PREVENTING TERRORISM? CONFLICT RESOLUTION and NATIONALIST VIOLENCE in the BASQUE COUNTRY Ioannis Tellidis a Thesis Submitted
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PREVENTING TERRORISM? CONFLICT RESOLUTION AND NATIONALIST VIOLENCE IN THE BASQUE COUNTRY Ioannis Tellidis A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of PhD at the University of St. Andrews 2008 Full metadata for this item is available in the St Andrews Digital Research Repository at: https://research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk/ Please use this identifier to cite or link to this item: http://hdl.handle.net/10023/426 This item is protected by original copyright This item is licensed under a Creative Commons License Preventing Terrorism? Conflict Resolution and Nationalist Violence in the Basque Country Ioannis Tellidis Thesis submitted for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY In the School of International Relations, UNIVERSITY OF ST. ANDREWS September 2007 i Abstract This study examines the debates on nationalism, terrorism and conflict resolution, and intends to identify, on the one hand, the reasons why and the instances in which nationalist discourses usurp the notions of political violence and present it as a legitimate option for opposing a State, and on the other, whether there exist circumstances where conflict resolution techniques and approaches can be useful in isolating terrorist discourses from the nationalist ones, without necessarily criminalising the latter. The study employs a critical and discourse analysis approach to explaining ethno-nationalist and terrorist phenomena, arguing that a contextualisation of the nationalist and terrorist objects of study is necessary in order to comprehensively analyse the relationship between the two, and the instances where the former gives rise to the latter. The purpose of the study is to develop a theoretical framework for the understanding of nationalism and terrorism as interconnected practices, and looks into ways in which conflict resolution can intervene and prevent the infusion of the two. In order to test this framework, the thesis examines the Basque conflict and discusses how the discriminatory practices of the Francoist dictatorship towards the Basques played a catalytic role in their acceptance of violence as a legitimate vehicle of pursuit of the nationalist aim of independence, and how the radicalisation of counter- terrorist practices after the democratic transition further distanced the civil society from both the State and the militant group. The study analyses the role of the Basque civil society, and how it became the primary actor in the transformation of the conflict by rejecting violent practices from both the State and ETA, while at the same time promoting a more civic aspect of the Basque nationalist discourse. This attitude allows the thesis to conclude that, contrary to theories of conflict resolution, the State can combat terrorism most effectively when it allies with civil society in the alteration of perceptions that perpetuate violence, but instead favour a strictly political approach to the pursuit of political objectives, like self-determination. ii Declarations I, Ioannis Tellidis, hereby certify that this thesis, which is approximately 80,000 words in length, has been written by me, that it is the record of work carried out by me and that it has not been submitted in any previous application for a higher degree. date……………..signature of candidate…………………….. I was admitted as a research student in September 2002 and as a candidate for the degree of PhD in September 2002; the higher study for which this is a record was carried out in the University of St Andrews between 2002 and 2007. date…………….signature of candidate……………………… I hereby certify that the candidate has fulfilled the conditions of the Resolution of Regulations appropriate for the degree of PhD in the University of St Andrews and that the candidate is qualified to submit this thesis in application for that degree. date……………signature of supervisor…………………… In submitting this thesis to the University of St Andrews I understand that I am giving permission for it to be made available for use in accordance with the regulations of the University Library for the time being in force, subject to any copyright vested in the work not affected thereby. I also understand that the title and abstract will be published, and that a copy of the work may be made and supplied to any bona fide library or research worker date…………….signature of candidate…………………… iii Contents Abstract ii Acknowledgements v Terms and Abbreviations vi Introduction 1 1 Basque Tales of Nationalism 15 2 Theories of Nationalism: Culture, Identity and Symbolism 31 3 Theories of Terrorism: Critical Approaches to Violence 75 4 Theories of Conflict Resolution: Root Causes and Human Needs 107 5 Framework of Analysis 133 6 Ethno-Terrorism and the Basques 159 7 Conflict Resolution and the Basques: The Human Need for Peace 183 Conclusion 203 Bibliography 214 iv Acknowledgements The first time I found myself interested in the Basque conflict was during my first stay in Spain during which the most significant unilateral ceasefire was declared in 1998. The end of the ceasefire in 1999 and, more concretely, the first explosion (after the ceasefire) that killed Colonel Pedro Antonio Blanco in January 2000 was only blocks away from my house, and it had a significant effect in my desire to study the Basques and the reasons behind their violent attitudes in a liberal democratic state like Spain. I am very grateful to all in the University of St Andrews for their help and support in my study. In particular, I am immensely grateful to my supervisor, Professor Oliver P. Richmond, for his guidance, persistence, strong interest and patience, which at some points must have superseded that of Job. I am also grateful to the School of International Relations in the University of St Andrews who provided the necessary funding for the completion of my fieldwork. I am also grateful to Dr Norman Reid and the staff of the Special Collections Department of the University of St Andrews Library who proved to be more than just colleagues and showed their practical support when the going got tough with my thesis. I owe immense gratitude also to Professor Jesús Martín Ramirez and Dr Tina Lindhart-Ramirez who virtually adopted me as their son, providing for my material and intellectual needs during my stay in Spain. Of course, I cannot forget the many people in Madrid and the Basque Country, who spent some of their time answering my questions and engaging in very fruitful and insightful conversations without which this study would have been incomplete. In particular, I would like to thank Gorka Espiau and Professor Ludger Mees for the time they devoted and the insights they offered for my study of the Basque conflict. Finally, the support of my family and my friends was invaluable and the main motivation for the completion of my thesis. My gratitude for their patience, help and support for this study will be eternal. Any errors, of course, are solely my responsibility. v Terms and Abbreviations EE Euskadiko Ezkerra (Basque Left) EGI Euzko Gaztedi Indarra (Basque Youth Force) Elkarri Association for Peace, Dialogue and Agreement Ertzaintza Basque Police ETA Euskadi Ta Askatasuna (Basque Homeland and Freedom) EU European Union Euskadi The Basque Country GAL Grupos Antiterroristas de Liberación (Anti-terrorist Liberation Groups) GAR Grupos Antiterroristas Rurales (Rural Anti-terrorist Groups) Gesto Co-ordinadora Gesto Por la Paz en Euskal Herria (Co- ordination of a Gesture for Peace in the Basque Country) HB Herri Batasuna (Popular Unity) LAB Langile Abertzaleen Batzordeak (Nationalist Workers’ Committees) MLVN Movimiento de Liberación Nacional Vasco (Basque National Liberation Movement) NGOs Non-Governmental Organisations OSCE Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe PIRA Provisional Irish Republican Army PNV Partido Nacionalista Vasco (Basque Nationalist Party) PP Partido Popular (Popular Party) PSOE Partido Socialista Obrero Español (Spanish Workers’ Socialist Party) UN United Nations vi INTRODUCTION When I first set the point of departure of this thesis, violence was the only dimension of the Basque conflict that interested me. I wanted to understand how is it possible for a liberal democratic state, as well as a minority extremist group to be violent, especially towards innocent people, in a country, a setting, that provides them all the necessary institutions to raise their grievance(s). There were many case studies which could have been selected, especially European, where liberal democracy is the norm, but the Basque case was the more provocative because, while researching, I realised there are so many instances where it deviates from existing theories of orthodox terrorism theories, as well as theories of conflict resolution. First and foremost, I realised that the liberal democratic state of Spain did not reflect the liberal qualities it claimed to endorse, when it found refuge in illegal activities that were branded ‘counter-terrorist’ in order to eliminate what it perceived to be a threat to its own survival. What is more, it seemed to follow the prescriptions of orthodox theories of terrorism according to which a liberal democratic setting must combat such minority groups because any grievances they might have may be communicated through the existing institutionalised channels that every liberal democratic state puts at the disposal of its citizens.1 This, as I saw in the examination of the Basque case, did not take into consideration ‘permanent’ minorities that were engaged in a futile battle against the wishes and the agendas of a ‘permanent’ majority. Second, my understanding of theories of conflict resolution according to which, any attempts to resolve the conflict reside mostly in the political will of official and semi- official actors, ran contrary to the phenomenon of Basque civil society taking control of the conflict resolution process, through the participation of social initiatives and with the aid of Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) that were set up precisely for the 1 Paul Wilkinson, 1990. “Some observations on the relationship between terrorism and freedom” in Martin Warner and Roger Crisp (eds.), Terrorism, Protest and Power, Aldershot: Edward Elgar, pp.