SOCIOLINGUISTIC SURVEY REPORT

FOR THE KUSAAL LANGUAGE

WRITTEN BY: JOHN BERTHELETTE

SIL International 2001 2

Contents

0 Introduction and Goals of the Survey

1 General Information 1.1 Language Classification 1.1.1 Language Location 1.1.2 Description of Location 1.2 Population 1.3 Accessibility and Transport 1.3.1 Roads: Quality and Availability 1.3.2 Public Transport Systems 1.3.3 Trails 1.4 Religious Adherence 1.4.1 Spiritual Life 1.4.2 Catholic Activity 1.4.3 Protestant Activity 1.4.4 Language Use Parameters Within Church Services 1.5 Schools/Education 1.5.1 Types, Sites, and Size 1.5.2 Attitude toward the Vernacular in Public Schools 1.6 Facilities and Economics 1.6.1 Supply Needs 1.6.2 Medical Needs 1.6.3 Occupations and Commercial Ventures 1.7 Traditional Culture 1.7.1 Social and Religious Practices 1.7.2 Attitude toward Culture 1.8 Linguistic Work in the Language Area 1.8.1 Materials Published in the Language 1.8.2 History of Literacy in the Agole and Tonde 1.8.3 Suitability of Existing Written Materials in the Tonde Dialect Area

2 Methodology 2.1 Sampling 2.2 Lexicostatistic Survey 2.3 Dialect Intelligibility Survey 2.4 Questionnaires

3 Comprehension and Lexicostatistical Data (between villages) 3.1 Reported Dialect Groupings: Results from Questionnaires and Interviews 3.2 Results of the Recorded Text Tests 3.3 Lexical Similarity Results: Percentages of Apparent Cognates 3.4 Summary

4 Multilingual Issues 4.1 Language Use Description 4.1.1 Children's Language Use 3

4.1.2 Adults’ Language Use 4.2 Language Attitudes as Reported

5 Recommendations with Regards to a Language/Literacy Project

Appendix 1 Population Data 2 Questionnaire Responses 3 A Word List of Kusaal Dialects

Bibliography 1 References 2 Other Materials about Kusaal 3 Materials Published in Kusaal 4 Contacts for Further Information 4

The Kusaal Survey Report

0 Introduction and Goals of the Survey

This report deals with the findings of a survey carried out by Carol and John Berthelette and Sonja Anderhalden among the Kusaal language group in April 1996. The Burkina Faso administration of the Société Internationale de Linguistique has for a number of years considered Kusaal's western dialect (known as tonde)1 a definite candidate for language development, despite Kusaal's eastern dialect (known as agole) already having been developed in Ghana. The survey had as its goal to gather certain information on the Kusaal ethnic group, such as:

♦ finding out more about their geographic and demographic setting; ♦ determining the inherent intelligibility between the agole and tonde dialects as well as insights into the attitudes of tonde (western) speakers towards agole (eastern); ♦ discovering their attitudes toward their own language variety, the vitality of the language, and the presence of other dialects.

1 General Information

1.1 Language Classification Kusaal falls under the following classification: “Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, North, Gur, Central, Northern, Oti-Volta, Western, Southeast, Kusaal” (Grimes 1992:175). In the Ethnologue, a book published by the Summer Institute of Linguistics including information on all of the known languages of the world, its code is “KNU”. The language is most closely related to Dagbani and Mampruli (Naden 1989:145), but is also closely related to Frafra (also known by the names Ninkaré or Gurenne) and Mooré. According to Prost, the similarity to Mooré is great, much more similar to Mooré than is Dagaara (Prost 1979:2).

1.1.1 Language Location The Burkina Faso Kusaal region is located in the country's southeastern corner, in the province of Boulgou. However, the great majority of the Kusasi (the name given to the speakers of the language) are found in northeastern Ghana. In Burkina Faso, the neighboring language to the west is Ninkarsé (a related dialect of Frafra); and to the north and east the Bissa. In Ghana, the Kusaal ethnic group is located in the Upper East district, and north of the Gambaga Scarp (Spratt 1968:1). The Kusasi's neighboring languages to the west are the Frafra, Nabdem, and Talensi; to the south is the Mamprusi; and to the east are the Bimoba and Moba. The Kusaal language area in Burkina Faso is roughly 700 km2, while in Ghana it is approximately 3,300 km2. See the map in figure 1.1.2.1 for further details.

1Père Mélançon referred to the dialect as “twen”. In later research, A. Prost found that his informants had not heard of the term; he concluded that they felt that they were the true Kusasi, and thus did not have a dialect name (Prost 1979:1). 5

1.1.2 Description of Location In Burkina Faso, the Kusasi people are found to the south and east of the central (Mossi) plateau. The area is somewhat hilly, and the general impression is that farmlands in the region are only fair. Laclavère, in his atlas of Burkina Faso, places the Kusaal in the range of the tree- vs. bush-marked areas of the country (Laclavère 1993:18), although this area may have certain patches of rather dense “dry” wooded areas. Regarding rainfall, the Kusaal area averages between 900 and 1,000 mm annually (Laclavère 1993:16).

The farmland in Ghana appears to be somewhat better, and to be sure, has a slightly higher annual rainfall. What is most striking about the Ghanaian region is that the White (Nakanbé) and Red (Nazinon) Volta Rivers pass through it, the White Volta being in general the boundary between the tonde and agole regions.

Figure 1.1.2.1 Map of the Kusaal Region 6

1.2 Population To our knowledge, there are 15 Kusasi villages in Burkina Faso, all of which are located in Boulgou Province's Zabré and Zoaga Departments. Simply calculating the Burkina Kusasi population according to the 1985 Burkina census (INSD 1991), and assuming a 2.68% population growth rate (Laclavère 1993:24), one arrives at a rounded figure of 17,000. It is extremely doubtful, however, that all of the Kusasi villages are made up only of Kusaal speakers: at the villages visited, we learned of the presence of members of neighboring people groups. Therefore, the total Kusasi-speaking population probably does not exceed 16,000. See table 1.1 in the appendix for a list of known Kusaal-speaking villages in Burkina Faso and their populations, as listed in the 1985 Burkina Faso Census Report.

The great majority of the Ghanaian Kusasi live in the Upper East Region. Nevertheless, we have two unresolved problems with the statistics available to us. We are forced to assume first that the White Volta River functions as the general boundary throughout the Ghanaian Kusaal territory; and are forced to use population statistics which date from 1988. What is more reliable in these statistics is the more precise breakdown of ethnic groups for each locality. Thus, we calculate there were approximately 245,000 Kusasi in the Bawku Administrative District (Ghana Evangelism Committee 1988:4/1–4/30). In the Upper East Region, there is an estimated 3.09% growth rate (Adams 1993:105), which would put the Kusasi current population at least 353,000. It would seem that around 72% of the total Kusasi population in Ghana are agole speakers. Table 1.2.1 contains a summary of the population statistics. See table 1.2 in the appendix for a list of Kusaal-speaking villages in Ghana and their populations.

Table 1.2.1 Population Estimates for the Kusasi Population from Projected 1997 Percent of the mid 1980s Population2 Total Kusasi Population Eastern Kusasi (agole) in Ghana 184,671 253,646 71.6%

Western Kusasi (tonde) in Ghana 60,686 83,353 23.5% Western Kusasi (tonde) in Burkina 12,463 17,118 4.8% Faso Total Western Kusasi (tonde) 73,149 100,471 28.4%

Totals 330,969 454,588

2Projected 1997 population with a growth rate of 3.09% in Ghana and 2.68% in Burkina Faso. 7

1.3 Accessibility and Transport

1.3.1 Roads: Quality and Availability In Burkina Faso, travel into the general Kusaal-speaking area is possible via Route 12 (from Zabré). In Ghana, access is provided mainly through the east/west Bolgatenga/Bawku and north/south Nakpanduri/Bawku roads. All of these roads appear to be fairly well-maintained. However, direct travel between the majority of Kusaal villages—which are a distance from main roads—can be difficult for a car or truck, as the interior roads are not always regraded each year. Aside from the villages located close to the major roads, travel within the area by 4-wheel vehicles is limited, especially during the wet season.

1.3.2 Public Transport Systems Bush taxis are rare along Route 12 between Burkina Faso and Ghana. There is, however, fairly easy transportation along the Bolgatenga/Bawku road in Ghana, providing a good possibility for contact between the agole and tonde regions.

1.3.3 Trails Trails join many of those villages not near the major roads. A trail, for example, exists from Youngou (Burkina Faso) to Bawku (Ghana), 25 kilometers away. These trails are mainly used for those on foot and on bicycle. 4-wheel vehicles often have quite a difficult time on these trails.

1.4 Religious Adherence

1.4.1 Spiritual Life In both Burkina Faso and Ghana, the traditional religion continues to have a very strong influence among the Kusasi. In both Youga and Binaba, respondents to our questionnaires affirm that followers of the traditional religion are more numerous than both Christians and Muslims. We must also presume that among Christians and Muslims, there are those who continue to practice the traditional ancestral devotion and sacrifices. More quantitative estimates are available for Ghana. According to the Ghana Evangelism Committee's statistics for the Upper East and West Districts, 73% of the population still practice the traditional religion (Adams 1993:103).

In Burkina Faso, the Kusasi have only begun to adopt Islam in the middle part of this century, according to the Catholic catechist in Youga. They are a quite small minority, numerically a much smaller group than both followers of traditional religions and Christians. Among the statistics for the Ghana Kusaal area, the Ghana Evangelism Committee estimates that in the Upper East and Upper West Districts, 13% of the population is Muslim, although it is unclear what proportion of these are Kusasi (Adams 1993:90). See table 1.4 in the appendix for a list of Ghanaian villages with mosques in the Kusaal region. 8

1.4.2 Catholic Activity The Roman Catholic Church has been in the region for a number of years. Yet in Burkina Faso, there are only three villages with a Roman Catholic chapel, and in Ghana approximately 30 (out of 260 villages). There is thus not a great amount of Roman Catholic influence among the Kusasi. See table 1.3 in the appendix for a list of Roman Catholic Churches among the Kusasi in Burkina Faso, and table 1.4 for a list of those in Ghana.

1.4.3 Protestant Activity We know of Protestant congregations in Bingo, Bougouré, Youga, Zama, and Zoaga, as well as in Youngou, where there is a Kusasi minority.

In Ghana, a large number of denominations work among the Kusasi. See table 1.3 in the appendix for a list of Protestant churches among the Kusasi in Burkina Faso, and table 1.4 for a list of those in Ghana.

1.4.4 Language Use Parameters Within Church Services Among both the Roman Catholic and Protestant churches in Burkina Faso, Mooré and Kusaal are both used during the services. In the case of the Roman Catholic and Assemblies of God congregations at Youga, Mooré is used for the reading of the Scripture portions, for prayer and for some singing. As for the Assemblies of God congregation in Bingo, Kusaal plays a more central role. Regarding the situation in Ghana, we do not have information on language use.

1.5 Schools/Education

1.5.1 Types, Sites, and Size While there are encouraging signs in the area of primary education nationwide, it is available to a somewhat limited number of Burkina Faso Kusasi children. Of the 15 Kusaal villages in the southern area, only 4 have primary schools. While other areas of Burkina Faso have had many schools opened since 1980, there has been only one opened in the Kusaal region. According to MEBAM statistics of 1994–1995, 37.3% of Boulgou Province's boys attended school, while only 24.6% of girls attended.3 See table 1.5 in the appendix for a list of primary schools in Kusaal-speaking villages in these provinces.

In primary education, a great deal remains to be done in Burkina Faso both in encouraging the attendance of girls as well as in increasing the number of places for children. As is the case throughout the country, middle and high schools are much less common. The closest middle and high schools for Kusasi children are in Zabré.

3Boulgou Province lies on the lower end of the scale if one is to compare their rate of scolarisation with that of the other provinces of Burkina. While their rate of scolarisation is double that of Gnagna Province's 11%, for example, it is much lower than Kadiogo's 80%, and even neighboring Nahouri's 40%. 9

In the Kusaal region of Ghana, the primary education situation appears somewhat more encouraging. Just over 100 of the 260 villages/towns have primary schools, and some of these towns have more than one. It appears as well that Ghanaian students have greater opportunities to attend junior secondary school than do Burkina Faso students leaving CM2, judging from the responses of school teachers in Binaba.

Concerning adult literacy in Kusaal, none is carried out in Burkina Faso. The organization Pag-La-Yiri is involved in literacy in the Kusaal area, and its classes are in Mooré. Despite the use of Mooré in these centers, the program's coordinator in the department of Zabré, Molle Sarato Gouba, states that the program has had good response. Seven Kusaal villages were known to have Initial Literacy classes and 4 have classes in Advanced Literacy. Two-thirds of those enrolled are women, and of those enrolled, 75% pass (Gouba 1996, personal conversation). The Pag-La- Yiri program is not necessarily tied to Mooré, however. Again according to the Director, if there were teaching guides, primers, and post-literacy materials, Pag-La- Yiri would be very willing to help in Kusaal literacy.

Across the border, it appears that various agencies are involved in literacy in the vernacular. As we shall see later, at least some villages carry out a period of primary education in Kusaal. Furthermore, at least two organizations carry out adult literacy. It appears that the Bawku East District's Non-formal Educational Program has had a fair amount of success. In the West District, the organization Action Aid has been involved in adult literacy. In carrying out their program, Action Aid concluded that materials should be developed in tonde; that decision has had much influence in the Kusaal literacy scene. In summary, the Ghana Institute of Linguistics, Literacy and Bible Translations (GILLBT) reported in 1996 that there were 120 teachers of Kusaal in two levels, Basic and Advanced, with over 3670 students enrolled (GILLBT 1996).

1.5.2 Attitude toward the Vernacular in Public Schools As is the case elsewhere in Burkina Faso, schoolmasters in the public school system do not use the vernacular in their classes; French is the language of instruction. Only with the very beginning students will teachers use Kusaal, according to a teacher in Bingo.

In Ghana, however, at least certain villages and perhaps many, conduct beginning primary education in the vernacular, in what is apparently a similar program to the recently developed Ecoles Satellites program in Burkina Faso.

1.6 Facilities and Economics

1.6.1 Supply Needs Within the Burkina Faso Kusaal-speaking region, major markets are at Burkina Faso's Bougouré (tonde) and Zabré (Bissa-speaking), as well as in Ghana's towns of Zebilla (tonde region) and Bawku (agole region). Residents of Youga, located in the region's eastern zone, state that they go to market in Bawku at least 3 or 4 times 10 per month, despite the fact that Bawku is 25 km away. Bingo residents go to market in Zebilla.

Access to these market towns is quite easy for those on two-wheel transportation. As for villages further from major roads, we can only assume that they become very difficult to reach, especially in the wet season.

1.6.2 Medical Needs Pharmacies are located in the larger towns, such as Mong Naba and Youga. The closest hospital is in Zabré, a Bissa town.

1.6.3 Occupations and Commercial Ventures There are very few Kusasi who are not farmers; for the most part, extra income comes only from selling any cash crops (such as cotton) which one may have planted. Very few villagers have work on the side.

1.7 Traditional Culture

1.7.1 Social and Religious Practices There are certain cultural differences between the agole and tonde Kusasi, examples cited being the number of days for the celebration of a funeral ceremony and traditional dances (Abenim 1996, personal conversation). Marriages are permitted between agole and tonde speakers, as well as with Mossis and Bissa. Comparing the Kusasi with other ethnic groups, Robert and Nancy Schaefer believe the former are rather decentralized (Schaefer 1996, personal conversation).

1.7.2 Attitude toward Culture The Kusasi have a positive attitude towards their culture; they appear to be content with their cultural practices. Both agole and tonde are proud of the distinctness of their cultures. Nevertheless, tonde speakers report that there has been a certain amount of outside influence which has penetrated into agole language and customs (Abenim 1996, personal conversation). The tonde assert that they are the keepers of the purer forms. This is not unlikely, as Bawku is a multicultural center. Another difference concerns the agole area in general having more wealth than the tonde area, as well as having a larger core of educated Kusasi. A final difference appears to be less of a “spirit of volunteerism” among the tonde; they do not come together as readily to accomplish goals (Awimbille 1996, personal conversation).

In general, it is certain that some cultural change is taking place in both regions with ease of transportation. It appears that some young people prefer settling in towns in order to earn money. 11

1.8 Linguistic Work in the Language Area

1.8.1 Materials Published in the Language In the area of linguistics, the agole dialect of Kusaal has received the most attention. Researchers by the name of G. Cansdale and R. S. Rattray carried out initial analysis (Spratt 1968:2). Père Mélançon did research in the field of etymology and comparatives (Prost 1979:2). André Prost did a phonological analysis, this on the tonde dialect.

David and Nancy Spratt of the Summer Institute of Linguistics began work among the Kusasi in 1962 (Spratt 1968:2), initially spending at least two years in the tonde region, before moving on to the agole dialect region. There they helped in the development of basic reading materials, a short Kusaal-English dictionary, a phonological summary, as well as translations of Christian Scripture. At this time, the following post-literacy books have been published: a beginning and advanced primer, two books on folk tales, two on proverbs, one on riddles, a how-to book, and one publication for bridging into English. In 1995, a revision of the New Testament was completed.

In the late 1980s, Action Aid published a primer in the tonde dialect. There are apparently certain other materials that have been produced in that dialect.

Unfortunately, the bibliographical material is not available for many of these materials. Furthermore, information on any research carried out by university students is unavailable. See section 2 of the bibliography for a list of certain materials for which we have bibliographical references.

There is a noticeable lack of materials—especially in the way of teaching helps—in French.

1.8.2 History of Literacy in the Agole and Tonde Michael Awimbille, an agole speaker, has been working in Kusaal literacy for the Ghana Institute of Linguistics, Literacy and Bible Translation (GILLBT) for the last 15 years. He offers the following history of literacy work in Kusaal and offers his interpretation of the present state of affairs.

In the 1960s, the Spratts first settled in a Zebilla, a tonde village. After 3 years, they moved their work to the agole region for the following reasons: they realized that the majority of Kusasi were speakers of agole; that the majority of Kusasi Christians were agole; and that the economic and political center was Bawku, an agole village. During their stay in the Kusasi region—from the late 1960s to 1977— little was done in literacy. When they left, they passed down the literacy task to the churches of the area.

Literacy was carried out on a small scale in the far eastern agole area until the late 1970s, then for 3 years came to a halt. It was in 1982 when a real effort in literacy began. The first teacher training course involving tonde speakers took place at this time; two tonde speakers even became literacy supervisors. At that point, according to Awimbille, the dialect difference was not seen as a problem area. Until 12

1989, both agole primers and the New Testament were used throughout in the tonde area without major questions raised.

Awimbille states that the certain government/administrative decisions began to create a desire for materials in tonde. The 1989–1990 creation of the Western Bawku District, a new political division, was one factor. The Western Bawku District in general comprises the tonde region. Apparently, this autonomy helped to fuel the desire for materials in tonde. Another factor, mentioned previously, was the involvement of both a government functional literacy program and a Non- Government Organization, Action Aid, in the Western Bawku District. (Indeed, in the case of the government literacy organ, its publishing certain materials in a second dialect of a language is rare in Ghana. It is noteworthy as well that its practice of paying teachers will be hard for GILLBT, which does not pay, to overcome.)

Further accentuating factors are: first, the present District Executive is quite strongly pro-tonde; second, the Ghanaian government has elevated a tonde chief to the level of paramount chief, a privilege reserved before 1997 to the agole; and third, the revolution in Ghana has created a certain independent spirit, resulting in the tonde feeling justified in asserting their desires. As a final observation, the medium of radio is carried out in both tonde and agole.

In general, Awimbille believes that the tonde's negative attitudes toward the agole speech variety have grown stronger in recent times. He believes that this is in part due to the tonde speakers having the availability of written materials in tonde. But he also ties in a certain desire of tonde speakers to enjoy advantages that the agole have had. With Bawku as the provincial capital, hospitals and schools were built in the agole region. The tonde are now seeking to gain some of these same benefits. He believes that one is more likely to say “I'm tonde” or “I'm agole” than to say “I'm Kusasi”.

To sum up, Awimbille feels that in the present state of affairs it would be very hard for tonde to accept agole written materials. Yet he states that GILLBT would be very reticent to develop materials in tonde, due to its policy of working in only one dialect of a language.

It may be helpful to note that the tonde/agole debate is not necessarily recent. David Spratt has stated that the tonde view their speech variety as being the purer form of Kusaal. He affirmed that the tonde did not widely accept the original New Testament. As may be expected, some tonde speakers were upset that the Spratts moved to the agole region (Spratt 1994, correspondence).

1.8.3 Suitability of Existing Written Materials in the Tonde Dialect Area Several people consulted offer opinions about agole materials.

♦ The Anglican pastor in Binaba, Ghana claims to have problems in reading the Agole 1976 version of the New Testament; he is hoping that there is an improvement with the revised version. He claims that certain church leaders have talked of working on a purely tonde version of the Old 13

Testament, though finding the personnel required is a major stumbling block.

♦ Lesli Reitzeger, a literacy worker in the early 1980s in Bawku, reports tonde speakers having problems with agole materials (Groff 1983:7).

♦ A further problem was cited by Robert and Nancy Schaefer, linguist/translators in the area. They claim that before a translation was carried out in Kusaal, the Mooré New Testament was used. During this time, certain Mooré terms became entrenched in church language. It is unclear to what extent the revised New Testament corrected this outside influence.

♦ Related to the above, a difficult area to evaluate is the potential confusion caused by influences of the country's official language. This factor may affect comprehension and possibly attitudes toward the message, and apparently has the greatest influence through proper names. (A Kusasi teacher in Burkina Faso mentioned this problem.) For example, in Ghana, where the official language is English, proper names may be anglicized to a degree in its translations. Likewise, in Burkina Faso, names may have a French influence. Furthermore, what confusion is caused by differences in the accepted orthography and alphabet of Ghana, which differ in certain respects from what is practiced in Burkina Faso?

♦ A Kusasi Protestant pastor in Bingo, fluent in Mooré, feels Mooré materials are more effective in reaching Burkina Faso Kusasi than the older agole materials. (We tried an informal experiment with an excerpt of revised materials and he still appeared to have difficulties, while he showed no difficulties in reading from either his Mooré New Testament or a tonde ABC pamphlet.) This pastor states that he would enthusiastically help in a project to translate Scripture materials into tonde.

♦ Finally, we were able to ask certain questions to a group of 30 literacy teachers during a workshop in Zebilla. They stated that certain words in the agole teaching materials were different, as was the intonation. These problems were not insurmountable; they nevertheless increased the time it took to teach the material. The instructors at the same time noted attitude problems. Students question why they must learn another language.

On the other hand, Awimbille offers something of a counter-argument. He states that among the Assembly of God pastors, 50% of the tonde pastors work in the agole region, and report few problems with agole materials. Timothy Azuma, District Organizer for Ghana's Non-Formal Educational Program in the Bawku-east District, sees no problem of using agole materials in the tonde region (Azuma 1996, personal conversation). Furthermore, as mentioned above, a revision of the New Testament was completed in 1995. The team, including two agole and one tonde speaker, had as their goal to resolve some of the problem areas with the older edition. 14

A final note concerns written materials in Mooré. According to Catholic and Protestant church leaders in Burkina Faso, certain groups of the Kusasi have difficulties in understanding Mooré.

2 Methodology

2.1 Sampling In this survey, we wished to gather most of our information from the tonde Kusaal region, as this was the region without written materials. With this goal in mind, we visited the villages of Youga and Bingo in tonde/Burkina Faso and Binaba in tonde/Ghana. We also recorded a text in Bugri, an agole village to the southeast of Bawku, for the intelligibility tests. To explain further, we wished to discover the extent of inherent intelligibility (that is, understanding which is not as a result of learning) between the tonde and agole Kusaal speeches. The key point of the survey would be the testing of the Bugri text in the tonde region.

2.2 Lexicostatistic Survey To determine the degree of lexicostatistic similarity, we elicited a 230 word word list, a tool which includes words from various parts of speech. These lists were checked by comparing the data given with data received from other Kusaal villages. Section 3 in the appendix contains the data from these word lists.

2.3 Dialect Intelligibility Survey In order to measure the degree of inherent intelligibility between speakers of the various dialects, we followed the methodology developed by E. Casad (1974), commonly referred to as the Recorded Text Test. The various steps are as follows:

1. A text is elicited from a native speaker of Village A, a text as free as possible from objectionable subject matter and words borrowed from another language. 2. A group of 12–15 questions are developed based on the text. These questions are recorded in the dialect of Village A and inserted into the text. From six to ten native speakers of the dialect of Village A listen to the text and respond to the questions, in order that any bad or misleading questions can be isolated and removed. The 10 best questions, to which almost all native speakers have responded correctly, are chosen for the final form of the test. 3. The refined text/test of Village A is played in Village B, having recorded Village A's questions in the dialect of Village B. At least 10 speakers in Village B listen to the text, responding to the questions. Their cumulative scores on the recorded test are taken as the percentage of their intelligibility with the dialect of Village A.

A note about sampling: in the testing process in Village B, it is very important to be aware of and guard against the influence of factors that may skew the results, and in particular, factors which may allow respondents to achieve higher scores. For example, it is important to choose candidates with very little or no previous contact 15 with speakers of Village A. Such exposure may allow them to score higher on this test designed to measure inherent (natural) intelligibility. In table 3.2.1, it is the standard deviation column which signals high contact, and therefore learned intelligibility. A high (above 1.6) standard deviation, a result of a wide range of test scores, suggests that some testees have “learned” to understand the speech tested.

Conversely, it is just as important to find candidates who can master the question/answer technique of the Casad methodology. It is sometimes not an easy task among those who have not gone to school. Therefore, in our testing, we took advantage of the presence of CM2 level students in Binaba and Bingo; they were our testees.

Linguists have debated the threshold of comprehension a speaker of one dialect must attain if he is to be reasonably expected to profit from literacy materials and a translation of the Scriptures. An accepted minimum threshold for the Summer Institute of Linguistics is 75% (Bergman 1990:9.5.2).4

In the village of Youga, we also conducted less formal Recorded Text Tests, known as the Rapid Appraisal Recorded Text Test. This procedure, like the one just described, involves playing recorded (and transcribed) stories. However, Rapid Appraisal Recorded Text Test differs in major ways with the methodology just described. First, the test is conducted not individually but in a group setting, with five or six people listening at once. Second, instead of responding to specific questions drawn from the story, one person of the group is randomly selected to provide a summary of what he/she has heard. In the case of a doubtful response or mistaken facts, a second (and third) person can be chosen to summarize that part of the story. As a third difference, the scoring of the story is not as quantitative: rating is done on a three point scale of very well, partial, or very poor.

2.4 Questionnaires During the Kusaal survey, both group and individual questionnaires were administered. Concerning the group questionnaire, we questioned two to four men from Bingo concerning both general demographic and general sociolinguistic matters; in Youga and Binaba, we asked only questions dealing with the dialect issue. The subject matter covered by the questionnaires ranged from the ethnic composition and facilities in the area to perceived dialect differences, bilingualism, and language use. The men were chosen by the village’s government representative, and sometimes the representative himself was included. Due to the surveyors’ not knowing the trade language and a desire to better monitor the questioning process, the questionnaires were carried out in French in Burkina Faso and in English in Ghana.

4In 1989, the Summer Institute of Linguistics' Area Directors and Vice Presidents established the language assessment criteria for the organization. This work is a set of standards for such domains as dialect intelligibility, bilingual ability, etc., in an attempt to guide decision-making as to the need for language development in specific situations. 16

The individual questionnaire was a modified form of the group sociolinguistic questionnaire; the relevant subject matter concerned self-appraisal of competence in Mooré, domains of language use, and language attitudes. Regarding the administration procedures, 13 subjects were tested, with 9 from Zoaga and 4 from Youga. Please note that in our evaluation of responses, data from the two sites are grouped together due to the small number of subjects from Youga.

As a final point, when possible we also interviewed available school teachers and religious leaders using prepared questionnaires.

Results of these questionnaires form the basis of much of our succeeding discussion on dialect attitudes (3.1) and multilingualism (4). Table 2.1 in the appendix contains a summary of responses to these questionnaires.

3 Comprehension and Lexicostatistical Data (between villages)

3.1 Reported Dialect Groupings: Results from Questionnaires and Interviews The issue of comprehension between the two dialects is quite divided, and in many cases, divisive. In section 1.8.3, dealing with the suitability of agole written materials in the tonde region, certain opinions were offered. Dealing specifically with the Burkina Faso Kusasi at Bingo and Youga, respondents note that certain words are different in the different speech varieties; a tonde speaker will sometimes need to have agole repeated in order to understand it. From responses to the individual questionnaire, the Kusasi recognize the tonde/agole division. Concerning how well they understand the tonde speech variety from Zebilla, 10 of 13 state that they understand this dialect very well; one subject states that he understands it somewhat well; while two understand it “a little”. The answers are almost exactly the opposite when asked about the agole speech variety of Bawku: 3 of 13 respondents from the Burkina tonde region state that they understand this dialect very well; two subjects stated that they understand it somewhat well; while 8 understand it “a little”. Finally, dealing with a question targeting attitudes, all 13 subjects state that their preferred dialect is tonde.

On another level, the tonde dialect apparently has less variation from region to region than the agole (Spratt n.d.:1).

3.2 Results of the Recorded Text Tests Table 3.2.1 shows the results of the Recorded Text Tests (RTT). In short, the Kusasi of Binaba had little difficulty with the stories played, even the agole (Bugri) text. In questioning the test takers afterwards, they recognized in general that the speech variety was different and had less confidence in what they heard. One girl, however, said she had a harder time with the Youga story. In questioning certain adults after the testing, they stated that there are more isolated villages than Binaba. A certain amount of agole is heard in the village, though the low standard deviation does not confirm there being much learned intelligibility.

Concerning the testing at Bingo, scores were lower, but still above the threshold of 75%. At Bingo there was a higher standard deviation, signifying a wider 17 range of scores and therefore presumably some learned intelligibility. Yet the standard deviation is not excessively high. Residents from Bingo had little trouble with the Binaba (tonde) story.

Table 3.2.1 Results of the Recorded Text Tests in the Kusaal Area Test Text of Number of Number of Percent Standard Conducted Which Females Males Comprehen- Deviation5 in: Village: Tested Tested sion

Binaba Binaba 2 8 100 0.00 Bugri 2 8 94.5 0.57 Youga 2 8 94 0.80

Bingo Youga 2 8 94.5 0.69 Bugri 2 8 80.5 1.23 Binaba 2 8 93 0.51

In RTT testing conducted in 1983 by Randy Groff and Ole Kristensen, similar results were obtained for one of the villages tested (Zoaga, whose score was 77.5%). In the other village tested, the scores were at 89%, which the team took to be the result of hearers being given second chances to listen to segments of stories (Groff 1983:6). As stated above, we were able to carry out a Rapid Appraisal Recorded Text Test in Youga. In this situation, we had four boys and one girl, all CM2 students at the local elementary school. The results are shown in table 3.2.2. In short, the test takers had little difficulty with either story.

Table 3.2.2 Results of the Rapid Appraisal Recorded Text Test in Youga Text of Which How Well the Comments: Village: Stories Were Understood: Binaba Very well. Missed They recognize that the story is told in their only one or two dialect. Adult bystanders also say that it is details. well-spoken. Bugri Very well. Missed They say it is not as clear as the Binaba story, only one or two and recognize that it is not their dialect. Four details. out of the five say that they sometimes talk with people who speak like that.

5Note: standard deviation is one indicator which signals high contact, and therefore learned intelligibility. The standard deviations in the Kusaal tests were comfortably low. 18

Please note that we did not test agole speakers with a tonde text, both due to lack of time and because it is rather a moot question, as written materials already exist in the agole speech.

3.3 Lexical Similarity Results: Percentages of Apparent Cognates Table 3.3.1 displays the percentages of lexical similarity between the three Kusaal villages visited. It goes without saying that the percentages are quite high. While the two tonde villages have a slightly higher percentage of apparent cognates between them than between each and the agole village, it is doubtful that this difference is statistically significant.

Table 3.3.1 Percentages of Apparent Cognates in the Kusaal Dialects Youga: Tonde Kusaal (Burkina Faso)

92 Binaba: Tonde Kusaal (Ghana)

88 86 Bugri: Agole Kusaal (Ghana)

In the survey carried out by Groff and Kristensen, they noted approximately the same figures: 96% apparent cognates between Zoaga and Youga, two Burkina Faso tonde villages, and 84% apparent cognates between the agole (Bawku) and the tonde villages (Groff 1983:5). Section 3 in the appendix contains the word list from this survey.

3.4 Summary On the basis of results of the Recorded Text Test and calculations of lexical similarity alone, there is little justification for the development of the tonde dialect. Results show that there is at least high one-way intelligibility, that is, tonde speakers having little difficulties with the agole variety. In the final analysis, the high level of inherent intelligibility must be weighed against attitudes of tonde speakers to agole.

4 Multilingual Issues

4.1 Language Use Description

4.1.1 Children's Language Use In the case of both Burkina Faso and Ghana, the main language used by Kusasi children is Kusaal. At home and in playing among themselves, the Kusasi children speak in Kusaal. Only 1 of 13 respondents to our individual questionnaires state that Kusasi youth use Mooré even when there are no Mossi present. The respondents at Bingo state that Kusasi children learn to understand Mooré later in childhood, near age 10. This fact is confirmed by a school teacher in Bingo, who states that at the time of entering school, children do not understand Mooré at all. 19

As a further point, there appears to be little indication of Mooré infiltrating Kusaal. Despite the fact that Zoaga supposedly has the strongest Mooré influence only one respondent of the 13 who answered stated that young people mix Mooré into their Kusaal. All 12 respondents who answered stated that children speak Kusaal as they should; all 12 feel that their grandchildren will still be speaking Kusaal in their villages.

In Ghana, the second language is English. Some children have learned English in day nurseries before entering school.

4.1.2 Adults’ Language Use In Burkina Faso, the adults use Kusaal for most local situations: at home, when speaking with other Kusasi, even at the local markets. The trade language in the area is Mooré. In general, the Kusasi use Mooré in speaking with non-Kusasi, especially Bissa and government officials. According to the answers to the individual questionnaires, they also use Mooré (and sometimes French) at the local dispensary and for formal religious practice.

Eight of those interviewed state that they have opportunity to speak Mooré every day, and in general the Kusasi affirm to have a fairly good functional ability in Mooré. Yet it appears that in areas demonstrating greater proficiency, most Kusasi show either a lack of ability or confidence. According to answers from the individual questionnaires, only 4 of 12 feel competent enough to pray, to correctly use Mooré proverbs or to do calculations rapidly in Mooré. Besides these self-appraisals, both a Catholic catechist in Youga and a school teacher in Bingo state that the young children and women have problems in understanding Mooré.

Some Burkina Kusasi women learn Bissa, due to market contact. There is apparently a fair amount of intermarriage between Bissa and Kusasi in certain villages of the Zabré region, a fact which encourages bilingualism (Monet 1989:4). Some of the adults, too, are literate in French.

In Ghana (Binaba), English is again stated to be the second language of adults. Nevertheless, English is not used every day; it is therefore certain that proficiency falls after one leaves school. Women are reputed to know English better than men.

4.2 Language Attitudes as Reported The Kusasi are proud of their language. Of the 13 interviewed, all respondents state that it is the most useful language of the region. Most Kusasi interviewed—12 of 13—would prefer to learn to read and write in Kusaal than in Mooré. And it remains the language of the heart, as shown in attitudes toward the preferred languages for religious ceremonies. According to respondents:

♦ 7 of 8 would like to see Kusaal used when communicating with ancestral spirits; 9 of the 9 who answered would prefer to use Kusaal when sacrifices are performed; and 8 of 9 would prefer use of Kusaal during funeral ceremonies; 20

♦ 13 of 13 state that traditional stories are best stated in the mother tongue.

A slightly lesser majority—5 of 8—would prefer to have Kusaal used in formal group worship, such as, for example, at church.

Yet the Kusasi have no apparent negative attitudes toward their second languages (Mooré in Burkina Faso and English in Ghana). Of the 13 who responded, 8 stated that they are not bothered by young Kusasi using Mooré in the home. In Burkina Faso, as stated above, literacy classes in Mooré have had a certain degree of success, and in Ghana Kusasi would like to learn English better. Burkina Kusasi also place fairly high importance on learning French, as it is a symbol of prestige.

5 Recommendations with Regards to a Language/Literacy Project

Evaluating the need for development of the tonde Kusaal dialect is an extremely difficult task. Judging from the results of the Recorded Text Test, it appears that there is a high level of inherent intelligibility on the tondes' part toward agole. Standardization of Kusaal would appear attainable. However, in my opinion, the question of need hinges on attitude. Tonde speakers in part hold very positive attitudes for the purity of their own dialect; in part have negative attitudes toward agole; and in part simply want some of the same advantages that agole speakers have enjoyed.

One cannot predict the result of a development project among the tonde; one cannot pinpoint the extent to which attitudes held by tonde speakers have affected receptivity of agole materials and desire to read. Especially drawing on the religious situation, there are growing congregations in the tonde area, even if we limit the discussion of need to the Kusaal region of Burkina Faso. In view of the traditional link between religious use of a language and general literacy in the community, I recommend that agole materials be adapted to the tonde region of Burkina Faso.6 I believe, therefore, that the effort of developing tonde would be worth it.

6The situation, of course, is complicated by the issue of official language, yet it seems premature to speak of materials adapted to the tonde area of Ghana. 21

Appendix

1. Population Data

Table 1.1 List of Kusaal Villages in Burkina Faso Province Department Village Population Boulgou Zabré Bourboko 1269 Boulgou Zabré Gonsé 176 Boulgou Zabré Songo 1010 Boulgou Zabré Wilogo 912 Boulgou Zabré Youkouka 386

Boulgou Zoaga Bingo 1008 Boulgou Zoaga Bougouré de Youga 1646 Boulgou Zoaga Dawéga 347 Boulgou Zoaga Koukadouré 130 Boulgou Zoaga Mong-Naba 656 Boulgou Zoaga Tabissi 137 Boulgou Zoaga (?) Youga 917 Boulgou Zoaga Zamé 919 Boulgou Zoaga Zerbogo 167 Boulgou Zoaga Zoaga 2783

Total 12,463 Total with annual increase 17,118 of 2.68%

Table 1.2 List of Kusaal Villages in Ghana7 District Section of District Village Population Bawku West North Tarikom-Tili 1024 Bawku West North Widinaba-Natinga 353 Bawku West North Goziesi-Zebilla 655 Bawku West North Kukogo 584 Bawku West North Kubongo 851 Bawku West North Weari 883 Bawku West North Widiguri 755 Bawku West North Kansorgo 923 Bawku West North Zorong 689 Bawku West North Teshi Natinga 150

7All villages are in the Upper East Province. 22

District Section of District Village Population Bawku West North Kperigu 680 Bawku West North Namorgo 638 Bawku West North Saago-Adasiga 746 Bawku West North Agogo-Garayoga 546 Bawku West North Timonde-Nagbego 712 Bawku West North Timonde-Biringo 863 Bawku West North Tandabote 609 Bawku West North Zebila 5103 Bawku West North Aneigo 1243 Bawku West North Yarigu 1323 Bawku West North Amkpaliga 808 Bawku West North Kosongo (Yapala) 1055 Bawku West North Timpolligu I 1185 Bawku West North Sakpare 1097 Bawku West Southwest Sapalugo-Tili 833 Bawku West Southwest Gbantongo-Natinga 732 Bawku West Southwest Zokpapaga 1063 (Azupupunga) Bawku West Southwest Gumbare Upper 541 Bawku West Southwest Kusanaba Natinga 667 Bawku West Southwest Peri-Zongoiri 958 Bawku West Southwest Buliga 1555 Bawku West Southeast Tili-Natinga 866 Bawku West Southeast Bozunde 1650 Bawku West Southeast Kuboko 1323 Bawku West Southeast Sakom 712 Bawku West Southeast Wiiga 695 Bawku West Southeast Gozezi Part 604 Bawku West Southeast Kyinadabuti 1004 Bawku West Southeast Gogogo-Natinga 1021 Bawku West Southeast Yadabute 477 Bawku West Southeast Tuni 1286 Bawku West Southeast Akoapelliga 856 Bawku West Southeast Yeliwojo 1806 Bawku West Southeast Kamega-Natinga 1425 Bawku West Southeast Gumbo-Binaba 1397 Bawku West Southeast Kpalisako 700 Bawku West Southeast Boya 1256 Bawku West Southeast Kongo 450 Bawku West Southeast Pilibiziago 516 Bawku West Southeast Azoawera 1045 Bawku West Southeast Gumbare-Lower 783 Bawku West Southeast Gori 1374 Bawku West Southeast Binaba-Tetako 2013 23

District Section of District Village Population Bawku West Southeast Gabuliga 581 District Section of District Village Population Bawku West Southeast Kopelia Natinga 728 Bawku West Southeast Akuri 1694 Bawku West Southeast Apodabogo 1631 Bawku West Southeast Dagunga 567 Bawku West Southeast Sabeogo 911 60686 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Kpatuu 565 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Sinebaga 472 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Shishie (Sisi) 125 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Danvonga 1214 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Boko 81 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Bulpielise 443 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Zari 437 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Yapala 533 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Tubong 242 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Gozesi 552 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Zotrikuom 1104 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Kwatia 762 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Kugbliela 354 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Duri 263 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Denugu 134 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Dusbuliga Dalakpaliga 1336 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Songure 1080 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Songo 694 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Takori 758 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Kugrasia 474 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Waadigu 305 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Atampodabogo 484 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Waskugua (Kugri) 708 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Kutiskpem 1018 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Mennatinga 507 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Atamidabogo 812 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Goringo (Aloko) 504 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Siiguri 424 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Pialogu 1039 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Gbeliginuusi 344 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Kugri Kpalsako 851 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Nisbuliga 671 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Ziseri 869 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Meliga 1110 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Benwoko 864 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Nadigiri 566 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Doadnyediga 617 24

District Section of District Village Population Bawku East Tempane-Garu Yabrago 2047 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Kukomadaa 922 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Tempane Nating 789 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Nyosbara 831 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Barboaka 1112 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Garu 2153 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Salogo 570 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Abilatega 557 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Gbanterago 1202 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Takpasi Natinga 777 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Gbanwbide (Naati) 562 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Tambalogo 379 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Nombokko 1088 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Napaadi 1237 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Kugzua 1080 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Taraganga 898 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Kagbiri Natinga 662 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Wempisi Bugri 632 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Kolsabuliga 462 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Kugsabla 707 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Gomne 163 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Warinyanga 1402 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Zanzribuliga 746 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Kugasego Bugri 1250 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Kpalog II 1915 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Karatesi Natinga 1487 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Wanwago 946 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Kpalsako 1925 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Kabonga 1114 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Kongo Chief's House 263 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Kulko 1151 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Bamamburi 303 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Dekuliga (Basuonde) 337 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Sabzundi 1736 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Adgbal 853 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Kolebore 913 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Bugri Natinga 863 Bawku East Tempane-Garu Bulpielise-Naboya 956 Bawku East Bawku U/C Nafikoliga-Natinga 488 Bawku East Bawku U/C Gumsi-Natinga 668 Bawku East Bawku U/C Aloko-Goor 546 Bawku East Bawku U/C Zulugu 1494 Bawku East Bawku U/C Kpatarigo 967 Bawku East Bawku U/C Belago-Kpokparago 887 Bawku East Bawku U/C Gotisalaga-Kpasak 390 25

District Section of District Village Population Bawku East Bawku U/C Kakasiego 284 Bawku East Bawku U/C Kakasiego & Kaabin 367 Bawku East Bawku U/C Gotisalaga Asalm 223 Bawku East Bawku U/C Belempis Anyagre 1032 Bawku East Bawku U/C Ninsako 1293 Bawku East Bawku U/C Zeego-Tansia 743 Bawku East Bawku U/C Tansia Market 1593 Bawku East Bawku U/C Tansiya Natinga 510 Bawku East Bawku U/C Tambilgu 1210 Bawku East Bawku U/C Kumpalgoga 284 Bawku East Bawku U/C Sakpari-Natinga 671 Bawku East Bawku U/C Bazua 1205 Bawku East Bawku U/C Porunzua 778 Bawku East Bawku U/C Asalige Zaugo 1393 Bawku East Bawku U/C Bankango 860 Bawku East Bawku U/C Binduri Natinga 390 Bawku East Bawku U/C Abillisi 652 Bawku East Bawku U/C Sakapari 153 Bawku East Bawku U/C Tinogo 1805 Bawku East Bawku U/C Narangsadgo 1197 Bawku East Bawku U/C Kpalugo-Zombo 753 Bawku East Bawku U/C Kuuya Na-Teng 257 Bawku East Bawku U/C Kabingo 1381 Bawku East Bawku U/C Zorsi-Natinga 933 Bawku East Bawku U/C Winnateng 783 Bawku East Bawku U/C Goseesi 1295 Bawku East Bawku U/C Zabugu 1223 Bawku East Bawku U/C Gowre Agricultural 1455 Station Bawku East Bawku U/C Manga-Nyorugu 512 Bawku East Bawku U/C Bawku-Sapieliga 516 Bawku East Bawku U/C Boko 516 Bawku East Bawku U/C Binguri 1179 Bawku East Bawku U/C Widnab-Zaugo 843 Bawku East Bawku U/C Kuloko-Suugin 1753 Bawku East Bawku U/C Bazua-Teng 583 Bawku East Bawku U/C Biaka 778 Bawku East Bawku U/C Barigun 1518 Bawku East Bawku U/C Sapeliga Tegbila 988 Bawku East Bawku U/C Yagure 1105 Bawku East Bawku U/C Nyorugo 808 Bawku East Bawku U/C Kpelewega 518 Bawku East Bawku U/C Natinga-Nayoko 1114 Bawku East Bawku U/C Bawku 16950 Bawku East Bawku U/C Misiga 722 26

District Section of District Village Population Bawku East Bawku U/C Zongo 2151 Bawku East Bawku U/C Buabula 693 Bawku East Bawku U/C Mogonorlor Gumbo 1415 Bawku East Bawku U/C Wiidi 1153 Bawku East Bawku U/C Kpalugu Zorsi Forest 1010 Reserve Bawku East Bawku U/C Abakanga Zorsi 1654 Bawku East Bawku U/C Tampiigogo 733 Bawku East Bawku U/C Sapeliga-Natinga 412 Bawku East Bawku U/C Guzongo (Guzaligo) 581 Bawku East Bawku U/C Bangabuk/Bansi 1839 Bawku East Bawku U/C Zorsi-Nating 1485 Bawku East Bawku U/C Gombo-Mognori 1421 Bawku East Bawku U/C Kpalugu 1120 Bawku East Bawku U/C Baribari 196 Bawku East Bawku U/C Kampont 512 Bawku East Bawku U/C Kampont 109 Bawku East Bawku U/C Zopeligo 450 Bawku East Bawku U/C Bador 163 Bawku East Bawku U/C Gumakutari 264 Bawku East Bawku U/C Mogonori 443 Bawku East Bawku U/C Yarigungu 844 Bawku East Bawku U/C Galaka 260 Bawku East Bawku U/C Galaka Natinga 456 Bawku East Bawku U/C Asam 353 Bawku East Bawku U/C Sapelliga-Natinga 478 Bawku East Bawku U/C Bugula-Kare 1393 Bawku East Bawku U/C Yirongo 401 Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Zuli 738 Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Gago 1128 Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Azirem 451 Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Zambala (West) 543 Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Zambala (East) 725 Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Bugri Natinga (East) 1306 Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Arizem (North) 449 Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Kuka (North) 1065 Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Bugpiigu 1367 Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Dabia 913 Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Lalsaa 698 Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Gbeogo 1015 Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Yumboku 835 Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Zabugunatinga 834 Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Goseesi 398 Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Dega 1230 Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Tesgbego 1462 27

District Section of District Village Population Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Zoabuliga 1896 Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Pialoko 1107 Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Nakambo 1834 Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Nakom 843 Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Nakambo (East) 926 Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Kamsori Tarivago 625 Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Zong-Natinga 604 Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Vorekuom 1077 Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Kyinchingu 113 Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Kugasegu 1244 Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Natinga 1111 Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Terago 929 Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Nenkogo 744 Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Bulugu 565 Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Olo Chief's Area 1079 Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Kulugungu 434 Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Ninkogo 1787 Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Kolnaba 396 Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Zongo 754 Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Natinga 145 Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Pusiga Market 752 Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Mandago-West 1405 Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Yariga 202 Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Widana 646 Total Bawku East: 184,671

Table 1.3 Christian Churches in the Burkina Faso Kusaal Region AG= Assemblies of God PR= Presbyterian AN= Anglican RCC= Roman Catholic LU= Evangelical Lutheran SD= Seventh-Day Adventist ME= Methodist SP= smaller “spiritual” or PE= Church of Pentecost independant African church

Province Department Village Christian Churches Boulgou Zoaga Bingo AG Boulgou Zoaga Bougouré AG RCC Boulgou Zoaga Youga AG RCC Boulgou Zoaga Zamé AG Boulgou Zoaga Zoaga AG RCC 28

Table 1.4 Christian Churches and Mosques in the Ghana Kusaal Region District Village Church (Protestant and No. Of Roman Catholic) Mosques Bawku East Abakanga Zorsi 4 Bawku East Abillisi 1 Bawku East Arizem (North) AG 2 Bawku East Asalige Zaugo 2 Bawku East Asam 2 Bawku East Azirem RCC 3 Bawku East Bamamburi 3 District Village Church (Protestant and No. Of Roman Catholic) Mosques Bawku East Bangabuk/Bansi PR 2 Bawku East Baribari 3 Bawku East Barigun 2 Bawku East Bawku AM ME PR AG SD RG 12 2SP PE Bawku East Bawku-Sapieliga 3 Bawku East Bazua PR RCC 3 Bawku East Bazua-Teng 1 Bawku East Belago-Kpokparago 2 Bawku East Belempis Anyagre PR RCC 1 Bawku East Biaka 1 Bawku East Binduri Natinga RCC 3 Bawku East Boko 1 Bawku East Buabula 6 Bawku East Bugpiigu 1 Bawku East Bugri Natinga (East) PR Bawku East Bugri Natinga (West) AG RCC 4 Bawku East Bugula-Kare PR 3 Bawku East Bulpielise RCC Bawku East Bulpielise-Naboya AG 4 Bawku East Bulugu 3 Bawku East Dabia 2 Bawku East Danvonga 7 Bawku East Dega 3 Bawku East Dekuliga (Basuonde) PR AG RCC 2 Bawku East Denugu RCC 3 Bawku East Dusbuliga Dalakpaliga RCC 7 Bawku East Gago RCC 1 Bawku East Galaka 1 Bawku East Galaka Natinga 3 Bawku East Garu PR AG RCC 6 Bawku East Gbanterago 1 Bawku East Gbeogo 4 29

District Village Church (Protestant and No. Of Roman Catholic) Mosques Bawku East Gombo-Mognori 3 Bawku East Gomne 2 Bawku East Goseesi AG 2 Bawku East Gowre Agricultural Station AG 4 Bawku East Gumakutari 2 Bawku East Gumsi-Natinga 1 Bawku East Kabonga 2 Bawku East Kampont 2 Bawku East Kamsori Tarivago 1 Bawku East Karatesi Natinga PR Bawku East Kolebore 6 Bawku East Kolsabuliga 4 Bawku East Kongo Chief's House RCC 4 Bawku East Kpalog II PR Bawku East Kpatia 3 Bawku East Kpatuu PR 1 Bawku East Kugasego Bugri PR Bawku East Kugasegu 3 Bawku East Kugbliela 1 Bawku East Kugri Kpalsako 2 Bawku East Kugsabla PR 7 Bawku East Kugzua RCC 3 Bawku East Kuka (North) AG RCC 1 Bawku East Kukomadaa PR Bawku East Kuloko-Suugin PR 2 Bawku East Kulugungu 8 Bawku East Kumpalgoga 1 Bawku East Kwatia 3 Bawku East Kyinchingu 2 Bawku East Lalsaa 1 Bawku East Manga-Nyorugu 3 Bawku East Meliga PR RCC Bawku East Mennatinga RCC Bawku East Misiga 2 Bawku East Mogonori 3 Bawku East Mogonorlor Gumbo 4 Bawku East Nafikoliga-Natinga AG RCC 2 Bawku East Nakambo 4 Bawku East Nakambo (East) 3 Bawku East Nakom AG 4 Bawku East Napaadi PR Bawku East Narangsadgo 1 Bawku East Natinga 16 Bawku East Natinga-Nayoko 4 30

District Village Church (Protestant and No. Of Roman Catholic) Mosques Bawku East Nenkogo PR AG 7 Bawku East Ninkogo 2 Bawku East Ninsako 4 Bawku East Nintabugsugu RCC 4 Bawku East Nisbuliga PR RCC Bawku East Nombokko RCC Bawku East Nyorugo 5 Bawku East Nyosbara 2 Bawku East Olo Chief's Area 1 Bawku East Pialoko 1 Bawku East Porunzua 2 Bawku East Pusiga Market PR AG SD RCC 5 Bawku East Sakpari-Natinga 1 Bawku East Salipiga 1 Bawku East Sapeliga Tegbila PR RCC 2 Bawku East Sapeliga-Natinga AG 6 Bawku East Susudi 1 Bawku East Susudi 1 Bawku East Takpasi Natinga 5 Bawku East Tambalogo PR Bawku East Tambilgu 4 Bawku East Tampiigogo 1 Bawku East Tansia Market 2 Bawku East Taraganga PR 2 Bawku East Tempane Nating PR 2 Bawku East Tesgbego 2 Bawku East Tinogo 4 Bawku East Tubong RCC Bawku East Vorekuom 7 Bawku East Warinyanga PR RCC 9 Bawku East Waskugua (Kugri) PR RCC Bawku East Wempisi Bugri 5 Bawku East Widana PR AG RCC 13 Bawku East Wiidi 3 Bawku East Winnateng 1 Bawku East Yabrago PR Bawku East Yapala PR Bawku East Yariga 1 Bawku East Yarigungu PR 2 Bawku East Yirongo SP 7 Bawku East Yumboku 5 Bawku East Zabugu RCC ME 2 Bawku East Zabugunatinga RCC 4 Bawku East Zambala (East) 1 31

District Village Church (Protestant and No. Of Roman Catholic) Mosques Bawku East Zambala (West) 3 Bawku East Zanzribuliga 2 Bawku East Zari PR 1 Bawku East Ziseri PR RCC Bawku East Zoabuliga 2 Bawku East Zong-Natinga 1 Bawku East Zongo 10 Bawku East Zorsi-Nating LU RCC 7 Bawku East Zotrikuom PR Bawku East Zuli PR 1 Bawku East Zulugu 2 Bawku West Akuri 2 Bawku West Amkpaliga 2 Bawku West Aneigo 2 Bawku West Apodabogo PR Bawku West Azoawera AN Bawku West Boya AG Bawku West Bozunde 1 Bawku West Buliga 1 Bawku West Gbantongo-Natinga AN AG 1 Bawku West Gumbare-Lower AN PR AG RCC 1 Bawku West Gumbo-Binaba 1 Bawku West Kamega-Natinga 1 Bawku West Kongo 1 Bawku West Kopelia Natinga 1 Bawku West Kosongo (Yapala) 2 Bawku West Kusanaba Natinga AN 2 Bawku West Kyinadabuti AG 2 Bawku West Peri-Zongoiri 1 Bawku West Sakpare 1 Bawku West Sapalugo-Tili AN SP Bawku West Tandabote 1 Bawku West Tarikom-Tili AN Bawku West Tili-Natinga AG RCC 1 Bawku West Timonde-Nagbego AG 1 Bawku West Timpolligu I 1 Bawku West Weari AN Bawku West Widiguri 1 Bawku West Widinaba-Natinga AN AG Bawku West Yarigu 2 Bawku West Yeliwojo 1 Bawku West Zebila PR RCC AG 4 32

Table 1.5 Primary Schools in the Burkina Faso Kusaal Region, 1992–1993 Province Department Village Date of Grade Total Number Number School Levels Students: of Girls of Boys Opening 1992–1993 Boulgou Zabré Wilgo 1993 1 36 3 33 Boulgou Zoaga Bingo 1974 3 144 38 106 Boulgou Zoaga Youga 1964 3 109 28 81 Boulgou Zoaga Zoaga 1964 3 225 88 137

Table 1.6 Schools and Literacy Centers in Ghana's Kusaal Region List of Abbreviations

P: Primary School JS: Junior Secondary School

M: Middle School MS: Muslim School

KS: Literacy Center for Kusaal

District Village Type of School Literacy Center Bawku East Abakanga Zorsi P(2) JS Bawku East Arizem (North) P JS Bawku East Azirem P Bawku East Bangabuk/Bansi KS Bawku East Barboaka P Bawku East Baribari MS Bawku East Barigun P(3) Bawku East Bawku P(11) M(6) JS(4) MS(2) Bawku East Bawku-Sapieliga P Bawku East Bazua P M Bawku East Biaka P M Bawku East Binduri Natinga P M KS Bawku East Bugpiigu KS Bawku East Bugri Natinga P M JS Bawku East Bugri Natinga (East) KS(2) Bawku East Bugula-Kare P Bawku East Bulpielise-Naboya KS Bawku East Bulugu P Bawku East Dabia P KS Bawku East Dega P(2) Bawku East Dekuliga (Basuonde) P Bawku East Denugu P M JS Bawku East Dusbuliga Dalakpaliga P 33

District Village Type of School Literacy Center Bawku East Garu P M JS Bawku East Gombo-Mognori P Bawku East Goseesi P Bawku East Gowre Agricultural Station P(2) Bawku East Gumakutari P Bawku East Gumsi-Natinga P JS Bawku East Karatesi Natinga P Bawku East Kongo Chief's House P Bawku East Kpalog II P Bawku East Kugasego Bugri P Bawku East Kugasegu KS Bawku East Kugri Kpalsako P(2) Bawku East Kugsabla O Bawku East Kugzua P(2) Bawku East Kuka (North) P Bawku East Kulugungu P JS M Bawku East Kwatia P Bawku East Lalsaa KS Bawku East Manga-Nyorugu P JS Bawku East Mennatinga P Bawku East Misiga P JS Bawku East Mogonori P Bawku East Nafikoliga-Natinga P Bawku East Nakambo P Bawku East Nakom P Bawku East Natinga MS Bawku East Nenkogo P(2) JS M KS Bawku East Ninkogo P MS Bawku East Nisbuliga P Bawku East Nombokko P Bawku East Nyorugo P Bawku East Pialogu P Bawku East Porunzua P Bawku East Pusiga Market P(2) JS M 2 MS KS Bawku East Sakpari-Natinga KS Bawku East Sapeliga Tegbila P Bawku East Sapelliga-Natinga P(2) M Bawku East Sugudi P Bawku East Tambilgu P Bawku East Tansia Market P Bawku East Taraganga P Bawku East Tempane Nating P M JS Bawku East Tinogo P(2) Bawku East Tubong P 34

District Village Type of School Literacy Center Bawku East Vorekuom P Bawku East Warinyanga P M Bawku East Waskugua (Kugri) P Bawku East Wempisi Bugri P Bawku East Widana P JS M MS Bawku East Winnateng P(3) JS Bawku East Yarigungu KS Bawku East Yirongo P MS JS Bawku East Yumboku P(2) Bawku East Zabugu P(2) KS Bawku East Zabugunatinga P Bawku East Zoabuliga P(2) Bawku East Zong-Natinga P Bawku East Zongo P Bawku East Zongo P M JS Bawku East Zorsi-Nating P(2) 2KS Bawku East Zorsi-Natinga P JS Bawku East Zuli P Bawku West Amkpaliga P KS Bawku West Apodabogo P Bawku West Boya P Bawku West Bozunde P Bawku West Buliga P Bawku West Dagunga P Bawku West Gbantongo-Natinga P JS Bawku West Gori P Bawku West Gumbare-Lower P JS Bawku West Gumbo-Binaba P Bawku West Kamega-Natinga P(3) JS Bawku West Kansorgo P Bawku West Kosongo (Yapala) P Bawku West Kuboko M JS Bawku West Kubongo P Bawku West Kukogo P Bawku West Kusanaba Natinga P Bawku West Kyinadabuti P Bawku West Namorgo P JS Bawku West Peri-Zongoiri P Bawku West Tandabote P Bawku West Tarikom-Tili P Bawku West Teshi Natinga P KS Bawku West Tili-Natinga P M JS Bawku West Timonde-Nagbego P Bawku West Weari P 35

Bawku West Widinaba-Natinga P Bawku West Yarigu P Bawku West Yeliwojo P Bawku West Zebila P JS M 36

2. Questionnaire Responses

Table 2.1 A Summary of Responses from the Individual Questionnaires Sex 6 are female 0 no answer Age 0 no answer Village 9 from Zoaga, 4 0 no from Youga answer Language 13 0 no answer Education 7 “yes" 0 no answer Place lived in for a long period of time (besides home): 6 have gone to 4 have areas where not spent Mooré is spoken an (Tenkodogo and appreciab Ouagadougou). le time Two went to away Kumassi, Ghana. from the One went to Côte tonde d'Ivoire, one to region. Togo, one to Bamako, and one to Zabré. Amount of time lived there: All spent more than 1 year in these locations. Birthplace of your spouse: 10 from Tonde 0 no region answer Mother tongue of your spouse: 10 “Kusaal" 0 no answer; 2 Mooré, 1 Bissa Have you ever gone to Zebilla? 13 “yes" 0 no answer Do you speak often with those of Zebilla? 13 “yes" 0 no answer When you speak with those of Zebilla, what language 12 “Kusaal" 1 no do you speak? answer Have you ever gone to Bawku? 12 “yes" 0 no answer Do you speak often with those of Bawku? 12 “yes" 0 no answer 37

When you speak with those of Bawku, what language 8 “Kusaal" 2 no do you speak? answer; 2 say both Mooré and Kusaal How well can you understand those of Zebilla? 10 of 13 say that 0 no they understand answer this dialect very well; 1 says that they understand it somewhat well; 2 say that they understand it “a little”. How well can you understand those of Bawku? 3 of 13 say that 0 no they understand answer this dialect very well; 2 say that they understand it somewhat well; the others say that they understand it “a little”. What speech is easier to understand: the variety of 0 no village 1 or village 2? answer 0 no answer 1 no answer What speech is easier to understand: the variety of 0 no village 2 or village 3? answer What speech is easier to understand: the variety of 0 no village 1 or village 2? answer What speech is easier to understand: the variety of 0 no village 2 or village 3? answer What is the language/dialect that you like best? All say tonde 0 no answer What is the language/dialect that you like least? 1O say only 0 no agole; two add answer the variety of Tilli or Zoaga to Bawku; one says only Tilli Would you allow your daughter to marry someone from 11 1 no Tilli? answer Would you allow your daughter to marry someone from 12 0 no Zebilla? answer 38

Would you allow your daughter to marry someone from 10 1 no Binduri? answer Would you allow your daughter to marry someone from 12 0 no Bawku? answer What was the language you spoke when growing up? 12 “L1" 0 no answer; one spoke Mooré Do you speak Mooré each day? 8 “yes" 0 no answer Would you be able to do the following in L2: go to a 12 “yes" 0 no dispensary with a friend and describe in detail his answer sickness? Would you be able to do the following in L2: 12 “yes" 0 no understand all that is said in L2 on the radio, even answer words to songs? Would you be able to do the following in L2: joke and 3 “yes" 0 no use proverbs? answer Would you be able to do the following in L2: pray? 4 “yes" 0 no answer Would you be able to do the following in L2: do 4 “yes" 0 no calculations very rapidly? answer Would you be able to do the following in L2: speak the 5 “yes" 0 no L2 so well that one thinks you are of the L2 ethnic answer group? What is the language that you use at home? 11 “L1" 0 no answer What is the language that you use in the village? 13 “L1" 0 no answer What is the language that you use at the market? 10 “L1" 0 no answer; some say both Kusaal and Mooré or Bissa What is the language that you use at the dispensary? 3 “L1" 0 no answer; some say both, some say French What is the language that you use at church/mosque? 2 “L1" 4 no answer; 2 say both What is the language that you use in carrying out a 9 “L1" 4 no sacrifice? answer 39

What is the language that you use during funeral 9 “L1" 4 no ceremonies? answer What is the language that you use during initiation 9 “L1" 4 no rites? answer What is the language that you use in singing traditional 11 “L1" 1 no songs? answer; one says both Kusaal and Mooré Which language do you like best? 13 “L1" 0 no answer Why? 0 no answer Which language spoken in the region is most useful? 13 “L1" 0 no answer Why? 0 no answer How do you feel if you hear your children speaking the 5 are bothered 0 no L2 between themselves at home? answer Which language you would like to have used at 5 “L1" 6 no church/mosque? answer Which language you would like to have used when 7 “L1" 5 no communicating with the ancestral spirits? answer Which language you would like to have used during 9 “L1" 4 no sacrifices? answer Which language you would like to have used during 8 “L1" 4 no funeral services? answer; 1 either/or Would you like to learn to read/write in L2? 10 “yes" 0 no answer If you were given the choice, would you prefer learning 13 “L1" 0 no to read/write in the L1 or the L2? answer Why? 0 no answer Have others ever made fun of you because of your 5 “yes" 1 no language? answer Have there ever been initiation rites done here in L2? 8 “yes" 1 no answer Does doing the initiation rites in L2 bother you? 7 “yes" 1 no answer Which language do the youth use among themselves 11 “L1" 1 no most of time? answer Do the youth use L2 even when no outsiders are 1 “yes" 0 no around? answer Do children mix the L1 and L2 when speaking? 0 “yes" 0 no answer 40

Do youth mix the L1 and L2 when speaking? 1 “yes" 0 no answer Does it ever happen that your children have to finish 1 “yes" 0 no sentences in L2 because they do not know how to say answer something in L1? Are marriages permitted with those not of the culture? 13 “yes" 0 no answer If yes, from what other ethnic groups? most say all 1 no (some add answer “except with Fulani") Do children use the traditional stories and proverbs? 13 “yes" 0 no answer If yes, in which language? 13 “L1" 0 no answer Do you think that the tradional stories and proverbs are 13 “L1" 0 no better said in the L1 or the L2? answer Nowadays do the village elders tell the traditional 12 “yes" 0 no stories and proverbs? answer Do you believe that your children speak your language 12 “yes" 0 no like they should? answer What language are your children's children going to 13 “L1" 0 no speak here in the village? answer; 1 French, 1 Mooré 41

3. A Word List of Kusaal Dialects

001 personne =DQRW0? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =P¹F? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =D¹RW0? Bugri (Gh: agole) =P¹V? Bugri (Gh: agole) =P¸V? Youga (BF: tonde) 011 grande soeur =VQ M9' ? Youga (BF: tonde) 002 nom =V#WMRGO? Bugri (Gh: agole) =LWW4? Bugri (Gh: agole) =Vn ÖDQRW ÆÖ0Mn yMn y ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =LW!WF? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =LWWV? Youga (BF: tonde) 012 grand frère =M9' tÖO ? Youga (BF: tonde) 003 homme =D¹G4? Bugri (Gh: agole) =F#Y? Bugri (Gh: agole) =D¹4¹O¹R' ÆÖO ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =DWF# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =DW4# ? Youga (BF: tonde) 013 petite soeur =V# tW yD¹N? Bugri (Gh: agole) 004 mari =VQ tD¹N? Youga (BF: tonde) =U¹4# ? Youga (BF: tonde) =Vn yD¹N? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =U¹4# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =U¹V? Bugri (Gh: agole) 014 petit frère =R¹VD¹N? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 005 épouse =RKV*W ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =R9#"#" ? Youga (BF: tonde) =R¹V? Youga (BF: tonde) =R9# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =R9# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 015 chef =P#D ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 006 père =P#@ÖR ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =D#D# ? Youga (BF: tonde) =P#R? Youga (BF: tonde) =D# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =U# tÖO ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 016 ancien =U#ÖO ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =DW t0MW4? Bugri (Gh: agole) =DW t0MW4? Youga (BF: tonde) 007 mère =M9' tÖO ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =QO# ? Youga (BF: tonde) =R'"OP#O? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =O# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =O# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 017 guérisseur =V¸ÖOUQD? Bugri (Gh: agole) 008 femme Youga (BF: tonde) =DQRQ t ? Youga (BF: tonde) =V'!'DWIF#ÖP ? Youga (BF: tonde) =DQRQM? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =Õ# t!#F#P? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =R9# # ? Youga (BF: tonde) =Õ#!#F#P? Youga (BF: tonde) =R9' ? Bugri (Gh: agole) 018 forgeron 009 garçon =U# tL# t ? Youga (BF: tonde) =DW4¹Dº0? Bugri (Gh: agole) =U# tL# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =DW4¹D¹ ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =UQPGMWV? Youga (BF: tonde) =DW4¹O¹ ? Youga (BF: tonde) =QPGMWV? Bugri (Gh: agole) Binaba (Gh: tonde) 010 fille =DWMW ? Youga (BF: tonde) 42

019 pays 029 bague =? Bugri (Gh: agole) =PWVWÖ? Bugri (Gh: agole) Youga (BF: tonde) Binaba (Gh: tonde) Binaba (Gh: tonde) =PWVWÖ? Youga (BF: tonde)

020 village 030 collier =V¼OD¹N? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =P¹0IQMn4Q" ? Youga (BF: tonde) =V'0MR'0? Bugri (Gh: agole) =P¹0IQMQ4Q t0? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =VG tP? Youga (BF: tonde) =Pº0InMn4¹M? Bugri (Gh: agole)

021 case 031 fusil =FQ"Q ? Youga (BF: tonde) =DWIW4#Q? Bugri (Gh: agole) =UQI‹V? Binaba (Gh: tonde) Youga (BF: tonde) =FQID¹NºM? Bugri (Gh: agole) =O#NGHQ ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =R# t!# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =O#NHQ ? Bugri (Gh: agole) Youga (BF: tonde) 022 mur =\#0IW"ÖO? Bugri (Gh: agole) 032 flèche =\#0IWO? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =R¿uÖO? Bugri (Gh: agole) =\#0I9#O? Youga (BF: tonde) =R¿qO? Youga (BF: tonde) =R¿qÖO? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 023 porte =MQNQ0? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 033 arc =MWNW0? Bugri (Gh: agole) =V¹4#Q ? Youga (BF: tonde) =MQ4W ? Youga (BF: tonde) =V‹4#WI? Bugri (Gh: agole) =VG4#ÖWM? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 024 grenier =DQ@Ö4? Bugri (Gh: agole) 034 corde =DQ@ÖV? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =Y¿uÖF? Youga (BF: tonde) =DQ@ÖF? Youga (BF: tonde) =Y¿uÖI? Bugri (Gh: agole) =Y¿uÖ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 025 toit =OnR¹N? Bugri (Gh: agole) 035 tisserand =OQÖV? Youga (BF: tonde) =UWNW¢#4#@O? Youga (BF: tonde) =OQ@ÖV? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =R¿u‹P7¢‹F? Bugri (Gh: agole) =XWI‹NW ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =ID# t0U#R? Binaba (Gh: tonde)

026 pagne 036 calebasse =HW tUQ pÖ4Q y ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =Y# tÖP? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =HWÖI? Bugri (Gh: agole) =Y#P? Bugri (Gh: agole) =HW"I? Youga (BF: tonde) =Y# tP? Youga (BF: tonde)

027 boubou 037 panier =HW"LQ"NQ"M? Youga (BF: tonde) =R'ÖQM? Bugri (Gh: agole) =HWYnM? Bugri (Gh: agole) =V¹!WM? Binaba (Gh: tonde) Binaba (Gh: tonde) =V,W ? Youga (BF: tonde)

028 sandales 038 graisse =V#!#4# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =M9#Ö? Youga (BF: tonde) =V#Ö4# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =MR#Ö? Bugri (Gh: agole) =V#4# ? Youga (BF: tonde) =MR# yÖ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =V#!#I#4# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 43

039 lait =P#4# ? Youga (BF: tonde) =GNGO ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =¸ÖN‹"O? Youga (BF: tonde) 048 gombo =!¹ÖN‹O ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =O#!#P# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =DºÖU¹O? Bugri (Gh: agole) =O#!#P# ? Youga (BF: tonde) =O#!#P# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 040 sel =L#Ö4KO ? Bugri (Gh: agole) 049 arachide =L#Ö4‹O? Youga (BF: tonde) =UWO# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) Binaba (Gh: tonde) =UWO# ? Youga (BF: tonde) Binaba (Gh: tonde) 041 bâton =F# tÖU#Ö4 ? Bugri (Gh: agole) 050 mangue =F‹U#Ö4 ? Youga (BF: tonde) =? Bugri (Gh: agole) =FW!WUW0? Binaba (Gh: tonde) Youga (BF: tonde) =FW!WJW0? Binaba (Gh: tonde) Binaba (Gh: tonde)

042 daba 051 broussaille =? =MW Ö4 ? Bugri (Gh: agole) Bugri (Gh: agole) Youga (BF: tonde) =MW ÆÖV ? Youga (BF: tonde) Binaba (Gh: tonde) Binaba (Gh: tonde) 052 maïs 043 hache =M#YGP# ? Youga (BF: tonde) =\'P‹V? Binaba (Gh: tonde) Binaba (Gh: tonde) =\'P'V? Youga (BF: tonde) =M#YGP# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =\GPP‹4? Bugri (Gh: agole) =NG#P? Youga (BF: tonde) 053 arbre =NG#P? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =VºÖI ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =V¼Ö? Youga (BF: tonde) 044 champs Binaba (Gh: tonde) =RQÖI ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =RQÖM ? Youga (BF: tonde) 054 forêt Binaba (Gh: tonde) =U# p# yV? Youga (BF: tonde) =U# t!# yV? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 045 riz =U¿u!#4? Bugri (Gh: agole) =O9¿Ã ? Youga (BF: tonde) =O9¹ ? Bugri (Gh: agole) 055 bois =O9¼ ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =F#@Ö4 ? Youga (BF: tonde) =F#@ÖF ? Bugri (Gh: agole) 046 gros mil Binaba (Gh: tonde) =D'NMQ ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =Y# t\¿zLW y ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 056 herbe =P#!#V? Youga (BF: tonde) =OnÖF ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =P#I# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =OQÖV ? Youga (BF: tonde) =P#I# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) Binaba (Gh: tonde)

047 petit mil 057 karité =\# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =V#!#O# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) Youga (BF: tonde) Binaba (Gh: tonde) =\# t ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =V# ÑÖ# pO? Youga (BF: tonde) =P#Ö4# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) 44

058 fleur 068 mouton =RW tÖO ? Youga (BF: tonde) =R'!WM? Bugri (Gh: agole) =RWÖO ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =RG!QM? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =VºRW tÖO ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =R'QM? Youga (BF: tonde)

059 fruit 069 chèvre =VºY#N# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =DWÖQI ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =YWN# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =DQ@Ö? Youga (BF: tonde) =YQ"N? Youga (BF: tonde) Binaba (Gh: tonde)

060 feuille 070 hyène =X# tÖV ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =\#0M9#4? Bugri (Gh: agole) =X# tÖW tI? Bugri (Gh: agole) =\#0M9#V? Youga (BF: tonde) =X# tQ t ? Youga (BF: tonde) Binaba (Gh: tonde)

061 branche 071 porc =Y¹N# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =MW4MW4? Bugri (Gh: agole) =Y¹N? Bugri (Gh: agole) =MWMWV? Youga (BF: tonde) Youga (BF: tonde) =MW4MWV? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =#H# ? Youga (BF: tonde) 062 écorce Binaba (Gh: tonde) =VºR#MW ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =V¸ºR#M? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 072 oiseau =RnM? Youga (BF: tonde) =P¿ÃÖ0 ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =P¹0? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 063 racine =P¸Ö? Youga (BF: tonde) =Õ# t!# t ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =Õ#!#4? Bugri (Gh: agole) 073 poule =Õ#¢#V? Youga (BF: tonde) =PQL# y ? Youga (BF: tonde) =PQ yL# y!# y ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 064 animal =PY# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =DW0MnDnM? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =DWPMnDWM? Bugri (Gh: agole) 074 araignée =DW0MnDnM? Youga (BF: tonde) =UºNºU¿ÃÖ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =U¹U¸R#4Q t ? Youga (BF: tonde) 065 chien =U¹U¹R# yÖ4Q y ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =D#Ö? Youga (BF: tonde) =D#Ö? Bugri (Gh: agole) 075 termite =D#@Ö? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =Ln@Ö4 ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =Ln@ÖV ? Youga (BF: tonde) 066 vache =LnÖV ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =P#ÖH ? Bugri (Gh: agole) Youga (BF: tonde) 076 fourmi Binaba (Gh: tonde) =V#ODn y4QP? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =DW y0Dn t4QP? Youga (BF: tonde) 067 cheval =DWOD#4GD9#!# t4G t ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =YGH? Youga (BF: tonde) =U#P‹U#ÖU ? Youga (BF: tonde) =Y¹H? Bugri (Gh: agole) Binaba (Gh: tonde) 45

077 sauterelle =\WÖV ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =U‹UQO? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =U‹UnO? Bugri (Gh: agole) 087 viande =U¹UQO? Youga (BF: tonde) =P¹!¹O? Bugri (Gh: agole) =0M#Y? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =PGO? Youga (BF: tonde) =M# yW" ? Youga (BF: tonde) =P¹O? Binaba (Gh: tonde)

078 singe 088 sang =Y# tÖ0 ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =\¹D? Youga (BF: tonde) =O9# tÖ0 ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =\'ÖO ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =Y# tÖ? Youga (BF: tonde) =\¹ÖO ? Binaba (Gh: tonde)

079 lion 089 os =D9+¿u¢+¿uO? Youga (BF: tonde) =Mn yD‹4? Bugri (Gh: agole) =ID+¹¢+¹O? Bugri (Gh: agole) =MnDGV? Youga (BF: tonde) =ID¹I¹O? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =MnD‹V ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =Mn tD‹V? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 080 éléphant =Y#DWM? Bugri (Gh: agole) 090 corps =Y#WDWM? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =PºOD¹P# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =Y#DQ ? Youga (BF: tonde) =P¿zOD# t0? Youga (BF: tonde) =Pº0ID¹0? Bugri (Gh: agole) 081 serpent =PK0IDW0 ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =Y#ÖH ? Bugri (Gh: agole) Youga (BF: tonde) 091 peau Binaba (Gh: tonde) =Pº0IDn0? Bugri (Gh: agole) =DWNU'N? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =P¿z0ID# y0? Youga (BF: tonde) =DWU'N? Youga (BF: tonde) =Pº0ID¿u0? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =P¿z0D¿u0? Youga (BF: tonde) 082 poisson =I9# t0? Youga (BF: tonde) =\¹O¹ ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =\¼ ? Bugri (Gh: agole) 092 tête =\¿q ? Youga (BF: tonde) =\WM? Bugri (Gh: agole) Youga (BF: tonde) 083 aile Binaba (Gh: tonde) =MWMR#W0 ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =MW t0M9# y0? Youga (BF: tonde) 093 visage =MR# t0MR# y0? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =P¹PF#@ ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =P¹PF# ? Youga (BF: tonde) 084 corne =P¹PF# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =!¹N? Youga (BF: tonde) =!¹ÖN ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 094 cheveux =G@ÖN ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =\WÖD‹V? Bugri (Gh: agole) =\QÖD‹V? Youga (BF: tonde) 085 oeuf =\nÖD‹V? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =I'N? Bugri (Gh: agole) Youga (BF: tonde) 095 poils Binaba (Gh: tonde) =Pº0Mn tD‹V? Bugri (Gh: agole) =P¹0MnD‹NQ ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 086 queue =P¹0MQDQNQ ? Youga (BF: tonde) =\nÖ4 ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =\QÖV ? Youga (BF: tonde) 46

096 nez 106 poitrine =Õn tÖ4 ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =Õn!nM? Bugri (Gh: agole) =PY# tL# t ? Youga (BF: tonde) Youga (BF: tonde) =PY#L# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =Õ#QM ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =Õn!n ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 097 oreille =VQD‹4? Bugri (Gh: agole) 107 coeur =VQD‹V? Youga (BF: tonde) =UWUWH? Bugri (Gh: agole) =VQD' ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =UWUWH? Youga (BF: tonde) =U‹UWH? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 098 oeil =P¹H? Bugri (Gh: agole) 108 ventre Youga (BF: tonde) =RWÖV ? Youga (BF: tonde) =P¸H? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =RW"ÖV ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =RWÖ4 ? Bugri (Gh: agole) 099 bouche =NW¢WV? Youga (BF: tonde) =PnÖ4 ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =PQÖV ? Youga (BF: tonde) 109 bon =Pn tÖV ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =UWO? Bugri (Gh: agole) 100 dent =DW tUW t ? Youga (BF: tonde) =Õ¿uP? Bugri (Gh: agole) =DW tO# tJW y ? Youga (BF: tonde) Binaba (Gh: tonde) =L¸P? Youga (BF: tonde) 110 mauvais =? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 101 langue =D'!'F? Bugri (Gh: agole) =\GNGO? Bugri (Gh: agole) =DWODGV? Youga (BF: tonde) Youga (BF: tonde) =\'N‹O? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 111 dos =Õ#0MW4W ? Youga (BF: tonde) 102 bras =Õ#!# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =MR# t0MR# y0? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =Õ#!# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =MW0M9#0? Youga (BF: tonde) =MWMR#"W0? Bugri (Gh: agole) 112 âme =PW pM? Youga (BF: tonde) =UG@ÖI ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =PW"M? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =U+¹Ö? Youga (BF: tonde) =UGÖ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 103 jambe =PnD‹4? Bugri (Gh: agole) 113 vie =Pn!nV? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =XnG ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =PQV? Youga (BF: tonde) =XY'@Ö? Youga (BF: tonde) =XnO' ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 104 doigt =PW!WD¹N? Youga (BF: tonde) 114 dieu =PWDºN? Bugri (Gh: agole) =? Bugri (Gh: agole) =PQD¹N? Binaba (Gh: tonde) Youga (BF: tonde) Binaba (Gh: tonde) 105 cou =P¹0¢n yÖ4 ? Bugri (Gh: agole) 115 ciel =PK0IQ ÖV ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =U#0ID#0? Bugri (Gh: agole) =P¿u0In@ÖV ? Youga (BF: tonde) =U#OID# y0? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =P¹0InÖV ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =U#I9# y0? Youga (BF: tonde) 47

116 soleil 126 fumée =Y¹PºM? Bugri (Gh: agole) =DW¢W\WU? Youga (BF: tonde) =Y¹PºM? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =\W t!W yU? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =Y¹Nº ? Youga (BF: tonde) =Õn!nU? Bugri (Gh: agole)

117 lune 127 eau =Y# tF‹I? Bugri (Gh: agole) =MWQO? Bugri (Gh: agole) =P#ODQ@Ö? Youga (BF: tonde) =M9n@ÖO ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =P#!#ODQ ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =M9#O? Youga (BF: tonde)

118 étoile 128 pluie =Y#4#D¹N? Youga (BF: tonde) =U#Ö? Bugri (Gh: agole) =Y# tFD¸N? Bugri (Gh: agole) Youga (BF: tonde) =Y# tF# tD¿uN? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =U#Ö? Binaba (Gh: tonde)

119 matin 129 terre =D'Ö¢WP? Bugri (Gh: agole) =V¿u0? Youga (BF: tonde) =DGDGQI? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =V¹0? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =DGDG ? Youga (BF: tonde) =V' t ? Bugri (Gh: agole)

120 jour 130 nuage =F#DU‹4? Bugri (Gh: agole) =U#I9#0# ? Youga (BF: tonde) =P¹PV#0? Youga (BF: tonde) =U#0ID# yP? Binaba (Gh: tonde) Binaba (Gh: tonde) =U#0ID#0? Bugri (Gh: agole)

121 nuit 131 rocher =ÕW"0? Youga (BF: tonde) =MWIW4#"QM? Youga (BF: tonde) =LW!W0? Bugri (Gh: agole) =MWIW4#"QI? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =Ln"!n" ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =V# tOR¿zÖI ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =V# tOR¼ÖI ? Bugri (Gh: agole) 122 mois =V#OR¿ÃÖ? Youga (BF: tonde) =Y# t4‹M? Youga (BF: tonde) =Y# tF‹I? Bugri (Gh: agole) 132 sable =Y# tF‹I? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =V#ODº!ºJ¹V? Youga (BF: tonde) =V¹PV# y0? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 123 année =V¹PV#P? Bugri (Gh: agole) =LQ@ÖO ? Bugri (Gh: agole) Youga (BF: tonde) =LW@ÖO ? Youga (BF: tonde) Binaba (Gh: tonde) 133 poussière =!WWUWM? Bugri (Gh: agole) 124 vent =!WUWM? Youga (BF: tonde) =U#DGLQI? Youga (BF: tonde) =!WUWI? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =U#D¹LWI? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =U¹U¹GO? Bugri (Gh: agole) 134 chemin =5nV? Youga (BF: tonde) 125 feu =UnV? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =DW¢WO? Youga (BF: tonde) =UQD¹N? Bugri (Gh: agole) =DWIWO? Bugri (Gh: agole) Binaba (Gh: tonde) 135 fer =MWV? Bugri (Gh: agole) Youga (BF: tonde) =MW"V? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 48

136 blanc 146 court =R'ÖN'M? Youga (BF: tonde) =I¿uP# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) Binaba (Gh: tonde) =I¿u0? Bugri (Gh: agole) =R¹'N? Bugri (Gh: agole) =I¿u ? Youga (BF: tonde)

137 noir 147 vrai =U#DQNQM? Youga (BF: tonde) =U‹4# ? Youga (BF: tonde) =U#ÖDN‹M? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =U¹F# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =U#DºN? Bugri (Gh: agole) Binaba (Gh: tonde)

138 chaud 148 faux =VWNWM? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =\¿zY' tÖN‹O? Youga (BF: tonde) =VW"ÖNW"M? Youga (BF: tonde) =\‹O9'ÖN ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =Y#NJQ ? Youga (BF: tonde) =H#ÖF ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =Y#O? Bugri (Gh: agole) 149 vendre 139 froid =M9Q"JQO' ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =O#!#JQM? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =M9n"ÖU‹O' ? Youga (BF: tonde) =O#!#O' ? Youga (BF: tonde) =MWGU? Bugri (Gh: agole) =O#!' ? Bugri (Gh: agole) 150 dormir 140 sec =ID¸JºL# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =M9'!'O' ? Youga (BF: tonde) =I9¿qJºO¹ ? Youga (BF: tonde) =R'!W y0? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =ID¹U? Bugri (Gh: agole) =MWFWM? Bugri (Gh: agole) 151 large 141 fort =L#N‹O? Bugri (Gh: agole) =R#0? Youga (BF: tonde) =L#NW0? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =R#0? Bugri (Gh: agole) =L#NW y ? Youga (BF: tonde) =R#@0? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =\n!nO' ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =R9¹!'O? Bugri (Gh: agole) 152 mince 142 faible =D# yÖN‹M? Bugri (Gh: agole) =V#4‹"O? Youga (BF: tonde) =D# tÖN+¿zM? Youga (BF: tonde) =V#4‹O? Bugri (Gh: agole) =D#@ÖN‹M? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =V#4‹O? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 153 lourd 143 grand =V'D‹\WM? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =Y#!#O? Bugri (Gh: agole) =V'D‹U? Bugri (Gh: agole) =YQM? Youga (BF: tonde) =V'"DWIO' ? Youga (BF: tonde) Binaba (Gh: tonde) 154 léger 144 petit =H#ÖMO' ? Youga (BF: tonde) =I¿u0? Bugri (Gh: agole) =H# t!# tU‹M? Bugri (Gh: agole) Binaba (Gh: tonde) =H#ÖNQM? Youga (BF: tonde) =I¿u ? Youga (BF: tonde) =H#M? Binaba (Gh: tonde)

145 long 155 loin =YQMW ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =\# t# tO' ? Youga (BF: tonde) =YQWM? Youga (BF: tonde) =\# t# tV? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =Y#¢#NWP? Youga (BF: tonde) =N#N? Bugri (Gh: agole) =Y#!#O? Bugri (Gh: agole) 49

156 près 166 voir =L#O# ? Youga (BF: tonde) =Õ#L# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =L#OO# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =Õ'L# ? Youga (BF: tonde) =L#OO# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =Õ' yL# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde)

157 aigu 167 regarder =N#FºV? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =IWU'L# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =F‹F¹V? Bugri (Gh: agole) =IQUGL# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =PQD# tÖN‹M? Youga (BF: tonde) =D¹UW ? Youga (BF: tonde)

158 sale 168 coûter =F# ÑÖV ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =O¸NºIO‹ ? Youga (BF: tonde) Youga (BF: tonde) =O¹NºM' ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) Bugri (Gh: agole) =O¹NºI? Bugri (Gh: agole) 169 donner =V¹UW ? 159 pourri Youga (BF: tonde) =Rn!nO' ? Youga (BF: tonde) =V+ºU'L# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =RW t!W yV? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =V+ºU+ºL# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =Rn t!' t ? Bugri (Gh: agole) 170 finir =P#ÖL# ? 160 droit Bugri (Gh: agole) =U#R' ? Youga (BF: tonde) =D#!#J'L# ? Youga (BF: tonde) =FGRGInN‹0? Bugri (Gh: agole) =D#"!#U'L# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =V‹V9# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 171 monter =FQL# ? 161 courbé Bugri (Gh: agole) =InNn0? Bugri (Gh: agole) =F9'L# ? Youga (BF: tonde) =I9nNQ0? Youga (BF: tonde) =FQÖL# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =ID'NW t0? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 172 aller =V¸0#L# ? 162 vieux Youga (BF: tonde) =MW4‹IGV? Binaba (Gh: tonde) Binaba (Gh: tonde) =DW0MQ4QV? Youga (BF: tonde) =M'Õ# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =MWFWM ? Bugri (Gh: agole) 173 partir =4G"QL# ? 163 jeune Youga (BF: tonde) =R#ÖN‹M? Youga (BF: tonde) =I#Ö4'L# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) Binaba (Gh: tonde) =I#ÖFº# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =Rn@ÖN ? Bugri (Gh: agole) 174 venir =V¹P# ? 164 manger Youga (BF: tonde) =4'L# ? Youga (BF: tonde) =MºP# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =F'L# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =R#"#P# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =FG# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) 175 courir =\Y'L# ? 165 boire Youga (BF: tonde) =PWL# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =\QL# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =PY¿uL# ? Youga (BF: tonde) =\QL# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =PW pÖL# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 50

176 voler 186 mordre =\WO¹ ? Youga (BF: tonde) =FWO,# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =\WP' ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =FWO'L# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =\WL# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =4WOW!? Youga (BF: tonde)

177 frapper 187 savoir =DW"!WO' ? Youga (BF: tonde) =D#0#L# ? Youga (BF: tonde) =O'!'L# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =DW p0#L# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =Y' y' yL# t ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =D#0L# ? Bugri (Gh: agole)

178 casser 188 tirer =O#!#L# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =V'ÖI'L# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =Y# y!# yP' ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =V#M#L# ? Youga (BF: tonde) =Õ9#!n ? Youga (BF: tonde) =V#"MGL# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =XG"!GO? Youga (BF: tonde) 179 couper =Y# yÖL# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) 189 se baigner =O#@ÖL# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =NWDGL# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =Õ9# tÖQ ? Youga (BF: tonde) =NW"IWL# ? Youga (BF: tonde) =FWIWD? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 180 tuer =M9'L# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 190 laver =MWL# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =UQY'L# ? Youga (BF: tonde) =MWÖ? Youga (BF: tonde) =UQL# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =UQQV? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 181 mourir =MR¹L# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 191 s'asseoir =M9ºO¹ ? Youga (BF: tonde) =\ºPºL# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =MR¹ ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =\¹PGL# ? Youga (BF: tonde) =\¸!ºPºO? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 182 parler =R¿z# y!# yL# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) 192 pousser =V9# y# UQ ? Youga (BF: tonde) =F#"!#OQ ? Youga (BF: tonde) =VQ"Q"#L# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =F#!#L# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =F# p!#L# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 183 pleurer =VW"U'L# ? Youga (BF: tonde) =M#ÖUGPG ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =M#"ÖU'L# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 193 jeter =M#ÖJ'L# ? Youga (BF: tonde) =NQ"RÖD#U? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =MW"OGL# ? Youga (BF: tonde) =NQD'L# ? Youga (BF: tonde) =MW"O'L# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =YºFºIºL# ? Bugri (Gh: agole)

184 recevoir 194 accrocher =4'"!'L# ? Youga (BF: tonde) =L# y¢# yNQ ? Youga (BF: tonde) =F'"!'L# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =L# p!#NQ ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =F¸LGL# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =L#!#N' ? Bugri (Gh: agole)

185 acheter 195 lever =F#!#L# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =FWY#IWN? Bugri (Gh: agole) =F#"!#L# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =FQ"Y'L# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =4#"!#L# ? Youga (BF: tonde) =4QY'L# ? Youga (BF: tonde) 51

196 faire du bruit 206 être debout =? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =\'"!'!O' ? Youga (BF: tonde) Bugri (Gh: agole) =\'"!'O' ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) Youga (BF: tonde) =\ºGI? Bugri (Gh: agole) =R#!\ºL'PG#IQN? Bugri (Gh: agole) 197 creuser =VWP' ? Bugri (Gh: agole) 207 tenir =VWÖL# ? Youga (BF: tonde) =\# pÖNW"O' ? Youga (BF: tonde) =VW tL# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =R#"ID#"!#L# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =R# tID# yL# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) 198 tisser =I¸!ºL# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =!WI'L# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =YW"I'L# ? Youga (BF: tonde) 208 danser =YWI'L# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =Y#!#L# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =Y#"!#L# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 199 attacher =Y#L# ? Youga (BF: tonde) =NWYGL# ? Youga (BF: tonde) =NQL# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) 209 beaucoup =NQL# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =D'FWIQ ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =D'4WIW ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 200 tomber =D'Q¢Q ? Youga (BF: tonde) =NWL# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =NºL# ? Youga (BF: tonde) 210 peu =N¸L# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =H¿uÖ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =H¿u ? Bugri (Gh: agole) 201 chanter Youga (BF: tonde) =LW"O'L# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =Dº!GN# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =LWÖO,# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =D'!'N# ? Youga (BF: tonde) =LWÖO' ? Youga (BF: tonde) =D'!'N# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 202 sentir 211 1 =ÕW"U'V' t ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =L¹PG ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =YW yOÕW tÖI ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =Ln@Ö0 ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =YW tÖO,W t ? Youga (BF: tonde) =LQ@Ö? Youga (BF: tonde) =#4QMQ t ? 203 penser Youga (BF: tonde) =#4QMQ t ? =V' y!' yUºL# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) Binaba (Gh: tonde) =V'"!'"J'L# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 212 2 =V' pJ' yU' y ? Youga (BF: tonde) =#L¹ ? Bugri (Gh: agole) 204 attraper Binaba (Gh: tonde) =#L¹ ? =ID# yL# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) Youga (BF: tonde) =ID# p!# yL# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 213 3 =I9# t!# yL# ? Youga (BF: tonde) =#V*# t ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =#V# t ? 205 vomir Youga (BF: tonde) =V¿uÖL# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) Binaba (Gh: tonde) =V¿uL# ? Youga (BF: tonde) 214 4 =VºL# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =#P#ÖU¹ ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =#P# yÖUº ? Youga (BF: tonde) =P# tÖU' ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 52

215 5 =Õ' yQ t ? Youga (BF: tonde) =#PW ? Bugri (Gh: agole) Youga (BF: tonde) 225 demander Binaba (Gh: tonde) =U#UQUGL# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =Dn"ÖJ'L# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 216 6 =Dn!nUQO' ? Youga (BF: tonde) =#LYQDQ ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =#LnÖDº ? Youga (BF: tonde) 226 répondre =#LnÖDn ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =U#I#4GIGL# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =NGDU#L# ? Youga (BF: tonde) 217 7 =U# pÖM#L# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =#LYQR9G ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =U# pM#L# ? Youga (BF: tonde) =#LnR9º ? Youga (BF: tonde) =NQM'L# ? Youga (BF: tonde) =#Ln"R9' y ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 227 sauce 218 8 =\' ÆF? Bugri (Gh: agole) =#P¼Ö? Bugri (Gh: agole) =\'@4? Binaba (Gh: tonde) Youga (BF: tonde) =U'@N? Youga (BF: tonde) =#P¼Ö? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 228 lièvre 219 9 =U9W!#0? Bugri (Gh: agole) =#Y#L? Bugri (Gh: agole) =UQ t!Q t0? Binaba (Gh: tonde) Youga (BF: tonde) =Un t!n y ? Youga (BF: tonde) =#Y' ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 229 le grand Dieu 220 10 =Y+¹P#ÖO ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =R¹ÖI# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) Bugri (Gh: agole) =R¸ÖI# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =P#Y¹PV¹V#!? Youga (BF: tonde) =R¿u ? Youga (BF: tonde) 230 sauter 221 chat =!#M#L# ? Youga (BF: tonde) =OW"U? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =#"M#L# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) Bugri (Gh: agole) =U#!L#M,# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =OW"5? Youga (BF: tonde) =FQIDº ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 231 dire =4QD¸ ? Youga (BF: tonde) =L'NL# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =RQ!U#D‹N‹M? Youga (BF: tonde) =L¸N'L# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) Bugri (Gh: agole) =L'NQ ? Youga (BF: tonde)

222 âne 232 sésame =DQ ÆÖ? Youga (BF: tonde) =Un!nV? Bugri (Gh: agole) =DW0? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =U#!#V? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =DW"0? Bugri (Gh: agole) =U#V? Youga (BF: tonde)

223 chercher 233 construire =U#!¹L‹V? Bugri (Gh: agole) =O'L# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =!'Ö4QO' ? Youga (BF: tonde) Youga (BF: tonde) =L'4W"OO' ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =O'L# ? Bugri (Gh: agole)

224 trouver =U#LGL# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =Õ' tL# t ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) 53

234 compter 235 balafoniste =M#ÖNGL# ? Bugri (Gh: agole) =? Binaba (Gh: tonde) =M# yÖN'L# ? Binaba (Gh: tonde) Bugri (Gh: agole) =M# tÖN'L# ? Youga (BF: tonde) Youga (BF: tonde)

Lieu/Place Enquêteur/Researcher Date de recherche/Research date Binaba Carol Berthelette April 1996 Bugri Carol Berthelette April 1996 Youga Carol Berthelette April 1996

Les symboles de transcription phonétique employés dans ce document sont conformes aux normes de l’Association Internationale Phonétique (AIP).

The symbols for phonetic transcription used in this document are in accordance with the standards of the International Phonetic Association (IPA). 54

Bibliography

1. References Abenim, Edward A. 1996. Personal conversation.

Adams, Wahab Ben et al. 1993. National church survey: facing the unfinished task of the church in Ghana. Accra: Ghana Evangelism Committee.

Awimbille, Michael. 1996. Personal conversation.

Azuma, Timothy. 1996. Personal conversation.

Bergman, T. G. (ed.). 1990. Survey reference manual. 2nd edition. Dallas, TX : Summer Institute of Linguistics.

Casad, E. 1974. Dialect intelligibility testing. Norman, OK: Summer Institute of Linguistics of University of OK. (reprinted 1980, 1987.)

Ghana Evangelism Committee. 1988. Upper East regional church/evangelism survey: facing the unfinished task of the church in the Upper East region. Accra: Ghana Evangelism Committee.

Ghana Institute of Linguistics Literacy and Bible Translation (GILLBT). 1996. Summary sheet for Ghana Institute for Linguistics, Literacy and Bible Translation literacy statistics. ms.

Gouba, Molle Sarato. 1996. Personal conversation.

Grimes, Barbara. 1992. Ethnologue: languages of the world. 12th ed. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics.

Groff, Randy, and Ole Kristensen. 1983. Sociolinguistic survey of the Koussasses of Upper Volta. Unpublished manuscript.

Institut National de la Statistique et de la Démographie (INSD). 1991. Recensement général de la population: Burkina Faso 1985. (Volume I: Ensemble du Pays). Ouagadougou: Institut National de la Statistique et de la Démographie.

Laclavère, Georges. 1993. Atlas du Burkina Faso. Paris: Les Editions Jeune Afrique.

Ministère de l’Education de Base et l’Alphabétisation de Masse (MEBAM). 1996. Carte de Burkina Faso: Taux brut de scolarisation par province (année 1994–1995). Ouagadougou : Direction des Etudes et la Planification/MEBAM/UNICEF.

Monet, Bintou. 1989. Esquisse phonologique du bisa de Zabré (variété O{´{O{).´ Mémoire de maîtrise. Ouagadougou: Université de Ouagadougou, Institut 55

Superieur des Langues, des Lettres, et des Arts, Département de Linguistique.

Prost, André. 1979. Le kusaal. Dakar: Département de Linguistique Générale et de Langues Négro-africaines de la Faculté des Lettres et Sciences Humaines de l'Université de Dakar 21.

Schaefer, Robert, and Nancy Schaefer. 1996. Personal conversation.

Spratt, David, and Nancy Spratt. 1964. Kusal dialect survey. Unpublished manuscript.

Spratt, David, and Nancy Spratt. 1968. The phonology of Kusal. Collected Language Notes 10. Accra, Ghana: Institute of African Studies, University of Ghana.

Spratt, David, and Nancy Spratt. 1994. Correspendence.

Spratt, David, and Nancy Spratt. No date. Collected field notes on Kusal syntax. Unpublished manuscript.

2. Other Materials about Kusaal8

England, Nora C., and William A. Ladusaw. Question formation in Kusaal. Unpublished manuscript.

Hilton, T. E. 1962. Note on the history of the Kusasi. Transactions of the Historical Society of Ghana 6.

Naden, A. J., and R. L. Schaefer. 1973. The meaning of “Frafra” (Interim report on N. E. Ghana Intelligibility Survey). Legon, Ghana: University of Ghana Institute of African Studies 9:5–12.

Naden, A. J. 1989. Gur. The Niger-Congo Languages, ed. by John Bendor- Samuel, 140–168. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.

Spratt, David, and Nancy Spratt. 1975. Orthography for use in Kusaal. Unpublished manuscript.

Spratt, David, and Nancy Spratt. No date. Notes on anthropology (ancestor worship, kinship, proverbs, burials). Unpublished manuscript.

Spratt, David, and Nancy Spratt. No date. A short Kusaal-English dictionary. Accra, Ghana: Institute of African Studies, University of Ghana.

8Note that some bibliographical information was not provided. 56

3. Materials Published in Kusaal Abbey, E. T. A., Vincent Okunor, and D. E. K. Krampah. 1992. Instructional Manual for Facilitators. Accra: Buck Press, Ltd. for the Non-Formal Education Division, Ministry of Education.

Abdul-Karim, Azure, and Lucy Awuni. Kusaal Primer. Accra: Non-Formal Education Division, Ministry of Education.

Akon, Samuel, Rev. Adam Anaba, and David Spratt. 1980. Kusaas Siilima (Proverbs). Tamale, Ghana: Ghana Institute of Linguistics, Literacy, and Bible Translation.

Salifu, Nicolas. 1992. Kel Ka Ti Karim Nasaal Gbaung 1 (bridge book from English to Kusaal). Tamale, Ghana: Ghana Institute of Linguistics, Literacy, and Bible Translation.

Salifu, Nicolas. 1993a. Akolog Yir Yela. Accra: African Christian Press, for the Non-Formal Education Division, Ministry of Education.

Salifu, Nicolas. 1993b. /DDIH %H 'DDPWHe Accra: Unimax Publishers, Ltd., for the Non-Formal Education Division, Ministry of Education.

Salifu, Nicolas. 1995. Tampana (Newspaper in Kusaal). Accra: Non-Formal Education Division, Ministry of Education.

Salifu, Nicolas. 1996a. Tuuma La La (book to encourage communities to take up the development effort). Tamale, Ghana: Ghana Institute of Linguistics, Literacy, and Bible Translation.

Salifu, Nicolas. 1996b. :LQD DP *EDXe 1RQDDU 3DDO (Kusaal New Testament). Wheaton, IL: The Bible League, in cooperation with the Ghana Institute of Linguistics, Literacy and Bible Translation.

4. Contacts for Further Information Edward Abenim, Department of Education, Director of Primary and Secondary Schools, Binaba, Ghana Michael Awimbilla, GILLBT Literacy Regional Director, former Kusaal Literacy Supervisor, Tamale, Ghana Joseph Ayindata, Anglican pastor in Binaba, Ghana Fr. Jacob Ayuubo, Box 46, Bolgatenga (a member of the Kusaal revision team) Timothy Azuma, District Organizer for Ghana Non-Formal Educational Program, Bawku East District, Ghana Molle Sarato Gouba, coordinator of Pag-La-Yiri, Zabré, Boulgou Province, Burkina Faso Pastor John Panada, on Kusaal revision committee, in Missiga, Ghana Robert and Nancy Schaefer, GILLBT, Bolgatenga