Brain Facts: a Primer on the Brain and Nervous System
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Brain Facts A PRIMER ON THE BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM Brain Facts A PRIMER ON THE BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM THE SOCIETY FOR NEUROSCIENCE The Society for Neuroscience is the world’s largest organization of scientists and physi- cians dedicated to understanding the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nervous system. Neuroscientists investigate the molecular and cellular levels of the nervous system; the neuronal systems responsible for sensory and motor function; and the basis of higher order processes, such as cognition and emotion. This research provides the basis for understanding the medical fields that are concerned with treating nervous system disorders. These medical specialties include neurology, neurosurgery, psychiatry, and ophthalmology. Founded in 1969, the Society has grown from 500 charter members to more than 38,000 members worldwide. The Society has more than 100 local or regional chapters. With activi- ties ranging from lectures to networking events and information sharing, SfN chapters enable individual members to engage their colleagues at the local level. The mission of the Society is to: Advance the understanding of the brain and the nervous system by bringing together scientists of diverse backgrounds, by facilitating the integration of research directed at all levels of biological organization, and by encouraging translational research and the application of new scientific knowledge to develop improved disease treatments and cures. Provide professional development activities, information, and educational resources for neuroscientists at all stages of their careers, including undergraduates, graduates, and postdoctoral fellows, and increase participation of scientists from a diversity of cultural and ethnic backgrounds. Promote public information and general education about the nature of scientific discov- ery and the results and implications of the latest neuroscience research. Support active and continuing discussions on ethical issues relating to the conduct and outcomes of neuroscience research. Inform legislators and other policy-makers about new scientific knowledge and recent developments in neuroscience research and their implications for public policy, societal benefit, and continued scientific progress. The exchange of scientific information occurs at an annual fall meeting where more than 16,000 reports of new scientific findings are presented and more than 30,000 people attend. This meeting, the largest of its kind in the world, is the arena for the presentation of new results in neuroscience. The Society’s weekly journal, The Journal of Neuroscience, contains articles spanning the entire range of neuroscience research and has subscribers worldwide. The Society’s ongoing education and professional development efforts reach teachers and help promote the educa- tion of Society members. Print and electronic publications inform members about Society activities. A major goal of the Society is to inform the public about the progress and benefits of neuroscience research. The Society accomplishes this goal by providing information about neuroscience to schoolteachers and encouraging its members to speak to young people about the human brain and nervous system. CONTENTS IntroDuction .................................................................................................................4 The Neuron ....................................................................................................................6 Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators Second Messengers BRAin DEVELOPMent ....................................................................................................... 10 Birth of Neurons and Brain Wiring Paring Back Critical Periods SensAtion AND PercePtion .......................................................................................... 15 Vision Hearing Taste and Smell Touch and Pain LeArninG, MeMory, AND LANGUAGE ............................................................................. 22 Learning and Memory Language MoVEMent..................................................................................................................... 25 SLEEP .............................................................................................................................. 28 Brain Activity During Sleep Sleep Disorders How Is Sleep Regulated? Stress ............................................................................................................................ 31 The Immediate Response Chronic Stress AGinG ...........................................................................................................................34 Aging Neurons Intellectual Capacity NeurAL DisorDers: ADVAnces AND CHALLenGes ........................................................... 36 Addiction Alzheimer’s Disease Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Anxiety Disorders Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Autism Bipolar Disorder Brain Tumors Down Syndrome Dyslexia Huntington’s Disease Major Depression Multiple Sclerosis Neurological AIDS Neurological Trauma Pain Parkinson’s Disease Schizophrenia Seizures and Epilepsy Stroke Tourette Syndrome NEW DiAGnostic MethoDS ........................................................................................... 55 Imaging Techniques Gene Diagnosis PotentiAL TherAPies ...................................................................................................... 59 New Drugs Trophic Factors Engineered Antibodies Small Molecules and RNAs Cell and Gene Therapy Neuroethics ................................................................................................................. 62 GLossAry ......................................................................................................................64 INDEX ............................................................................................................................. 69 Neuroscience Resources ............................................................................................. 75 INTRODU C TION IT SETS HUMANS APArt from all other species Gene-Environment Interactions Most major diseases that by allowing us to achieve the wonders of walking on the moon and have a genetic basis are strongly influenced by the environment. composing masterpieces of literature, art, and music. The human For example, identical twins have an increased risk compared brain — a spongy, three-pound mass of fatty tissue — has been with nonidentical siblings of getting the same disease; however, if compared to a telephone switchboard and a supercomputer. one twin gets the disease, the probability that the other will also But the brain is much more complicated than either of these be affected is only 30 to 60 percent. Environmental influences devices, a fact scientists confirm almost daily, with each new dis- include many factors such as toxic substances, diet, and level of covery. The extent of the brain’s capabilities is unknown, but it is physical activity but also encompass stressful life events. the most complex living structure known in the universe. Brain Plasticity The brain possesses the ability to modify This single organ controls body activities, ranging from heart neural connections to better cope with new circumstances. Sci- rate and sexual function to emotion, learning, and memory. The entists have begun to uncover the molecular basis of this process, brain is even thought to influence the immune system’s response to called plasticity, revealing how learning and memory occur and disease and to determine, in part, how well people respond to medi- how declines might be reversed. These discoveries are leading to cal treatments. Ultimately, it shapes our thoughts, hopes, dreams, new approaches to the treatment of chronic pain. and imaginations. In short, the brain is what makes us human. New Drugs Researchers have gained insight into the mecha- Neuroscientists have the daunting task of deciphering the nisms of molecular neuropharmacology, which provides a new under- mystery of this most complex of all machines: how as many as 100 standing of the mechanisms of addiction. These advances have led billion nerve cells are produced, grow, and organize themselves to new treatments for depression and obsessive-compulsive disorder. into effective, functionally active systems that ordinarily remain in Imaging Revolutionary imaging techniques, including mag- working order throughout a person’s lifetime. netic resonance imaging and positron emission tomography, have The motivation of researchers is twofold: to understand human revealed the brain systems underlying attention, memory, and behavior better — from how we learn to why people have trouble emotions and indicate dynamic changes that occur in schizophre- getting along together — and to discover ways to prevent or cure nia and other disorders. many devastating brain disorders. Cell Death The discovery of how and why neurons die, as well The more than 1,000 disorders of the brain and nervous system as the discovery of stem cells, which divide and form new neurons, result in more hospitalizations than any other disease group, includ- has many clinical applications. This has dramatically improved the ing heart disease and cancer. Neurological illnesses affect more than outlook for reversing the effects of injury in both the brain and the 50 million Americans annually, at costs exceeding $460 billion. In spinal cord. The first effective treatments for stroke and spinal cord