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The Great White Train: Typhus, Sanitation, and U.S. International Full text provided by www.sciencedirect.com Feature Endeavour Vol. 36 No. 3 The Great White Train: typhus, sanitation, and U.S. International Development during the Russian Civil War Julia F. Irwin* University of South Florida, History, Tampa, FL 33604, United States In January 2009, Senator Hillary Rodham Clinton stood embrace of the third ‘D’ in its foreign affairs arsenal, 3 before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee during her development. Yet from the beginning, U.S. policymakers confirmation hearing for the post of Secretary of State. recognized that development – here defined as the use of Time and again, Clinton affirmed her belief that U.S. medical, scientific, and technological interventions to national security depends on balancing three ‘D’s: Diplo- improve a target population’s quality of life – must consti- macy, Development, and Defense. ‘In order to protect and tute a central part of their approach. Both Russian soldiers defend the United States of America, to advance our and civilians suffered the effects of malnourishment, poor interests, and to further our values,’ she stressed, ‘we have living conditions, and illness. By addressing these condi- to have all three of those elements of our power working in tions, the U.S. government hoped to win hearts and minds, 1 concert.’ In proclaiming a commitment to development, to persuade Russians of the legitimacy of both the U.S. Clinton was attempting to set herself apart from her intervention and of the White Russian (anti-Bolshevik) immediate predecessors in the State Department, whom government. Beyond the clear propaganda value of such she criticized for their failure to devote ample resources to assistance, officials believed that tackling disease was foreign aid and assistance. Her multidimensional ap- essential to maintaining social order and stability and to proach, however, was by no means a novel strategy of counteracting the influence of Bolshevism. To complement U.S. global engagement. Ninety years earlier, American the U.S. military intervention of Russia, the Wilson policymakers were just as aware of the importance of each Administration therefore promoted a major humanitarian of these elements to their nation’s relations with the world. intervention as well. During Russia’s Civil War, develop- The winter of 1919 found the United States knee-deep in ment would serve as a central piece of the U.S. foreign its intervention in Russia’s Civil War. Two years earlier, on affairs arsenal. November 7, 1917, Vladimir Lenin had led a successful armed coup in Petrograd, declaring Bolshevik control of The American Red Cross goes to Russia Russia and sparking a protracted battle for control of the When the U.S. government takes on global relief and country. U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, along with many development projects today, it does so largely through American citizens, deplored this new, radical phase of the such state organs as the U.S. Agency for International Russian Revolution and threw his firm support behind the Development and the U.S. military. It also works through anti-Bolshevik factions. In the summer of 1918, the United such international agencies as the World Health Organi- States joined Britain, France, Japan, and Italy in sending zation. In the period from 1918 to 1920, however, things armed forces to Russia – a military commitment made for a were very different. No such federal or global relief infra- number of reasons, but especially to sway the outcome of the structure existed. Instead, the Wilson Administration Civil War against the Bolshevik government and to aid relied on a quasi-governmental organization, the Ameri- Czechoslovak forces then stuck in Siberia. From August can Red Cross (ARC), to administer foreign relief on its 1918 through April 1920, roughly 12,000 U.S. troops occu- behalf. Established in 1881, the ARC was a privately pied the northwestern city of Archangel, the pacific port of funded and staffed association, primarily dependent on Vladivostok, and their surrounding environs as part of this volunteer labor. However, it shared a special relationship international coalition. Although these efforts to influence with the U.S. government, formalized by the Geneva the Russian Civil War in favor of the anti-Bolshevik forces Convention and Congressional charters, which made it ultimately proved futile, the intervention nonetheless repre- the ‘the official volunteer aid department of the United 4 sented one of the most important U.S. foreign relations States’ in times of war and natural disaster. During the 2 issues of the early post-World War I period (Figure 1). First World War, the ARC had served as the nation’s While the defensive and diplomatic aspects of this story principal instrument for humanitarian relief, carrying have received much scholarly consideration, historians out aid and assistance projects in some two-dozen Euro- have paid less attention to the Wilson Administration’s pean nations. When Wilson determined to send U.S. troops to Russia, he asked the ARC’s wartime leaders to send relief workers there as well, a request to which they *Tel.: +1 8134049052. 1 For this transcript see http://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/13/us/politics/13text-clin- 3 ton.html?pagewanted=all. A key exception is David Engerman, Modernization from the Other Shore: 2 See N. Gordon Levin, Jr., Woodrow Wilson and World Politics: America’s Response American Intellectuals and the Romance of Russian Development (Cambridge: Har- to War and Revolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 1968), ch. 1, and David vard University Press, 2003). 4 Foglesong, America’s Secret War Against Bolshevism (Chapel Hill: University of North William Taft, ‘‘Proclamation by the President of the United States,’’ 1911, Central Carolina Press, 2001). Decimal File 811.142/218, Records of the Department of State, National Archives and Available online 26 May 2012 Records Administration, College Park, MD. www.sciencedirect.com 0160-9327/$ – see front matter ß 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.endeavour.2012.03.001 90 Feature Endeavour Vol. 36 No. 3 Figure 1. American Red Cross personnel in Archangel with a supply truck and Figure 2. Original map of American Red Cross stations in Siberia. In Henry P. reindeer-drawn sleigh, ca. 1919–1921. Courtesy of the Library of Congress Prints Davison, The Work of the American Red Cross During the War (Washington, D.C.: and Photographs Division. American National Red Cross, 1919): 84. gladly consented. Though in part a private organization, stomachs or cure acute illness. They intended to impose the ARC thus behaved as an arm of the state, the U.S. order on widespread upheaval, to transform local ideas government’s official channel for aiding American sol- about public health, politics, and social organization, and 5 diers, other anti-Bolshevik forces, and Russian civilians. to prove to skeptical Russians the benevolence of the 6 In the late summer of 1918, coincident with the deploy- United States. ment of U.S. troops, two contingents of ARC personnel Although the ARC Commission to Siberia employed a arrived in Russia. The first, the Commission to North multifaceted approach to foreign aid, the remainder of this Russia, was the smaller of these. Based in Archangel, its article will concentrate on one particular issue, typhus, and staff focused primarily on relief efforts for U.S. soldiers and the rather unconventional approach the ARC’s leaders and remained less than a year, departing when U.S. troops their allies took to respond to it. In the winter of 1918, withdrew in July 1919. The second, the Commission to shortly after the ARC arrived in Siberia, Commission Siberia, would prove far more important and influential as leaders joined with representatives from the other co- an agent of aid and development. Under the command of an belligerent nations to fund a mobile treatment clinic, American physician named Rudolph B. Teusler, then su- dubbed the Inter-Allied Typhus Train. Over the next year perintendent of St. Luke’s Hospital in Tokyo, the Commis- and a half, ARC personnel used the train to carry out a sion to Siberia established headquarters in Vladivostok in major anti-typhus campaign for both soldiers and civilians September 1918. The Commission’s personnel, however, at points all along the Trans-Siberian Railway. In so doing, did not remain in that port city; they carried out relief work ARC workers played a critical role in fulfilling the human- along the entire 4,100-mile stretch of the Trans-Siberian itarian, diplomatic, and military objectives of the United Railway. For twenty months, from the fall of 1918 to the States (Figure 2). spring of 1920, over five hundred American doctors, nurses, and lay volunteers served as the staff of the Commission to Tackling typhus Siberia. From Vladivostok in the East to Omsk in the West, Typhus posed one of, if not the, greatest health problems they administered a far-reaching program of military and facing Civil War Russia. At the time, the diagnosis ‘typhus’ civilian relief. could refer to two similar, yet distinct, diseases. The first, During their time in Russia, Commission to Siberia epidemic or spotted typhus, is caused by the bacteria personnel established or aided dozens of hospitals, clinics, Rickettsia prowazeki. It is an acute illness that causes and dispensaries. They equipped trains with medical sup- extreme fever, weakness, and a full body rash. Left plies, food, and clothing, and distributed these items 6 throughout the Siberian countryside. Going well beyond ‘‘The American Red Cross in Siberia,’’ undated manuscript, Box 140, American emergency and material aid, they offered nursing educa- National Red Cross Collection, Accession XX482-9.19/21, Hoover Institution Archives, Palo Alto, CA (hereafter ARC/HI); ARC Report to Ernest Lloyd Harris, Consul General tion classes to Russian women, established colonies to of the US in Vladivostok, November 26, 1919, Ernest Lloyd Harris Collection, Box 2, house and educate Russian orphans, and created employ- Hoover Institution Archives (hereafter HI).
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