focus to Margaret Thatcher as a single actor who made some policies during war. As we know, to be decision maker is not easy; thus she should strengthen her role in decision making process. Based on what have been explained above, the research question as follow:

“To what extent Margaret Thatcher as an individual decision makerof United Kingdom can influence foreign policy in Falkland war (1979-1982)? 9

I.4. The Objective of the Research

According to statement of problem above, the objective of this research is:

• To explain the history of Falkland war between United Kingdom and Argentina in 1982 aligned with discussion of Margaret Thatcher’s characteristic in making decision of foreign policies

I.5. Significance of Study

Significance of this study regarding Thatcher’s role in influencing foreign policy in Falkland war with Argentina as stated as follow:

a) To explain detail about history of Falkland war in 1982 and started to analyze from its location, history the basic reason both states desired to have the islands, different both argument since both states have different perspective to view this conflict and the efforts to prevent the war until war could not be prevented in 1982.

b) To know in depth for observing the role of Margaret Thatcher as prime minister in making foreign policy toward Argentina’s argument during Falkland Islands. In addition, this research will measure the effectiveness of idiosyncratic factors from an individual’s self inner, for this case is Thatcher as role model.

I.6. Theoretical Framework

Because this entire research will focus to depict the role from individual as human being, for this case is the situation when Margaret Thatcher, as prime minister as well as decision maker, faced war with Argentina. The theory that can

10 be implemented is decision making process since it can support a person to take any decisions, for this context is foreign policy.

In addition, decision makinghas become as steering process which a process that will produce results adjusted based on the information from outside the world. The scheme decision-making as steering will be as below:

Picture 1. 1 Decision making as Steering

Source: Pearson, Foreign Policy, Chapter 4, retrieved from http://www.pearsonhighered.com/assets/hip/us/hip_us_pearsonhighered/samplech apter/0205059570.pdf. on December 13, 2013 at 8:24pm

The figure 1.1 explains decisions are made by an individual as decision maker. Decision maker should implement the decision by carried out into actions to give the effects to the world, both for international and domestic politics. Information from the world is monitored to evaluate the effects of these actions. Decision makers should responsible to prevent misperception, therefore they filter and compile the incoming information along with consequences on their decision.21 Graham Allison has established three models that help us analyze the foreign policies of nation states such as rational model, organizational process

21 Foreign Policy, chapter 4, pdf

11 model and government bargaining model (bureaucratic politics).22 In first model, decision makers tend to perform for three steps by set goals, evaluate their relative importance, and calculate the costs-benefits for the result, they prefer to choose highest benefit but lowest cost. The rational model of decision making is sometimes complicated by uncertainty and the multiple goals of decision makers.

Second, organizational process model explains that decision makers skip the process of identifying goals and alternative actions, yet based on their different organizations which have own standard operating procedures with capabilities and routines. For instance, state department, Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), army and so on. The national interest will appear as an outcome from different organization debates and perceptions.

Third is bureaucratic politics model means that each member of decisionmaking team is expected to protect and top priority the interests of their department. For instance, the secretary of defense protect the interests of the military service, the secretary of state will responsibilityto have negotiations, CIA will tend the use of covert operations and each of military chiefs will suggest policies that are in keeping with their capabilities.23

I.7. Literature Review

In order to support the explanation about Falkland war history, it will be completed if we also analyze some significant researcher regarded to war. One reliable source comes from Jack S Levy and William R Thompson (2010), Causes of War which given us a chance to explore thestudy of war. The author is already summarize and took some important key points of this research. This source is not only consisting of definition of war but the author also added some other scholars who also concern to discuss about war.

22Allison, G and Philip,Z.(1999). The Essence of Decision. New York: Longman 23Couloumbis, Theodore A & Wolfe, James H, Introduction to International Relations: Power and Justice.Fourth edition

Basically, war is such the main cause people killed, ruined economic stability, collapse of government, traumatizes people, and so on. Moving to another effect, war is also give impact to the evolution of world politics, behavior of states, and institutional structures of states since war has played a role in the birth and death of many states. As Tilly mentioned in 1975 “war made the state, state made war”. Scholars’debates for not only focus on the causes of war but also broaden into analyzes the theoretical approaches and methodologies that suitable to identify those causes. According to Levy and Vasquez broadly defined war as sustained, coordinated violence between political organizations. People could not ignore that violent and war are related each other due to involvement the use of force to kill people and destroy military and economic resources. The German military theorist, Carl von Clausewitz argued in his book that war is an act of force and there is no logical limit to the application of that force. Conflict of interest such as over-power, territory, and resources are common in world politics.

On the other hand, rivalry tends to sustained and hostile competitions between actors are also common as threats of force to resolve disputes in their own favor. The thing that should be underlined is conflicts of interests, rivalries, disputes problem even threats of force could not create a war unless they involve sustained violence. Another word from definition above is between; means that war as the result outcome of conflicts that happen of two or more states, but if the target of the initial violence does not fight back, we cannot call it a war. Furthermore, it will bring us to identify the actors who involve in war.

In fact, the actors are organizations not individual. Indeed, individuals can do fighting but they just being a leader on behalf of one political organization under good coordination among them, in order to advance the goals of its leadership. Regardless discussion about war, the truth is in most cases leaders would prefer to achieve the goals without any forces such as diplomacy which is less costly and risky than the use of military forces. Moving to sustained element of the definition above, it defines that had to differentiate war from organized violence that is more limited in its impact.

After observing about the causes of war due to supporting Falkland War history, it is very necessary if the author also observe the foreign policy history since it will support the analyze of the role of Margaret Thatcher as an individual decision maker. The author reviews one of the research with titled “the theories of foreign policy: an historical overview by Steve Smith”. 24 The purpose is to consider the development of Foreign Policy Analysis (FPA) in comparative approach to analyze the foreign policy’s behavior. Actually, foreign policy is associated with all perspectives on the subject of international relations since the approaches of international relations placed the state as a central actor.

Moreover, FPA can be assumed as an approach to the study of foreign policy, therefore it is important to clarify how foreign policy was explained by the major theories of international relations. This approach is associated with the first publication of Synder, Bruck and Sapin framework in 1954, 25 it explained to understand foreign policy by treating states as members of a class phenomena and seeks to generalize about the sources and nature of their behavior focusing on the decision making process in its varying aspect in order to produce explanations. Idealist thinkers who concern to human nature and conflict attempt to find mechanism for built international society as prevention to any war but build democracy mechanism for enhancing the peace.

The idealist thought that foreign policy is existed to understand of what human beings could become through both domestic and international in the way.26 The idealist thinkers was decline by the rise of realism, much has been written by Morgenthau in his book Politics among Nations which explained the important part for the reason why states behave as they do and this relates to his priori conception of human nature on the one hand and his belief in the structural determinance of the international system on the other. 27 He claimed that the

24 Carisnaes, Walter and Guzzini, Stefano. (2011). Foreign Policy Analysis, Volume 1, Sage Library of International Relations 25 Richard C. Synder, H. W. Bruck and Burton Sapin. (1954).DecisionMaking as an Approach to the Study of International Politics (Princeton, NJ, Organizational Behavior Section Princeton University, Foreign Policy Project) 26 Smith, P 5 27 Theories of Foreign Policy, p 5

14 inherent self-interested nature of human beings when faced with a structure of international anarchy that results in states maximizing one thing, power.28

In his book, he also added some weaknesses, such as first is about between balance of power and national interest are incapable of objective definition. Second is about any linkage between domestic polity and international system; domestic power is concern on the resources of national power and role of ideology that cannot input to foreign policy. Third is about naturally human nature is admit of no variation while foreign policy takes different forms. In another time, David Singer analyzed about “The Level of Analysis Problem in International Relations”. He argued that analyze level of analysis is important in order to further the development of cumulative set of theories and evidence.

The comparative foreign policy has declined in themed of 1970s because of increased role of economic factors in international relations, the role of the state as an actor in international relations, and applied specifically to comparative foreign policy approach. The study of foreign policy in the 1980s was different than in 1960s and 1970s since at that time both economic and military factors were being central importance in foreign policy. The study of foreign policy now has five main approaches, first is can be labeled as neo realism by Kenneth Waltz (Waltz, Theory of International Politics) and the recent article by Richard Ashley (Ashley, “The Poverty of Neorealism”) were discussed that neo-realist stressed to the centrality of the structure the international system in determining state behavior.

Second is world economy perspective by Immanuel Wallerstein stated that foreign policy behavior of states is related to influences of involvement of states in international economy. Third approach is to be explained by the gathering of empirical data to discover regularities in foreign policy behavior. Fourth is an approach that involving a single country case study. And for the last approach is development of the study of foreign policy by the use of middle range theories.

28 Theories of Foreign Policy, p 5

Nonetheless, there were five major weaknesses in the study of foreign policy. First is the concerns of the search is a general theory, second is concern to quantitative analysis of foreign policy. Third is unwillingness to undertake cumulative work. Fourth is reliance on the seductive notion of the national interest, and the last is relate to inability to agree on what the state and what the foreign in domestic policy. Having identified five major weaknesses in the history of study of foreign policy is making us to be more aware that there are also the problems of study of international relations as a whole. Finally, foreign policy analysis’s focus on the state and content of foreign policy has been particularly given the recent development discussed above. Not only foreign policy analysis that should deal with shifting of the state, but it also has to deal with a rapidly changing relationship between foreign and domestic politics due to the changes that implies for influence of foreign policy.

For these two literature review, the author conclude that is necessary for us to know the history of causes of war. Maybe we can assume that war is happen from individual’s initiative but in the fact to held the war is not easy thing since it should be well prepared and failed negotiations. The effect of war is also can give influence to foreign policy in one state, therefore it is appropriate if we also discuss about foreign policy analysis in one state.

I.8. Research Methodology

This research is designed by Descriptive method because it will be more understandable to discuss about the topic above. In order to ensure that this research is as nuanced and thus, as accurate as possible, the author will use empirical material from British, Argentine and Falkland sources. Our collected empirical material consists of non-fiction books concerning the Falkland Islands, Argentina and United Kingdom containing both historical and political data. Moreover, our material also contains theoretical books and another material consists of newspaper articles, reports from various sources and authors, and additionallythe official Falklands’ websites.

From the first page, the author explains the background of the study and also mentioned problem identification. The author prefers to use this method since it will consist of the facts, arguments and previous researched before therefore the readers will understand the whole research. In order to support statement above, the author will use Library Research which it analyzes historical records and documents.

There were some previous researchers already discussed the history of Falkland war in his or her journals and books. The author is also found some papers that discussed about Margaret Thatcher as the first woman Prime Minister in United Kingdom; therefore we can her role in maintaining the war with Argentina. Since this thesis is discuss about the effectiveness of idiosyncratic factor, the author also added some journals or papers discussed about foreign policy making process. This thesis’s data is coming from the journal from library and internet, but those researches are first hand sources. When author find the information from internet, the website is come from official documents in government or official documents from previous researcher.

The author realizes that this research touches highly sensitive elements and articles, documents and reports as well as non-fiction data might have an underlying agendatries to be objective in their reporting from both Argentina and United Kingdom.

I.8.1 Research Instruments

Internet – The Internet is can be a tool of making this research since it will provide information to us from many official website or documents. Some resources that used for this research are: • http://womenshistory.about.com/od/laws/a/cedaw.htm • http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/plaintexthistories.asp?historyi d=ac51 • http://www.margaretthatcher.org/essential/biography.asp • http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/news/december-cabinet- thatcher.htm • https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world- factbook/geos/fk.html

Book – Aside from the internet, the author finds many interesting book that relate to the research topic. The books help the author more understand in detail the condition of Falkland war and also foreign policy analysis. The books that used for this research such as: Margaret Thatcher, The Autobiography, Foreign Policy Analysis, and Introduction to International Relations: Power and Justice.

I.9. Scope and Limitations of the Study Assumptions

The scope and limitation for this case as following limitation below: a) This observes will mainly focus on the explanation of history of Falkland war between Argentina and United Kingdom in order to have the potential islands. However, the thing that makes this research is interesting to be discussed because there was the presence of woman role to settle the conflict. Margaret Thatcher was Prime Minister who was expected to create policies toward Argentina’s claim and also as an individual decision maker. b) This work will prove to the readers that Margaret Thatcherwas able to maintain the islands even though there was Argentina that always faith their argument too to claim the islands. Additionally, this research is created because inspired by women empowerment who really struggles to get their rights. Actually, Thatcher is similar with other women, but through all efforts as the first woman prime minister, she could convince and proved to other people that women are proper to get same right like men do.

I.10. Definition of Terms

a) Falkland War: A war that consists of the territorial conflict due to misunderstanding the arguments and tactics between Argentina and United Kingdom during April 1982. Before being claimed by Britain

or Argentina, the Falkland Islands are a small group of islands in the South Atlantic about 480 kilometers off the Argentine coast were divided among the British, Spanish, and French. However, the Falklands are composed of two large islands, western and eastern.29

b) United Nations: United Nations is an international organization founded in 1945 after the Second World War by 51 countries committed in order to achieve four main purposes such as keep peace throughout the world, develop friendly relations among nations, help nations work together to improve the lives of poor people; conquer hunger, disease, and illiteracy; encourage respect for each other’s rights and freedoms and be a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations to achieve these goals. This organization can do some actions based on the current issues, and provide a forum for its Member States to express their views, through the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council and other bodies and committees.30

c) Foreign Policy: Foreign policy like domestic policy is formulated within the states but unlike domestic policy is directed and implemented in the environment external to the state.31

d) Individual Decision Making: Individual decision makers not only have differing values and beliefs, but also have unique personalities, their personal experiences, intellectual capabilities, and personal styles of making decisions.32

29 Joseph Mauro, The Falkland Islands War: Diplomatic Failure in April 1982, Wake Forest University 30About UN, retrieved from www.un.org/aboutun on September 27 2013 at 11:00pm 31 Clarke, M and White, M. (1989). Understanding Foreign Policy. Hants: Edward Elgar 32 Leadership and Foreign Policy, Foreign Policy chapter 4, page 3

I.11. Thesis Outline

This thesis will consist of five chapters and the outline can be seen of chart below. It starts with introduction part for identified the problem of this whole research. It also explains about the background of study, objective of research, significance of study, theoretical framework and study limitations

In the second chapter will discuss of the short biography of Margaret Thatcher from her childhood until the war with Argentina, which supported by explanation of foreign policy analysis. Foreign policy analysis is also separated into three parts such as the relationship with International Relations study, state level analysis and idiosyncratic factors analysis. After that, the third chapter will explain about history in the Falkland war in 1982. The research will continue for the fourth chapter which will more focus to explain about the factors to influence Margaret Thatcher to take decisions in the war, the purpose is to strengthen the analysis in chapter two and three, for answering the statement of problem (thesis question). Finally, the last chapter will have conclusion in order to conclude entire discussion about the topic above.

Influence of Thatcher's Thatcher's power and her Falkland Introduction Idiosyncratic Conclusion idiosyncratic War in 1982 Falkland War factor in 1982

Chapter 1: Introduction

This chapter describes to the reader what research topic is being observed. After that, this chapter also mentions about the reason why the research is being conducted, which will focus to describe background of study, problem identification, statement of problem, the objectives of the research, significance of

20 the study and study assumption, theoretical framework, literature review, theoretical framework, scope and limitations of the study, definition of term and thesis outline.

Chapter II: Thatcher’s power and her idiosyncratic factor

This chapter will start to explain about Margaret Thatcher as an individual. It will conduct with the short biography of her from childhood until elected as a prime minister. In this chapter, the reader will have knowledge about her childhood experience, family background, reason of young Thatcher had interest to join politics, the time when she became prime minister, and earlier decisions that she made in government. Supporting Thatcher as role model and decision maker, the author will also analyze about the correlation this research with international relations study, state level analysis and individual level analysis or idiosyncratic factors that influence her to decide some actions or policies during her term in government. The sub-section as following below:

II.1. Margaret Thatcher’s profile

II.1.1 Earlier Years

II.1.2 Minister of Education

II.1.3General Election in 1979

II.1.4 Early Decisions as Prime Minister

II.1.5 Further Agenda

II.1.6 Leadership’s style

II.2. Foreign Policy Analysis

II.2.1 Foreign Policy in International Relations

II.2.2 State-level Analysis

II.2.3 Factors of Individual Decision Maker

Chapter III: Falkland War in 1982

For the third chapter, the author continues to discuss about Falkland war which consist of explanation about the background of Falkland War which could not be prevented by United Kingdom and Great Britain. As stated in research question, this part is designed to prove the successful action by Thatcher during her power in government. The unresolved conflict made Thatcher to react since both states had different perspective to find any final resolution. The sub-section will consist of:

III.1The Location of Falkland Islands

III.2 Falkland’s History

III.3 Struggle for Natural Resources

III.4 Root of Causes: Mutual Misunderstanding

III.5 British’s Argument of Falkland War

III.5.1 Sovereignty

III.5.2. Diplomacy

III.6 Argentina’s Argument of Falkland War

III.6.1 Sovereignty

III.6.2 Diplomacy

III.7 Road to War

Chapter IV: The Influence of Margaret Thatcher’s Idiosyncratic Factor: The Case of Falkland War in 1982

This chapter is actually created to combine the different parts above to find the answer from thesis questions. Since this part will analyze more about Falkland war and role of Thatcher as prime minister. In a short, this chapter will become the core part of the whole research, and expected to prove the readers about Margaret Thatcher is also become role model and real hero to protect her state. This chapter is also separated into some sub-chapters in order to explain in detail:

IV.1 United Kingdom Respond to Argentina’s Invasion in Falkland Islands

IV.2 Key Steps of Margaret Thatcher’s Decision during the Invasion

IV.3 The Concept of Power as Related Falkland War

IV.3.1 Hard Power

IV.3.2 Soft Power

IV.4 The Relationship between Actor and Power in Falkland War

IV.5 The Influence of Margaret Thatcher’s Individual Factor as Prime Minister

Chapter V: Conclusion

At the final chapter, the author will evaluate all the material that has been discussed in this thesis. At the end, we will find that Margaret Thatcher is proper to be our role model since she was successfully to be the good leader and maintain the condition even war condition. It is also consist of recommendations of this case that can be used for further research.

CHAPTER II

THATCHER’S POWER IN BRITAIN GOVERNMENT:

HER PROFILE AND IDIOSYNCRATIC FACTOR

(1925-1980)

The power from Thatcher as Prime Minister could not be doubted to affect the government in that moment. Thatcher became a figure who waited by British people that could make changes especially in economicmovement. Surprisingly, she was not only able to adjust economy but also she was able to make changes in other fieldsso Britain was become one of super power states at that time. The success that can be achieved by Thatcher was also the influence of idiosyncratic factor from herself, thereby it made the figure of Thatcher became well-known around the world by creating new policies. Therefore, this chapter will discuss the journey of Thatcher in her family life, school life, career until involve to government institution. As we realize, this chapter will be limited to discuss Thatcher’s journey and her power until in 1982, for the following years can be carried for further research by another researcher.

II.1. Margaret Thatcher’s Profile

Margaret Thatcher has been one of the most influential powerful woman in political career. In a fact, she won three successive General Elections and served as British Prime Minister for more than eleven years (1979-1990) which means that she was trusted by people to bring a profound impact in United Kingdom.

II.1.1. Earlier Years

She was born on October 13, 1925 at Grantham, in the Eastern England.33 Her parents, Alfred and Beatrice Roberts, were Methodists. 34 They taught Thatcher and the oldest daughter, Muriel to be social person who engaged to community of the local congregation, bounded by strong traditions of self-help, charitable work, and personal truthfulness. Her father wanted to be teacher but had to leave from school from thirteen years old since his parent could not afford the fee anymore. Therefore, her father decided to be grocer who always aimed to supply the best quality produce and open the shop near from their house. But at the end of his life, he trusted to be Mayor in Grantham. Thatcher was lucky girl to study at Huntingtower Road Primary School35 since it has a good reputation at that time.

She continued her study to Kesteven and Grantham Girls School, it was in different part of town and Thatcher was preferred to come home on lunch time than school lunch. She had enthusiasm for the sciences especially in chemistry. Her parents really took attention to Thatcher’s study especially her father. He determined Thatcher to always continue her study and made Thatcher took the opportunity for her education. Her father was interested to book and also gave influence to Thatcher for reading some books too which girls of her age not generally read about politics and international affairs, for instance John Stracher’s The Coming Struggle for Power which appeared in 1932.36 The book came from communist analysis which predicted that capitalism was shortly to be replaced by socialism. Another book was Herbert Agar’s A Time for Greatness which appeared in 194437 and explained about how the West’s moral failure allowed the rise of Hitler and the war which had followed.

33 Troitino, David Ramiro. Margaret Thatcher and EU retrieved from http://www.ies.ee/iesp/No6/articles/iesp_no6_pp124-150.pdf on November 22 2013 at 11:00pm 34 Saunders, Robert. Margaret Thatcher: The Authorized Biography, Volume One: Not for Turning, retrieved from http://www.history.ac.uk/reviews/review/1515 on January 8 2013 at 3:18am 35 Margaret Thatcher: The Autobiography 36 Margaret Thatcher: The Autobiography, p 23 37 Margaret Thatcher: The Autobiography, p 24

At final school year, she was struggling to continue her study into Somerville College at Oxford, but she failed to reach scholarship. At the end of August in 1943, she entered the third-year sixth and became Joint Head of School and luckily she got a telegram offering a place at Somerville in October where she studied chemistry at Somerville College (1943-1947).38

During her college life, she had joined the Oxford University Conservative Association (OUCA) and she was really focus and serious to participate in this activity. Even though she took chemistry but she admitted that politics is always on her side so that she really enjoys having discussion about politics even debates. In October 1946, she elected to be President of OUCA as the third woman to hold the position. 39 After she graduated, she tried to apply for working in some companies which relate to her study; unfortunately the companies were mostly reject her proposal and thought that she has too strong personality to work in those companies. Eventually she accepted as researcher and development section in specialization of chemistry to work in BX Plastics at Manningtree which produced a full range of plastic for industrial use and also film.40

At the same time, there was an opportunity joining in Dartford Conservative Association, she interested to join and should took some steps before got acceptance. She ran as the Conservative candidate for the strong Labour seat of Dartford at the General Elections of 1950 and 1951, winning national publicity as the youngest woman candidate in the country, but she lost for both times. Luckily she met Denis Thatcher who was local businessman before becoming an executive in the oil industry; they got married in 1951 and also got twins, Mark and Carol Thatcher. Her husband was really support her political career and advised to her to continue study majoring in law. Another time, she was applied for become Member Parliament for Finchley, fortunately she elected

38About Thatcher’s school retrieved from http://www.margaretthatcher.org/essential/biography.asp, retrieved on October 16, 2013 at 7:46pm 39Troitino, David Ramiro. Margaret Thatcher and EU 40 Saunders, Robert. Margaret Thatcher: The Authorized Biography, Volume One: Not for Turning, retrieved from http://www.history.ac.uk/reviews/review/1515 on January 8 2013 at 3:18am

26 to member of Finchley with a majority of 16,260 almost 3,500 more than her predecessor.41

II.1.2. Minister of Education

When she joined to British government, she asked to contribute for increasing in economy system by having negotiations for Britain to join Common Market. Since Ted Heath had been entrusted by Harold Macmillan after he failed negotiations for British became member of the European Economic Community. The purpose to be member was to enrich advantages in order to get acces for European Free Trade Association, Commonwealth and United States. She was also an active member of the European Union of Women which concern to promote European Integration relating to law and family. Conservative Party had to face difficult situation when Hugh Gaitskell as the leader of Labour Party, the opposition party with Conservative Party, died in 1963 and replaced by Harold Wilson, he was being assumed to be threat for government.42

Conservative fell down after Harold Macmillan resigned from the party, and there was leadership crisis to find a new leader of party. The new election began and Edward Heath elected to be a new leader of the Conservative Party. At the same time, she was chosen to be a member of Shadow Cabinet under Edward Heath’s period. In 1969, Heath appointed her to be Minister of Education.43 She was delighted to new role; she was also fascinated by the scientific side-the portfolio in those days being to shadow the Department of Education and Science.

As a leader, she had to responsible to create policy thus she was reorganizing secondary education on completely comprehensive lines. She asked her treasury to make little list of savings for education budget, she decided to cut in school meals and school milk program, unfortunately this decision got many protest from people therefore she received the appellation “Thatcher the Milk

41 Margaret Thatcher: The Autobiography, p 68 42 Margaret Thatcher: The Autobiography, p 84 43 Genovese, Michael A. Women as National Leaders. International Educational and Professional Publisher. SAGE Publication.

Snatcher”44 or called as Education Milk Act (can be seen at appendices 1). At this stage of her career, she was supported by the fact of her gender, since Conservative was mostly fulfilled by men, along with women’s liberation movement, so that Heath thought to appoint women to shadow roles.45

Thatcher had hard time when there were 500 students tried to shut her down and got protest to her policy. Thatcher and Heath had general discussion about the way to settle the education condition after some protests toward Thatcher’s policy, therefore Education White Paper published in December 1972 (can be seen at appendices 2) which set out a ten-year plan for higher spending and better provision. 46 And fortunately, there were some improvements like nearly 2000 out of date primary schools in England and Wales were improved, more qualified teachers and more students in higher education.

II.1.3. General Election in 1979

In the early 1970s, Heath government was faced some troubles that gave influence to Heath’s power such as economic decline, union problems and general infected diseases in Britain. 47 These unexpected conditions gave impact to Conservative Party’s fall down in general election in 1974, so that Labour took control for the government. By looking those conditions, Margaret Thatcher prepared herself and being ready to participate on the next election. Conservative defeated in two general elections in 1974, the party was prepared for change of leadership. In the first ballot for leader on February 4, 1975, Thatcher was defeat Heath 130 to 119. On the second ballot, Thatcher got 146 votes. She emerged as head of Conservative party. The party had chosen the first woman as its new leader. While in opposition, Labour party had crisis-prone in British history since they were unable to solve the collapse in the value of the currency on the foreign

44 Young, H. (1990). One of Us. London 45 Genovese, Michael A. Women as National Leader. International Educational and Professional Publisher. SAGE Publication, p 184 46 Margaret Thatcher: The Autobiography, p 116 47 Genovese, Michael A. Women as National Leader. International Educational and Professional Publisher.SAGE Publication, p 185

28 exchange.48 This condition was affect trade unions were strikes to demand their right for getting salary. Public opinion tended to make Labour party fell down and Conservative won a majority of 43 seats at general election of May 1979 which marked the largest shift from one party to another since 1945.

Margaret Thatcher could win to the election evoked by some factors49 such as Labour was totally lost, therefore Thatcher could have her power as a leader. Second, the ideas that Thatcher’s social revolution were not yet fully formed and thus the election was about change, but still unclear how much change was involved. Third, in the 1970s was a time of international economic malaise and Britain suffered from this and Thatcher benefited from this trend. The last, gender mattered as important thing was overshadowed by the failure of Labour and the desperation of Britain’s economic condition.

II.1.4. Early Decisions as Prime Minister

During Thatcher’s power as Prime Minister, most people called this term as Thatcherism. According to Ian Gilmour stated that Thatcherism as right wing.50 Anthony Seldon also stated his argument about Thatcherism came from outside the party.51 The election of Margaret Thatcher as leader in her party, Conservative Party, which defeat Ted Heath was a useful starting point to strengthen her political thoughts. Moreover, John Campbell has argued that they voted for her primarily because she was not Ted Heath, it was not a deliberate turning towards the right.52

48 About Thatcher’s school retrieved from http://www.margaretthatcher.org/essential/biography on October 21 2013 at 10:00am 49 Genovese, Michael A. Women as National Leader. International Education and Professional Publisher, p 188 50 Gilmour, I. (1992). Dancing with Dogma, quoted by Cowdri, Daniel Anthony. (2009) The Conservative Party and Thatcherism 1970-1979: A Gross-roots Perspective. The University of Birmingham 51Seldon, A & Ball, S (1994). Conservative Century: The Conservative Party Since 1900,Ed. Oxford University Press, quoted by Cowdri, Daniel Anthony. (2009) The Conservative Party and Thatcherism 1970-1979: A Gross-roots Perspective. The University of Birmingham 52 Riddell, P. (1985). The Thatcher government, 2nd Ed, p.23. Oxford, Balwell, quoted by Cowdri, Daniel Anthony. (2009) The Conservative Party and Thatcherism 1970-1979: A Gross-roots Perspective. The University of Birmingham

Moreover, she must be able deliver some new policies under her power. It would be easier if she also could choose the best partner for become her cabinet for a whole period. Therefore, her first assignment was appointed some people into her cabinet in order to exercise power in the government.53 The list name of her appointed people should be published within 24 hours; otherwise if Thatcher was not publish very soon, it became a sign of some political crisis.

The first her concern was about economic policy since she must reversed Britain’s economic decline. She chose Geoffrey Howe as the Chancellor of the Exchequer who trusted could create new economic strategies. Keith Joseph was appointed become Secretary of State for industry, while John Biffen was appointed become Chief Secretary to the Treasury who got brilliant ideas of the economic policies to control public expenditure.

Then, Thatcher chose John Nott for her Secretary of State for Trade who really understanding to Britain’s policies of monetary control, low taxes and free enterprise. The others person were William Whitelaw became Deputy of Prime Minister, Christopher Soames to be leader of the House of Lords, Peter Carrington was Foreign Secretary, Peter Walker became Minister of Agriculture and the last was Ian Gilmour appointed as Lord Privy Seal.

She added some people to fulfill another fields such as Michael Jopling as Parliamentary Secretary to the Treasury (Chief Whip), Norman Fowler as Transport Secretary, David Howell as Energy Secretary, Norman St John-Stevas as Leader of the Commons, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, Humprey Atkins as Northern Ireland Secretary, George Younger as Scottish Secretary, Michael Heseltine as Environment Secretary, Nicholas Edwards as Welsh Secretary, Patrick Jenkin as Health and Social Security Secretary, Mark Carlisle as Education and Science Secretary, Angus Maude as Paymaster General, Sir John Hunt as Cabinet Secretary, Sir Keith Joseph as Industry Secretary, Quintin Hogg

53Cabinet in Britain, retrieved from http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/news/december-cabinet- thatcher.htm on January 14 2013 at 4:20am

30 as Lord Chancellor, Francis Pym as Defence Secretary and James Prior as Employment Secretary.54

At the first Cabinet meeting, Thatcher and her cabinet discussed about the way how to control of financial sector by local government more efficient, such as pay and prices. Actually, the pay bargaining in the nationalized industries was being responsible for minister to stand back from its process. But the strategy was changed and there was involvement between management and unions for creating their decisions. While, prices were controlled by some factors such as price commission, government pressure and subsidy.

Those strategies to prevent any economic decline could stay longer since inflation was increasing, public sector pay was beyond limitation, public spending projections were rising but revenue fell and domestic problems became worst by a rise in oil prices which lead into recession.55 House of Common was establish program in order to reverse socialism, widen property ownership and restrict the activities of Labour’s National Enterprise Board.

In addition, it is necessary to repeal Labour’s community Land act because of creating shortage of land but pushed up the prices and also replaced grammar schools to Assisted Places Scheme which talented student with poorer background could go to private school. In supporting to House of Common’s program, Thatcher also raised another two important points for elimination of price controls and commit of trade unions reform. In the first point, she argued that government should strengthen the power to decrease the inflationary effects of monetary policies. In the second point, she proposed three reforms such as giving right to picket with their employer at their own working place, changing the law on the closed shops, and public funds would be created to finance postal ballots for union elections and other important decisions.

54 Cabinet in Britain, retrieved from http://www.newstatesman.com/politics/2009/02/secretary- 1979-life-peer-later on January 14 2013 at 4:29am 55 Margaret Thatcher: The Autobiography, p 269

Furthermore, Thatcher expanded her concern to foreign affairs policies due to strengthening the relationship between Britain and other states. She flew to Japan which considered attending economic summit of seven western industrial power in discussing about oil prices and their effect on the economy. After her arrival, she also visited President Carter at the United States Embassy where talked the issue of energy consumption. They agreed for against inflation and increase the role of price mechanism in handling energy consumption.

The following day, she continued her business journey to Canberra because she had purpose to have meeting with Malcolm Fraser as Australian Prime Minister regarding the issue of forth coming Commonwealth Conference in Lusaka which Rhodesia would be the main agenda of the discussion. Rhodesia had been a long-standing source of grief to successive British government 56 but the elections in 1979 made a change for the whole position.

Moreover, the basic need for people in Rhodesia was peace and stability. Thatcher realized that Rhodesia was a part of Britain’s responsibility and should be settled. Britain tried to persuade the Commonwealth leaders to have same agreement and acknowledged Rhodesia was not main concern for Commonwealth as a whole. To make the problems finish very soon, Thatcher appointed some people to resume authority in Rhodesia government and hold a new election as well as received international recognition and acceptance. The discussion was more intense to analyze Rhodesia’s future. The outcome of the election was Mugabe won a victory. On April 18, Rhodesia, as the Republic of Zimbabwe retrieved their independence. Another issue was Irish has assumed that the Britain’s budget was dominated the business therefore Thatcher should asked someone to help her for preparing the budget proposal.

After finishing and discussing about the budget in Britain, Thatcher moved her concentration to participate in issue of the invasion from Soviet to Afghanistan. She decided to take some actions as their measurements such as visited and contacted to Soviet for persuade them to stop the attack to Afghanistan.

56 Margaret Thatcher: The Autobiography, p 286

Thatcher also got bad experience to see terrorist attack on the Iranian Embassy at Prince’s Gate in Knightsbridge. The gunmen were threatening to blow up the embassy and hostages if their demands were not met. The terrorist were belonged to an organization called ‘the Group of the Martyr’ which demanded 91 prisoners should set free by the Iranian government, a special airplane provided to take them back and hostages out of Britain.

Thatcher was deliver the policy to take actions to solve the problem peacefully without killed the hostages but the terrorism must be defeated. Finally the terrorism activist could be stopped by arresting the gunmen. In addition, Thatcher was also raised an issue to The Middle East crisis specialized between Israel and Palestine relationship. The final decision was made that the right of all the states in the region including Israel to existence and security but also demanded justice for all people who implied recognition of the Palestinian’s right to self-determination. She was preventing the conflict among those states spreading down the gulf and involving the vulnerable oil-rich Gulf States which could give influence to Britain. In a short, earlier decisions made by Thatcher were influence British foreign policy in domestic and particularly economic and affairs.

II.1.5. Further Agenda

Before she was in power in the government, consensus system has been existed thus when she became to be Prime Minister, she had goal to break down the postwar consensus and revitalize Britain with a free market and entrepreneurial public philosophy.57 She wanted to replace old consensus since it seen as failure to create opportunity. Actually, she sought a revolution not only in economic factor but also in defense, domestic and social policy factor.

• Economic Policy: In this policy, she had willingness to reverse Britain’s economic decline, overthrow the postwar consensus, removed socialism, and change British people thought about

57 Genovese, Michael A, Women As National Leader, SAGE Publications, p 188

politics and economics. Therefore, she had some plans to be accomplished to reach the goal by giving limit to public spending, decreasing taxes, increasing entrepreneurial spirit, lowering inflation, decreasing government regulations, strengthening industries and busting the unions.58 Some advisers thought that she was had not strong power to reform trade union through industrial matters but she succeed to bring union under her control meanwhile no government did the same like Thatcher.59

In addition, Thatcher’s strategy to direct control of money supply as for controlling inflation was soon dismissed. While in public spending, Thatcher sought to control growth but was only marginally successful, means that the rate of growth was reduced but total spending was increase. She also concerned to rid the public sector of nationalized industries so that its assets from this privatization were sold such as British Petroleum, British Aerospace, British Steel, Jaguar and so on. In the area of strengthening union power, she had to face its decline and was caused to rise in unemployment rate of 5.4%. Some people argued that Thatcher’s goal of freeing the economy came at a high cost in human terms. If we look to the reality, it was also required a strong state to implement these goals, that free economy would come along with a strong, centralized, more intrusive state runs counter to traditional conservative goals.

• Military and Defense Policy Regarding to this, Thatcher had responsible to strengthen Britain military and defense policy since standing was quite low thus some foreign policies must be delivered such as increased defense

58Kavanaugh, D. (1990). Thatcherism and British Politics. Oxford University Press &Menford, P. (1989). Mrs Thatcher’s Economic Reform Program. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, quoted by Genovese, Michael A, Women As National Leader, SAGE Publications, p 189 59 Why Margaret Thatcher was both icon and outcast, retrieved from http://edition.cnn.com/2013/04/08/world/europe/margaret-thatcher-icon-outcast/ on November 19, 2013 at 11:23pm

spending, supported United States and North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), opposed Soviet Union and communism, and maintain the relationship between Britain and European Economic Community (EEC). On positive side, she was able to have strong ties with Ronald Reagan, the president of United States successfully. Besides that, Thatcher has been faced some problems in handling the transition to black rule in Rhodesia/Zimbabwe, for which she was given high marksand also transition of British control of Hongkong to China.60

• Domestic and Social Policy As mentioned earlier that Thatcher was not only focusing to reform economic policy but also domestic and social policy was acknowledged to be reformed too. Thatcher opposed increase of welfare and reduced its costs. However, the problem was not only economic but also political for their social welfare programs were extremely popular therefore Thatcher was able to make only marginal changes in funding and policy. In order to improve the education field, Thatcher established national curriculum and national assessment program, this policy made the program was even more devastating.

II.1.6. Leadership’s Style

Genovese mentioned in his book Women as National Leader that Thatcher was “a bold, innovative, ideological leader, a populist radical who relied on herself, a warrior image, self-confidence, determination and conviction”.61 Even though she was women but she was different type of British leader. Thatcher was successfully bent on breaking the consensus and delivered some policies toward the government. When she became Prime Minister, she was more ambitious, centralize, autocratic, confrontational and ideological than her predecessors.

60 Young, H. (1990). One of Us. London 61 Genovese, Michael A. Women as National Leader. International Educational and Professional Publisher, p 197

Based on Anthony King (1986) stated that “she was lead from the front. She stamps her foot, she raises her voice. For British Prime Minister, she is extraordinary assertive”.62 In addition, she really controlled her cabinet through fear and intimidation by controlling the agenda, force personality and conviction and using the cabinet committees for her purposes. In general, as Monarchy system when the cabinet decides, Parliament usually follows. The situation was heightened when Thatcher proofed being a good leader by the inability of Labour to mount any sustained challenges to Thatcher’s leadership.

Being able to dominate her party and ignore her opposition made Thatcher the preeminent force in government. During her term, she was so controversial and abrasive so that people are separated into supporting or opposing side. While, according to Ivor Crewe mentioned that she is both intensely admired and deeply loathed.63 Indeed, she changed Britain policies but she did not win the heart of people, people respect her buy do not like her. She added that Thatcher effort to transform British from dependency to enterprise culture has not succeeded in any deep sense, so there was no revolution in social values.

II.2. Foreign Policy Analysis

International relations study have always related in foreign policy analysis (FPA), since foreign policy will work of the relationship between state to state and actor to actor. As previous discussion, the author already mentioned foreign policy analysis to put in literature review, so that in this sub chapter, the author will continue to have further discussion about foreign policy analysis, in the context of the relationship between foreign policy and international relations; foreign policy and state level analysis; and foreign policy and individual level analysis. The purpose to discuss those issues is to make strengthen the idea about the analysis of leader’s role in decision making process in which the previous analysis only explains about theory of decision making process.

62 King, A. (1986). The British Prime Minister. London: Macmillan, p118 63 Crewe, I. (1991). Margaret Thatcher: As the British Saw Her

In addition, foreign policy analysis with international relations study are distinguish area but indeed characterized by a specific actor based upon the argument that all occurs between nations and even across nations of human decision makers’ acting. Thus, the basic theory of the decision making approach is an explanation of the foreign policy actions requires an understanding of process through political leaders who will implement the decision. FPA is indeed emphasized the state and the individual levels to be the key areas for understanding the nature of international system.64 Moreover, FPA’s focus is on the process of foreign policy formulation, the role of decision makers and the nature of foreign policy choice, in order to produce a stronger emphasis towards international relations. A successful foreign policy that can be implemented is measured by state’s ability to assert and promote interests with consistency within international system.

A discussion of foreign policy analysis will be more concentrated in three parts for analyze foreign policy in international relations study, state and idiosyncratic factors. The relationship between foreign policy analysis with international relations study tends to focus on how importance this analysis in international relations studies. While, foreign policy analysis should have connection with state, in concerning to the form of the government for making the decision and the way their deliver the decisions. The last is the relationship foreign policy with idiosyncratic factor where the individual’s role is very important. Furthermore, the study of foreign policy serves as bridge by analyzing the impact of both external and internal politics on states’ relations with each other.

II.2.1. Foreign Policy in International Relations Study

The first step is to define the meaning of “foreign” which means applying a policy from a state to the other state or even the world outside territorial borders,

64 Tayfur, M. Fatih. Main Approaches to the Study of Foreign Policy : A review. Department of International Relations, Middle East Technical University, Turkey

37 while “policy” defines as range of activities or subjects.65 Policies are typically the result of government activities as the actor. The purpose of examining foreign policy analysis with international relations study is because decisions which as an outcome from state will give impact to the circumstance to the relationship with other state or over the world. Therefore, foreign policy analysis can be the best conceptual connection to the empirical ground which all international relations theory is based. 66 Every theoretical study has a basic principle. Similarly, international relations as a field of study also has principleto identify all phenomena occur between states and across states have come from decision makers.

However, most contemporary theoretical stated that its principle lies in states or slightly to say that whatever decision making unit is involved, be it a state or human being orgroup so that it can be called as a unitary rational actor or therefore be made equivalent to state.67

II.2.2. State-level Analysis

By analyzing foreign policy making process, state-level analysis is also can be considered to support decision makers toward their decision. Since state- level analysis will emphasize to explain the characteristic of the states and the way to create foreign policy that can be implemented. Decision making process cannot be separated from the factor of the type of government in every state such as authoritarian and democratic government 68 Foreign policy in authoritarian government system will be centered to the leader of government such as president or prime minister, but it also supported by foreign minister, bureaucrats and interest group. On other hand, democratic government can receive many inputs from legislator, media, public opinion and opposition party.

65 Kaarbo, Juliet. Lantis, Jeffrey S. & Beasley, Ryan K. The Analysis of Foreign Policy in Comparative Perspective 66 Hudson, Valerie M, Foreign Policy Analysis: Actor Specific Theory and the Ground of International Relations, Brigham Young University 67 Hudson, Valerie M, Foreign Policy Analysis: Actor Specific Theory and the Ground of International Relations, Brigham Young University, p 2 68 Level of Analysis and Foreign Policy, Chapter 3, p 15

Even so, foreign policy cannot be made in vain because decision makers should consider the circumstance which occurred and the results after policy was issued. In crisis situation, foreign policy should be made because of decision makers are surprised by an event, feel threatened and only a short time to react.69 Moreover, every leader is able to examine political culture in state since foreign policy will represents a society’s widely held and traditional values. To make decisions is needed a head of government who have leadership capabilities such as administrative skills that relate to the way from a leader to organize and manage the immediate staff and government bureaucracy, legislative skills that required the ability to win the support in national legislature, public persuasion is to set a clear vision, convince the people for showing positive image to win public support, and the last is intellectual capacity that tells about level of intelligence and also ability to formulate policy.70

II.2.3. Idiosyncratic Factors Analysis

Political leaders selected policies that they believed to advance the national interest of the state and also gave attention to the internal processes driving foreign policy. In addition, decision making theories show that the choices made by key individual or actor (political leader) who have significant impact on foreign policies and the choices are not determined by pressure, social forces and institutional constraints.

Moreover, foreign policy process is actually connected to individual level analysis’s concept which means to understand how the leaders make decisions. Individual level analysis can be measured to influence the factors to make decisions based on human as species. 71 The factors are as cognitive factor, emotional factor, psychological factor, biological factor, and perception.

69 Level of Analysis and Foreign Policy, Chapter 3 70 Level of Analysis, p 19 71 Levels of Analysis and Foreign Policy, chapter 3, pdf, retrieved from http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/dl/free/0073403881/569832/Rourke12e_Sample_ch03.pd f on December 14, 2013 at 2:30am

Firstly, cognitive factor means that decision maker make decisions based on constraints rationality. This factor is separated into two sides such as external boundaries and internal boundaries. 72 External boundaries identify about information is obtained from outside in which erroneous, vague, misperception, and uncertainty. Meanwhile, internal boundaries are the result of lack of physical stamina and intellectual capacity to study complex is caused by human.

To strengthen cognitive factor, there are three strategies that should be done by decision makers such as decreasing the information that are not same with their thoughts, must have self-reliance to what decision she or he make or called as wishful thinking and decision makers are permitted to use heuristic devices (for instance: stereotype and analogies), the function of this is to make decisions make easily due to allowing us to ignore considerable information.

Secondly, emotional factor comes from internal feeling from decision makers such as sad, angry, even getting depressed. Thirdly, psychological factor tends to psychological characteristics from decision makers; usually their feelings and result of decisions are not similar and less than rational. Fourthly, biological factor is identifying the influence from animal instinct to human behavior and also emotional and physical are based on human socialization and intellect. There are two approaches such as ethology and gender which explain the influence of biological factor to decision makers. Ethology defines the comparison between animal and human behavior. Human behave is based partly on innate characteristic, similar with animal do. Gender approach also examines whether to give influence in political attitudes and actions. As we know before, there was an issue regarding gender gap between men and women, it will be questioned whether women representation to take role for foreign policy making would change global politics. The last, perceptions explain that commonly if decision makers view something through perceptual lenses to predict the result.

72 Levels of Analysis and Foreign Policy, chapter 3, pdf, retrieved from http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/dl/free/0073403881/569832/Rourke12e_Sample_ch03.pd f on December 14, 2013 at 2:30am

As the leader of state, Margaret Thatcher already showed her successful earlier decision making in domestic and even international. Based on explanation earlier, Thatcher persuaded to have negotiation rather than using a force. As we know, foreign policy making is important therefore the leader need much time to consider the consequences before decision is made.

Studying the characteristic of individual as decision maker is well known as idiosyncratic factor analysis. This is the study of humans as individuals and how each leader’s personal (idiosyncratic) characteristics help shape his other decisions. 73 Five of possible factors to consider are personality, physical and mental health; ego and ambition, political history and personal experiences; and perceptions and operational reality.74

Personality examines a leader’s characteristic that not only toward themselves but also other people, leader’s behavior, and attitude which relevant to concept as authority.75 While, Barber had another opinion that personality traits also could be measured into two concepts such as active-passive leader and positive-negative leader. 76 He explained that active leader is innovator than passive leader is reactor; positive personality has ego strong to adapt political environment but negative personality feels burdened and abused by political criticism.

Physical and mental health is important factors in decision making because decision makers are normally facing many serious problems, therefore they should care to their physical health to prevent getting serious illness. If decision makers careless, it will bring them to their weaknesses.The other problem

73 Levels of Analysis and Foreign Policy, chapter 3, pdf, p 10, retrieved from http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/dl/free/0073403881/569832/Rourke12e_Sample_ch03.pdf on December 14, 2013 at 2:30am 74 Levels of Analysis and Foreign Policy, chapter 3, pdf, retrieved from http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/dl/free/0073403881/569832/Rourke12e_Sample_ch03.pdf on December 14, 2013 at 2:30am 75 Dyson, Stephen Benedict & Preston, Thomas. 2006. Individual Characteristics of Political Leaders and the Use of Analogy in Foreign Policy Decision Making, International Society of Political Psychology 76 Barber, James David. 1985. The Presidential Character: Predicting Performance in the White House, retrieved from http://academic.regis.edu/jriley/414%20presidential_character.htm on February 2 2014 at 10:59pm

41 is decision makers suffer from psychological problems, therefore decision makers should strengthen their mental health to face many unexpected issues. Then, ego and ambition can influence policy, since it is naturally human feeling as their willingness to reach the goals. Decision makers tend to get affected by their political history and personal experiences, which identified by their family background, their organization in school, how their friends treat them, and the way to solve the problem. The last factor is perceptions and operational reality because they form an operational reality. Therefore, decision makers are usually to act and decide actions based on their perception whether it is accurate or not.

In addition, emotions factor is started to be recognized as an influence in decision making process. Emotions cannot be seen physically by our eyes but as human being we can feel that comes out from ourselves or feel other people’s emotions by assuming their mimic of face, volume of voice and attitude. Facing difficult issues make decision makers tend to have time pressure and stress condition.77 Generally, people can show the emotions that negative moods lead to pessimistic perceptions while positive moods to optimistic perceptions. Mostly, people have stereotype thought about emotions factor, even though emotions can help decision maker to approach the problems. Since they think that it will bring to bad action rather than peace action. Anger is can be an example from negative emotion but it will lead the decision makers to have optimism feeling by thinking of control and certainty which changes risk perception.78

In fact, emotions can affect decision making process which can be divided by two categories such as integral and incidental.79 Integral emotions are related to the decision at hand whether predictions of future emotions or emotions happen in the moment. Integral emotions also can be categorized to expected and immediate emotions. Decision makers may predict about how they will feel if they take certain actions thus it called as expected emotions, meanwhile

77Renshon, Jonathan & Lerner, Jennifer S. Decision-Making, the Role of Emotions in Foreign Policy. Harvard Kennedy School 78 Decision Making for Leader: A Synthesis of Idea from Harvard University Advanced Leadership Initiative Think Tank, p 9 79Renshon, Jonathan & Lerner, Jennifer S. Decision-Making, the Role of Emotions in Foreign Policy. Harvard Kennedy School

42 immediate emotion may affect to individual experiences while a set of options also may affect the decision making process.

On the other side, incidental emotions happen in critical and often unappreciated ways since it is unrelated to emotions at hand. For example, the emotion comes from person’s temperament which also influence decision makers to react to a situation in particular way and when emotions unrelated to a current decision from prior situation even though the emotions unrelated to the problem at hand. In a short, the idiosyncratic factor is indeed one supporting factor to decide some policies in a state. Decision making seems an easy thing but in reality the decision maker must consider the consequences that will occur later because it will give influence to the state, safety of citizens and relationship with other state.

II.3. Chapter Summary

Under Margaret Thatcher’s power, she was successfully transformed United Kingdom’s image especially for economic policy. She was able to prove that she could bring United Kingdom to be better condition after general election in 1979. During her period, she was well known as the Iron Lady because her influence as the leader was quite strong meanwhile few women were interested to involve in government institution.

Her power was indeed influenced by internal factor from herself as human being. When she considered Conservative Party almost fell down during crisis leadership, she was confident to declare that she was ready to be the next leader of Conservative Party. Basically, she had not political background from her family, since her father was grocery. The relationship between her father and Thatcher were very close, they almost spent the time together for discussing British politics, history and science. Therefore, she admitted that her life got influence from her father’s thoughts.

Foreign Policy is indeed has connection with international relations study, state level analysis and individual level analysis. Studying about international relations is discuss about the relationship between one state to another state, it can

43 be focused on how they communicate and the reason they have relationship. One of the answer is because one state can deliver foreign policy toward another state.

Her political characteristics are shaped by her personal characteristics as a leader. Because Prime Minister has main role in government, she should being as a leader and also decision maker who deliver some foreign policies that can make any further relationship between one state and other state. Foreign policy is the behavior of state to other states in order to shape the relationships which can create foreign policies. Personality, physical and mental health, ego and ambition, political history and personal experience, perceptions are become factors that can influence to individual factor as a leader.

CHAPTER III

FALKLAND WAR IN 1982

III.1. The Location of Falkland Islands

This chapter contains the historical background of the Falkland Islands and presents the historical context for Argentina and Britain’s claim over the Islands as well as the key historical turning points until the 1960s. The history of Falkland Islands will be analyzed based on some data collected by author. It will lead to explain information on the location of Falkland Islands, the overview of history of Falkland war, and analyze the perspective from Britain’s claim to the Islands along the response of Argentina’s claim toward this conflict.

Picture 3. 1 Map of Falkland Islands

Retrieved from http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/samerica/fksa.gif on November 6,2013

The Falkland Islands are located in the Southern Atlantic Ocean about 300 miles (480 km) east of South America and 700 miles (1,100 km) north of

Antarctica.80 The two main islands are separated into East and West Falkland and the rest of the archipelago is made up of around 200 small islands. The total of this location is 12,173 sq km.81

III.2. Falkland’s History

This conflict was actually happened before Thatcher elected to be prime minister. But during her term, the conflict became wider through the debate over the right of the islands. Both states emphasized to be the first discover by their predecessor.This conflict unrestrained since both states has two different versions of history.

When British declared the whole of the Islands belong to them, they unaware ofthe French had been discovered on the eastern Islands. British thought the Islands to be very valuable as they had a strategically location in the South Atlantic from where British could control shipping around Cape Horn and establish a British naval base. A year passed and in 1766, the British discovered the French settlement and they ordered the French to apply for a British permission to settle on the Islands.

It is unclear if the French did this as the French settlement was transferred to Spain in 1767 due to heavy Spanish protests and Spanish settlements followed on the eastern Islands.Spain was aware of the British settlement but did not know where it was located and thus, they used 3 years searching for it. When Spain uncovered the British colony, Britain was forced to leave the Islands under heavy Spanish threat. It has to be mentioned that the British had known the location of the Spanish colony from its beginning but did nothing to force them away. However, Spain saw differently on the matter. This affair almost triggered a war among Britain, Spain and France on profoundly insulted that another European

80 Falkland Islands location retrieved frohttp://geography.about.com/od/unitedkingdommaps/a/falklandislands.htm , on September 27, 2013 at 8:51pm 81 Falkland Islands https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/fk.html , retrieved on October 24, 2013 at 12:04am

46 power would fight against a British garrison in peacetime. However, war was never declared as France withdrew in the eleventh hour and in 1771, the two countries reached an agreement and status quo was recommenced. The British settlement was happened again to establish on West Falkland.82 The agreement states that both Spanish and British rights are retained as prior to the episode the year before. However, the Islands belong to Spanish power and being controlled. 83 It is argued that Spain had successfully ensured respect and sovereignty over the Islands since they had succeeded in driving out the French in 1767 and the British in 1770.84

Before being claimed by Britain or Argentina, many years ago there was existence from Spain’s desire to bulit colonial empire by making their settlements widely and claiming control to the territory, but Spain had mandate to strengthen the trade relationship with other state and also maritime power, unfortunately Spain was not in maritime powerby the eighteenth century, while Britain was increase their maritime power, then Britain forced to trade relationship with Spain settlements in the New World, but Spain restricted. Some problems between Spain and Britain were finally settled in the Peace of Utrecht of 171385 which set out a regime central to European imperial and colonial policies.86 According to Goebel's view, Utrecht was fundamental to the status of the FalklandIslands in international law.87

According to British argument mentioned that the first people to arrive on the islands were people who joined in Elizabethan navigators in 1690. Actually, these men have not settled the islands; they only found the islands before France established the first settlement in 1765. French Foreign Minister, sought to rebuild the colonial systemover islands. Hence, he allowed a young officer, Bougainville, to undertake an expedition to the Falklands and established a colony on East

82 Beck, Peter (1988). The Falkland Islands as an International Problem. London:Routledge, p 64 83Engelhardt, Andrej. (2006). Falklands (Malvinas) Frederikvaerk: Forlaget Agenda, p 42-43 84 Beck, Peter (1988). The Falkland Islands as an International Problem. London:Routledge, p 64 85Reisman, W Michael. The Struggle for the Falklands, in J. Goebel, supra note 6, p 164-167 86Reisman, W Michael. The Struggle for the Falklands, p 8 87Reisman, W Michael. The Struggle for the Falklands, p 8

Falkland in 1764. 88 Because Spain felt threatened that French can control all islands, they were establishing Spanish governor under the authority of the Captain-General of Buenos Aires. Meanwhile, the British had an idea to have an expedition to the Falklands to secure a base for future operations; the British circled the islandsin 1765. Lord Egmont acknowledged that securing the island was important for a variety of imperial programs inthe South Atlantic and the Pacific. He rejected Spanish claims to theFalklands based on treaty.89

Furthermore, as for the awkward prior presence of the French, Egmont insisted that England had discovered the islands before France had seen them.This contingent suspension of the alliance enormously strengthened England's hand, for Spain alone could not effectively conduct a war against England. In the hand of Spain’s power, Spain adapted the Island’s name from French became Las Malvinas and took settlement seriously for sixty years. Indeed, Spanish has been claimed sovereignty over the Islands but at that time Spanish also took over Argentina’s government but in 1816 Argentina succeed to get their independence from Spain, hence Argentina was secure enough to establish its control over the Falklands.

The Argentina people appointed a governor three years later and established a colony in 1826.90 In 1829, the new governor of the Falklands, Louis Vernet, tried to protect the water territory by excluding foreign fishing vessels surrounding the Falklands. In July, 1831, he found and seized three American ships, after warning one of them, and brought them into port. The United States did not admit that United States entered Argentina’s territory and then protested the arrest of the vessels in a series of increasingly rancorous exchanges. By coincidence, the warship U.S.S. Lexington sailed into the Buenos Aires harbor at that moment. The U.S. presented its version of the facts to the captain of the Lexington, who stated that he considered it his duty to go to the Falklands and protect American citizens.

88J Goebel, supra note 6, p 226 89Reisman, W Michael, The Struggle for Falklands, p 9 90J. Goebel, supra note 6, at 434-36.

Within three months, two British warships arrived at the Falklands with orders to expel the Argentina people. In response to Argentine protests, Lord Palmerston replied that Britain had unequivocally maintained sovereignty over the island in discussions with Spain in 1770 and 1771. Palmerston argued that the 1771 agreement had confirmed Britain's also have rights to the Falklands and, thus, Argentina could not claim title to the islands based on a right derived from Spain.

The United States government asked a Spanish historian to investigate the ownership of the Falklands, and to determine whether the British had abjured their rights to the Falklands in The historian answered that the Falklands had been part of the independence of Buenos Aires from Spain, but that had not seen evidence of a secret agreement abjuring British rights.

However, Falklands are consisted of two islands such as western and eastern part which Spanish only controlled the western part. On the other side, British started to take settlement over the eastern. Although Argentina has just admitted the Islands, but British never abandoned their claim of ownership over the islands. Argentina government had to face problem with United States since Argentina seized the United States ship from the Island and made American angered and expelled people there. Therefore, British took advantage to occupy the western part.

In the early days of the settlement, British established an administration with an appointed British Governor as head of territory. In 1985, the Islands got a constitution, which entailed locally elected Legislative Council with the power to rule the Islands.91 The Legislative Council has eight elected members with the power to make laws for the Islands, and they are concerned with administrating the Islands, general development, social services and education with the exception of defence and security. Additionally, the Islanders were granted full British

91 Quoted in Reference Service, Central Office of Information (1993) p 15-16

49 citizenship through the British Nationality Act 1983 also known as the Falkland Islands Act.92 Argentina continued to claim the Islands including South Georgia Island which is about 1,200km southeast of Falkland, first occupied by British in 1909. Argentina proposed some protest regarding Britain’s claimed to Falkland to United Nations. United Nations as key player in international organization which expected could prevent the conflict, tried to involve for having negotiations between both states, but there was no resolution to prevent the conflict.93

Although, it was seemed that the role from United Nations not very obvious and even failed to have final resolution, but United Nations permitted United Nations Security Council to involve and take decision for passing Resolution 502.94 Many believed the reason was the existence of oil for Argentina invasion and possibly also for Britain’s willingness to take over. Finally, the Falkland could serve as an important prospect for oil was believed to be promising. It seemed that oil resources become territorial dispute which otherwise would have been unimportant.

Even though the decision to control the islands was remained belong to British, the misperceptions to claim about first discover in the islands still existed. On Argentina’s side, Argentina never imagined that Britain would fight back to seize the islands even though they have more distance rather than Argentina.That imagination made Argentina had biggest failure to measure Britain’s military. On the other side, Britain had assumed that Argentina would never want to have effective mediation. The most important way in which the British misunderstood the Argentines was with regard to the junta’s position in its own country.

92 Quoted in British Government (1983) British Nationality (Falkland Islands) Act 1983 Chapter 6 93 Malvinas: The Argentine Perspective of the Falkland Conflict, A Monograph by MAJ Leonardo ArcadioZarza Argentine Army,School of Advanced Military Studies UnitedStates Army Command and General Staff College Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, took this source on September 11, 2013 at 5:49pm 94 Mauro, Joseph. The Falkland Islands War: Diplomatic Failure in April 1982. Wake Forest University

III.3. Struggle for Natural Resources

One of the most prominent geopolitical reasons for the conflict is the oil and gas in the area surrounding the Islands. The existence of oil and gas has long been an objective of debate as it is believed that the region is potentially rich in oil and gas because people convinced that the oil reserves discovered could be worth tens of billions of dollars.95 If the oil can be exploited, British believe that the Islands have the right to develop the natural resources for their own economic benefit. It is in their right through their self-determination. However, Argentina still considered the Falklands and its surrounding sea became Argentine territory part, thus they argued that for some people who explore the area for oil and gas without any agreement with Argentina, means they are drilling illegally.96

In accordance with the UN’s convention of the law of the sea, it is the Falkland Islands Government (FIG) and not the UK that regulates the hydrocarbon activities on the Falkland Continental Shelf. Thus, it is the Islands who will benefit from the potentially vast economical gain that these activities can bring. However, the UK will also benefit from the potential oil and gas in the South Atlantic as the FIG has already announced that they will use the potential economic profit to pay the UK for protection.

In reaction to the oil drillings, the Argentine Government sent letters of warning to international banks and companies involved in the hydrocarbon activities in the Falklands maritime area. The warning letters threatened the involved actors with legal action. As a counter-reaction, the UK has sent letters of support to the banks and companies involved expressing their skepticism concerning the legal basis for Argentina’s warning and the UK’s support for the hydrocarbon activities in the area. The prospect of oil and gas exploitation has long been debated between the two nations. In 1976, a report recommended exploring and developing the natural resources in the Falklands, which created massive protests from Argentina. The reaction was similar when the FIG gave

95Merolla, Daniel. Britain, Argentina mark the Falkland war 30th Anniversary 96Mercopress. Argentina sends warning letters to banks supporting Falklands’ oil industry

51 companies permission to search for oil in 2010, which resulted in a further escalation of tensions between the UK and Argentina. Argentine do not believe that exploitation should begin before the sovereignty issue is resolved. However, the UK has repeatedly refused Argentina’s request for negotiations about sovereignty stating that it is the Islanders’ decision.

III.4. Root Causes of War: Mutual Misunderstanding

However, the purpose of this sub chapter is to identify the basic reason why each state views the event differently, since each side always argue by viewing the history based on their perspective. On April 2 1982, Argentine invaded the Falkland Islands and tried to win the right over Britain’s claim. Nonetheless, Britain addressed Argentina’s invasion to not use military force directly but Britain and Argentina tried to resolve the conflict diplomatically.97

Because of seeing the conflict could not meet any agreement, President United States of America, Ronald Reagan, tried to help both states by permitting Secretary of State, Alexander Haig, served as mediator, shuttling multiple times between London and Buenos Aires. Haig and his team tried to develop a document to which both the Argentine military junta, led by President Leopoldo Galtieri and British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher could agree. Despite long hours in negotiations and desire of both sides to avoid war, agreement was never been reached. It was caused diplomacy in the Falkland Islands failed for reasons such as the negotiations among the states were flawed, both in Haig’s uneasy position as mediator and the junta’s unreliable decision-making process.98

In addition, each side misunderstood the other, Argentines never believed the British would counterattack and British struggled to believe that Argentina wanted a peaceful solution. In a fact, the most important thing to make unsuccessful result was neither side was able to compromise enough to prevent

97 Mauro, Joseph: The Falkland Islands War: Diplomatic Failure in April 1982. Wake Forest University 98Mauro, Joseph: The Falkland Islands War: Diplomatic Failure in April 1982. Wake Forest University, p 5

52 war. In previous sentences, the author has mentioned the possibility of oil in the Falklands. Oil had become greater concern following the oil crises of 1973 and 1980-81. Furthermore, Argentina struggle to help pay off its increasing foreign debt.

Like in previous statement, oil was the reason for the Argentina invasion, and possibly also for Britain’s unwillingness to compromise. The Argentines had successfully extracted carbon fuels in the San Jorge Basin, thus making the whole area appear promising. Exxon and Arco, as well as other leading international corporations, had expressed interest in doing exploratory work in the area. Finally, the Falklands could serve as an important stepping stone to Antarctic bases, where prospects for oil were believed to be promising.

The United States Department of Energy did a study which concluded that areas of drillable oil ended half way between the Argentina coast and the islands. 99 Since the Argentines already controlled their half of the water, this would not have given them reason to invade. Oil could not have been a reason for Argentina to invade because Argentina was already self-sufficient in oil and was occupied at the time with an expensive project to convert to nuclear power.

In fact, Argentina misunderstood the United States’ position as much as Great Britain’s. According to Haig, Argentina had always believed the United States would be willing to trade acceptance of the invasion for Argentina’s help in pressuring the new socialist Nicaraguan government, the Sandinistas.100 Argentina had misperception if they thought that Britain would not respond their invasion very soon. It is caused by Britain had continued to lose parts of its empire throughout the twentieth century; therefore Argentina assumed that Britain was too weak to fight. Argentina considered the Falklands to be just another example

99 Mauro, Joseph: The Falkland Islands War: Diplomatic Failure in April 1982. Wake Forest University, p 8

100 Mauro, Joseph: The Falkland Islands War: Diplomatic Failure in April 1982. Wake Forest University, p 11

53 of a British colony that the Royal Navy could no longer defend and which the British considered not worth their effort.101

Furthermore, there are a number of possible reasons for Argentina’s misunderstanding of its foe. First, the British government had for years been open to the idea of maintaining the islands back to Argentina, and Britain had made this openness known to the Argentine government. In Argentine understood the British desire to shed the burdensome colony, they were less convinced of Thatcher’s warnings about the use of force to defend the islands.

Another explanation of why the Argentines miscalculated British resolve is that, at least as late as April 14, they had reason to believe that Britain was not unified enough to mount a serious counterattack. Britain also misunderstood the Argentine position, which prevented it from negotiating more effectively. Many in Britain overestimated Argentina’s military capabilities, which made them more fearful than they should have been, thus making Argentina too confident. The most important way from British misunderstood the Argentines were with regard to the junta’s position in its own country. On April 5, British Defense Secretary John Nott stated that a good British strategy would be to sink Argentine ships until public opinion in Argentina turned against the ruling junta.102 What Nott failed to understand was that the Argentine people already did not support their own government because of the military dictatorship.

III.5. British’s argument of Falkland War

The reason Great Britain had willingness to get Falkland Islands from Argentina since they believed Falkland to be their owned before 1833 and they made people were living there for more than 150 years more prosperous. The strategy of Great Britain was to give self determination to Falkland people thus Britain army thought no need to have dialogue about the issue of sovereignty with

101 Mauro, Joseph: The Falkland Islands War: Diplomatic Failure in April 1982. Wake Forest University, p 13 102Mauro, Joseph: The Falkland Islands War: Diplomatic Failure in April 1982. Wake Forest University, p 13

Argentina.103 Falkland Islands were really important due to natural resources like oil in South Atlantic.

According to British argument, Falklands always become their territory and claimed from 1833, which also assumed that Argentina was unsuccessfully tried to exercise sovereignty on several occasions. One hundred and forty nine years after the 1833 British occupation, Argentina invaded the territorial in 1982. Edmund Yorke argues in his chapter about the Argentine invasion to the crisis in 1982. Commonwealth Secretary-General Sir Shridath Ramphal concluded: “Argentina did not invade the Falklands to liberate the people of the Islands from the British rule, but to impose Argentine rule over them against their will.”104

III.5.1. Sovereignty

As mentioned earlier, British had declared that the first recorded landings occurred on the Falklands in 1690 by Captain John Strong who named the islands after Viscount Falkland. Britain’s view of the conflict is based on the invasion by Argentina since during the presence of Britain, the islander’s people wanted to be British, hence the problem of sovereignty has been solved. Britain argued that war of 1982 was Argentina’s fault which Argentina compelled to claim the Islands but never maintain the condition even the people. During the presence of British, they have already made great efforts to maintain the Islands and exercised sovereignty without interruptions since 1833. Therefore, the style of life of the local population in the islands is one of the wealthiest and also have its’ own Constitution. However, the conflict in Falkland Islands was solved in June 1982 by a war. Britain was already prepared to send their military force and finally got victory from sovereignty dispute with Argentina.

103Malvinas: The Argentine Perspective of the Falkland Conflict, A Monograph by MAJ Leonardo ArcadioZarza Argentine Army,School of Advanced Military Studies UnitedStates Army Command and General Staff College Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, page 27, took this source on September 11, 2013 at 5:49pm 104ShridatRamphal, (1982). NotBritain’s Cause Alone: Address to the Commonwealth Press Union. London: Commonwealth Secretariat Library, Marlborough House

III.5.2. Diplomacy

Great Britain defends its diplomatic position about rights and legitimacy over the islands with an argument based on self-determination and effective occupation so that people wanted to be British. Self-determination has now been existed as a fundamental of contemporary law and politics bythe United Nations and the International Court. Moreover, self-determination refers, most widely people have desire to build a political community to further their interests. The "right" of self-determination in international law refers to the policies and procedures of the world community which are meant to encourage and realize those demands.105

On the other hand, Argentina did not exercise effective sovereignty over the Falklands and never change the condition. British argued have tried to call Argentina for having negotiation without ceasefire, even British called mediator to assist for creating resolution in Falkland Islands. The efforts from Great Britain to maintain and fund the survival of the small population in the islands since 1833, is not a minor thing. The British Crown issued a Constitution for the Falkland so that in 2009 the Islands became part of the “European Union Overseas Territories” ending in the unilateral British explorations that started in February 2010.

III.6. Argentina’s argument of Falkland War

This sub chapter will analyze Argentina’s argument in handling Falkland War. From analysis of the British perspective, the main factors that differ from the Argentine view were: sovereignty, diplomacy, and colonialism.

III.6.1. Sovereignty

For Argentina, the transition from Spanish colony to Argentina due to a decline from Spanish power has become a great opportunity to take over the islands.On the other hand, the vacuum created by Spanish because of the lack of

105Reisman, W. Michael, The Struggle for the Falklands, p 19 in J. Goebel, supra note 6

56 strategic was seen also an opportunity by Britain who looked to secure the undefended Spanish possessions for their empire. In the past time, Britain was indeed trying to colonize Argentina but their efforts to conquer and colonize Argentina were unsuccessful. British decision to use their veto power as a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council, against Argentina made the situation more complex. Additionally, Argentina had to consider the possibility of the use of nuclear weapons by Britain, if it was unable to regain the islands through conventional means.106

Another reason why Argentina continues to claim the Islands is because Malvinas, Georgias and South Sandwich were considered a disputed area by United Nations Resolution 2065, which gave them a particular status. 107 The resolution 2065 has titled ‘Question of the Falkland Island (Las Malvinas)’ which mentioned that “invites the Governments of Argentina and the United Kingdom to proceed without delay with the negotiations [...] bearing in mind [...] the interests of the population of the Falkland Islands”but both states ignored this suggestion. Later, UN was give another advice to have mediation such as Resolution 3160 (XXVIII) and 31/4, which acknowledged the need to “concede due attention to the interests of the inhabitants of the islands”108

Argentina always claimed that the self-determination system by British did not apply in Falkland Islands because the population is not native but inserted from other places. In this case, both actors are considered to recognize that the Falkland Islands for British or Argentine since it would shape in other ways the attitudes and behaviors in future negotiations between Argentina and Great Britain. Both Argentina and Great Britain have failed to act in accordance with United Nations resolutions.

106 Rob Evans and Leigh David, “Falklands Warships Carried Nuclear Weapons, Ministry of Defense admits.” http:// www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2003/dec06/military.freedomofinformation 107 The Argentine Perspective of the Falkland Conflict, A Monograph by MAJ Leonardo ArcadioZarza p 32, quoted in United Nations Resolution 2065 of 1965 that requested the two countries to negotiate the issue of sovereignty 108Bellot, Andrea Roxana, The Malvinas/Falkland War (1982): Pacific Solution for an Atlantic Conflict, (quoted in Cardoso et al. 1983: 33)

III.6.2. Diplomacy

The conflict in 1982 had been diplomatic misunderstandings and overreactions from both, the Argentine and British governments. The key factor to negotiate from the Argentine perspective is the lack of effective communications from both sides and the reluctance of Great Britain to enter into meaningful dialogue over sovereignty.109 The misunderstandings that caused the war over the Malvinas continued even during the conflict.

The British focuses on military victory rather than war termination criteria. It does not address the Argentine perception that this war did not solve anything. Argentina went to war unprepared therefore they lack of concern to get the Islands. Although the military strategy failed, the claim was and remains legitimate in the Argentine and South American perception.

The role of United Nations is undoubtedly the most important creation to a key factor in developing any solution to the Malvinas issue. The United Nations must have the power to enforce such a dialogue. The ability of one side to unilaterally refuse to engage due to its power as a permanent member of the Security Council is flawed. If United Nations continues to be unable to affect an issue such as the Malvinas, it will continue to lose respect and legitimacy throughout the world.

III.7. Road to War

The conflict over the Falkland Islands was part of a larger struggle for economic control of the western. The Argentine claim was ended by treaty in 1850 and for 34 years Argentina was silent over the Falklands, during which time several Argentine leaders stated that Argentina had no dispute with Britain. By 1946 the Falklands had claim become official Argentine policy under President Peron. At the same time, Britain registered the Falkland Islands with the United Nations as a non-self-governing territory since both states claimed Falkland,

109 The Argentine Perspective of the Falkland Conflict, A Monograph by MAJ Leonardo ArcadioZarza p 34

South Georgia and South Sandwich Island (part of Falkland Islands) to be their territory.

In 1965, the General Assembly recommended that the issues between Argentina and the United Kingdom should be negotiated. In 1969, the General Assembly received the reports of progress in the negotiations between Argentina and Great Britain and urged the parties to reach solution of the dispute. In December 1971, both governments issued a joint statement establishing new patterns of cooperation between the Falklands and Argentina.

This agreement, which may have had a definitive solution, was the high point of the negotiations. Resolution 2065 is invited Britain and Argentina to negotiate over the future of the Falklands, in accordance with the UN Charter, but Resolution 2065 showed that no result for the negotiations, and still questionable either a decision refers the case to the International Court of Justice, or Argentina’s decision to drop its claim, or a decision to give the islands independence, or can be owned by Britain under UN Resolution 1541 (XV) of 15 December 1960.110

Britain argued for three points such as extremely strong historical claim, Falkland Islanders clearly wished to be British and continuity of administration by Britain for almost 180 years. Argentina had no political claim since the islanders are not clamoring to join Argentina. The fact that Argentina now possesses the coast opposite the Falklands is irrelevant.

But in 1976, the situation changed substantially as a result of unsuccessful negotiations over oil exploration. The sixth round of negotiations between Argentina and Great Britain took place at United Nations headquarters in New York. The meeting attempted to find a final resolution to the Malvinas dispute, but negotiations failed to make any progress whatsoever. On April 1, 1982, the Argentina’s representative to the United Nations presented a note in the Security Council where it referenced the British reluctance to negotiate sovereignty issues

110 Retrieved from http://www.falklandshistory.org/ on February 17 2014 at 10:54am

59 associated with the disputed islands and the threat by the British to use military force to expel the Argentine workers.111

In next year 1977, the relations among two states unstable, Great Britain dispatched a nuclear submarine and supporting units to the South Atlantic, facing what Great Britain called Argentine military escalation of the dispute. The misunderstandings and unresolved sovereignty issue created an environment resulting in the lack of international trust between Argentina and Great Britain by the end of 1980, setting the conditions for war. Finally, in 1979, the two states announced that they improved their bilateral relations level.

In late 1980, Nicholas Ridley, the Minister of State of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, visited the Falklands and presented the Legislative Council with three major options: a twenty-five-year freeze on the dispute; a lease-back arrangement in which British would have recognized Argentina’s claim but the argentine would have agreed to allow the British to administer the islands for fixed of years and last, a joint Argentine-British administration.112 In January 1981, the Legislative Council indicated a preference for freezing the dispute. Argentina rejected that option and offered to make the sovereignty of Falkland’s democratic traditions relinquished.

In 1982, the condition became worst since Argentina preferred to have monthly meeting rather than annual toward Falkland issue. On February 26th, the Argentine insisted to discuss the proposal about their sovereignty, two days later Argentina announced that they would end the negotiations if there was no result of settlement. On April 2 1982, Argentina invaded the island.

The first contact between Argentine and British military forces occurred on April 21, 1982, between an Argentine Boeing 707 conducting a surveillance mission and the British Task Force. Argentina’s main effort during the conflict was achieve a favorable diplomatic solution. This was another big Argentinean

111 Argentine Army, InformeOficial del EjercitoArgentinoTomo I -Conflicto Malvinas (Buenos Aires-Argentina: Estado Mayor General del EjercitoArgentino 1983), 24 112Reisman, W. Michael, The Struggle for the Falklands p 25, in J. Goebel, supra note 6

60 error. Once at war, military leaders should fight like soldiers, not like diplomats. On June 4 1982, Great Britain vetoed a United Nations Security Council motion calling for ceasefire.113 It was evident that Great Britain had prioritized war over diplomacy.

The facts showed that the War in 1982 was a product of misunderstandings to solve the conflict. The real issue is about natural resources control and exploitations. In the 1990 decade relations between Argentina and Great Britain improved to sign an Agreement of Joint Cooperation Declaration on Off Shore Oil and Gas Exploration around the Malvinas Area.

On June 14th 1982, Argentine Governor and commander of the Argentine Forces General Mario Menendez agreed to a ceasefire with British commander General Jeremy Moore. The documents signed by British and Argentine commanders which identified that combat operations were clear that the 114 capitulation was “not unconditional surrender.” British forces won the brief war, after there was white flag flying over Port Stanley from Argentina. Argentina had 74 days of occupation on June 14 which killed 252 British, 3 Islanders and 649 Argentines.115 Finally, Britain affirmed the issue was closed, whereas Argentina might thought that the issue was not over yet despite the downfall of Argentina Junta. III.8. Chapter Summary

Falkland War happened in 1982 after some failed negotiations and misunderstanding between United Kingdom and Argentina. Both states were struggle for two reasons such as sovereignty and siplomacy over the islands. Their argument was strong hence this war was indeed affected to people and both states.

113Bruce Watson, and Dunn Peter. (1984).Military lessons of the Falkland Island War, Views from the United States. Arms and Armor Press, London-England, p161. 114 Argentine Army. InformeOficial del EjercitoArgentinoTomo II -Conflicto Malvinas (Buenos Aires-Argentina: Estado Mayor General del EjercitoArgentino 1983): Annex 79 115 Falkland War, a turning point for Margaret Thatcher’s image and political fortunes, http://en.mercopress.com/2013/04/08/falklands-war-a-turning-point-for-margaret-thatcher-s- image-and-political-fortunes , retrieved on November 19, 2013 at 11:45pm

CHAPTER IV

The Influence of Margaret Thatcher’s Idiosyncratic

Factors: The Victory for United Kingdom in 1982

Falkland war has left a memory that cannot be forgotten caused by very strong perspective of Argentina as well United Kingdom to have the islands. The potential of natural resource was become great opportunity for whose succeeded have it because it is predicted would be a benefit. Nothing bad happened when British ruled the island but suddenly the invasion from Argentina landed to the islands. Thatcher was done some reactions for making Argentina left the islands. Some discussions have been conducted to reach final resolution but nothing very strong to prevent the war.

The flow of this research is to separate for explain about the short biography of Margaret Thatcher as well as short history about Falkland war therefore this chapter will more concern on analyzing the role of Margaret Thatcher to face the war in strengthening the idiosyncratic factors.

IV.1. United Kingdom Respondto Argentina’s Invasion in Falkland Islands

In the earlier years after she elected to be prime minister, she represented strong government which successfully did some changes. It is affirmed that Falkland Islands had been one of British’s concerns during British occupation therefore, Thatcher stated the reason to sustain the Falkland Islands where has the distance for eight thousand miles away, was not merely territory matter but moreto defend the honor as nation. Compared with Argentina, Britain was very effective and peaceful to take the islanders’ attention by applying self- determination system as the principle of international law attached in the UN

Charter, where no country is able to do it.116Although the control of the islands was handed by Britain, the islanders wereallowed to establish “UK Falkland Islands Committee” in order to protect the interest of islanders.117 On the other side, Argentina has always restated its claim over the island regarding their belief of geography, history and international law, meanwhile Britain argued that Argentina had no allegiance and would place islanders into dictatorship authority.118

In December 1981, there was change of people in Argentina’s government which General Leopoldo Galtieri elected to be president.119 He realized to take over Falkland Islands as his known belong to Argentina very soon. Therefore, he was directly to deliver a command for the Argentina troops landed in South Georgia on March 20, 1982. In response to that, on the order of Thatcher, HMS Endurance dispatched toexpel the troops.

Moreover, she also focused to strengthen the cooperation betweenThe Foreign Office with Ministry of Defense to discuss the further actions, either diplomatic wayor military force. The cooperation was performed very fast and found the main purpose was to know British reaction for having continued negotiations to transfer sovereignty of islands to Argentina.120 A few days later, John Nott asked Thatcher to have immediate meeting since Argentina fleet already at sea. The possibility of Argentina would invade Falkland islands was faster than Thatcher imagined. Without rejecting the information from John, Thatcher chose to send more troops as early action to protect the islands and people.

116 Supporting the Falkland Islanders’ right to self-determination, retrieved from www.gov.uk/government/policies/supporting-the-falkland-islanders-right-to-self-determination on December29 2013 at 7:59pm 117 Mauro, Joseph. The Falkland Islands War:Diplomatic Failure in April 1982. Wake Forest University 118Coffey, Luke ; Bromund, Theodore Ph.D ; Gardiner, Nile Ph,D , The United States Should Recognize British Sovereignty Over the Falkland Islands, retrieved from http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2013/03/the-united-states-should-recognize-british- sovereignty-over-the-falkland-islands on November 21 2013 at 10:28pm 119 Margaret Thatcher: The Autobiography, p 341 120 McClure, Jason. The Falklands War: Causes and Lessons. 2004

After receiving the confirmation from Governor of Falkland, Rex Hunt, whomade sure that the invasion had begun, Thatcher was considerof several possibilities which made Britain danger situation such as UN Security Council was notsupport Britain, alleviated the trustfrom the European Community member countries or United States, and the involvement from the Soviets to support Argentina which made United States felt uncomfortable.121

Therefore, she prepared new strategies to overcome the difficulties which divided forshort term and long term strategy.122 In short term, she had to convince UN Security Council for blaming Argentina for having sudden invasion in islands but Britain has not ever threatened in any Argentina government activity. Meanwhile, she had to strengthen the support from the allies, such as the United States, European Community member countries, Commonwealth and other important western nations in long term strategy.

United Nations through Secretary General thus involved to the field of bilateral diplomacy by acceptance of Council Resolution (UNSCR) 502 which called both states to refrain threat or military force in islands, however this resolution consist of three important points, such as demands an immediate cessation of hostilities, demands an immediate withdrawal of all Argentine forces from the Falkland Islands, and calls on the governments of Argentina and United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland to seek a diplomatic a diplomatic solution to their differences and to respectfully the purposesand principles of the Charter of the United Nations.123Another interesting phenomenon is Britain had successfully got attention from France and Jordan forgetting favor of Britain’s position and avoid got a veto from the Soviet Union.

At the time of struggling to get votes from another state to defend the islands, The House argued that shefailed and unprepared to defend the islands, Argentina troops would not invade if Britain supposed given resolution to resolve

121 Margaret Thatcher, The Autobiography, p 346 122 Margaret Thatcher, The Autobiography, p 346 123 Resolution 502, Falkland Islands, retrieved from http://unscr.com/en/resolutions/502 on December 30 2013 at 3:22pm

64 the problem.In responding the critique, Thatcher had own perspective to perceive Argentina’s invasion effectively, because she predicted that Argentina would not expel with the use of diplomacy way but indeed Argentina wanted to have a war.124

There has been less cooperation since Peter Carrington as Foreign Secretary and also John Nott as Secretary of States wanted to resign from the cabinet. It was become another problem that faced by Thatcher, though she convinced both of them to remain in the government, but Peter still wanted to be out from Cabinet. She had tremendous confidence to Peter, and his loss seemed a devastating moment for Britain. However, John cancelled his desire to resign from government and understood thatArgentina troops would seek possibility to enter the island easily if the cabinet in chaos. Therefore, Thatcherhad to find a new Foreign Secretary andthe decision was addressed to Francis Pym.125

IV.2. Key Steps of MargaretThatcher’s Decisions during the Invasion

Argentina invaded the islands on April 2, 1982. It was not make Thatcher was surprised because she already predicted Argentina still wanted to take over the islands. Thatcher was powerful in responding Argentina’s desire to seize the islands since it has already obvious that Falkland people remained to be British who wished for protection. The lack of assistance from United Nations also made the problem being complicated. From this overview, it is clear that the role of prime minister is needed to make foreign decisions due to protection of nation and citizenship. Furthermore, there were three key steps done by Thatcher during Argentina invasion, such as:

124 Margaret Thatcher: The Autobiography, p 347 125 Margaret Thatcher: The Autobiography, p 348

Picture 4. 1 Diagram of Margaret Thatcher’s Action

Key 1 Francis Pym Margaret Thatcher as Prime Minister and Established “War Cabinet” decision maker John Nott

European Key 2 Countries

Strengthen Britain United States stand

Latin America

First Proposal Key 3 Second Proposal The Involvement of United States as Third Proposal

Fourth Proposal

Source: Margaret Thatcher: The Autobiography. The diagram is modified by author in order to explain in simply way

Key 1: Established the ‘War Cabinet’ The capture the territory has indeed lasted a long time, in which Britain gained the right to have the islands since 1833 and making people prosperous. Many diplomatic meetings had conducted, in achieving on excellent working

66 relationship which expected to resolve mutual misunderstanding, have good communication and reliability by diplomatic representatives.126

In a fact, many opportunities to encourage a settlement were lost for a lack of awareness, commitment, and law enforcement of the international community. Therefore, Thatcher was strengthening Britain’s position by establishing the ‘War Cabinet’ in order to respond the Argentina’s invasion in the islands. The purpose of Thatcher’s idea was to create temporary but solid team which still supported by FCO and MoD and wished this cabinet could well-organized for other parties in order to expel the Argentina troops. To prevent the increasing number of material losses and much causality, Thatcher initiated to accelerate the work of ‘War Cabinet’ and made evaluation upon the efforts that has been made by Britishgovernment.

People under War Cabinet were basically also come from Thatcher’s cabinet with aim to achieve good results in accordance with their field of work. For instance, with the existence of invasion in islands, it was needed the role of ministry of defence to always monitor Argentina troops’ movement and protect the island with its people.

During that time, she always retrieved much information and became the last person to decide the further actions. Therefore, she chose specific people based on their field of work and consider have good credibility; these people were assist Thatcher to remove Argentina troops. She was supported by Francis Pym and John Nott andthe other members areWillie Whitelaw as her deputy and trusted adviser, Cecil Parkinson who brilliantly effective in dealing with public relations, Sir Terence Lewin as Chief of Defence Staff, and Michael Havers as the Government’s legal adviser.127

126R. Fisher et al., Coping with International Conflict: A Systematic Approach to Influence in InternationalNegotiation(Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1997), pp. 119–121, quoted in Laucirica, Jorge O, Lessons from Failure: The Falklands/Malvinas conflict 127 Margaret Thatcher: The Autobiography, p 349

Key 2: Strengthen Britain stand Another strategy was cut the relationship among Argentina and other states, such economic relations that expected to make worst economic condition until Argentina was immediately stopped the invasion to Britain, since could not afford military equipment during the war. Following support given by France and Jordan, she tried to asked the heads of state and heads of government of European community countries, United States, Japan, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand to against Argentina by banning all arms sales and some imports, ending export credit cover for new commitments and giving no encouragement to their banks to lend to Argentina.128

Although European community countries were considered being ally with Britain, but not all those states took side with Britain such as Italy rejected Britain demand but supported Argentina because there was cooperation between them, and Spain was indeed support Argentina because Falkland Islands was giving to Argentina after successfully became independent from the Spanish colonial era.129 From East Asia countries, Japan was give uncertainty decision either support Britain or Argentina. She expanded the cooperation beyond European countries, thus she chose to ask for Latin American states, and even though they were supposed to support Argentina’s sidebut fortunately she got Chile in favor for Britain’s side.

Key 3: The Involvement of United States as Mediator Argentina had wrong assumption if British were not interested to defend islands therefore they would not react when Argentina wanted to take over the islands by force. 130 In a fact, Britain was very ready to respond Argentina’s invasion by sending the patrol ship, Endurance, to always monitor in the South Atlantic which also can be supplied and three nuclear-powered submarines would deploy at maximum speed.131 Moreover, Argentina was not powerful state and not expected to challenge one of the leaders of the Western states and being

128 Margaret Thatcher. The Autobiography, p 351 129 Margaret Thatcher, The Autobiography, p 352 130 McClure, Jason. (2004). The Falklands War: Causes and Lessons, p 6 131 Haydon, Peter. The Falklands War: Lessons Learned and Not Learned

68 permanent member of UN Security Council, it is supported by the decreasing of Argentina’s economy status of their repression which made Argentina troops were not ready to war in order to fulfill their military equipment.132

Although some states were support for Britain, but still conflict could not be resolved by the absence of an accurate idea. The demand for one party as mediator was begin to appear and United States was willing to assist the conflict. It is supported through sent Al-Haig as State Secretary of United States to directly involve during the invasion, with first task to visit London. Nico Henderson as Britain’s ambassador in Washington explained the reason Haig has to be sent because his role also became representative as friend and ally of Britain due to discussion further actions that made United States could most effectively support Britain.133

In the 1980’s, there was strong close relationship between Britain and United States, so the reason Thatcher received United States as mediator was because they were having good collaboration, thus also affected the relations among Britain and South American allies.134 The closeness they had as a result of similarity experience when they were in power after the previous government creating a vacuum of power. During Argentina invasion, Thatcher convinced and declared the statement regarding the relation with United States: We are your friends. We do support you and we shall support you. Let there be no doubt about that.135

However, United Nations has agreed to the presence of UNSCR 502 as stated before, but Argentina seemed careless about this agreement.Haig was convey his idea about the importance to implement UNSCR 502 as soon as

132 McClure, Jason. (2004). The Falklands War: Causes and Lessons, p 7 133 Margaret Thatcher: The Autobiography, p 352 134 Linda P. Brady. When Interests Diverge: Alliance Politics at the Close of the Twentieth Country quoted in Mateescu, IoanDragos. International Policies of Great Britain 1979-2007 (The Relationship with the United States and Europe, The Antiterrorist War, p 4 135 Margaret Thatcher, “Speech at White House Arrival Ceremony.” 17 December 1979, Margaret Thatcher Foundation, 31 October 2009, http://www.margaretthatcher.org/speeches/displaydocument.asp?docid=104194

69 possible, he added there was a need to create a draft proposal to make Argentina willing to expel from the islands.

This proposal was consist of his ideas to resolve this conflict wherein United Kingdom was indeed occupied the islands earlier. He flew to Buenos Aires after visited London and began to negotiate with Galtieri. Accepted Haig’s arrival in Buenos Aires who considered being mediator was not fully approved by Argentina. Because Galtieri already knew between Britain and United States are close relationship, so naturally United States assisted Britain to keep the islands. In there, Haig delivered a draft proposal that he had made with the possibility Argentina would agree to sign, this draft consist of 7 points as follow:136

• Both Britain and Argentina would agree to withdraw from the islands and a specified surrounding area within a two-week period. • No further military forces were to be introduced and forces withdrawn were to return to normal duties. The Argentine had wanted anundertaking from us to keep our task force out of the South Atlantic altogether, but Al Haig said that he had told them that this was impossible and believed that they might be satisfied if the agreement provided for British units to return to normal duties. • There would be a Commission in place of the Governor made up of the United States, British and Argentine representatives who would act together to ensure compliance with the agreement. For that purpose they would each need to have observers. Each member of the Commission could fly flag at the headquarters. • Economic and financial sanctions against Argentina would be lifted. • The traditional local administration of the islands would be restored, including the re-establishment of the Executive and Legislative Councils, to which Argentina representative from the

136 Ibid, p 354

tiny Argentina population in the Falklands would be added. The Argentine were adamantly opposed to the return of our Governance. • The Commission would promote travel, trade and communication between the Islands and Argentine but the British government would have a veto on its operation. • Negotiations on a lasting settlement would be pursued consistently with the Purposes and Principles of the United Nations Charter. United States had apparently insisted on this because of the references in it to the right of self-determination. It seemed that Argentina would only have been prepared to agree to this part of the proposals if they contained a date for conclusion of negotiations which was suggested as 31 December 1982.

When Thatcher read each points, she was not ignore all of those point, but she just emphasized that Britain always implement self-determination point. She argued that if Falkland people would choose Argentina to take care them, British government would respect their decision, yet Argentina should be prepared to accept if Falkland People remained to be British.137

On the other hand, Argentina Foreign Minister also prepared another strategy to strengthen Argentina’s position after United States voted for UN Resolution 502. The decision was Argentina agreed to accept Soviet assistance if war should be the final result.138Argentina knew that United States would feel uneasy since United States and Soviet Union had involved to Cold War.

Moreover, the mediation remained ongoing and needed a couple of proposal making, because in the first draft proposal, she had not committed to accept it. Second draft proposal was created after his journey from Buenos Aires finished. Third draft proposal was created to respond Britain’s amendments and Francis Pym had to be sent to negotiate. The last was the final draft brought by Francis Pym after he visited to United States. Therefore, there were four draft

137 Margaret Thatcher, The Autobiography p 355 138 Margaret Thatcher, The Autobiography, p 353

71 proposals making when Haig as mediator, for detail of each proposal will be explained in detail below.

Following the first draft proposal, Thatcher got unclear answer either Argentina signed the proposal. She critique to Haig and argued that the purpose to implement self-determination was not merely based on Britain interest to control the islands, but also based on reference to Article 1(2) and Article 73 of the UN Charter.139 In the article 1(2) explains that to develop friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples, and to take other appropriate measures to strengthen universal peace.140

In the article 73 explains that members of the United Nations which have or assume responsibilities for the administration of territories whose peoples have not yet attained a full measure of self-government recognize the principle that the interests of the inhabitants of these territories are paramount, and accept as a sacred trust the obligation to promote to the utmost, within the system of international peace and security established by the present Charter, the well- being of the inhabitants of these territories, and, to this end:(a) to ensure, with due respect for the culture of the peoples concerned, their political, economic, social, and educational advancement, their just treatment, and their protection against abuses; (b) to develop self-government, to take due account of the political aspirations of the peoples, and to assist them in the progressive development of their free political institutions, according to the particular circumstances of each territory and its peoples and their varying stages of advancement; (c) to further international peace and security; (d) to promote constructive measures of development, to encourage research, and to co-operate with one another and, when and where appropriate, with specialized international bodies with a view to the practical achievement of the social, economic, and scientific purposes set forth in this Article; and (e) to transmit regularly to the

139 Margaret Thatcher, The Autobiography, p 356 140 UN Charter, retrieved from http://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/chapter11.shtml on January, 2 2013 at 5:34am

Secretary-General for information purposes, subject to such limitation as security and constitutional considerations may require, statistical and other information of a technical nature relating to economic, social, and educational conditions in the territories for which they are respectively responsible other than those territories to which Chapters XII and XIII apply.141

Having close relationship with Thatcher, Ronald Reagan thought that must get involved to influence Galtieri to immediately get out from islands. One day, Reagan had conveyed his worry during phone call with Thatcher if Britain still used military occupancy, it affected the possibility Argentina sent another invasion. 142 Thatcher disagree about his idea but emphasized that would not consider to release ceasefire if Argentina prepared to withdraw from the island. She added to respond his worrying:

“I note that General Galtieri has reaffirmed to you his desire to avoid conflict. But it seems to me and I must state this frankly to you as a friend and ally that he fails to draw the obvious conclusion. It was not Britain who broke the peace but Argentina. The mandatory Resolution of the Security Council to which you and we subscribed, requires Argentina to withdraw its troops from the Falkland Islands. That is the essential first step which must be taken to avoid conflict. When it has been taken, discussions about the future of the islands can profitably take place. Any suggestion that conflict can be avoided by a device that leaves the aggressor in occupation is surely gravely misplaced. The implications for other potential areas of tension and for small countries everywhere would be of extreme seriousness. The fundamental principles for which the free world stands would be shattered.”143

Second proposal proposed when Haig came to Argentina, Argentine had set their demand if the final resolution wanted to be reached. They wanted that there would two representatives of Argentina government should serve on each of

141 UN Charter, retrieved from http://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/chapter11.shtml on January, 2 2013 at 5:34am 142 Falkland Telegrams Reveal UK Response to Invasion, retrieved from www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk- 20817088 on December 28 2013 at 1:06am 143 Margaret Thatcher: The Autobiography, p 359

73 the islands council since they had willingness their own people to change the nature of population. And last, they were not prepared to allow the islanders to choose if they wished to return to British administration before invasion. The glance of their proposal was:“December 31st 1982 will conclude the interim period during which the signatories shall conclude negotiations on modalities for the removal of the islands form the list of non-self-governing territories under Chapter XI of United Nations Charter and on mutually agreed conditions for their definitive status, including due regard for the rights of the inhabitants and for the principle of territorial integrity applicable to this dispute”144

After knowing the demand, Thatcher still banned Argentina to remain for controlling the islands. She did not want to give authority to Argentina since Argentina would apply dictatorship system which means people would have lack of freedom. On April 22 1982, third proposal should be created to amend the points and Francis Pym sent to Washington to have discussion with Haig in order to explain Britain’s perspective regarding the demands. After Francis returned to London, he gave fourth proposal to Thatcher. Thatcher considered that the last proposal was unacceptable.145 Meanwhile, Francis convinced Thatcher to accept this agreement if final resolution wanted to be reached.

The great debate occurred between Thatcher and Francis which consider Francis did not think farther if this draft proposal was approved. Thatcher argued that there are three points that should be made clearly, such as the time for Britain troops to withdraw from islands, there was still possibility Argentina would invade again when Britain did not protect the islands. Then, the sanction would be given to Argentina when the agreement is signed, meanwhile it could be done earlier when Argentina was ready to get off from islands, because the real agreement might not happen. The last, there was demand to have people representative from Argentina who would work in Falkland government which means there was also increasing Argentina population whereas all islanders are British.

144 Margaret Thatcher: The Autobiography, p 361 145 Margaret Thatcher: The Autobiography, p 362

Seeing this debate became more intense, John Nott proposed Haig to explore more regarding Argentina’s further actions because basically Argentina was the pioneer to start the conflict, and ask Argentina to get off from islands politely and recognize the islands owned by British.

Responding to John Nott’s statement, Haig agreed to do somerevision to the proposal discussed with Francis Pym in Washington and transmitted to Argentina Government. On 29 April 1982 as deadline time for Argentina’s respond either wanted to stop their invasion, but Argentina has passed the deadline. In the following days, Britain received confirmation that Argentina rejected all proposals to recognize the islands are British territory which became the end of Britain diplomatic way to Argentina.146

IV.3. The Correlation with Power’s Concept

The quick reactions by Thatcher revealed the attitude of leader in protecting all components of state. As the first woman Prime Minister, Thatcher was successfully buttress Argentina to take over the islands. It indicates that the role of a leader in a state is very needed and powerful, because she/he also acknowledged as decision maker who decides all policies that can certainly bring benefits to the state. Supporting that statement, great leaders can be identified by havinga vision to achieve large-scale ideas that they dream of accomplishing, and they have the personal power to enact it.147

According to Kenneth N Waltz, power is the key of concept in realist theories of international politics which its proper definition remains a matter of controversy. 148 Then, Kautliya defines power is the possession of strength (an attribute) from the three components such as knowledge, military might and

146 Margaret Thatcher: The Autobiography, p 365 147 Gibson, J.L, Ivancevich, J.M., Donelly, J.H., &Konopaske, R. (2012). Organizations: Behavior, structure, processes, (14thed). New York, NY: Mc Graw-Hill Irwin, quoted by Lunenburg, Fred C. (2012). Power and Leadership: An Influence Process. Sam Houston State University 148 Waltz, Kenneth N. (1986) ‘Reflections on Theory of International Politics: A response to My Critics, in Robert O. Keohane (ed.) Neorealism and its Critics. New York: Columbia University Press, p 322-345, quoted by Baldwin A. David, Power and International Relations

75 valor. 149 Meanwhile Hans Morgenthau has interpreted power as a relationship between two political actors in which actor A has the ability to control the mind and actions of control B.150 The use of power is can be associated with Falkland war. Without the use of power, war would not happen because the absence of interest or target to be achieved by both states. It was obvious that the important thing for both states was the willingness to rule the islands and become their territorial. There are two common concepts in power itself such as hard power and soft power that could be measured for Falkland war.

IV.3.1. Hard Power

Jean Bodin has argued that state is powerful to be authorized by applicable law and had responsibility to several households and citizenship through uncommon obsession.151 When a state intervened by another state without a clear purpose, then it is reasonable to use hard power through military force for protecting the state. Trevor C Salmon and Imber define hard power asdoing action for harshness and related to military force and physical persuasion.152 Military force has utility as an instrument of policy to issue threats, fight and achieve desired outcomes within a reasonable time.

Indeed, war involves warfare, which means military force that can affect to violence and causes damage, injury, and death. Some of the debate on military force and its control fails to come to grips with the bloody reality, chaos, and friction that are in the very nature of warfare. In Falkland war case, there was no doubt for Britain to choose hard power rather than soft power in order to defend the territorial. Based on previous statement, each state argued this problem would

149The KautliyaArthasastra: Part II, trans R.P Kangle, 2nded (Bombay: University of Bombay, 1972) p 319, quoted by Theodore A Coulumbis, Introduction to International Relations 4th edition 150 Hans Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace, 5thed, quoted by Theodore a Coulumbis, Introduction to International Relations 4th edition 151 “A lawful government of several households and their uncommon possessions with sovereign power. Citizenship became the subjection of an individual to the sovereign” stated by Jean Bodin and quoted in Couloumbis, Theodore A and Wofle, James H, Introduction to International Relations Power and Justice, Fourth edition 152 Salmon, C Trevor and Imber, Mark F. ed. Issues in International Relations. New York: Routledge, p 62 quoted by Kusumawardani, KunthiAfrilinda, Indonesia’s Foreign Policy in Addressing the Issue of the People Smuggling, p 24

76 effect to sovereignty since sovereignty as major characteristic, national identity and right of state.

IV.3.2. Soft Power

On the other hand, Nye introduced and built the definition of soft power as a concept to describe the ability to attract and cooperation rather than using force in the means of persuasion.153 Soft power tends to be either so easy to exercise that it is probably in little need of a policy push or too difficult to achieve because it is influenced by local interests, culture, or both. 154

In a state, soft power can appear from three resources such as culture, political values and foreign policies.155 The culture point identifies that where it is attractive to others, whereas political values when it lives up to them at home and abroad and last foreign policies means when they are seen as legitimate and having moral authority. Yet, soft power cannot sensibly be regarded as a substantial alternative to hard military power.

Before war happened in Falkland, it was indeed Britain tried to use diplomatic ways in order to finish the conflict. One of tangible of soft power’s action was conduct some discussions with other parties like United Nations and United States. The efforts from Britain to use soft power failed because Argentina rejected all proposals and wanted to take over the islands.

IV.3.3 The Implementation of the Use of Power

Having discussion about the concept of power and it is clearly stated that Falkland war was become the result of using hard power. Great leaders make things happen by utilizing personal power.156 For Thatcher, power was used to defend what has become British’s purpose based on its national interest. As an

153 Nye, Joseph S. Soft Power, Hard Power and Leadership 154 Gray, Colin S. (2011). Hard Power and Soft Power: The Utility of Military Force as an Instrument of Policy in the 21st Century, p 10.Strategic Studies Institutes 155 Nye, Joseph S (2006). Think Again: Soft Power. Foreign Policy. Retrieved on December 7th 2013 at 3.42 am from http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2006/02/22/think_again_soft_power 156 Pfeffer, J. 2011. Power: Why some people have it and others don’t. New York, NY: HarperCollins. Quoted by Lunenburg, Fred C, 2012. Power and Leadership: An Influence Process

77 individual or decision maker, using power is an obligation to prompt other people to follow what they do or command. Considering this, Byron White asserted that there is indeed relationship between individual as well as actor with power which supported bythree components such as influence, force and authority.157 Influence is sometimes considered as an aspect of power. Thus, power will happen through effective influence.158

Moreover, people who have strong power can influence others based on their positions they hold or we can called as legitimate power.159 Falkland war would not happen without any power which directed by Thatcher who hold position as prime minister. She used power in the position effectively and much better able to manipulate her government to achieve final resolution. Since Thatcher was also known as The Iron Lady, people could be denied that she also able relied on personal persuasion to influence others by her charisma and they way she communicates. Having the explanation of power, it unfolds the power also influences to personal characteristic of Thatcher when she faced the war.

As stated in Margaret C. Hermann’s explanation, the characteristic can be elaborated into four components such as beliefs, motives, interpersonal style and decision style.160 Beliefs tend to assumptions that are believed by a political leader upon the world. It may affect an interpretation to create strategies that the leader employs. There are two categories of beliefs such as nationalism and belief in one’s own ability to control the circumstance.

Similar with Thatcher’s case, nationalism is the basic reason to always protect Britain as great nation. Nationalism is considered as an endeavor and becomes the most powerful force in international politics to control and pursuit the territorial control. Nationalism is first and foremost about the nation, and not

157 White, Byron quoted in Couloumbis, Theodore A and Wolfe, James H, Introduction to International Relations Power and Justice, Fourth edition, p 79 158 Wrong, Dennis H. 1979. Power: Its Forms Bases and Uses. Basil Blackwell, quoted by Willer, David, University of South Carolina; Lovaglia, Michael J. University of Lowa; Markovski, Barry, University of Lowa, Power and Influence: A Theoretical Bridge 159 Lunenburg, Fred C. 2012. Power and Leadership: An Influence Process Sam Houston State University 160 Hermann, Margaret G, Explaining Foreign Policy Behavior Using the Personal Characteristic of Political Leaders, Sage Library of International Relations

78 necessarily about an existing state. Thatcher believed the islands are owned by Britain which already explored by British ancient in order to give people’s right to live peacefully.

However, motives appear as principle for further actions that will do by political leaders. They will not take quickly if the absence of immediate or danger matter. It is true if Thatcher has motivation to respond Argentina invasion to the islands for not disturb the islanders. Yet, she also motivated to allow United States to resolve the dispute if there was no Thatcher’s interest. Thatcher noticed that UN could not take a resolute step to settle the conflict by making a new regulation for Argentina, through the assistance from United States (US) which indeed considered as alliance, Britain felt US helped them as a bridge to have mediation. Thatcher also should thank to president of US, Ronald Reagan, since he tried to negotiate with Argentina’s president to expel from the island. Although, at the end Argentina ignored for having peaceful final resolution and still defend their interest to have war, Thatcher satisfied that her purpose to protect the island and people has still been reached.

Interpersonal style deals with the way a policy maker deals with other policy makers. As mentioned earlier, indeed Thatcher should responsible to have dealing with Galtieri as the president of Argentina. During the mediation, both of states declared their interest to have the islands regarding the oil resources. The other matter that became Argentina’s interest was the closest location of the islands therefore Argentina thought capable to maintain the islands. Meanwhile, the islanders already were British and then

The last point, decision style defines the methods of making decisions. Before the decision was declared, often she analyze the root of causes of the problem and held discussion to add some additional opinions which could be references to have better result. The purpose was to ensure all the consequences after the decision is made. Thatcher has been done good job to set strategies by approaching her allies for getting any support from Britain. She was open to new

79 information, preference for certain risk, complexity in processing information and ability to tolerate ambiguity.

Furthermore, power can produce force and it is proven that in the Falklands islands, both states used military force to influence the circumstances as their weapon, protection and threat. Falkland war happened because there was no final agreement that could be signed by both states. In addition, war could be happened because of the factor from human nature.161

Human nature defines as a basic reason to cause the war because it might happens from people selfishness to reach their willingness quickly. War is common related to men behavior rather than women. In addition to review the human nature, Allison and Graham indicate the nature and behavior of man in general analysis of decision making process needs to take into account the different political motivations, strategies, and goals. 162 Supporting to that statement, Allison and Zelikow agreed that human nature to do some forces are coming from their individual characteristic, so regime leaders are not a group but instead of individual player in a central.163

The authority is the last result of the influence from power; it is proven that legitimate power was exist during Falkland war. Indeed the authority was in her hand, after she received the islands got invaded by Galtieri, Thatcher directly gave early decision in order to prevent the Argentina troops getting closer to the islands. During the war, Britain government had ministry of defence which should be responsible to respond the invasion but all the last decisions should be decided by Thatcher. Talking about authority, some people might misperception to differentiate between authority and coercion. As stated by Max Weber, authority

161 Waltz, Kenneth, Man, the State and War quoted in Stranky, Steven G, Re-examining the Falkland War:The Necessity for Multi Level Deterrence in Preventing Wars of Aggression, p 16 162Allison, G and Philip,Z.(1999). The Essence of Decision. New York: Longman 163Allison, G and Philip, Z. (1999). The Essence of Decision. New York: Longman

80 is the legitimate use of power therefore every individual will accept and follow upon orders that are given to them because they believe that to do so is right.164

On the other hand, coercion defines force people into an action which often by threat of violence and this is always regarded as illegitimate. He added that legitimate rules have three ideal types such as charismatic authority, traditional authority and regional legal authority. Charismatic authority tends to see how leader can be maintained by the force of leader’s personality. It also can say that this authority concerns to Thatcher’s behavior upon the war. Although she is woman, yet she is very brave to respond Argentina’s invasion quickly.

While, traditional authority concerns to how political order can be maintained by the constant reference to customs, traditions and conventions. This type of authority is meaning to establish belief in the sanctity of immemorial traditions and legitimacy of those exercising authority under rule. The last is regional legal authority, this type concerns with how a political order is regarded as legal in the population’s opinion. This form is resting on a belief in the legality of enacted rules and the right of that elevated to authority under such rules to issue commands.

IV.4. The Influence of Triangle Relationship

Thatcher’s decision to choose war is mostly influenced by her emotional factor to reach Britain interest. Emotional serves a critical coordination role that allows individual to deal with their present reaction. Furthermore, emotions can have different effects on the people’s thought (what exactly decision makers think about) and the process of thought (how deeply they consider information). 165 Basically, her emotional characteristic is influenced by her family background and past experiences, it is proven by her character was shaped by life with father, but her public life and her views on politics and policy were also shaped by her times.

164Stranky, Steven G, Re-Examining the Falkland War: The Necessity for multi level deterrence in Preventing Wars of Aggression 165Renshon, Jonathan & Lerner, Jennifer S. Decision-Making, the Role of Emotions in Foreign Policy. Harvard Kennedy School

According to Jenkins has written that “her crucial political experiences were gained under socialism at home and communism abroad; she was a daughter of the age of austerity, a child of Cold War”.166

Picture 4. 2 Triangle Relationship

Figure 1.2 Triangle of Relationship: Individual factor in Falkland War. Source: Processed by author in order to conclude idiosyncratic factors

The scheme above depicts that those three factors are become the most important factors which triggered to affect the existence of Falkland war. The purpose to create the triangle is to specifythe factors with united lines in order to explain in simple way. The reason authority puts above is because she had power and being prime minster; it is very obvious that the role of Thatcher during the war was very important to strengthen Britain position against Argentina. If she was not being a prime minister, she would not responsible to resolve the war.

166 Jenkins. (1988) quoted by Genovese, Michael A. Women As National Leader. SAGE Publications

Actually, the position between motives and emotional are related to each other because to reach the final result, Thatcher was indeed having a motive to pursue the goal. Asprime minister, it must obligation for Thatcher to reach British interest in Falkland Islands, and fortunately she was successfully to reach that.

Then, emotional factor is important because Thatcher is ambitious, has principle, and brave during the time to choose the decision; it is proven by her struggle to claim and defend the island become Britain’s territorial through the implementation of self-determination system. People are given freedom to get the right therefore they chose to be British. Yet, she and Britain government did not use any coercion to the people but protect the people as well as British. When she retrieved the information telling that the Argentina troops were closer, she wanted that Argentina’s went out from the islands and not to claim anymore upon the islands.

Emotional factor is indeed giving influence to any decision makers when they felt disappoint toward something. Thatcher was angry when she knew Argentina have tried to invade the islands to take over the islands. Through her ambition, she was struggling to not send the attack but prefer to have diplomatic ways. When the war could not prevented by both states, Thatcher agreed to continue British troops sent their attacks for making Argentina expel from islands.

As mentioned earlier, idiosyncratic factors were also influenced by variables such as perceptions, images and personal characteristics. 167 Personal characteristics of leaders can be identified by their family background and political experience. Indeed, Thatcher’s characteristics were almost influenced by her family background, even though there is no one of her family joined to government institution. Because her father was prefer spent his time to read the books, therefore he was also put interest to politics. Her father always asks Thatcher to read books in order to have broader knowledge about politics.

167 Hermann, Margaret G. (1980). Explaining Foreign Policy Behavior Using the Personality Characteristic of Policy Leaders. International Studies Quarterly, 24, 1, pp 7-46

Thatcher admitted that mostly her childhood time was for reading and had discussion with her father, so that her interest to politics became bigger. She interest to join government because she thought that Britain need a change to have better condition. Fortunately, she could make her dream came true and hold for become Prime Minister for three times. Perceptions is also give influence to personal characteristic of leaders because naturally leader prefer to think with she/he perceptions/instinct before decide something. As decision makers, they should decide with the purpose to reach the goal, therefore they could predict what will happen with their perceptions. As a leader, Thatcher has indeed build her image as strong leader so that Thatcher well known as Iron Lady. Every leader has own images that show about the way she/he lead the state. For Thatcher, she was successfully trusted to be Prime Minister for 3 times which means she build a good images for British.

IV.5. Chapter Summary

Thatcher was angry after knowing Argentina invaded the islands. She would not any party to take the islands from British since she argued already successed to apply self-determination system to islanders. She was directly respond to Argentina’s government through three steps such as established Cabinet War, strenthen Britain stand which expanded her influence to other states and permitted United States to be mediator. At that time, she also had close diplomatic relations with President Ronald Reagan from United States, therefore Britain got assistance from him.

As a leader and also decision maker, Thatcher was really influenced by her personal characteristics, besides that there were three important factors such as authority, motives and emotional factor. She also successed to build image as strong leader taht can bring United Kingdom over Argentina.

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION

Falkland war had left a great memory and gave impact to the relationship between United Kingdom and Argentina. There was massive war that never been expected before and had killed many people.It was started by the existence of the islands in South Atlantic which have potential oil resource. Both states were argued for become the first to discover the islands so that it was right to own those islands. Argentina had claim the territory because its location quite near from Argentina rather than Britain.

That was also Spain had landed the islands and had empower the islands, at the same time Spain also colonized Argentina. In 1816, Argentina could liberate from the Argentine colonial therefore Spain expelled the islands and gave right to have the islands to Argentina. But in a fact, Britain had been discovered the islands first before 1833 and there was no state claim the islands hence Britain made prosper the people by implemented self-determination.

Before the desire from both states was getting higher, United Nations had tried to involve and being mediator to resolve territorial dispute. But there was lack of the effort from UN to release clear resolution which could give effect to the conflict. Britain still permitted UN to be involved and followed based on UN’s instruction but Argentina never do same thing like Britain.

During British’s administration, the circumstance of the island is fulfilled and proper enough so that people still remained to be British. Although all the maters about administration things still under British’s control but Britain still allowing the origin people established their owned governance. Suddenly, Argentina’s troop tried to arrive in the islands in 1982; actually their invasion was not surprisingly thing to be afraid of, since Thatcher has been considered if one day Argentina would take over the islands. At that time, Thatcher hold some

85 discussion regarding to the next further action to prevent Argentina destroy the islands. In order to strengthen Britain’s power, Thatcher had three main strategies such as established Cabinet War that consist of Thatcher, her foreign state secretary, defense department, foreign minister and so on.

The purpose to establish was to make easier for doing the action based on their job, then she also strengthen the Britain stand by persuading other state leader to support Britain’s position and defend the islands still under British. And the last, she allowed the other party, US, to involve for settle the conflict. US has sent Al Haig to be mediator for making both states stop their conflict.

Naturally, the presence of US was not merely to assist the conflict but also to support Britain in the context of alliance. Ronald Reagan as President of US had good relationship with Thatcher therefore US supported Britain to defend the territory. During Haig presence, there were some efforts to reach final resolution rather than by UN, yet Britain argued that they have tried to use diplomatic ways to Argentina, but Argentina always reject Britain’s willingness. Thatcher realized that it was difficult to find final resolution because Argentina had deal with Soviet to have cooperation in order to assist Argentina’s desire. That problem made US felt not comfortable since they had involved in previous war. At the end, the war could not be prevented so it happened on June 1982 and through Britain’s effort, Argentina was surrender and wanted to expel from the islands.

From this case, we can conclude if individual characteristic factor from the leader is quite strong to resolve the war. The influence from Thatcher as prime minister was very strong and effective. If she has not her ambition to maintain the islands, Britain would not win over the territorial. Thatcher was being the last person to decide foreign policies into actions even though the war was very challenging since she was just elected and directly given the massive war. The role of Thatcher could not be separated from power to influence the world, if she did not have much power, she would not lead Britain until win over Argentina. Seeing from her personal characteristic, emotional factor aligned with her ego and ambition were really highlighted to defend the islands and win over

86 upon Argentina. She was very ambitious to reach Britain national interest in the islands.

Falkland war has given to us some knowledge regarding the important of individual characteristic factors from decision makers through identifying the concept of war, the concept individual level analysis with international relations study, and the concept of power.

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Aggressionaccording to Graham Allison and Philip Zelikow, Essence of Decision: Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis • Theodore A Coulumbis, Introduction to International Relations 4th edition according to The KautliyaArthasastra: Part II, trans R.P Kangle, 2nded (Bombay: University of Bombay, 1972) p 319 • Theodore, A Coulumbis, Introduction to International Relations 4th edition according to Hans Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace, 5thed • Tickner, J. Anne. (1992). Gender in International Relations, Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Security. Columbia University Press, p 6 • Troitino, David Ramiro. Margaret Thatcher and EU retrieved from http://www.ies.ee/iesp/No6/articles/iesp_no6_pp124-150.pdf on November 22 2013 at 11:00pm • Willer, David, University of South Carolina; Lovaglia, Michael J. University of Lowa; Markovski, Barry, University of Lowa, Power and Influence: A Theoretical Bridge according to Wrong, Dennis H. 1979. Power: Its Forms Bases and Uses. Basil Blackwell • Young, H. (1990). One of Us. London • Zarza, MAJ Leonardo Arcadio. A Monograph, Malvinas: The Argentine Perspective of the Falkland Conflict, School of Advanced Military Studies United States Army Command and General Staff College Fort Leavenworth. Kansas

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APPENDICES

• Appendices 1 Source from http://www.educationengland.org.uk/documents/acts/1971-educ-milk- act.html

Education (Milk) Act 1971

[page 1546] c.74

Education (Milk) Act 1971 1971 CHAPTER 74

An Act to restrict the duty of education authorities to provide milk for pupils at educational establishments maintained by them or under their management and make further provision with respect to their power to do so; to restrict their power to secure provision of milk for pupils at other educational establishments; and for purposes connected therewith.

[5th August 1971]

BE IT ENACTED by the Queen's most Excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this present Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows:-

School milk for pupils in England and Wales. 1944 c. 31.

1.-(1) Regulations made under section 49 of the Education Act 1944 as to the provision of milk for pupils shall not require a local education authority to provide milk for a pupil after the summer term ending next after the date on which he attains the age of seven, unless -

(a) he is in attendance at a special school or at a primary school which is a school for providing primary education, or is a junior pupil in attendance at a school which is deemed to be a primary school by virtue only of section 114(3) of the Education Act 1944 or at a school which is deemed to be a primary or a secondary school by virtue of an order under section 1(2) of

1964 c. 82. the Education Act 1964 (a "middle school"); and

(b) (except in the case of a pupil in attendance at a special school) there is for the time being in force in respect of him a certificate given by a medical officer of the authority stating that his health requires that he should be provided with milk at school.

[page 1547]

(2) Regulations made under section 49 may also confer power on local education authorities to provide milk for pupils in attendance at schools maintained by them, but any regulations so made by virtue of this subsection shall require the expense of providing milk in the exercise of the power to be defrayed by the pupils for whom it is provided or their parents.

1944 c. 31.

(3) The power under section 78(2)(a) of the Education Act 1944 to make arrangements as to the provision of milk for pupils in attendance at schools not maintained by the local education authority shall not apply to a pupil after the summer term ending next after the date on which he attains the age of seven unless he is in attendance at a special school.

1968 c. 14. 1970 c. 14.

(4) Section 3 of the Public Expenditure and Receipts Act 1968 (in so far as it applies to England and Wales) and the Education (School Milk) Act 1970 are hereby repealed; and any regulations or arrangements made before the coming into force of this section shall cease to have effect in so far as they make provision to the contrary of subsection (1) or (3) above.

(5) This section, except subsection (2), shall not have effect until the term following the summer term 1971.

(6) In this section "summer term" means the term ending last before the month of September.

Provision of milk in Scotland. 1962 c. 47.

2.-(1) Section 53 of the Education (Scotland) Act 1962, in so far as it imposes a duty on an education authority to provide, or to make arrangements for the provision of, milk for pupils, shall no longer impose such a duty in respect of a pupil after the 1st August first occurring after the date on which he attains the age of seven, unless he -

(a) is receiving special education, or

(b) is a pupil receiving primary education in respect of whom there is for the time being in force a certificate given by a medical officer of the education authority

98 stating that the pupil's health requires that he should be provided with milk at school.

(2) An education authority shall have power to provide, or to make arrangements for the provision of, milk for pupils in attendance at educational establishments under their management, but the education authority shall require the expense of providing milk in the exercise of that power to be defrayed either by the pupils for whom it is provided or their parents, whichever appears to the education authority to be the more appropriate.

(3) Subject to subsection (2) above, subsections (3) and (4) of the said section 53 shall apply for the purposes of subsections (1) and (2) above as they apply for the purposes of that section.

[page 1548]

(4) The power conferred on an education authority by section 55 of the Education (Scotland) Act 1962 to make arrangements as to the provision of milk for pupils in attendance at any school in the area of the education authority which is not a public school shall not apply in respect of a pupil after the 1st August first occurring after the date on which he attains the age of seven unless he is receiving special education.

1968 c.14.

(5) Section 3 of the Public Expenditure and Receipts Act 1968 (in so far as it applies to Scotland) is hereby repealed; and any arrangements made for the provision of milk under the said section 53 or 55 before the coming into force of this section in so far as they make provision to the contrary of subsection (1) or (4) above, and on the coming into force of this section the said section 53 in so far as it empowers an education authority to provide milk for pupils, shall cease to have effect.

(6) This section shall come into force on 1st August 1971.

Effect of sections 1 and 2 on rate support grant. 1966 c. 42.

3.-(1) The Secretary of State, in the exercise of his power, under section 3(1) of the Local Government Act 1966, to make an order varying, with respect to any year, a rate support grant order, may take into account any relief obtained or likely to be obtained, during the period covered by the rate support grant order by local authorities -

(a) which is attributable to the coming into operation of any provision of section 1 of this Act, and

(b) which was not taken into account in making the rate support grant order the variation of which is in question and has not since been taken into account by virtue of this subsection in making an order under section 3(1) with respect to any other year comprised in that period.

The provisions of this subsection are without prejudice to section 3(4) of the Local Government Act 1966 (under which an order under that section may vary the matters prescribed by a rate support grant order).

1966 c. 51.

(2) In the application of section 4(1) of the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1966 (variation of rate support grant orders) to a rate support grant order made before 1st August 1971 for a grant period ending after that date, the Secretary of State shall have power to take into consideration any relief obtained or likely to be obtained by education authorities -

(a) which is attributable to the coming into force of any provision of section 2 of this Act, and

(b) which was not taken into consideration in making the rate support grant order the variation of which is in question.

100

[page 1549]

1966 c. 51.

The provisions of this subsection are without prejudice to section 4(4) of the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1966 (under which an order under that section may vary the matters prescribed by a rate support grant order).

Citation, construction, repeal and extent. 1970 c. 52

4.-(1) This Act may be cited as the Education (Milk) Act 1971.

(2) The Education Acts 1944 to 1968, the Education (Handicapped Children) Act 1970, and this Act (in so far as it applies to England and Wales) may be cited together as the Education Acts 1944 to 1971.

(3) This Act, in its application to England and Wales, shall be construed as one with the Education Acts 1944 to 1968, and, in its application to Scotland, shall be construed as one with the Education (Scotland) Acts 1939 to 1971.

(4) In section 2(1) of the Education (Handicapped Children) Act 1970 the words from "and" to the end of the subsection are hereby repealed.

(5) This Act does not extend to Northern Ireland.

101

• Appendices 2 Source from http://www.margaretthatcher.org/document/102233

1972 Dec 6 We

Margaret Thatcher Written Statement launching Education White Paper (A

Framework for Expansion)

Document type: public statement

Document kind: Written Statement

Venue: DES, Elizabeth House, York Road, London SE1

Source: Thatcher Archive: DES press release

Journalist: -

Editorial Exact time of release uncertain. comments:

Importance Key ranking:

Word count: 3579

Education, Public spending and borrowing, Primary education, Themes: Secondary education, Higher and further education

A 10-YEAR PLAN FOR EDUCATION

A 10-year programme for educational advance is published today (6 December) in a White Paper "Education: A Framework for Expansion", by the Secretary of State for Education and Science, Mrs Margaret Thatcher. It involves substantially increased expenditure in five directions: a new nursery programme; a larger building programme for the renewal of secondary and special, as well as primary, schools; a larger teaching force further to improve staffing standards in schools; a

102 new initiative to improve the pre-service and in-service training of teachers following the James Report; and the development in higher education of a wider range of opportunities, including the introduction of a Diploma of Higher Education, for both students and institutions.

In order to achieve a balanced programme of advance in these five areas the White Paper, designed as a framework for further action, lays down under each head the objectives at which the Government are aiming, the lines on which they intend each programme should develop, and the resources they are planning to devote to their attainment. The Government and their several partners in the education service will work out in consultation how the programme can best be carried through.

In view of the uncertainties of longer term forecasting the Government must be free to vary the pace of development of the programmes covered in their review. Total annual expenditure on the programmes under review could rise by some £960m over the decade 1971–72 to 1981–82 from £2,162m to some £3,120m. The increase in expenditure on schools (including the cost of in-service training) would correspond to an annual growth rate of some 3 per cent, compared with 2½ per cent for the decade 1961–62 to 1971–72. For higher education (including the initial training of teachers), where the very rapid expansion of the 1960's involved an annual growth rate of some 6½ per cent, the corresponding growth rate for the new decade would be some 5 per cent.

Education in Scotland, which, apart from that in universities, is the responsibility of the [ Gordon Campbell] Secretary of State for Scotland, is the subject of a separate White Paper.

The White Paper provides a full and authoritative statement of the Government's policies and intentions. Following is a summary of its main proposals.

103

NURSERY EDUCATION

Within the next 10 years nursery education should become available without charge to those children of three and four whose parents wish them to benefit from it. If demand reaches the estimates in the Plowden Report, some 700,000 full-time equivalent places may be needed by 1981–82. Some 300,000 are already available, half of them for children of rising five. As the extent of demand and its future growth are uncertain it will be necessary to watch the development of demand carefully in the early years. As a first step the Government propose to authorise earmarked building programmes of £15m each in 1974–75 and 1975–76. Total current expenditure on the under fives is expected to rise from nearly £42m in 1971–72 to nearly £65m in 1976–77.

Circular 8/60 will be withdrawn.

Local education authorities in rural and urban areas with substantial areas of social deprivation will be given some priority in the allocation of capital resources in 1974–76. It is hoped that all local education authorities will in their turn follow the same aim in deciding which part of their own areas should be given priority and also how far their admissions policy should give priority to children with special needs.

Besides helping families in deprived areas—both urban and rural—in bringing up young children, the extension of nursery education will also provide an opportunity for the earlier identification of children with social, psychological or medical difficulties which if neglected may inhibit the child's educational progress.

The provision of nursery education will be generally on a half-time basis but allowance has been made for about 15 per cent—as recommended in the Plowden and Gittins Reports—of three and four year olds to attend full-time for educational and social reasons. It is hoped that most of the extra nursery places will form part of primary schools to avoid a change of school when the child becomes five.

104

The Government are not laying down a uniform detailed pattern of expansion as they hope that local plans will reflect local needs and resources. Local authorities will need to take account of other facilities for under fives, existing or planned, so as to prepare schemes in which nursery classes and schools, voluntary playgroups, day nurseries and other forms of day-care all play their part. The Government will welcome diversity in provision so long as it is efficient and there is no sacrifice of standards in the education and care of children.

The Government has substantially increased their financial support for the playgroups movement. They hope that the development of playgroups will continue, and that local authorities will consider how the best use can be made of them alongside the expansion of nursery education. Local authorities will need to consider how to make the most of the opportunities nursery education offers in stimulating parental interest in their children's education and establishing links between home and the school, says the White Paper.

It will be necessary to seek new and imaginative ways of widening the recruitment of nursery assistants, and there will need to be expanded provision for courses leading to the certificate of the National Nursery Examination Board.

Many more qualified teachers will be needed and by 1981–82 the number teaching the under fives may need to be increased from the present 10,000 to upwards of 25,000. The aim would be to employ a similar number of nursery assistants to give in all a ratio of one adult to 13 children.

SCHOOL BUILDING

An extra £10m is to be added to the school building programmes in both 1975–76 and 1976–77 to replace or improve the worst secondary school buildings, comprising the first stage of a rising secondary school improvement programme for England and Wales.

There should be a more systematic long-term approach to the renewal of school buildings, to prevent the accumulation of backlogs of obsolete buildings. But such

105 a policy needs to be very flexible, not only between primary and secondary schools, but also to take account from year to year of variations in the level of basic needs and other factors.

SPECIAL SCHOOLS FOR HANDICAPPED CHILDREN

A rapid acceleration is proposed for the special schools building programme in England and Wales from £11m in 1972–73 to £19m in 1976–77 so that the old and inadequate buildings can be improved or replaced and more special school places provided for certain handicaps.

THE SIZE OF THE TEACHING FORCE

School staffing standards should continue to improve progressively. The Government believe that local education authorities will welcome a broad policy objective of securing by 1981 a teaching force 10 per cent above the number needed to maintain 1971 standards. After allowing for the increase in school population and the increased proportion of older pupils, this will require about 110,000 extra teachers, bringing the total to about 465,000 qualified teachers for pupils aged 5 and over. With about 25,000 teachers needed to staff the expanded nursery programme, and another 20,000 to meet the needs of the Government's policy for in-service training and the induction of new teachers, there would be some 510,000 (full-time equivalent) qualified teachers employed in maintained schools by 1981. The Government propose that this figure should be adopted as a basis for planning. This would represent an overall pupil/teacher ratio of about 18½:1 by that date compared with about 22½:1 in 1971.

THE JAMES REPORT

The main objectives at which the James Committee aimed are fully accepted by the Government. The Secretary of State's subsequent consultations have made it possible to establish a large measure of common agreement on the best way of achieving them

106

IN-SERVICE TRAINING

The Government propose to give effect to the James Committee's recommendation that teachers should be released for in-service training for periods equivalent to one term in every 7 years of service. It is their aim that a substantial expansion of such training should begin in the school year 1974–75 and should continue progressively so that by 1981 3 per cent of teachers could be released on secondment at any one time. This involves a four-fold increase in present opportunity.

INDUCTION OF TEACHERS

The Government shared the view of the James Committee that a teacher on first employment needs, and should be released part-time to profit from, a systematic programme of professional initiation, guided experience, and further study. The existing period of probation (normally one year) will remain unchanged but in future teachers who have successfully completed probation will be described as "registered teachers".

During probation teachers should receive the kind of help and support needed to make the induction process both more effective and less daunting than it has been in the past. Also they should be released for not less than one-fifth of their time for in-service training. For the remainder of their time probationer teachers would be serving in schools, but with a somewhat lightened timetable, so that altogether they might be expected to undertake three-quarters of a full teaching load.

The raising of the school leaving age and local government reorganisation will preclude for two or three years a general start on plans for improved induction. But the Government are proposing to the local authority associations that the planning of pilot schemes should be started in 1972–73 in four areas not heavily affected by local government reorganisation, to study the practical problems. It is hoped that in the pilot areas the training of professional tutors can start during the

107 school year 1973–74 and the aim is to introduce a national scheme in the school year 1975–76.

PATTERN OF COURSES IN TEACHER TRAINING

The Government propose to work towards the achievement of a graduate teaching profession. They strongly support the development of new three-year courses incorporating educational studies which are so designed that they will lead both to the award of a B.Ed. degree, and to qualify status; the possibility of continuing for a fourth year to take an Honours B.Ed. degree; and the inclusion in the three-year course of supervised practical experience lasting at least 15 weeks. They think that it is important that this new degree should be subject to validation by the existing awarding bodies and welcome the declaration of the Council forNational Academic Awards (CNAA) of its willingness to participate in such validation. They hope that universities will be receptive to any request to do so put to them by a college of education.

The Government also share the James Committee's desire to cater not only for the committed student but also for the student who wishes to keep his options open or who embarks on teacher training but later changes his mind. The Government have been assured that it will be possible to devise three-year B.Ed. courses, where required, in such a way that the first two years of study could lead to a Diploma of Higher Education (Dip. HE)—see below. So long as the needs of the schools require it certificate courses should continue to be provided.

As competition for places in post-graduate courses increases, the training institutions could give preference to applicants who have followed a broad rather than a specialised undergraduate course. A number of universities have already introduced education options at the undergraduate stage, and the few offer four- year sandwich courses in which one year of professional teacher training is introduced within the period of study for a degree. The Government welcome such developments.

108

TRAINING FURTHER EDUCATION TEACHERS

The Government accept that a much higher proportion of those teaching in further education should receive initial training—either before or after taking up appointment—and that they should have opportunities for further training later in their careers.

All new teachers need a systematic introduction to their role in the work of their colleges; for those entering without formal training or substantial teaching experience this should be accompanied by a carefully planned introduction to teaching both at the beginning of their service and spread over the first year. The Government propose to discuss with local education authorities how soon a training requirement along these lines could be introduced for teachers newly appointed to further education and to what extent opportunities for teachers in further education to have in-service training can be improved.

ORGANISATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF TEACHER TRAINING

The Secretary of State proposes after further consultation to establish, in place of the existing university-based Area Training Organisations, new regional committees to co-ordinate the education and training of teachers. These will be composed in such a way as to reflect the interests of local education authorities, the training institutions and their staff and the teaching profession.

Academic validation should remain the responsibility of the existing academic bodies—the senates of universities, the academic boards of polytechnics and colleges of education and the CNAA. But the Government expect these bodies to continue and, indeed, develop the arrangements by which the teaching profession andthe local education authorities are associated closely with their work.

Following the Working Party's Report in 1970 on a "Teaching Council in England and Wales" the Secretary of State has it in mind to set up an Advisory Committee on the Supply and Training of Teachers broadly on the model recommended. Problems of professional recognition require further discussion.

109

DIPLOMA OF HIGHER EDUCATION

The Government believe that there would be considerable support for the introduction of new two-year courses leading to a Diploma of Higher Education (Dip.HE) with the following characteristics: (1) the normal minimum entry qualification should be the same as for degrees or comparable courses; (2) courses should be offered by institutions in each of the main sectors of higher education; (3) the qualification offered after two years should be generally acceptable as a terminal qualification and in particular as a qualification needed for entry to appropriate forms of employment; (4) courses should also be seen as providing a foundation for further study and be designed, where appropriate, in such a way as to earn credit towards other qualifications, including degrees; (5) courses should be validated by existing degree awarding bodies; (6) it is the Government's intention that Diploma of Higher Education students should qualify for mandatory awards.

NUMBERS AND COSTS IN HIGHER EDUCATION

By 1981 the Government would expect to be providing for about 200,000 under 21 year old entrants a year from Britain to courses in higher education—about 22 per cent of those then aged 18 compared with 7 per cent in 1961 and 15 per cent in 1971. This would by that time bring the total of full-time and sandwich course places, allowing for older entrants and those coming from abroad, to about 750,000. They have adopted this figure as the basis for longer-term planning.

The fastest expansion should continue to be in the polytechnics and other non- university colleges, so that by 1981 there might be 375,000 places in each of the[university and non-university sectors in Britain. About 335,000 places would be in the non-university higher education institutions in England and Wales.

If this expansion is to take place over the next decade unit costs cannot be allowed to go on rising and scope must be found for economies, and it is proposed that there should be a continuing review in the course of future quinquennial and Rate

110

Support Grant negotiations. The Government consider that the future financing of higher education should be based on a gradual transition in staffing ratios to an average level of about 10:1 by the end of the decade.

The continuing expansion of higher education will require substantial provision to be made for the residential accommodation as well as tuition of students and the Government are examining what steps might be taken to encourage many more students to base themselves at home while studying. It is thought to be unrealistic and unnecessary for such a high proportion of students to reside and study at a distance if equally acceptable courses are available within daily travelling distances of their homes.

UNIVERSITIES

The White Paper also announces the terms of the quinquennial settlement. Grants (at 1972 survey prices) to be made available to universities during the 1972–77 quinquennium, and which provide for 254,000 undergraduates by 1976–77 are as below:

Provision has been made for the number of postgraduate students to be increased in the new quinquennium by 7,000 to 52,000, representing 17 per cent of a total of 306,000 full-time students as compared with 19 per cent in 1971–72. At the same time the grants will enable the universities to increase the number of part-time students to the full-time equivalent of 15,500 giving a total of 321,500.

The Government have told the University Grants Committee that they would think it reasonable to plan on the assumption that 47 per cent of the full-time students in 1976–77 will be arts-based and 53 per cent will be science-based, representing a small movement towards the arts.

In order to meet requirements for places £29 million has been allocated for the 1974–75 building programme. This includes provision for a further 11,000 residential places to be started in 1974–75, bringing the total in 1975–76 to about 130,000.

111

The Government are satisfied that the new 1976–77 target of student numbers can be achieved without adding to the number of universities.

POLYTECHNICS AND OTHER COLLEGES

By 1981 it is planned that in the non-university institutions in England and Wales there should be places for 335,000 full-time and sandwich students, with the greater part of the total in polytechnics. Other further education colleges and colleges of education will need to provide for about 155,000 compared with 138,000 now. Continuing the expansion already under way, polytechnic major building projects planned to start in the two years 1973–75 amount to £46 million; in addition for the same period £36 million has been allocated for major building projects for other further education colleges and £8 million for residential accommodation, mainly at polytechnics; provision will be made in later programmes for further expansion.

In planning the expansion of full-time and sandwich courses three points have to be taken into consideration: (1) the concentration of very large numbers of students which presents acute problems of residence and transport; (2) the need for an institution to reach a critical size to obtain full economies of scale, and (3) the need wherever possible to provide courses within reasonable reach of their homes for part-time students who wish to combine study with employment, and for a higher proportion of full-time students to be based at home.

COLLEGES OF EDUCATION

The Government's plans will require some 510,000 qualified teachers in the schools by 1981. The present growth of the teaching force is 18–20,000 teachers a year, and there must soon be some reduction in the rate of recruitment. It is estimated that 75–85,000 training places (including 15,000 as their share of the provision for in-service training and induction) will be required in colleges of education (and polytechnic departments) by 1981 compared with 114,000 in 1971–72. Some colleges either singly or jointly should develop over the period

112 into major institutions of higher education concentrating on the arts and human sciences. Others will be encouraged to combine forces with neighbouring polytechnics or other colleges of further education to fill a somewhat similar role.

Many of the 160 colleges are comparatively small and inconveniently located for development into larger general purpose institutions. Some will continue to be needed exclusively for teacher education with increasing emphasis on in-service training, some may seek greater strength by reciprocal arrangements with the Open University, while others may find a place in the expansion of teachers' and professional centres. Some may have to be converted to new purposes; some may need to close.

THE ORGANISATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION

The Secretary of State and the Local Authority Associations agreed in principle after helpful discussions last year that improved arrangements were needed for the co-ordination and provision of higher education in the non-university sector if the anticipated programme of expansion was to be planned to the best advantage. These discussions were temporarily adjourned because the Associations were heavily engaged with the reform of local government, and the recommendations of the James Committee were awaited.

The logic of the conclusions recorded in the White Paper is that the substantial broadening of function proposed for the great majority of the colleges of education will involve their much closer assimilation into the rest of the non- university sector of further and higher education. This could mean that a college which expands and diversifies—either alone or by joining forces with a sister college or a further education institution—would not be easily distinguishable by function from a polytechnic or other further education college. The Church of England Board of Education have expressed their general support for the Government's proposals; discussions with the Roman Catholic authorities are still at a preliminary stage.

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The discussions with the Associations will now be resumed to consider further these questions of organisation and also to review the composition, functions and boundaries of the Regional Advisory Councils for Further Education. The problems posed by the concentration of colleges in the Greater London area and the South-East region will require separate discussion with the authorities concerned.

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