Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

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Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 1971 Activities NOTE TO READERS: ALL PRINTED PAGES ARE INCLUDED, UNNUMBERED BLANK PAGES DURING SCANNING AND QUALITY CONTROL CHECK HAVE BEEN DELETED Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 197 I Activities

W Executive Office of the President National Aeronautics and Space Council Washington, D.C. 20502 PRESIDENT’S MESSAGE OF TRANSMITTAL To the Congress of the United States: I am pleased to transmit herewith a report of our national progress in aeronautics and space activities during 1971. This report shows that we have made forward strides toward each of the six objectives which I set forth for a balanced space program in my statement of March 7, 1970. Aided by the improvements we have made in mobility, our explorers on the moon last summer produced new, exciting and useful evidence on the structure and origin of the moon. Several phenomena which they uncovered are now under study. Our unmanned nearby observation of Mars is similarly valuable and significant for the advancement of science. During 1971, we gave added emphasis to aeronautics activities which contribute substantially to improved travel conditions, safety and security, and we gained increasing recognition that space and aeronautical research serves in many ways to keep us in the forefront of man’s technological achievements. There can be little doubt that the investments we are now making in explora- tions of the unknown are but a prelude to the accomplishments of mankind in future generations. THEWHITE HOUSE, March 1972

iii Table of Contents

Page Page I . Progress Toward U.S. Aeronautics and Space XI. Department of Commerce...... 75 Goals in 1971 ...... 1 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra- Introduction ...... 1 tion ...... 75 Continued Exploration of the Moon ...... 2 office of Telecommunications.... 85 Exploration of the Planets and the Universe .... 2 Maritime Administration ...... 86 Substantial Reduction in the Cost of Space National Bureau of Standards ...... 86 Operations ...... 3 XI1. United States Information Agency ...... 89 Extension of Man's Capability To Live and Radio ...... 90 Work in Space ...... 3 Press and Publications...... 90 Practical Ap lications of Space Technology ..... 4 Information Centers and Exhibits ...... 91 International'cooperation ...... 6 XI11. National Science Foundation ...... 92 Aeronautics ...... 6 XIV. National Academy of Sciences, National Acad- Conclusion ...... 8 emy of Engineering, National Research I1. National Aeronautics and Space Council ...... 8 council ...... 96 Studies and Reports ...... 8 Space Science Board ...... 96 111 . National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 9 Aeronautics and Space Engineering Boar 97 Manned Space Flight ...... 10 Division of Behavioral Sciences ...... 97 Space Science and Applications ...... 17 Division of Earth Sciences ...... 97 Advanced Research and Technology ...... 25 Division of Engineering ...... 98 Tracking and Data Acquisition ...... 38 Division of Physical Sciences ...... 98 International Affairs...... 41 XV. The Smithsonian Institution ...... 100 Affairs ...... 43 Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory.... 101~~~ ?:ExT Utilization ...... 44 National Museum of Natural History ...... 102 Relations ips With Other Government Agencies . 45 Center for Short-Lived Phenomena ...... 102 IV. Department of Defense ...... 46 National Air and Space Museum ...... 102 Space Ac tivities...... 47 XVI . Office of Telecommunications Policy ... 103 Space Ground Support ...... 49 XVII . Federal Communications Commission ...... 104 Communication Satellites ...... 104 Aeronautics Activities ...... 49~~ Supporting Research and Technology ...... 52 Radio Astronomy and Space Services ... 105 Relationship With Other Government Agencies . 55 Aeronautical Services ...... 105 V Atomic Energy Commission Maritime Mobile Service...... 106 ...... 56 106 Space Electric Power ...... 56 Amateur Radio Service ...... Nuclear Rocket Program ...... 57 Satellite-Based Detection of Nuclear Explosions Appendixes in Space and the Atmosphere ...... 58 A-1 . U.S. Spacecraft Record ...... 107 VI . Department of State ...... 58 Supporting Activities ...... 58 107 VI1. Department of Transportation ...... 62 108 Aviation Safety ...... 64 116 Air Traffic Control ...... 64 B. U.S. Applications Satellites, 1958-71 ...... 116 Navigation and Communication ...... 65 C . History of United States and Soviet Manned Apphcations of Space Technology ...... 65 Space FliKhts ...... 120 VI11. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency ...... 66 D-1 . U.S. Space aunch Vehicles ...... 122 IX. Department of the Interior ...... 67 D-2 . U.S. Successful Launches to Earth Orbit or Be- Aeronautics ...... 67 yond by Launch Vehicle. 1958-71 ...... 123 Space ...... 68 E. Nuclear Power Systems for S ace Application . . 123 International Cooperation F-1 . Space Activities of the U.S. 8overnment ...... 124 ...... 71 U.S. Space Budget-New Obligational Author- X . Department of Agriculture ...... 72 ity (chart) ...... 124 Remote Sensing Program ...... 72 F-2 . Space Activities Budget ...... 125 International Cooperation ...... 74 Aeronautics Budget ...... 125

V Progress Toward U.S. Aeronautics and Space in 1971 I Goals

Introduction invest substantial resources in space activity: the national thrust to explore the unknown, the desire to The United States has traditionally been, and continues acquire new knowledge, and the realization that space to be, a leader in the world’s aeronautics and space activity has practical and widely-beneficial applica- activities. In large part, this leadership derives from the tions. Space is increasingly coming to be seen as an fact that those activities manifest some very basic arena of human activity, rather than national activity, American characteristics. Americans are pioneers and and therefore a particularly congenial focus for coop- explorers, and space offers the most exciting and most erative undertakings that bring the peoples of the challenging frontier yet left to explore. Americans are world together. competitive people, but people who prefer to compete Six specific Objectives for the U.S.space program, by being successful in activities which benefit mankind, derived from these purposes, have been established. not threaten it. Space competition in the sixties resulted These are : in achievements and capabilities which reflected U.S. 1. continued exploration of the moon; preeminence, but which also have provided benefits, 2. exploration of the planets and the universe; both tangible and intangible, to many throughout the 3. substantial reductions in the cost of space world. Continued US efforts to develop the most ad- operations ; vanced air transports and aeronautical vehicles rep- 4. extension of man’s capability to live and work resents a similar pattern of beneficial competition in space ; which contributes to the quality of life we need and 5. expansion of the practical applications of space enjoy. Americans are practical people, and increas- technology; ingly they are coming to realize that their national 6. greater international cooperation. investment in space and aeronautics has already produced payoffs, in terms of national security, economic This chapter reviews activity in the United States space growth, and an increased quality of life, which justify program in 1971 in terms of progress towards achieving the costs of obtaining them. these six objectives. The past year saw many successes for the United In aeronautics, the most important event of the year States in its aeronautics and space activitieeperhaps was probably the decision to discontinue support for most dramatically, the continuation of manned explo- the supersonic transport. Other elements of aero- ration of the moon after a 14-month interim and the nautical activity during the year included the comple- unmanned reconnaissance of the planet Mars. Inter- tion of a broad study delineating the needs of future national involvement in the U.S. space program in- civil air transport systems and increasing emphasis on creased substantially. The year also saw a national the development of an efficient and environmentally decision to discontinue support for the development of sound air transport system for short distance flights. an American supersonic transport. Military aeronautics programs aimed at providing The United States is proceeding into this decade modern strategic and tactical capabilities continued. with clearly-defined goals and objectives for its civilian Involvement of many nations in U.S. space activities space program, a program characterized by its balance and the application of those activities to many problems and by its attempt to utilize existing capabilities while and opportunities throughout this planet are symbolic at the same time developing the new ones required to of the realization, first dramatized by photographs from continue the exploration and exploitation of outer space, of the finite boundaries of man’s common home. space. These goals and objectives were first enunciated It is particularly appropriate that space activity, which in March, 1970, and they remain the guidelines for has been so influential in creating the perception of determining national space policy. There are three Spaceship Earth, is now being used to help manage that general reasons why the United States continues to spaceship for the benefit of all mankind. 1 Continued Exploration of the Moon 15 mission was the first to employ the Lunar Roving Vehicle, which allowed astronauts to journey away With the success of the Apollo 14 and Apollo 15 mis- from their landing site and to preserve their energies sions during 1971, seven crews of American astronauts for the demanding tasks of manned lunar exploration. have now travelled to the moon and four teams have Because the Lunar Rover was equipped with a re- explored, in full view of millions around the world, the motely-controlled television camera, those watching on lunar surface. earth had a deep sense of sharing the fascination of Almost four hundred pounds of lunar rocks and soil pioneering exploration, as the Apollo 15 team roamed have now been returned for analysis by over 200 scientists. Sixty-four of the Principal Investigators operate the spectacular lunar surface in the Hadley-Apennine in foreign laboratories. Geophysical research stations region. of increasing complexity have been established on the No lunar samples returned by the Apollo missions moon; the stations set up by the Apollo 12, 14, and 15 or the Soviet Luna 16 spacecraft to date have con- lunar explorers and powered by long-lived nuclear tained evidence of viable organisms. As a result the units continue to return valuable data. strict quarantine requirements of earlier lunar land- In addition, the lunar missions have brought back ing missions were cancelled for Apollo 15 and subse- thousands of photographs for study and analysis not quent flights. only of the moon, but of earth. Apollo 15 was a concrete demonstration of the many The combination of direct and remotely-controlled ways in which the presence of men during lunar ex- instruments is providing the data for a coordinated ploration is a decided asset. The Apollo crews are and comprehensive analysis aimed at answering major called upon to act as scientific observers or field geolo- questions, not only about the origin and nature of the gists, to collect samples, to carry out specific experi- earth and moon, but also related to the origin of our ments in real-time communication and cooperation solar system. This data may provide some of the miss- with scientists on earth, and to deploy and activate ing links required for understanding not only our solar system but the universe. For example, within the re- scientific stations. Apollo has exploited man’s unique turned lunar samples there are traces of matter inter- capabilities for collecting data, for adapting to the preted to be 4.6 billion years old. If, as most scientists unexpected, and for contributing critical elements of now agree, the moon and the earth are approximately judgment and discrimination. The scientific success the same age, then these lunar samples fill a gap in of the Apollo missions to date can be attributed directly our knowledge of the earth’s first billion years of exist- to the resourcefulness and skill of the astronauts in ence. Later natural processes on this planet have carrying out their tasks of lunar exploration. The com- obliterated or obscured any record of what happened bination of the extended capability of the later Apollo on earth prior to approximately 3.5 billion years ago. hardware and the continued excellence of Apollo The Apollo 15 mission returned two other lunar sam- crews promise to make the last Apollo missions, 16 and ples of intense scientific value. One was the so-called 17, two more chapters in the chronicle of man’s most “genesis rock,” which is believed to be 4.15 billion or challenging and potentially most rewarding explora- more years old and to represent a chunk of the original tory undertaking, Project Apollo. lunar crust. The other is an eight-foot deep core sample which contains solar particles captured by the lunar Exploration of the Planets and the Universe soil and thus provides a record of the last billion years or so of the sun’s activity. As the year ended, the Manner 9 spacecraft was The capabilities of Apollo missions have increased orbiting Mars and was half-way through its mission dramatically since the Apollo 11 landing in July 1969. of sending photographs and other scientific data about Mission duration has increased from eight to twelve that planet back to earth. The results of this mission, days. The Apollo 11 astronauts were on the surface the first in which a spacecraft orbited another planet 21.6 hours and made one extravehicular excursion in the solar system, are expected to provide scientists lasting 2.5 hours, staying within 200 feet of the lunar with significantly more data on the characteristics of module. The Apollo 14 astronauts, during their 33 the Martian surface and atmosphere than were pre- hours on the moon, spent 9 hours outside the lunar viously available. The Mariner 9 mission is a follow-up module going out a little over half a mile. The Apollo to earlier US.exploration of Mars in 1964 and 1969, 15 mission represented a quantum jump in exploratory and is part of a concentrated plan for the study of capabilities. The astronauts spent 67 hours on the moon the one body in the solar system which most scientists and made three trips, totalling over 18 hours, and agree should have highest priority for exhaustive in- covering 17 miles, within a three mile radius, along vestigation. The initial stages of this plan will cul- the Apennine Front and the Hadley Rille. The Apollo minate with the 1975 Viking mission to land scientific 2 instruments with emphasis on the search for life on the As part of a cooperative U.S.-Federal Republic of Martian surface. Germany program called Helios two spacecraft will Mariner 9 was one of two Mars exploration missions be launched to the vicinity of the sun in the mid- launched during May 1971. The other mission, Mar- 1970’s. Germany is responsible for spacecraft and ex- iner 8, failed to reach earth escape velocity due to a periment development and for mission operations. The malfunction of the launch vehicle second stage guid- United States is providing additional experiments, will ance system. Manner 9 was placed in orbit about Mars launch the spacecraft, and will assist Germany in other on November 13. The Mariner 9 spacecraft carried television cameras and other instruments to provide elements of the project. During 1971, spacecraft de- data for mapping at least 70 percent of the Martian sign was completed and construction and testing of an surface, for establishing the atmospheric and surface engineering model begun. characteristics of the planet, and for the study of the Seven Explorer-class missions, including four involv- dynamic elements of those characteristics. Early results ing cooperation with another country, were launched of the mission include the first photographs of the during 1971. These missions increase our knowledge two Martian moons. Due to an extensive dust storm of space physics and astronomy. A number of space- on Mars, not as much of the planet had been mapped craft launched prior to 1971 continue to operate and by the end of the year as had been planned. Com- to provide valuable information about the solar sys- plete visual coverage of the polar cap and coverage of tem and the universe. ather areas of interest was obtained. Although Mars is a major focus of the US. program Substantial Reduction in the Cost of Space for planetary exploration, missions to each of the Transportation other planets in this solar system will be launched dur- Further design studies and economic analysis during the 1970’s. The Pioneer F spacecraft scheduled ing 1971 reinforced the conclusion that the key to for launch on a mission to Jupiter during the first quar- reducing the costs of space operation for the for- ter of 1972 was undergoing final integration and test- seeable future is the development of some form of re- ing at the end of the year. The Pioneer mission will usable transportation to space. The basic element will examine the interplanetary medium beyond Mars, de- be a reusable space shuttle capable of placing payloads termine the size, density, and velocity of asteroids, and in orbit. With its use man can repair and service measure, during a close fly-by, the environmental and existing satellites or return them to earth for refurbish- atmospheric conditions of Jupiter. SNAP-1 9 gener- ment, and it can be used to support scientific in- ators which will power this and several later planetary vestigators during “sortie” missions in orbit. Major missions were delivered to NASA by the Atomic En- emphasis in the year was given to investigating in ergy Commission in December. detail alternate configurations for a two-stage, fully Significant progress was made during 1971 on the reusable shuttle and for several versions of a partially design of and the selection of a contractor to develop reusable system to determine the trade-offs between a Mariner spacecraft scheduled for a 1973 launch to capabilities and costs. Through close interagency CO- Mercury, with a fly-by of Venus enroute. This mission ordination, NASA and the Air Force agreed on per- will be the first closeup examination of the nearest formance characteristics for the shuttle in order that planet to the sun. it could meet both civilian and military needs for future During the late 1970’s, Mariner or Pioneer class space operations. The prime characteristics concern : spacecraft will be sent to explore Jupiter and Saturn. payload size (up to 15 ft. dia. x 60 ft. long) ; pay- During the year a seventh Orbiting Solar Observa- load weight (up to lbs. for a due east launch) ; tory (OSO-7) was launched. The primary mission of 65,000 the OS0 program is to obtain scientific information on and range of the re-entering orbiter, lateral to the orbit plane ( 1100 n. mi.). Benefit-cost studies sug- the sun and its influence on the rest of the solar system. The OSO-7 mission is studying explosive solar flares gested that system development was a desirable in- and the solar corona. Data from OSO-7 has already vestment for the United States if a moderate level of revealed extended “polar caps” on the sun-regions in space activity was to be maintained in the 1980’s. which the temperature of the solar corona is about Extension of Man’s Capability to Live and Work in one million degrees less than that of the equatorial Space corona. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Ad- ministration (NOAA) is using information from In 1973 three Americans will embark on the first of OSO-7 to predict solar flares likely to cause electro- a series of earth orbiting missions using Skylab, the magnetic disturbances. first United States vehicle created specifically to en- 3 able man to live and work in space for extended Practical Applications of Space Technology periods. This program is dedicated to the use of space There has been increasing attention given to deriving and its unique environment and vantage point to in- the maximum tangible returns from our national invest- crease our knowledge and understanding of the earth’s ment in space capabilities. The most direct form of importance to man’s well-being and man’s influence return is the use of space techniques to provide needed on earth‘s ecology. Skylab will also be a major step services such as communications, resource manage- in manned space flight. Habitation by the first crew ment, weather forecasting, and the like. These practical will double our previous man-in-space duration for a applications of space technology have already pro- single mission; the second crew’s visit will double that vided significant benefits to the nation and to the world, duration. Skylab, in effect, creates a bridge between and future applications programs promise substantial the development flights of the 60’s and the long dura- additional benefits. tion operational space flights of the future. Earth Resources Suruey (ERS).-This program rep To accomplish its mission, Skylab will be placed in resents an attempt to combine aerospace technolqy earth orbit and will be visited by three different crews and interdisciplinary science in developing a new during an eight-month period. While successfully in- capability for rational management of the limited re- habiting and operating the vehicle for one- and two- sources of the earth. The major emphases of the p~ month continuous periods, these crews will obtain gram are two: to leam how to gather data about earth data in areas pertinent to the man/Earth relation- accurately and efficiently from a variety of surface, ship and to the biomedical aspects of space flight. airborne, and space platforms, and to learn how to Investigations conducted aboard the orbiting lab- extract from these data new information to support environmental decisionmaking. The goal of the cur- oratory and data acquired from Skylab experiments rent experimental ERS program is to move to a point and returned to earth will permit us to : ( 1) increase at which a national decision on the advisability of man’s knowledge of the Sun and its importance to developing an integrated operational earth survey sys- earth’s and man’s existence; (2) increase man’s knowl- tem can be made. edge of the biomedical functions of living organisms, During 1971, the ERS program continued to use human and other, by making observations under con- airborne platforms to develop remote sensing tech- ditions different from those on Earth to determine niques and prototype systems, in anticipation of the the influence of Earth conditions to those functions; launch of the initial Earth Resources Technology (3) develop techniques for observing from space Earth Satellite (ERTS) in the first half of 1972. Until that phenomena in the areas of agriculture, forestry, geol- launch, the aircraft program also serves as the principal ogy, geography, air and water pollution, land use data source for research and the application of remote- and meterology, and the influence man has on these sensing techniques. Three major events marked the ecological elements ; (4) develop improved techniques progress of the ERS aircraft program during the year. for space operations in the areas of crew habitability, Several new remote sensing systems which will provide crew/vehicle interrelationships, and space vehicle new capabilities for exploring environmental problems became operational. The practical application of re- structure and materials, and evaluate various equip- mote sensing were demonstrated in relation to several ments necessary for successful habitation of the unique actual environmental problems. There was a major environment of space. effort to extend the 1970 study of corn blight; in addi- During the past year, considerable progress has been tion, remotely-sensing data were used to investigate made in the development phase of the Skylab pro- public health and agricultural problems. NASA ac- gram. Flight hardware has been delivered, new fea- quired two surplus U-2 aircraft for high-altitude simu- tures such as rescue capability and an extensive earth lation of the ERTS-A mission. These aircraft are resources survey project have been added, qualification flown over test sites in California, Arizona, and the testing is well advanced, and astronaut training has Chesapeake Bay area every 18 days to collect ERTS- been initiated. Activities in the coming year will con- like data in advance of the first space ERTS mission. centrate on final validation of all systems, pointing to Work continued on the deveIopmen,t of two ERTS the Skylab launch in 1973. spacecraft, one for launch in 1972 and the other in In addition to preparations specifically related to the 1973. NASA selected experiment proposals for the use Skylab program, NASA life sciences specialists are of data from the ERTS-A mission and Earth Resources carefully investigating recent U.S. and Soviet manned Experiment Package aboard Skylab. That experiment missions to determine whether any heretofore unantici- package was further defined during 197 1. pated biomedical obstacles related to long-duration The ERS program involves the cooperation of a flights in a zero-gravity environment exist. number of government agencies. An interagency Earth 4 Resources Survey Program Review Committee is re- while also fulfilling certain Air Force requirements. sponsible for coordinating ERS-related activities in the The second NATO Phase I1 communications satellite agencies. During the year, the National Aeronautics was launched successfully by the United States in and Space Council completed a study of the manage- February. ment aspects of the ERS program. Meteorology.-Use of Applications Technology Satel- Communications.-The Applications Technology Sat- lites (ATS)-1 and -3 to acquire daytime cloud cover ellites (ATS)-1, 3, and 5, all of which continue in imagery continued during the year. The ATS-3 space- operation far beyond their design lifetimes, were util- craft is used by the National Hurricane Center and ized to provide communications services to govern- the National Severe Storms Forecast Center; during ment agencies, (bath state and federal, university and the spring, the spacecraft is placed at the most favor- commercial organizations, and foreign governments. able position for viewing mid-continent severe storms In one instance, in which emergency medical care was and then moved to look at hurricane areas in the provided for remote villages in Alaska by transmitting western Atlantic Ocean during the summer and fall. treatment instructions via the ATS-1 satellite. After more than 18 months in orbit, data from the During the year experiments in communications, Nimbus-4 spacecraft continues to be used by the meteorology, traffic management, spacecraft technol- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ogy and science were selected to be carried aboard the to derive atmospheric vertical temperature profiles for ATS-F spacecraft. NASA also agreed to support, with use in operational analysis. Advanced Nimbus satellites this spacecraft, an experiment proposed jointly by the will be launched in 1972 and 1974, and will include Department of Health, Education, and Welfare and devices for remote sensing of the atmosphere in cloudy the Corporation for Public Broadcasting to transmit regions, at higher temperatures, and in new regions of educational and health programs to the Rocky Moun- the electromagnetic spectrum. tain region and to Alaska. Under a similar cooperative Two second-generation operational environmental agreement, about one year after launch, ATS-F will be satellites launched in 1970, ITOS-F and NOAA-1, made available for use by the Government of India. were deactivated during 1971 due to problem in their Cooperation in the international field continued stabilization control systems. The launch of a third with the launch of the CAS1 (EOLE) satellite for such satellite in October was unsuccessful due to launch the French. This satellite will collect wind velocity and vehicle failure. The next launch in the ITOS series is air temperature and pressure in the southern hemi- scheduled for rhe first half of 1972. sphere from about 500 balloons fabricated by the Work continued on the development of a Synchron- French and launched from stations in Argentina. ous Meteorological Satellite, with the goal of a late In April a Memorandum of Understanding was 1972 launch for the first such spacecraft. This satellite reached with the Department of Communications of will provide day and night cloud cover imagery from Canada *todevelop cooperatively the CAS-3, a com- synchronous orbit, among other capabilities. munications technology satellite. The U.S. will pro- Geodesy.-Emphasis is being given to the application vide the launch vehicle and the transmitter output of space technology and related precision metric meas- stage while Canada will provide the balance of the urement techniques to investigations related to areas spacecraft. such as the understanding of earthquake mec'hanisms The Defense Satellite Communications System required for earthquake warnings and for develop- (DSCS) is designed to provide secure long distance ment of earthquake-prone areas and the discovery military communications via satellite. Phase I of the of new mineral deposits. In conducting these investi- DSCS, consisting of 21 operational satellites and 29 gations, use will be made of the radio and laser satellite earth terminals, continues to perform satisfactorily. tracking techniques developed in NASA's Geodetic The first two satellites will be moved to geo-stationary Satellite Program ; the very long baseline interferom- positions over the Atlantic and Pacific at the equator. etry technique originally developed for radio astronomy The research and development phase of the Tactical studies; satellite altimetry techniques; and a special Satellite Communications Program (TACSATCOM) class of satellites designed to support measurements of was completed in 1970. Satellites launched as part of the earth's gravity and magnetic fields and of the this phase of the program were used during 1971 in geometry of the ocean surface. both test and interim operational modes. Development During 1971 new information about the mechanical of the Navy's Fleet Satellite Communications System, properties of the earth was derived from analysis of the an outgrowth of the TACSATCOM program, was orbital perturbations of the Beacon-C satellite caused initiated in 1971. This system is intended to provide by the earth's tidal bulge. The Apollo tracking ship improved communications for Navy ships worldwide Vanguard participated in an experiment to measure 5 large ocean surface geoidal undulations. Geodetic sat- The United States continued its effort to solicit sig- ellite tracking data was used to improve the represen- nificant foreign involvement in the major space pro- tation of the earth‘s gravity field. grams of the 1970’s and after. There was European The military services initiated procurement of a participation in design studies for the space transpor- man-portable satellite tracking system designated Geo- tation system. A potential obstacle to European partici- ceiver; this system will provide a cost-effective and pation in programs after Apollo was removed in Sep- highly accurate mobile station. tember when the United States assured the European Space Conference that U.S. launch vehicles or services will be available for purchase for projects which are for International Cooperation peaceful purposes and which are consistent with obli- During 197 1 international cooperative activity related gations under relevant international agreements and to space may have been more extensive than during arrangements. any previous year. The General Assembly of the United In May, a number of federal agencies sponsored an Nations endorsed a convention on liability for dam- International Workshop on Earth Resources Survey Systems at the University of Michigan. Representatives age caused by objects launched into space. The 81 from 40 countries and 16 international organizations members of the International Telecommunications attended. Thirty-seven proposals from 22 countries for Satellite Organization ( INTELSAT) completed nego- the analysis of data acquired by the initial ERTS mis- tiations regarding Definitive Agreements for the or- sion and the Earth Resources Experiment Package ganization. The United States and the Soviet Union aboard Skylab have been tentatively accepted; other conducted expanded discussions on a variety of pa- acceptances of non-US proposals are anticipated. sible cooperative undertakings. At the end of the year, The United Nations Committee on the Peaceful these two nations reached tentative agreement on cer- Uses of Outer Space, reflecting the increased interna- tain technical aspects of a possible future joint US.- tional attention being given the ERS program, estab- U.S.S.R. manned mission to test compatible docking lished a Working Group on the Remote Sensing of the systems. There was a continuing dialogue with Euro- Earth by Satellites. pean nations regarding their participation in the U.S. post-Apollo planning, and with Atlantic and Pacific Aeronautics countries regarding the use of satellites for air traffic control and related civil aviation purposes. Both Issues related to the nation’s progress in aeronautics through direct cooperation with the U.S. and through were the focus of much public and Congressional in- increasing United Nations involvement in the pro- terest during 1971. After extensive Congressional gram, many developing countries demonstrated their debate, a federal guarantee to permit the Lockheed awareness of the potential benefits of the U.S. Earth Corporation to secure sufficient funding to continue its Resources Survey programs. GI011 “airbus” program was approved. Also after ex- During the year, six spacecraft which involved tensive debate, continued federal support for the foreign participation were launched, and agreements development of two prototypes of a supersonic trans- for several future cooperative projects or launches were port was discontinued; therefore, the program to designed. Scientists from 15 countries outside the US re- velop an American SST was concluded. ceived lunar samples from the Apollo 14 or 15 mission Issues of aeronautical policy were the focus of the for analysis. NASA increased its efforts to provide op- Civil Aviation Research and Development (CARD) portunities for foreign scientists to participate in the study, which was completed in 1971. This study was planning of future scientific missions such as the a joint effort of NASA and the Department of Trans- High Energy Astronomical Observatory. portation (DOT) with support from other agencies. Representatives of the United States and the Soviet It outlined the benefits of civil aviation, the value of Union met several times during the year to discuss as- a sound R&D base for this important field, and de- pects of expanded cooperation in space sciences and ap- lineated the needs of future R&D. Emphasis wa~ plications. A January meeting in Moscow produced an placed on reducing the environmental impact of avia- agreement under which there was an exchange of lunar tion, easing congestion, and improving low density surface samples in June. The agreement also specified short haul systems. Attention was focused on system- four other areas of potential cooperation and coordi- wide activities necessary to maintain US. leadership nation : space exploration, meteorological applications, in civil aviation. It was recommended that the gov- surveying of mean and vegetation resources, and space ernment re-examine its regulatory posture with respect biology and medicine. Ways of implementing this to civil aviation to insure the necessary development agreement were explored in later working sessions. of this field. Aircraft noise and engilie emissions were designated as priority problems for further research. As a result of the national decision to discontinue Recommendations resulting from this intensive study government funding of the supersonic transport pro- have been evaluated and will serve as basic guide- totypes, certain research efforts of basic value to super- lines for NASA and DOT, working with the National sonic and transonic flight and to aeronautical science Aeronautics and Space Council and the Office of Man- are being sponsored by various government agencies. agement and Budget, in the establishment of priori- Emphasis has been given to the problem of aircraft ties and support for future federal programs in hijacking. Equipment has been installed both on the aeronautics. ground and in aircraft to deter hijacking attempts. During the past year NASA has intensified efforts Effort has also been continued in programs to improve to assure technology readiness for the successful de- air and ground safety. To minimize the number of velopment and operation of short takeoff and land- deaths from crashes, experiments have been conducted ing (STOL) transports. It is believed that the use relative to crashworthiness of aircraft. A study concern- of such aircraft will reduce community noise and pol- ing general aviation safety was completed. Its recom- lution, relieve airport and airways congestion, and shorten total city-to-city travel time. There also ap- mendations are in the process of being implemented. pear to be significant benefits related to military short- Aeronautical programs continued to grow in 1971 haul and tactical requirements that might be derived within the Department of Defense. Flight tests of the from the use of STOL aircraft. Basic analytical and second test aircraft of the advanced carrier-based tac- wind tunnel studies of turbofan powered lift con- tical fighter (F14A) began this year and are proceed- cepts with emphasis on externally blown flap (EBF) ing satisfactorily. Development of carrier-based aircraft and augmentor-wing (AW) configurations have pro- with the capability of an improved airborne warning vided the necessary research base for an experimental system (E-2C) has taken place with a first flight STOL airplane program. Contracts have been let for of a prototype occurring early this year. The develop- competitive design and proposals leading to the de- ment aircraft is leading to an improved readiness of velopment of two experimental STOL transport re- the Nmy to operate in the modern warfare environ- search aircraft. ment. The Air Force’s advanced tactical fighter (F-15) Research on the reduction of jet transport noise con- program continues on schedule and the first flight test tinues on several fronts. Studies on takeoff and land- aircraft is being fabricated. Development of the B-1 ing flight profiles have shown that significant noise bomber is proceeding on schedule. Completion of abatement may be realized through new flight proce- the preliminary design review and full-scale mock-up dures. Programs are under way to insure that the were important steps leading toward manufacture of necessary aircraft avionics equipment will be avail- the first test aircraft. The Air Force initiated develop- able to implement these new flight procedures. NASA ment of the AX, a close air support aircraft, to be optimized for effective support of friendly ground is finding that substantial noise reduction is also pos- forces. Two contractors are involved in this program sible within the engine design with little performance and a competitive fly-off will occur. Programs to de- loss. A new engine test stand is nearing completion at velop a heavy lift helicopter (HLH) and the utility Lewis Research Center where an experimental Quiet tactical transport aircraft system (UTTAS) were Engine will be tested in an acoustically treated nacelle. begun. Further advanced systems evaluation of the DOT completed and implemented a noise certification regulation for civil aircraft. Similar noise regu- AH-56A (Cheyenne) prototype attack helicopter is progressing satisfactorily. lations are being developed for older aircraft, supersonic transports, and other special category aircraft. In 1971, many joint agency programs highlighted the Research and development programs for clean, quiet cooperative efforts leading to more cost effective aerojet transport engines were initiated. Also, contracts have nautical research. NASA and the DOT have joined in been awarded and demonstration tests will be con- a program which reflects common interests in the ducted next year on noise suppression designs for some development and investigation of aircraft and elec- existing jet engines. A joint NASAfDOT Noise Abate- tronic technologies, operational procedures, and system ment Office has been established to provide leadership concepts which can improve the operational efficiency, and focus for the solution d these problems associated public acceptance, safety, and reliability of a STOL wirh civil aviation. Environmental planning guides for short haul system. A joint ArmyfNASA program for airports have been prepared by DOT and several areas the procurement and flight test of a V/STOL tilt-rotor of legislation have been developed. Also, modernization research aircraft includes investigations of tilt-rotor of air traffic control centers, airport control towers, handling and control characteristics, noise, and neax and landing and navigation aids continues. terminal operational techniques. A joint USAFf NASA 7 program for the procurement and flight test of a super- Conclusion critical wing on an F-1 11 fighter aircraft is being de- This summary shows that 1971 was a year of both veloped to provide “proof-of-concept” Of the apP1ica- accomplishment and challenge in and aeronau- Of wing for mi‘taT and tics. Further challenges fie ahead. Soundly-based re- civil system advancements. A joint NASAIUSAF research and development, bold and innovative pm- search Pqram inves%Fted the transonic regime With grams, and a strong national commitment to excellence a YF-12 aircraft from subsonic to supersonic cruise are required if we are to continue to meet these chal- speed conditions and a stability and control investiga- lenges and maintain our position of leadership and tion was completed during 66 flights in 1971. accrue its benefits

I1 National Aeronautics and Space Council

I I

Introduction between industry and government on aeronautics and space matters involving several agencies. The National Aeronautics and Space Council was established by the National Aeronautics and Space Act Studies and Reports of 1958 to advise and assist the President on matters pertaining to aeronautics and space activities conducted Typical of the activities of the Executive Secretary and by the departments and agencies of the United States. Council staff are the reviews conducted at the request That same Act also established the National Aero- of the President or his staff. During 1971 emphasis was nautics and Space Administration. placed on studies relating to the problems of the areo- The Vice President of the United States is the Chair- space manufacturing and air transport industries caused man of the Council; its members are the Secretary of by the nati.on’s transition from a wartime to a peace- State, the Secretary of Defense, the Secretary of Trans- time economy. The magnitude of these problems, their portation, the Administrator of the National Aero- short and long term impact on the national economy nautics and Space Administration, and the Chairman and security were examined and policy options devel- of the Atomic Energy Commission. oped for Executive and Council consideration. The Executive Secretary and Council staff act in an The Council staff also supports studies conducted by advisory capacity throughout the year in providing other government agencies. During 1971 the Council technical inputs to the Executive Office of the Presi- staff supported a joint DOT/NASA study to examine dent regarding aeronautics and space programs. In this the options for national policy with respect to civil respect the relative priorities of various US. aero- aviation research and development (CARD). The nautics and space programs with respect to national effects of past government R & D expenditures on the goals are examined and the effects of proposed program rapid growth of the U.S. aerospace manufacturing and funding revisions and projections evaluated. The Coun- air transport industries and the problems attendant to cil staff continually reviews the aeronautics and space this growth, such as airport congestion, noise and smoke policies and programs of all governmental agencies with pollution, air traffic control and safety were examined. a view toward sponsoring interchange of technical in- A general plan was formulated by Council member agencies to direct future government aeronautical formation, avoiding duplication of effort, and assuring R & D activities to the solution of these problems. that programs are consistent with national goals. Where Council member agencies in cooperation with OMB problems arise which transcend the jurisdiction of in- will establish priorities and implement programs re- dividual organizations they are brought to the atten- sponsive to CARD guidance. tion of the affected Council members through the In 1971 the Council staff supported a review of our Executive Secretary. Affected Council members fre- international competitive posture with respect to high quently meet to consider important issues which do not technology aerospace equipment sales. The dominant require the involvement of the full Council. The Coun- position which the US. has held for many years in the cil staff also provides a means for interchange of ideas area of international sales of commercial and military 8 aircraft is being challenged by a coalition of foreign Other Activities competitors supported by their respective governments. This challenge was examined and key technology initi- The Council is represented by its staff on interagency atives are being identified as candidates for increased subcommittees of the National Security Council which R & D activity. discuss and advise on international cooperation in Interagency coordination was undertaken to define space. The Executive Secretary participated as a mem- meaningful environmental research programs related ber of the U.S. delegation which discussed possible to the supersonic transport after the halt of the SST, post-Apollo cooperation with the European space com- the staff was active in encouraging member agencies munity and as a member of the delegation which went to continue vital technology programs having general to Moscow to develop procedures for space coopera- value to aeronautics and to the nation. tion and data exchange with the USSR. Last year an Interagency Ad Hoc Study Group The Council staff reviews and approves proposals chaired by the Executive Secretary was convened to for use of radioisotopes in space and prepares the examine the overall earth resources survey effort of the Federal Government and to make recommenda- President’s Annual Report on Aeronautics and Space tions to insure that the sum of individual agency activi- to the Congress. StafF members also participate in ties is an integrated and productive program. In 1971 many interagency panels and committee meetings such the NASC SMprepared the final report of this group ; as the NASA/DOD Aviation and Astronautics Coordi- its recommendations are currently in the process of nating Board (AACB) and its panels, as well as the being implemented. Space Transportation Committee.

I11 National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Introduction bodies. OSO-7, launched in September, discovered low temperature polar regions of the Sun. Two highly successful Apollo missions were com- The Mariner Mars spacecraft launched in May pleted this year-Apollo 14 and Apollo 15. In addition, (Mariner 9) went in orbit about Mars in November. planning was underway for the Apollo 16 and 17 It has returned hundreds of high quality pictures of flights; the manufacture of flight hardware for Skylab Mars as well as scientific data indicating that Mars neared completion; and studies were extended to pro- is warmer than expected at the south polar cap and vide additional data on alternative concepts for the colder over the rest of the planet. Work continued on Space Shuttle. the Mariner Venus Mercury spacecraft scheduled for Both Apollo missions were highly productive scien- launch in 1973 for a Mercury flyby early in 1974. tifically. Apollo 15 added as much new data as the Viking, the 1975 orbiter/lander mission to Mars un- three previous missions combined, its crew had the derwent preliminary design reviews, and breadboard longest stay on the lunar surface-67 hours, and they models of instruments were tested. For the outer were able to explore a greater area by using the Lunar planets missions, spacecraft and mission design studies Rover. Both missions left a number of experiments on were continued with emphasis on making the mission the Moon which continue to transmit data back to and spacecraft design compatible with maximum sci- Earth. The Apollo 15 team brought back an eight foot entific returns. core sample believed to contain records of the Sun’s NASA launched two Intelsat IV commercial com- activity for a billion years. munications satellites for the Communications Satel- Unmanned programs to carry out scientific investi- lite Corporation. Applications Technology Satellites gations in space were wide ranging. Spacecraft previously launched provided meteorological data and launched in previous years continued to provide useful were used for experiments by a number of organiza- d,ata; Explorer 42 discovered X-ray sources previously tions. Fabrication of the ATS F and G spacecraft was unknown; and the OAO-2, after three years in orbit, underway, with ATS F scheduled for early 1973 was still serving astronomers as an observer of celestial launch. 9 The Nimbus 4 meteorological satellite continued Apollo 15 mission provided more new data than the to furnish data to the NOAA, and good progress was three previous missions combined. made in manufacture and testing of the Nimbus E The capabilities of Apollo have increased dramati- spacecraft and experiments. ITOS-1 and NOAA-1 cally since the Apollo 11 landing in July 1969.. Mission (formerly ITOS-A) operated as part of the National duration has been increased from 8 to 12 days and Operational Meteorological Satellite System until surface stay-time has tripled from 21.5 hours for Apollo about midyear, when both were deactivated because of 11 to 67 hours for Apollo 15. The Lunar Roving Ve- problems with the stabilization control subsystem. hicle (LRV) that Astronauts Scott and Irwin drove ESSA 8 and ESSA 9 remained fully operational. The around their landing site along the Apennine Front Earth Resources Technology Satellite made satisfac- and the Hadley Rille demonstrated that man can ex- tory progress towards its scheduled 1972 launch date. plore and operate on the Moon as far as three miles The advanced research and technology program from the landing craft. Orbital science capability was continued work on a large number of varied aero- improved by the addition of the Scientific Instrument nautical and space projects. In the experimental Module (SIM) instrument package and other scien- STOL transport research airplane program, the defi- tific experiments. The subsatellite which was left in nition stage was completed and contractors were se- lunar orbit was carried in the SIM bay along with the lected to design the airplanes for NASA flight research. Panoramic and Mapping cameras. Supporting technology activities were directed toward A pollo Program-Two manned lunar landing mis- defining and building a low pollution, quiet experi- sions were accomplished in 1971 : Apollo 14, in Janu- mental engine for STOL applications. Progress was ary, and Apollo 15 in July. The next missions, Apollo made in work on noise reduction in jet transport air- 16 and 17, planned for launch in April and Decem- planes with indications that a change in flight profile ber of 1972 respectively, will raise the total number could help achieve this objective. of manned lunar landings to six. Phase-out of Apollo The design of a device for detecting clear air tur- is planned for 1973 with transfer of such resources bulence was completed and a test instrument installed as are appropriate to follow-on programs. on an aircraft; final flight tests of an optical pilot warning indicator demonstrated its feasibility. In support Apollo 24.-The Apollo 14 mission landed the third of the Space Shuttle, extensive studies were made of American lunar exploration team. It explored the Fra aerothemodynamic phenomena affecting shuttle con- Mauro formation and continued the scientific investi- figuration and materials. In addition, studies were gation of the Moon begun with Apollo 11 and 12. made of nuclear rocket-powered stages for shuttle The space vehicle with the crew of Alan B. Shep- applications. ard, Commander; Stuart A. Roosa, Command Module Other research efforts were concerned with increas- Pilot; and Edgar D. Mitchell, Lunar Module Pilot, ing the efficiency of solar cells, testing a fully automatic was launched on January 31, 1971. electric propulsion system for interplanetary space- Earth-orbital checkout and translunar injection craft, and developing an inexpensive high performance were accomplished without difficulty, but a problem laser gyro for a three-axis strapdown system. was encountered when attempting to dock the Com- mand and Service Module (CSM) with the LM. A Manned Space Flight hard dock was accomplished on the sixth attempt, ap proximately five hours after launch. Inspection of the Continued Exploration of the Moon.-Seven crews of docking mechanism by the astronauts revealed that it Apollo astronauts have journeyed to the moon and was functioning properly and the mission continued as returned safely to earth. Eight Americans have de- planned. scended to the lunar surface and planted the American A midcourse correction placed the spacecraft in flag at four landing sites. They have erected experi- the planned trajectory for lunar orbit, and the space- mental equipment, explored craters, and provided craft was inserted into lunar orbit on February 4. Dur- guided tours of the landing site through world wide live ing prelanding checkout and Iunar descent, minor television coverage. Thousands of photographs, both problems were encountered, but coordination between panoramic and mapping, have been returned to earth ground-support personnel and the crew overcame the with many photos of earth itself from space. These are difficulties. Touchdown took place on February 5, being studied and analyzed for benefit to all mankind. within 50 meters (164 feet) of the target point in Some 385 pounds of lunar rocks and soil have been the Fra Mauro highlands. returned to Earth for laboratory analysis and scientific The first planned period of extravehicular activity stations have been established on the Moon. More de- (EVA) began 5% hours after touchdown. A color tailed information about the Moon has been acquired television camera mounted on the descent stage pro- in the last two years than in previous history, and the vided live coverage of the descent of both astronauts 10 to the lunar surface. The crew deployed the U.S. flag place on July 26, 1971. Translunar insertion, separa- and the solar-wind composition experiment, erected tion, and docking were all satisfactory; during trans- the S-band antenna, and off-loaded the Modularized lunar coast minor problems with ground and flight Equipment Transporter (MET), the Laser Ranging equipment occurred and were resolved expeditiously. Retro-reflector (LRRR), and the Apollo Lunar Sur- During the 12th lunar revolution on the far side of face Experiments Package (ALSEP) . The ALSEP the Moon (July 30) the undocking and separation and the LRRR were deployed and the MET was used maneuver was initiated ; however, undocking did not to carry the required equipment and geological sam- occur. The crewmen and ground control suspected ples collected. Total EVA time was just under 5 hours. that an unbilical connector was loose or disconnected. The second EVA had a traverse to Cone Crater as A1 Worden went into the tunnel, and confirmed that its objective and, at the crew’s request, it was begun a connector was loose and tightened it. Undocking 2 5 hours earlier than planned. Equipment required and separation were then achieved. LM landing took for the traverse, including the Lunar Portable Mag- place on July 30, about 600 meters (656 yards) north, netometer (LPM), was carried on the MET, and the northeast of the planned touchdown point. trip up the side of Cone Crater provided good experi- EVA-1 commenced on July 31. The commander ence in climbing and working in hilly terrain in the deployed the Modularized Equipment Stowage As- reduced gravity of the Moon. The samples collected sembly (MESA). The TV in the MESA was activated and the area traversed were documented photograph- and excellent pictures were obtained. The TV camera ically and two LPM measurements were made. This was then placed on the tripod for further coverage of second EVA lasted 4% hours, and the astronauts crew activities. The LRV was deployed and during traveled approximately 3 km (1.86 miles). checkout it was found that the front steering mecha- The crew then stowed its gear and 43.2 kilos (96 nism was inoperative. After minor troubleshooting, a pounds) of samples and prepared the LM ascent stage decision was made to perform EVA-1 without front for launch and rendezvous with the orbiting CSM. wheel steering. The crew then proceeded on the Liftoff occurred on February 6, after 33 hours on the planned traverse, obtaining rock samples and photo- lunar surface. Rendemus and docking were achieved graphs at various stations. TV transmission from the without incident. After crew transfer, the ascent stage LRV, another first for this mission, was excellent. At was separated and impacted on the lunar surface on the end of the traverse, the ALSEP was deployed; February 6 between the Apollo 12 and 14 seismometers however, the second boring operation for the heat flow resulting in seismic signals lasting 1 hours. experiment was not completed and this portion of Orbital-science experiments and science photog- ALSEP deployment was rescheduled for EVA-2. raphy were performed in lunar orbit and during the EVA-1 duration was 6 hours, 42 minutes. long return to Earth. During transearth coast, the EVA-2 took place on August 1. The LRV was pow- crew conducted demonstrations of electrophoretic ered up and the front steering was found to function. separation, heat flow and convection, liquid transfer, The trip included stops at Spur Crater, Dune Crater, and composite casting. The entry sequence was normal Hadley Plains, and between Spur and Window Craters. and the command module splashed down in the Pa- Numerous samples and photographs were obtained and cific Ocean approximately l km (.62 miles) from the TV transmission was again very good. The heat flow target point on February 9. experiment which was initiated on EVA-1 was wm- Total time for the Apollo 14 mission was 216 hours. All primary objectives were accomplished. pleted, and a drill coring was started but the drill core stems were left at the ALSEP site for retrieval during Apollo 25.-The Apollo 15 mission was the fourth EVA-3. The crew returned to the LM, deployed the manned lunar landing. Major objective of this mission U.S. flag, and stored the sample container and film in was detailed exploration of the Hadley-Apennine the LM. Duration of EVA-2 was 7 hours, 12 minutes. region. It also continued scientific studies from Apollo For EVA-3 (August 2) the traverse was made in 11, 12, and 14, using equipment that provided signifi- a westerly direction from the LM to Hadley Rille. cant increases in performance. The LRV and im- The first stop was near the ALSEP site to retrieve proved spacesuits gave increased range, mobility, and the EVA-2 drill core stem samples. Two sections of the stay time on the lunar surface; the landed scientific payload weight was doubled; an experiment package drill core stem were removed and stowed in the LRV. in the service module (SM) was used in lunar orbit to The drill and the four remaining sections of the drill supplement the experiments on the lunar surface, and core stem could not be separated and were left for later a small subsatellite was left in lunar orbit. retrieval. The remaining stops were Scarp Crater, “The Crew members were David R. Scott, Commander; Terrace’’ near Rim Crater, and Rim Crater. The re- Alfred M. Worden, Command Module Pilot; and turn route was generally the same as the outbound James B. Irwin, Lunar Module Pilot; launch took route. Samples were obtained and documented and 13 462-316 0-72---2 photographs were taken of various lunar surface fea- tory of the Earth (i.e., before 3.5 billion years) has tures. been obscured or obliterated by later processes. The Upon reaching the ALSEP area, the crew again at- lunar samples fill the information gap in our knowl- tempted to disassemble the drill core stem. They man- edge of the Earth’s earliest history. aged to separate another section, but the remaining The lunar materials returned are of igneous origin three sections were returned assembled. @e., crystallized from mol’ten material) or are a prod- The crew then returned to the LM, unloaded the uct of meteorite bombardmefit. Although some LRV and stationed it for TV coverage of the LM lift- lunar materials greatly resemble terrestrial volcanic off. They also emplaced a commemorative plaque for rocks, they have their own distinctive concentrations of all deceased astronauts and cosmonauts. Total duration chemical elements. Investigations of lunar material. of EVA-3 was 4 hours, 49 minutes. including a Luna 16 sample abtained from the USSR. The televised lift-off from the lunar surface oc- indicate that the Moon is not like the meteorites in curred August 2. The ascent stage was inserted into a composition, as was earlier postulated by scientists. One nominal lunar orbit, and after CSM/LM docking, the particularly spectacular sample, the so-called “Genesis samples and other equipment were transferred to the Rock” collected on Apollo 15, is believed to represent CM for return to earth. CSM/LM separation was ac- a chunk of the original lunar crust formed verv complished and the spent LM ascent stage impacted shortly after the formation of the Moon. This sample the lunar surface 93 km (58 miles) west of the Apollo has extremely low amounts of radioactive elements and 15 ALSEP site. The impact was recorded on the Apollo is the oldest whole lunar rock yet returned (4.15 bil- 12, 14, and 15 passive seismometers. lion years or perhaps older). Its age is significantly On August 4, the subsatellite was launched into older than a terrestrial counterpart and forces a re- lunar orbit and the transearth injection maneuver was examination and further study of the processes which performed. Astronaut Worden performed an in-flight formed the Earth‘s crust. EVA on August 5 making three trips to the SIM bay A deep core sample collected on Apollo 15 is be- to retrieve the panoramic and mapping camera film lieved to contain a record of the last billion years or so cassettes. The film cassettes were retrieved during trips of the Sun’s activity preserved by the capture of solar one and two and on the third trip, the contents of the particles in the soil. No viable organism has been found SIM Bay were inspected to determine their condition. in the lunar samples and no evidence of fossil material. The CM was separated from the SM on August 7 at Because of the absence of lunar organisms, bioscientists 400,000 feet. Drogue and main parachutes deployed are now emphasizing investigations germane to the normally. However, one of the three main parachutes mode of occurrence and geochemical characteristics partially collapsed during descent causing a harder of carbon and hydrogen in a lifeless environment (the landing than planned. The CM landed 10 km (6.3 Moon), as compared with an environment teeming miles) from the prime recovery ship, the USS Ok‘mawa, with life (the Earth). This is expected to open up about 1.8 km (1.15 miles) from the planned landing new interdisciplinary research opportunities for physi- point. Total mission time was 295 hours. cal and life scientists. The astronaut-deployed geophysical stations (AL- Lunar Exploration.-The Apollo missions have pro- SEPs) positioned at three locations on the lunar sur- vided increasing amounts of revealing data about the face are essential in solving the major questions con- Moon. Scientists in laboratories all over the world are cerning the Moon. The instrument complement and studying samples from the Moon’s surface, chemical spacing of the ALSEPs are such that the data are con- maps of large areas, detailed photographs of its geo- tinually telemetered to Earth and are mutually sup- logic and topographic features, and data telemetered to porting. Data from several of the ALSEP instruments, Earth from instruments left on the lunar surface and in the seismometers, the magnetometers, the laser ranging lunar orbit. This comprehensive and coordinated retroreflectors, and the heat flow experiments are con- analysis is providing substantive answers to major ques- firming and adding details to the story which the lunar tions about the Moon. The implications and conse- rocks are unfolding. With the analysis of these new quences of these answers are forcing scientists to geophysical data, we now know that the Moon, like the reexamine long held theories about the Earth and Sun Earth, is layered. Deep moonquakes, deeper than any as well as the Moon. Within returned lunar samples there are traces of recorded earthquakes, require the Moon to have a matter interpreted to be 4.6 billion years old. Scientists thick crust. Swarms of small moonquakes may indicate now generally agree that the Moon is approximately that volcanic activity is taking place even now. Several the age of the Earth. The Moon underwent an exten- hundred seismic events generated by moonquakes and sive early period of melting and differentiation which meteorite impacts have now been monitored. The lasted at least 1.5 billion years. The Earth may have moonquakes may possibly be triggered by the tidal undergone a similar period; however, the earliest his- effects of the Earth, but the specific processes operating 12 deep within the Moon causing the stresses are yet un- and Apollo 17 in December The primary scientific known. objectives d the Apollo 16 mission are to land at The impact of a meteorite onto the lunar surface Descartes and study the lunar highlands, emplace a gives a seismic signal similar to those observed for the carefully selected group of surface experiments, and Lunar Module and S-IVB impacts. The data indicate continue the orbital surveys and experiments initiated that the Moon gets several grapefruit size meteorite during Apollo 15. impacts and one impact with an approximate force A highlands site was selected for the first time to of 11.5 tons of TNT every year-fewer than previously permit study of that portion of the Moon which con- estimated. stitutes the major topographical unit of the frontside The surface of the Moon at the landing sites con- and almost the entire surface of the farside. A portion sists of a regolith of fine particulate material and rocks of the Moon’s crust which has apparently undergone of varying sizes. The sculpturing or “erosion” of the modification at some time in the Moon’s early history surface features of the Moon is caused primarily by will be studied and sampled. During the lunar sur- impact phenomena related to bombardment by meteor- face phase of the mission, a fourth ALSEP will be de- ites, ranging in size from microscopic to quite enormous ployed as well as several other significant new surface (tens of kilometers or more) as well as small particles experiments. The ALSEP experiments will extend the emanating from the Sun. instrument network onto the topographically highest The Heat Flow Experiment deployed by Apollo 15 region on the lunar frontside. shows that the heat flow from the center of the Moon Besides the ALSEP, two new experiments are in- outward is about half the average of the Earth’s heat tended to provide data about the cosmos: A Comic flow. This result differs from a predicted value (one- Ray Detector will measure very low energy particles fifth of the terrestrial heat flow) based on relative outside the Earth’s magnetosphere. The second experi- volumes and surface areas. Data on returned samples ment, the Fur UV Cumera/Spectroscope, will meas- and from the orbital-gamma-ray experiment suggest ure the diffuse clouds of gas which cause the UV that the overall radioactivity of the Moon is less than (ultraviolet) background in space. Additionally, this that of the common Earth materials. experiment will show the interaction of the solar wind Magnetometer measurements of the Moon, as it and the Earth’s magnetosphere and atmosphere. passes through the Sun’s magnetic fields, also point to Although the orbital science payload is identical to a change in composition, or layering, at some depth. that of Apollo 15, a new area of the Moon is being The ohital magnetometer launched on Apollo 15 is surveyed because the landing site is in the southern mapping detailed magnetic patterns of the lunar sur- hemisphere almost due south of the Apollo 11 landing face. As additional data )become available, models of site. The remote sensing geochemical instruments, con- the Moon’s internal structure will be refined. sisting of gamma ray, X-ray, and alpha particle spec- The Moon’s farside is markedly different from the trometers, are designed to provide a map of the chem- nearside. Not only does it consist almost entirely of ical composition of the lunar surface. Information highlands terrain, but the Apollo 15 mission showed gathered from orbit is necessary to extrapolate the it to be different in composition and elevation. The knowledge gathered at the landing sites to large areas highlands are rich in alumina and low in magnesium, of the Moon which we cannot visit at this time. The a characteristic of anorthositic rocks. orbital track of Apollo 16 will provide geochemical Measurements made from orbit also show that over information about the southern highlands, the major the ground track, the avemge farside topography is 2 highlands feature of the lunar nearside. km higher than average frontside topography relative to The lunar atmosphere, already monitored by cold the Moon’s center of mass. This information, together cathode ion gages emplaced on the lunar surface by with an extended sequence of high precision measure- Apollos 14 and 15 and extended to orbital altitude ments of Earth-Moon distance, now being accumulated on Apollo 15, will be further studied by means of a by the laser retroreflector arrays, provides additional modified mass spectrometer. The data gathered will data for better understanding the orbital configurations refine our understanding of the lunar atmosphere. of the Moon and of the Earth (e.g. the wobbles in The Panoramic Camera and the Mapping Camera the Earth’s rotational axis) , vital to understanding System are extremely powerful data collection tools the formation of the Earth-Moon system. Moreover, capable of covering large areas of the lunar surface. highly precise determinations of Earth-Moon distances The high quality photograhic information about sur- make possible the monitoring of the dynamic motions face materials and landforms permits the extension and relative displacements of large plates of the Earth’s of knowledge gained from the landing sites to all of the areas of the Moon photographed at high resolution. crust (e.g., continental drift, seafloor spreading). During this mission three life sciences experiments Forthcoming Launches.-Two Apollo lunar landing will be undertaken. The crews of Apollo 11 through missions are scheduled for 1972-Apollo 16 in April 15 have reported seeing light flashes. The Apollo 13 Light Flash Moving Emulsion Detector will seek to The Lunar Sounder can identify subsurface layer- correlate the characteristics of the particles and types ing and will study the variation in physical properties of flashes reported by the crew. BIOSTACK is an of such layers, which may include water. This experi- experiment designed to study the effects of individual ment will provide the opportunity to study detailed particles of galactic cosmic radiation during space physical structure beneath several complete orbits to Right outside the Earth's magnetic field. The third depths up to one kilometer. The Infrared Scanning experiment, Micmbial Ecology Evaluation Device, is Radiometer will provide a high resolution thermal an experiment to subject a variety of microbial test map of the shadowed parts of the Moon. The location systems to all or part of the space and/or spacecraft of lunar hot spots and their relationship to geological environment, i.e., vacuum, weightlessness and ultra- features may isolate regions of possible volcanism and violet radiation. These experiments will be useful in concentrated radiogenic heating. The Far UV Spec- planning for future manned space flight activities. trometer will measure the compositional and density For Apollo 17, now scheduled as the final mission variation of the lunar atmosphere. in the Apollo series, a special effort has been made to Skylab Program.-The Skylab Program, the Nation's include as many as possible new, significant experiments. With the schedule extension brought about by next step in manned space exploration, will carry out the cancelling of Apollos 18 and 19, all of the new the most extensive experiment program ever conducted experiments originally planned for the cancelled Apol- in Earth opbit. The 284011 Skylab, as large as Q 5-rocrm lo 18 and 19 missions will be included on Apollo 17. house, will allow astronauts to remain in space longer in comfortable surroundings while carrying out im- Several highly desirable candidate sites are under portant Earth-oriented applications, astronomical, and consideration for Apollo 17. Final selection will be technological experiments. made after analyzing the data and photographs returned by the Apollo 15 mission for the site that offers The design and essentially all phases of development the greatest potential or the largest payoff from the testing have been completed on the Skylab program. standpoint of both surface.and orbital science. Qualification testing is in the late stages and systems are being installed in flight hardware. About 26,000 The final ALSEP to be deployed during this mission persons are engaged on various phases of the work in is being redesigned to increase its inherent quality and the NASA Centers and at contractor plants across the reliability. This design should provide for a long-lived country. They are building and testing the flight geophysical station on Apollo 17. modules and experiment equipment, developing flight The Tidal Gravimeter is perhaps the most compre- plans, training crews, and performing other necessary hensive experiment planned yet. It will elucidate the development support tasks. intrinsic nature of gravity and test the hypothesis that The first major piece of flight hardware to com- gravity is propagated in wave form. be pleted, the 26,000-pound payload shroud, was accepted Three additional surface experiments will be carried by NASA in September and placed in storage pending for the first time on Apollo 17. The Lunar Mass Spec- delivery to Kennedy Space Center (KSC). The trometer will determine the constituents of the tenuous shmud, which protects the Skylab workshop during lunar atmosphere and the findings will be correlated the launch and atmospheric flight phases, will be the with the mass spectrometers carried in lunar orbit. The largest payload shmud ever launched on a space Lunar Ejecta and Meteorites Experiment will deter- mission. mine the frequency and energy of the small meteorites Five Skylab trainers were shipped to the Manned which constantly impact the Moon. The Lunar Seismic Spacecraft Center (MSC) for use in the astronaut Profiling Experiment will deploy large explosive training program. They included the Orbital Work- charges at distances of several kilometers from the landing site in order to extend seismic knowledge of the shop, the Apollo Telescope Mount, the Multiple upper structure and layering in the lunar subsurface. Docking Adapter (MDA), the Airlock trainer and Experiments to be carried by the Apollo 17 will also CSM one-g trainer. be new. The Surface Electrical Properties Experiment Skylab astronauts started extravehicular training in will search the subsurface for traces of water. The the Neutral Buoyancy Space Simulator at Marshall Traverse Gravimeter is expected to provide additional Space Flight Center (MSFC). Mockups of Skylab key data to increase understanding of the Moon's space laboratory modules were submerged in this very subsurface structure. large water tank to permit simulation of weightless con- The Apollo 17 camera systems are required to sup- ditions encountered in manned space flight missions. port the interpretation of results from the other experi- Of the 43 items of flight hardware required to per- ments on board. In addition to the cameras flown, a form the more than 50 Skylab experiments, some 37 new complement of three advanced orbital experi- units have already ,been delivered with most of the ments has been assigned to Apollo 17. remainder scheduled for delivery in early 1972. 14 A significant program milestone was achieved in with a reduced two-man crew to retrieve the three late October with the completion of integrated systems stranded crewmen who have been able to remain in testing of the Experiment Support System and inter- the orbiting cluster until rescued. The backup Saturn facing medical experiments. A live subject was used IB launch vehicle and spacecraft will be readied to to verify the experiment, employing mission operational provide a rescue capability for the last scheduled revisit procedures and timelines. mission. The Earth Resources Experiment Package A Skylab student project was added to program (EREP) , which was added to the Skylab program in activity this year. Its purpose is to stimulate the interest late 1970, progressed favorably through the develop- of secondary school students in science and technology ment phase. This experiment facility offers an oppor- by directly relating students to a space research pro- tunity to expand investigations of remote sensing of gram. The student is given an opportunity to partici- the Earth from orbit by carrying relatively large, flex- pate in the Skylab program by proposing experiments ible and high-performance sensors and by utilizing to be conducted aboard the space laboratory. the crew to operate them in laboratory fashion. NASA and the National Science Teachers Associa- A minimum of 45 selected orbits or EREP operation are jointly sponsoring and conducting the project. tions are expected to be available, during the three Twenty-five regional winners will be selected by a na- Skylab missions, to overfly instrumented ground sites tional committee and NASA will then make a final and to coordinate with aircraft and satellites which selection of the experiments to be flown. The national support the investigations. Since EREP operations will winners and their teachers will be invited to attend extend over the inhabited operational life of Skylab the Skylab Educational Conference and the awards covering the four seasons of the year, studies can be presentation at KSC at the time of Skylab launch. made of seasonal variations on Earth by remote sensing from orbit. Space Shuttle.-The Space Shuttle-a two-stage, re- The information obtained by EREP instruments usable space transportation system-will reduce opera- will be provided to scientists who have proposed spe- tional cost and lead to lower payload cost through the cific investigations based on the Skylab Earth survey capability of satellite placement and return, and the data. In December 1970, an invitation was extended repair and servicing of satellites. to potential U.S. and foreign participants in the form It will also deliver propulsive stages to low earth of an Announcement of Opportunties for Participa- orbit for synchronous or escape missions, support short tion in Space Flight Investigations. Over 300 proposals duration science applications with a Sortie Module in- were received from potential EREP investigators installed in the payload compartment for either applica- cluding scientists from U.S. government agencies, U.S. tions or research, provide a rescue capability, deliver and foreign universities, public and private research propellants for exploration, and eventually support a institutes, corporate users and 11 foreign countries. Space Station. The Shuttle will be configured for verti- Representatives of 40 countries and 16 international cal launch and horizontal landing. organizations attended the first International Work- Concurrent design studies were awarded two con- shop on Earth Resources Survey Systems sponsored by tractors to define the Shuttle and the requirement for agencies of the United States Government at the Uni- the main engine; complete a preliminary design of the versity of Michigan. The workshop provided foreign orbiter and booster; demonstrate the feasibility of the experts with information on the latest techniques for design to meet the technical requirements; refine esti- interpreting earth resources data acquired by space and mates of scope, timing and cost; and provide informa- airborne remote sensing systems. The sessions included tion and data for use in selecting configurations to be papers on remote sensing as related to agriculture, pursued in later phases. Supplemental feasibility stu- forestry, cartography, geography, environmental qual- dies of alternate vehicle concepts were conducted by ity, geology, hydrology and oceanography. three other corporations. During the year, a ground-based rescue capability In parallel with the preliminary design, NASA in- was developed for the Skylab program. A modification vestigated projected national space traffic models, and kit was designed which converts a Skylab CSM into the effects of weight, volume, and reuse on payload a rescue vehicle which can accommodate five crew- design and cost. Design verification of technology data men instead of three. and study results included wind tunnel tests, structural The conversion is accomplished by removal and relo- heat load tests, and full scale thermal protection sys- cation of stowage lockers and substitution of two addi- tem testing. tional crew couches. Immediately after each manned The original concept envisioned a completely self launch, preparations for the next normal manned contained orbiter with internal fuel and oxidizer (liquid launch are started. Under the plan, if a CSM docked hydrogen and liquid oxygen) tanks for complete orbiter with the Skylab cluster becomes disabled, the next reusability. However, during 1971, the concept of ex- scheduled revisit CSM will be converted and launched ternal hydrogen tanks was developed. This resulted in 15 an increase in the efficiency of the orbiter so that stag- Apollo 14 by the establishment of the Flight Crew ing velocities were reduced, which in turn reduced the Health Stabilization Program. Increased emphasis was size of the booster required. This concept permitted a placed on immunological and epidemiological surveil- significant reduction in the estimated cost to first lance of the crews, their families, and their primary manned orbital flight, and resulted in a baseline con- contacts supporting the Apollo Flight Program. figuration using a booster which does not require An extensive review of the results of the lunar sample special thermal protection and an orbiter with external biological assessment tests and analysis from the Apollo hydrogen tanks capable of relatively long range flights 11, 12 and 14 missions confirmed the basically total in earth atmosphere for return to the landing site. sterility of the mmn. No evidence of viable organisms or NASA also explored the feasibility of removing the precursors to life were found in all the tests conducted. oxygen from the inside of the orbiter and using an external hydrogen-oxygen tank. This permitted a con- The Interagency Committee on Back Contamination siderable further reduction in the size of the orbiter reviewed and concurred in a proposed recommenda- vehicle which again improves the efficiency of the tion to discontinue quarantine for Apollo 15. The total system. The increased efficiency reduced staging NASA Administrator approved the recommendation velocities to the point where boosters with conven- on April 26,1971, to discontinue quarantine for Apollo tional fuels begin to be competitive. 15 and all subsequent missions. The European Launcher Development Organization The Advanced Development Program, which fosters sponsored studies to examine whether Europe might the development of technology and hardware for ad- develop the Space Tug as an integral part of the vanced manned missions, concentwted on continuing space transportation system. Such a tug would be used work begun in previous years on shuttle requirements. to deliver payloads to and retrieve them from orbits New development activities were coordinated with the unattainable by the Shuttle orbiter. Industrial con- Shuttle Office and the Office of Advanced Research cerns in eight countries participated. European groups and Technology. Emphasis is shifting to advanced sys- have also been involved with basic technology pro- tems for missions employing the shuttle and for other grams and have participated in working sessions in such advanced spacecraft. areas aerothermodynamics and configurations, as Because the early requirement for a space tug, or structures and materials, propulsion, and integrated comparable capability, created an added financial electronics. burden at a time when shuttle costs were projected to Life Sciences Reorganization.-In the Spring of 1970, be near a peak demand, several different means of ac- at the request of NASA, the Space Science Board of quiring this capability were explored. Studies were in- the National Academy of Science-National Research itiated to define and evaluate the utilization of existing Council convened a panel to review the NASA Life Centaur and Agena stages which could be inexpen- Sciences programs. This committee recommended sively modified to inject payloads into high energy combining the several life sciences discipline offices into orbits. At the same time discussions began with the a single administration to reduce overlapping authority European space community, which was exploring wap and improve internal communications. for Europe to join with the US.in post-Apollo space In 1971 NASA created the position of NASA Direc- activities and where space tug studies were underway. tor for Life Sciences responsible to the Administrator of The results of U.S. and European tug studies were ex- NASA, for guidance, review and recommendations re- changed and planning for future work was coordinated garding the integrated Life Sciences research program for maximum return. In an additional study, a major for all of NASA. At the same time, elements of the analysis of the comparative economies of a broad range space program covering the disciplines of biology, of tug concepts was initiated to provide data to help medicine, man-machine, human factors, and life sup- select the optimum configuration for development. and protective systems were combined into a single port Advanced Missions.-Advanced Missions activities NASA Life Sciences Office, as part of the Office of focused primarily upon system and mission studies Manned Space Flight. which supported the definition of the space shuttle, its Support of Manned Space Programs.-The Life requirements, and its utilization. The study of payloads Sciences Program continued to actively support &e to be placed into space over the next two decades was ongoing Apollo missions, the Skylab development, a major activity which formed the basis of a NASA Space Shuttle and Station planning. payload model supporting shuttle planning. The analy- Following Apollo 13 crew pre-flight exposure to sis of interfaces and interactions between the payloads rubella, the existing preventive medicine plan for and the shuttle was important to both payload and APollo missions was reviewed and augmented for shuttle definitions. The studies of space tugs made it 16 clear that approximately half of all payloads in the merce is jointly supporting selected investigative NASA mission model involved high energy orbits neces- efforts. sitating more emphasis in shuttle planning for opera- To meet the cooling requirements for pilots of ex- tions requiring tug support. perimental flight vehicles, NASA developed a self- Limited activity is continuing in the definition of contained cooling garment using circulating water long-lead systems which were shown by the definition cooled by an ice pack. The total weight of the inte- studies to be critical to program accomplishment. Veri- grated garment is 19 pounds. Recognizing the fact fication test activities on the design, performance and that similar cooling requirements exist for fire fighters, man/machine interface of these systems were under- the USAF Fire Department at Edwards Air Force Base taken and will concentrate initially on systems and is evaluating the coaling garment for application to concepts applicable to shuttle payload carriers but fire fighting procedures. will also consider their possible evolution into future Results of Apollo 14 medical tests provided the first space stations. indication of the primary source of body fluid loss that With the main future focus of manned space flight all astronauts have experienced in space flight. Fluid on the space shuttle, defidition studies were started volume assessments revealed that fluid inside the cells d space payload carrier modules. The shuttle to- accounted for the greater part of the total body water gether with its payload modules will provide a new deficit rather than the previously suspected fluid out- and unique opportunity for space research in either side the walls of cells. its sortie or free flying modes. The definition studies Additionally, a new device called a “hydrogen de- will consider the use of modules attached to future polarized carbon dioxide concentrator” was developed space stations to take maximum advantage of com- by NASA for the removal of carbon dioxide from the monality in the design and development of these spamcrdt habitable atmosphere. This technology modules. promises lighter weight and simpler life support systems for future space missions. Space Station.-Due to budgetary constraints, NASA decided to forego, for the next several years, proposing Space Science and Applications the development of a space station. In keeping with this decision, contracted program definition studies Orbiting Observatories.-NASA’s Orbiting Observa- underway since 1969 were brought to completion. tories, whose mission is to obtain scientific information These studies furnished candidate space station con- on the Sun, its energy and mass transfer mechanisms, cepts, their design characteristics, operational se- and its influence on the Earth and the rest of solar quences, shuttle interfaces, experiment support capa- system, have made major contributions to scientific bility, development schedules and funding require- knowledge. They have discovered rhat the temperature ments for both large Saturn V-launched and space in solar flares is at least 30 million degrees and that shuttle-launched modular stations. The studies of dif- the density in flares is 100 to 10,000 times higher than ferent station concepts are being reviewed and pro- in their vicinity. OSO-5 discovered long duration and gram plans for future station development are being impulsive hard X-ray emission indicating extended formulated. storage of energetic particles pduced in flares. On September 29, NASA launched an Orbiting AppZications.-Results of Advanced Research and Solar Observatory (OSO-7) to continue studies of ex- Technology Development in the NASA Life Science plosive solar flares and the solar corona. OSO-7 dis- areas continued to find earth applications. For exam- covered extended “polar caps” of the Sun, regions in ple: A mass spectrometer for sensing and measuring which coronal temperature is depressed by about one oxygen, carbon dioxide, water vapor and humidity in million degrees compared to the equatorial corona. closed environments developed and being utilized by OSO-7 predicts the appearance of solar active regions NASA in controlling the atmosphere in manned space several days before they appear at the limb and chn cabin simulator operations has proven of value in hos- recognize active regions which are about to produce pitals where monitoring patients’ respiration is flares. This information is being used by the National required. Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in space dis- In the area of water use and recovery, the Life Sci- turbance forecasting. ences advanced technology program is investigating High Energy Astronomy Observatories (HEAO) .- alternate methods of providing a reliable source of The purpose of HEAO is to extend our knowledge of dean water to support man in space without the need celestial X-rays, gamma rays, and cosmic ray flux. for carrying huge reservoirs. Although Small Astronomy Satellite (SAS) payload Some of these techniques show promise in the solu- capabilities suffice for initial investigations of low en- tion of similar problems here on earth. For this reason, ergy X-rays and gamma rays, follow-on work and the the Office of Saline Water in the Department of Com- higher energy cosmic rays require that much larger and heavier instruments be used for their detection. radiation belts. This mission was a cooperative effort HEAO will provide this capability. with West Germany. HEAO is planned as a series of four missions. The A small Scientific Satellite (SSS) , designated EX- first two missions, HEAO-A and B, are fully approved plorer 45, was launched on November 15 to investigate and are expected to be under contract for design and the dynamic processes which occur in the inner mag- fabrication early in 1972. The prime spacecraft con- netosphere. UK4, launched December 11 in a CO- tractor for HEAO was selected in Novmber. The operative project with the United Kingdom, was the experiment payloads for HEAO-A and B have also last Explorer mission of the year. Its mission objec- been selected. Studies are underway on missions C and tive is to investigate interactions among the plasma, D, with a partial study payload for HEAO-C selected. charged particle streams, and electromagnetic waves Launches for the first two missions are being planned in the upper ionosphere. for 1975 and 1976, on Titan launch vehicles. A number of spacecraft launched in previous ye= Scientific objectives for the first two HEAO missions continued to provide valuable scientific information. are as follows: Explorer 42, SAS-A, has discovered a number of X-ray sources, including some X-ray pulsars, which HEAO-A.-To investigate specific regions of X-ray, appear to differ in some respects from the more com- gamma ray and cosmic ray emission by performing an monly known radio pulsars. The working telescopes dl-sky survey. Emphasis will be placed on obtaining of OAO-2, launched December 1, 1968, provide a complete map of the X-ray sky. astronomers with a means of observing celestial bodies HEAO-B.To continue investigation of X-ray, undistorted by the Earth‘s atmosphere. gamma ray and cosmic ray emissions. Emphasis will be Sounding Rockets, Balloons, and Aircraft.-The placed on obtaining spectra of lines and studying NASA Sounding Rocket and Balloon program primary cosmic rays. launched 85 rockets of which about 39 were from Explorer and International Satellites.-Seven ex- White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico, six from plorer class missions, including four cooperative mis- Fairbanks, Alaska, seven from Ft. Churchill, Canada, sions with foreign countries, were launched this year. 16 from Wallops Station, Virginia, and 14 from for- An Interplanetary Monitoring Platform (IMP), des- eign launch sites. The program supported abut 50 ignated Explorer 43, was launched on March 13. The research teams from universities, private industry, IMP series was established to make long term observa- NASA field centers, and other Federal Government tions of Earth-Sun relationships, particularly the outer agencies, and several foreign countries. The payloads magnetosphere, the magnetosheath and the inter- represented a wide range of scientific disciplines and planetary medium. Earlier IMP’S have mapped in included engineering tests of advanced instruments, broad detail the interplanetary region, the Earth‘s mag- some of which will be used later on satellite missions. netosphere, solar and galactic cosmic rays, and other About 45 balloons were launched (including 13 complex solar-terrestrial relationships. They have also under the Skyhook Program). These balloons ranged provided the basis for improvements in sensor and in size from about 5 million cubic feet to 30 million spacecraft technology, making possible studies of the cubic feet and carried a variety of scientific payloads. Earth/Sun environment in far greater detail than University, NASA, and other Federal Government re- before. search teams were supported. One balloon, launched A cooperative mission with Canada, ISIS-2, was from Huntsville, Alabama, in September, carried a launched on March 31 to study the physics of the Stratoscope I1 telescope to an altitude of 82,800 feet. The 36-inch astronomical telescope photographed the Earth’s ionosphere. San Marco-3, a cooperative mis- Andromeda Galaxy, another galaxy (M-32), and a sion with Italy, was launched on April 24 to study the planetary nebula (NGC 7662). Earth‘s equatorial atmosphere at altitudes between 200 In March, NASA acquired a C-141 aircraft which and 800 km (124 and 497 miles). On July 8, a satel- is being modified to carry a 91 cm (36-inch) infrared lite, SOLRAD-10, was launched for the U.S. Naval telescope. The telescope, operating at altitudes near Research Laboratory to monitor the Sun’s X-ray and 15 kilometers (50,000 feet), where the atmosphere ultraviolet emissions, to search for other X-ray sources, is virtually free of water vapor, will make it possible and to provide red-time X-ray flux monitoring for the to study the universe in the infrared region of the ESSAIAF solar flare network. electmagnetic spectrum, much of which can be ob- On September 20 a cloud of barium was released served only from above the water vapor in the Earth’s from a cannister aboard a Scout launch vehicle at atmosphere. an altitude of 36,000 km (22,300 miles) giving ground Mariner Mars 1971.-The two Mariner Mars 1971 observers a means of visually studying the features of spacecraft were launched in May 1971. Mariner 8 the electric and magnetic fields in the Earth’s outer was launched May 8 and Mariner 9 was launched 18 May 30. Due to a failure in the guidance system of mapping objectives cannot be met (except at the the Centaur stage of the Atlas/Centaur launch ve- polar cap) until the dust has settled. hicle, Mariner 8 failed to reach earth escape velocity Mariner Venus Mercury 1973.-The launch of a and fell into the Atlantic Ocean. Mariner 9 was SUC- single spacecraft to Mercury in October 1973 dlbe- cessfully placed in orbit about Mars November 13, gin the first close-up investigation of the planet neamt 1971 and has been sending photographs and other the Sun. The spacecraft’s primary mission is to in- scientific data about Mars back to Earth since several vestigate Mercury’s atmosphere, environment, body days prior to arrival at Mars. The basic 90-day orbital and surface characteristics during the late March 1974 mission reached the half-way mark at the end of this flyby. In order to reach Mercury, the spacecraft re- year. ceives a gravity assist trajectory-deflection at Venu~, The science instrumentation aboard Mariner 9 in early February 1974. During this flyby of Vam, consists of two television cameras (wide and narrow science instruments aboard will make measments angle), an ultraviolet spectrometer, an infrared spec- of the environment, investigate the atmospheric pm- trometer, and an infrared radiometer. These instru- sures and temperatures, and search the visible yellow ments will provide data for mapping at least 70 per cloud cover for “holes” through which to photwph cent of the Martian surface, for more clearly defining the Venusian surface. For the first time, high resolu- the planets atmospheric and surface characteristics, tion TV pictures will be taken of the two planets,- and for study of the dynamic characteristics and time 2500 of Mercury and 5500 of Venus. variable features of Mars surface and atmosphere. The science instrumentation comprising the flight As of December 7, after 24 days in orbit, Mariner 9 payload includes two high resolution cameras, two had taken approximately 1,600 pictures, collected a ultraviolet detectors (photometer and spectrometer), large amount of infrared and ultraviolet information, two magnetometers, a charged particle telescope, a and obtained data from the celestial mechanics and scanning electrostatic analyzer, and an infrared S-band occultation experiments. radiometer. An extensive dust storm on Mars made it impossible Major progress was made during the year in the to start mapping the planet as originally planned. How- selection of the spacecraft systems contractor, nego- ever, complete visual coverage of the polar cap was tiations of all spacecraft subsystem contracts, final con- obtained, and many pictures of four “dark spots” (Nix figuration design, and completion of all spacecraft Olympica, a peak near Ascaraeus Lacus, a peak near functional design requirements. Additionally, the mis- Pavonis Lacus, and a peak near Nodus Gordii) were sion operations and science investigator teams com- taken. These pictures show the south polar cap con- pleted plans for conducting encounter operations at siderably smaller than seen in 1969 (as was expected). both Venus and Mercury. Detailed pictures of three of the four “dark SPO~S” indicate that their general formation suggests volcanic Viking.-Effort continued on the upswmg for the larg- activity. Excellent photographs of the two moons of est of the current planetary exploration p- Mars, Phobos and Deimos, show them to be irregular the Viking 1975 mission to Mars. Scientific emphasis in shape. Mars has bulges at the equator and is much for the mission will be placed on obtaining data rele- more irregular in its gravitational field than expected. vant to the search for life on Mars. Two spacecraft The irregularity causes a variation in the Mariner 9 will be placed in orbit about the planet, then each will separate into two parts: an Orbiter which will conduct orbital period of about 34 seconds. Eight surface pres- # sure measurements were analyzed, with seven cluster- visual, thermal, and water-vapor mapping of the plan- ing around the same pressure. The eighth measure- etary surface; and a Lander which will analyze the ment, taken in the region at Hellas, showed a higher atmosphere as it descends to a selected landing site surface pressure indicating that this region is some on the surface and then will conduct surface ex- nine km below that of the other seven measurements. periments. The Lander surface experiments will in- The infrared measurements showed Mars to be clude: biological and organic analyses of the soil; warmer than expected at the south polar cap and detailed imaging of the surface in color and stereo; colder than expected over the rest of the planet. This meteorology and seismology measumnents; and physi- is believed to be the result of the dust suspended in cal and magneoic property measurements of the soil. the atmosphere. The dust particles were identified Preliminary design reviews were completed for the as silicate material rather high in silicon content. initial mission, Orbiter, Lander, and many of the The ultraviolet measurements confirmed the 1969 spacecraft subsystems designs. Breadboard models of measurements as to the composition of the upper at- the most complex Lander science instrumen-for bi- mosphere, identifying carbon, atomic oxygen, and ology, imaging, and molecular analysis-were com- atomic hydrogen. The aeronomy portion of the ultra- pleted and tested. An earlier problem of landing site violet spectrometer objectives was met, but the pressure alteration caused by the rocket exhaust of the Lander 19 was solved through extensive analysis and testing, lead- Federal Republic of Germany will design, develop and ing to an unusual rocket nozzle design. The first full- fabricate the spacecraft (as well as the seven experi- scale tests of the Lander parachute were conducted ments), and will operate it during each 130-day by dropping test vehicles from a jet aircraft. mission. During the year, it was decided that some program During the year, the design was completed and work readjustments were necessary to hold total runout costs was started on construction and testing of the engineer- withi the predicted target levels. Therefore, some ing model. changes were made in schedules, test plans, and science Outer Planets Mksions.-These consist of a series of objectives. These actions did not lessen significantly the multiplanet flyby missions to accomplish early explora- high scientific value of the Viking program. tion of all the outer planets of the solar system, many Pioneer.-The Pioneer F and G spacecraft will be of their natural satellites, their environments, and the launched on a mission to Jupiter, one in late February interplanetary and galactic medium. These missions or early March 1972 and the other about 13 months may be accomplished with a minimum number of later. These spacecraft each carry eleven separate flights, relatively short flight times, and modest launch scientific instruments to explore the interplanetary vehicle capability by using the gravity-assist “swingby” medium beyond the orbit of Mars, to determine the technique, taking advantage of the uniquely favorable size, density and velocity of meteoroids and asteroids planetary alignment that occurs in the latter half of in the Asteroid Belt and to examine, during a close the 1970’s. The planned program consisted of launches flyby, the environmental and atmospheric characteris- of two spacecraft in the 1976-77 time period each of tics of the planet Jupiter. Two other investigations which would fly by Jupiter, Saturn, and Pluto and concerning celestial mechanics and radio propagation another two in 1979 which would fly by Jupiter, will be carried out using the spacecraft radio signals Uranus, and Neptune. and ground-based tracking equipment. A valuable divi- Mission and spacecraft design studies were con- dend from these two missions will be the information tinued in an effort to maximize the science return per and technology derived that will improve the opera- dollar for these missions. Since April more than 100 tional capability for long duration flights to the outer scientists, representing 13 different scientific disciplines, planets. were employed in a Mission Definition Phase, with During this year excellent progress was achieved with leaders for each of the disciplines forming a Science the environmental tests of the prototype spacecraft Steering Group (SSG) for the program. The SSG which were successfully completed in August. The worked with the mission and spacecraft design teams spacecraft, instruments and ground equipment for the to assure designs compatible with maximum scientific Pioneer F spacecraft were delivered and are being in- return. An “Announcement of Flight Opportunity” tegrated as a system. The four flight model radioiso- (AFO) was planned for issue early in 1972 to solicit tope thermal electric generators were delivered by experiments for the early outer planets missions. the Atomic Energy Commission in December for their Effort was also focused on long-lead time develop- final testing with the other systems prior to shipment ment and qualification of electronics and other special- of the spacecraft flight system to Kennedy Space ized components required for a long-life outer planets Center. spacecraft. Pioneers 6 through 9-launched between 1965 and At the end of the year, because of budget constraints 1968-continued to provide data on the interplane- and projections, the effort on the bhree-planet flyby tary medium, solar activity, and their influences on missions was terminated. New studies were initiated to the earth’s environment. develop a much more modest outer planets exploration Helois.-This program, first conceived in 1966 as a program in accordance ~’thsuggestions made by the cooperative endeavor between the United States and National Academy of Sciences. Such a program would the Federal Republic of Germany, is planned for one explore Jupiter and Saturn using Mariner-type mission in 1974 and a second in 1975 to investigate spacecraft. the properties and processes in interplanetary space in Advanced Studies and Technology.-Spacecraft con- the direction of and close to the Sun (within approxi- ceptual designs were developed for probe and orbiter mately 0.25 of the distance from the Sun to the Earth). missions to Jupiter. These missions are the logical The United States will provide three scientific ex- follows-ons to the Pioneer F and G and the Grand periments to complement the seven German experi- Tour Survey missions to the outer solar system. Key ments; will launch the spacecraft; provide tracking technology areas were identified and efforts were and data acquisition facilities and personnel; and will initiated in scientific instrumentation, communications provide technical assistance to the German personnel and heat shielding during entry. The Jupiter probe in testing the spacecraft and in the review of the missions studied included a family of probes to survive spacecraft design and the spacecraft test progrm. The at pressure levels ranging to 100 atmospheres. Pre- liminary feasibility studies were also completed for Health, Education, and Welfare and the Corporation Uranus and Neptune atmospheric entry missions and for Public Broadcasting. The experiment will begin a Saturn rings mission. In support of these study efforts, shortly after launch with transmission of educational a science advisory group was established to determine and health programs to a number of ground receivers the most effective program of outer planet exploration. in the Rocky Mountain region and Alaska. NASA con- The design of a low-cost Delta-class spacecraft, able tracted for the inclusion of the necessary transmitter in to serve as an orbiter or a delivery system for a multiple ATS F and agreed to make that transmission capability set of probes was continued. Preliminary mission available to HEW/CPB on a part time basis for the design and spacecraft system and subsystem designs first year after launch. HEW/CPB agreed to pay for were completed. Technology activity continued in the and develop all other aspects of the experimental subsystem areas. This system is initially planned for program, including the necessary ground stations, pro- use in exploring Venus. gram development, educational software, and experi- Preliminary mission feasibility analyses were com- ment analysis. pleted for several comet and asteroid rendezvous and Progress was also made on a somewhat similar co- docking missions. Studies have also been initiated to operative experiment planned with the Government of define scientific objectives and rationale for small body India. Under the Memorandum of Understanding be- exploration and to develop the key technology required. tween the US. and India, NASA will move ATS F to a Studies were continued of other possible future mis- position over 35OE longitude about a year after launch sions, including post-Viking Mars exploration, and the and then make a special transmitter on the satellite development of supporting mission technology. available four to six hours per day for Indian government use. Applications Technology Satellites (ATS).-ATS 1,3 The Indian government is responsible for provision and 5, which have far exceeded their design lifetime, of all ground portions of the experiment, including pm continued to provide important applications and scien- gramming and post-experiment analysis and d- tific data and to serve as a facility for experiments con- uation. During this year, the Indian government ducted by many non-NASA organizations. ATS 1 and designed and tested prototype 10-foot community m- 3 provided meteorological data in the form of spin ceiving antennas and initiated development and plan- scan cloud cover pictures to the National Oceanic and ning for production of television receivers and fmnt- Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) on a near op- end converters. erational basis. During the year, the following organizations conducted experiments using one or more of Cooperative Applications Satellites (CAS).--On these first generation ATS satellites : Maritime Admin- August 16, CAS1 (EOLE) was successfully launched istration, U.S. Air Force, Netherlands Coast Guard, by a Scout vehicle from Wallops Station. The satellite, Royal Norwegian Council for Scientific and Industrial whose purpose is to obtain data on wind velocity and Research, University of Hawaii, Alaska, Federal Avia- air temperature and pressure in the southern hemi- tion Administration (FAA) and commercial airlines, sphere by tracking and collecting data from hundFeds National Bureau of Standards, and the National Li- of balloons, was developed and fabricated by the brary of Medicine of the National Institutes of Health. French Centre Nationale d'Etudes Spatides (CNES). Progress continued on ATS F and G, which air France also developed and launched the 500 instru- being fabricated under contract, and prospects for mented balloons. NASA plwided technical advice to launch of ATS F in the first half of 1973 are good. CNES and providd the launch vehicle and launch The basic experiments to be carried on ATS F are the services. The meteorological data resulting from this 30-foot diameter parabolic antenna, an RF inter- cooperative program is 'being made fully available to ferometer for measuring the direction in which the US. and French scientists. antenna is pointing, and a stabilization and pointing In April, NASA signed a Memorandum of Under- system able to point the transmitted radio beam stand with the Department of communications of toward any position on Earth or in near Earth space to Canada calling for the cooperative development of an accuracy of 0.1 degree. CAS-C, the so-called Communications Technology Additional experiments selected and contracted for Satellite, which will pioneer the use of the newly do- included five communications experiments, one traffic cated frequency band for satellite broadcasting at management experiment, one meteorology experiment, 12 GHz. four spacecraft technology experiments, and four sci- Under the terms of the Memorandum, NASA will entific experiments. The thermal and structural model provide the Delta launch vehicle and the 20O-watt, of the ATS F spacecraft was fabricated and satisfac- 50-percent efficient transmitter output stage; Canada torily passed environmental testing in December. will provide the balance of the spacecraft including ex- In June, NASA agreed to support with ATS F an tendable, 1kW solar arrays, attitude control systems, experiment proposed jointly by the Department of ion engine thrusters for station keeping, and lisU;d 21 metal slip rings. A number of design reviews were con- tional program in geodes sponsored by the Committee ducted, and NASA initiated procurement of the 200- on Space Research (COSPAR) and initiated by the watt tube and associated power systems. French. The tracking campaign, involving some 22 countries including the USSR and Eastern Bloc Na- Nauigation/Tra& Control Satellites.-In January, tions, was concluded in August. Twelve laser stations the Office of Telecommunications Policy set forth a belonging to NASA, the Smithsonian Astrophysical government policy on satellite telecommunications for Observatory (SAO) , and the French produced the international civil aviation operations. Under the largest block of precision satellite data yet col- policy, the FAA was given principal responsibility for ranging lected. This data and the photographic data collected establishing such systems, with NASA providing tech- by the other ISAGEX participants is being analyzed. nical support and continuing to conduct independent Work was initiated on GEOS-C the third and last research in this area. NASA worked closely with De- of NASA’s planned active geodetic satellites. In addi- partment of Transportation (DOT) /FAA in develop- tion to the precision tracking and flashing light system ing technical and management plans for such a carried in GEOS-1 and 2, GEOS-C will incorporate satellite system. a radar altimeter operating at 13.9 GHz and a satel- In November, NASA reached formal understand- lite-to-satellite tracking system, so that the GEOS-C ing with the Maritime Administration (MARAD) of spacecraft can be tracked by ATS F. The radar altim- the Department of Commerce, regarding the imple- eter will demonstrate the feasibility of using radar mentation of a cooperative technological develop- altimetry to determine the geometry of the ocean sur- ment program leading to the effective utilization of face, which is related to the geoid, ocean currents, tides, space technology in commercial maritime shipping tsunamis, and storm surges. system applications. This agreement formalized cooperative activities of NASA and MARAD, such as the Ecological Sciences.-In studies of remote sensing in cooperative L-band experiments using ATS 5 for com- public health applications, NASA discussed theoreti- municating with and measuring lines of position of a cal evaluations and practical applications of remote- number of merchant ships. sensor data with representatives of universities; municipal, county, and state governments; the U.S. Communications Satellites.-On January 25, NASA Public Health Service; the World Health Organiza- lanched Intelsat IV, F-2, for the Communications tion; and the Food and Agriculture Organization of Satellite Corporation, for which it was fully reim- the United Nations. bursed by COMSAT. Intelsat IV, with several times the capacity of earlier generations of Intelsat satellites, Remote sensing was applied in studying the endemic strains of Venezuelan encephalitis virus was placed in operational service over the Atlantic in March. On December 19, NASA launched Intelsat IV, along the southern coast of Florida and in an F-3 for COMSAT. It is also for operational service epidemic of Venezuelan equine encephalitis which over the Atlantic. crossed the Mexican border and spread through Texas counties in July and August 1971. NASA pmvided During most of the year, NASA, as requested by the low- and high-altitude aerial photography to health Federal Communications Commission, conducted an experts trained in remote sensing. The results are being extensive technical analysis and review of the various used in a concentmted study of the environmental domestic satellite filings proposed by American indus- conditions included in the epidemic and of morbidity try. A final report of the NASA findings was provided information. Data are still king received and to the FCC in December. analyzed. NASA continued to work closely with the U.S. Another application was in a screwworm eradica- delegation to the International Telecommunications tion pmgram for Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Union (ITU) which is affiliated with the United Data obtained by remote sensing were used to provide Nations. The work concentrated on the technical shar- detailed thematic maps showing waterways important ing and interference criteria for space radio communi- in the life cycle of this insect. Remote sensing tech- cations services using frequency bands in common with nology was the basis for reliable and intelligent other terrestrial services. The results of the studies planning. were accepted by the ITU and provided a technical basis for many of the new frequency allocations that In addition, work is underway to determine the habitat of Culex quinquefasciatus, the vector of St. Louis were made at the World Administrative Radio Con- ference in Geneva during June and July. encephalitis in the Houston, Texas area. In many cases, the habitat of this mosquito can be associated Geodetic Satellites.-During 1971, the flashing lights with effluent from septic tank overflow into collection on GEOS-2 and the laser retroflectors on it and on ditches common in the Houston area. NASA air- GEOS-1 were used in the International Satellite Ge- craft have provided thermal scanner data, color odesy Experiment (ISAGEX), a cooperative interna- infrared, color and multiband camera coverage over 22 approximately 12 miles of ditches containing septic ITOS-B, launched on October 21, did not achieve water. Ten test sites were surveyed for ground truth orbit because of launch vehicle failure. Preparations (physical, chemical, micrdbiological and entomologi- were underway for the launch of the next operational cal characteristics) at the time of the flight. The re- member of the ITOS series in the first half of 1972. sults of this mission are now being processed by sev- The real-time acquisition and use of daytime cloud eral advanced interpretive means. cover imagery from the Applications Technology Meteorological Satellites.-After more than a year Satellites (ATS)-1 and -3 were continued. The two and a half in orbit, Nimbus 4 data continue to be used satellites positioned in geostationary orbits over the by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis- eastern Pacific and western Atlantic Oceans, respec- tration to derive vertical temperature profiles for use tively, have provided data used by the National in operational analyses. Objectives for the Nimbus E Weather Services severe storm advisory program and and F missions, planned for launch in November 1972 hurricane surveillance and advisory programs. The and June 1974, respectively, will include testing instru- data were also used in the routine extraction of high mentation to expand atmospheric remote sensing to level winds employed in numerical weather prediction cloudy regions, higher altitudes, and to new regions prqgrams. of the electromagnetic spectrum. Work continued on the development of the space- Extending atmospheric soundings to cloudy regions craft, spacecraft subsystems, and associated ground and to higher altitudes is needed to improve the accu- equipment for the Synchronous Meteorological Satel- racy and time extension of weather forecasts. Nimbus lite (SMS), the research and development forerunner E will carry the feasibility demonstration experiments of the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satel- utilizing new infrared techniques and, for the first lite (GOES). GOES will satisfy the second NOMSS time, microwave radiometers. objective of continuous viewing and data collection and relay. When SMS-A is launched, it will establish the The bench integration and test of the Nimbus E, initial capability to meet this requirement ; launch is including these experiments, was completed during the year, the flight models of the instruments were rescheduled for late 1972. Present plans call for a second prototype spacecraft, SMS-B, and one follow-on ceived, and fabrication and assembly of the space- operational spacecraft, GOES-A. The primary sensor craft structure neared completion. The Nimbus F of the SMS satellites will be the Visual and Infrared flight payload was selected and most of the payload Spin-Scan Radiometer (VISSR) system, which will procurement actions were completed. Nimbus F will provide nearly continuous observation of cloud wver provide continuation and improvement for the most day and night. Data on cloud-top and surface tem- critical Nimbus E experiments; important support for peratures will be available and wind information will the Global Atmospheric Research Program in a criti- be derivable from cloud motions. A data wllection- cal time period; and a valuable set of new experiments and-relay capability will be included for acquisition vital as a mission in themselves. of raw environmental data from surface platforms and This year, ITOS-1 (formerly TIROS-M) and for the relay of processed data from analysis centers to NOAA-1 (formerly ITOS-A) ,operated as part of the remote receiver stations. A Space Environment Moni- National Operational Meteorological Satellite System tor (SEM) package will also be carried. (NOMSS ) , partially satisfying the System’s requirement for direct readout and stored daytime and night- Meteorological Sounding Rockets.-NASA launched time meteorological data. 56 of the large research-type rockets, such as Nike The primary sensors of the two satellites are identi- Cajun, to explore the structure and characteristics of cal : two advanced vidicon camera systems (AVCS), the atmosphere in the 30 to 100 km (20 to 60 miles) two automatic picture transmission (APT) cameras, altitude region. Data were applied to the design, test, and two scanning radiometers (SR) . They provided and operation of aerospace vehicles as well as to re- daytime and nighttime coverage in the visible and in- search in the meteorology and climatology of the upper frared regions in local and remote readout modes atmosphere. of operation. The identical secondary sensors-a f?at- A series of launches was completed from Kourou, plate radiometer (FPR) and a solar proton monitor French Guiana, to determine tidal oscillations, their (SPM)-provided terrestrial and solar radiation data. variation in amplitude with altitude, and relation to the Because of anomalies in the essential stabilization con- atmospheric structure. One hundred and thirty-six trol subsystem in each spacecraft, ITOS-1 and of the Arcas and Boosted-Dart class of rockets were NOAA-1 were deactivated on June 17 and August 19 launched from Wallops Station and from Bermuda. respectively. The two TOS-series satellites-ESSA- These launches were in support of range operations, VI11 and ESSA-IX-were fully operational and sounding rocket development, and international provided data which partially fulfilled the re- cooperative programs. Observation indicated that the quirements of NOMSS for daytime cloud imagery. differences between satellite and rocket measurements 23 were the same order as those between the satellite distribution by using the ERTS-B thermal infrared sounder measurements and between the rocket sound- capability. ing observations. Proposals also were received from investigators who The cooperative rocket programs with Argentina, plan to use data acquired by the Earth Resources Brazil, and Spain were enlarged with the conclusion of Experiment Package (EREP) to be flown on Skylab. an agreement between U.S. and U.S.S.R. to develop a NASA selected proposals in the ERTS discipline areas Western Hemisphere and an Eastern Hemisphere designed to use the unique data from the EREP sen- meridional rocket network and to exchange the data sors. Potential investigators expressed requirements for from the networks to improve understanding of the multiband photography to be acquired with a six- physical state and dynamics of the stratosphere and camera array and imagery from the 13-channel multi- mesosphere. spectral scanner. Proposals were also made for the crew-operated viewfinder and tracking system which Earth Resources Survey Program.-This program is boresighted with an infrared spectrometer, for the continued to use the Earth Resources Aircraft Program 13.9 GHz and 1.4 GHz microwave systems, and for to develop remote sensing techniques and prototype the radar altimeter. systems. The aircraft program was also the principal source of remote sensing data for NASA-sponsored re- Earth Physics and Physical Oceanography Pro- search activity. Several new remote-sensing systems be- gram.-This program emphasized investigations to came operational, and remote sensing was applied to enlarge understanding of earthquake mechanisms ; to actual environmental problems. The major effort here discover new mineral deposits; to produce accurate was an extension of the 1970 study of corn leaf blight. maps of mineral desposits on and beneath the ocean This year a full-scale prototype remote sensing system floor; to monitor and control pollution dispersal in the was applied to the problem and other agencies and oceans; and to oversee and forecast maritime hazards. several universities participated. New information about the mechanical properties In addition, two surplus U-2 aircraft were obtained of the Earth was derived by analyzing measured per- from the USAF to support expanded program activity turbations of the orbital inclination of the Beacon-C generated by ERTS and Skylab. The aircraft were satellite caused by the Earth’s tidal bulge. Geodetic used to conduct a simulation of the data output of satellite tracking data were used to improve the map ERTS-A. Five test sites in California, Arizona, and representation of the Earth’s gravity field. the Chesapeake Bay area are overflown every 18 Several very long baseline radio interferometer tech- days to collect data for selected ERTS investigators nique (VLBI) experiments were carried out to ob- and for agencies participating in the NASA-sponsored tain a preliminary quantitative assessment of the tech- Interagency Cooperative Research Program. nique. NASA spacecraft tracking networks facilities The Earth Resources Technology Satellite series were used in the experiments, and preliminary results (ERTS-A and B) will acquire repetitive multispec- indicated the need to improve the instrumentation to tral images and radiometric Earth data from space. achieve the required measurement accuracies. They will also conduct definitive experiments to verify The Apollo tracking ship Vanguard participated the value of such data. in an experiment to demonstrate its utilky in measuring During the year, investigations were selected in agri- large Ocean surface geoidal undulations. During a tra- culture, forestry, geology, hydrology, cartography, verse of a deep ocean trench off the coast of Puerto geography, environmental quality, and oceanography. Rico, the ship’s C-band radar system tracked the These investigations will provide practical experience GEOS-2 satellite. and engineering and management data to help deter- Analysis of the tracking data led to an independ- mine whether operational Earth resource survey sys- ent verification of the existence of a lometer (32-foot) tems should be developed. As a result of an Announce- depression on the ocean surface above the trench which ment of Opportunities for participation in Space Flight had been previously measured by shipboard astronomic Investigations over 730 proposals were received from and gravity measurements. investigators, including 34 foreign countries and the Plans were made to monitor strain buildup across United Nations, who wished to participate in the the San Andrew Fault in California by measuring ERTS or EREP programs. Good pmgress was made the differential movement of the ground on each side towards the launch of ERTS-A, now scheduled for of the fault. The upgraded five-centimeter accuracy May 1972, and for ERTS-B in November 1973. In- laser satellite tracking systems will be used to monitor vestigations using the data from ERTS-A will begin the changes in the distance between observation sites with the launch of the satellite and will be extended for a few years. by ERTS-B in order to observe seasonal changes of Global Atmospheric Research Program.-In support phenomena relating to agriculture, hydrology, and of GARP, NASA conducted numerical simulations ex- ecology and to acquire maps of surface temperature periments at the Goddard Institute for Space Studies 24 to optimize the GARP satellite observing systems and An agreement was completed with the Telesat to extract ,the maximum meteorological information Canada Corporation for the launch of domestic com- from space-borne sensors. Results, indicating that use- munications satellites. Discussions were continued with fully accurate wind and pressure data for the extra- the Italian government for launches using the Delta tropical regions of the global atmosphere might be system. Discussions were initiated with several propos- determined from global temperature data obtained by ers for the U.S. domestic communications satellite meteorological satellite radiance measurements, may systems. Each of these launches will be conducted on influence the design of the GARP observing systems a reimbursable basis. and the requirements for observational accuracies. The Centaur program conducted four launches in Goddard Space Flight Center initiated studies on the support of NASA and commercial space missions. Two need for development of special space-related observ- launches of the Communications Satellite Corpora- ing systems for GARP. tion Intelsat IV were successfully accomplished. Plans were made for continued numerical experi- The first of two Mariner Mars spacecraft failed to ments and for US. participation in the first GARP achieve orbit as a result of an electronic failure in the Global Experiment. Centaur stage autopilot rate gyro; the second Mar- iner Mars spacecraft was successfully injected into a Launch Vehicle and Propulsion Programs.--Seven Mars transfer trajectory. At the end of 1971, the missions were successfully flown on the Scout launch operational Centaur record stood at 14 successful vehicle. Two missions, SM-C and SSS-A, were orbited launches in 17 attempts. from the San Marco Range in Africa under a cooperative reimbursable launch services contract with the Advanced Research and Technology Italian Centro Ricerche Aerospaziali ; four missions, including the PAET-A re-entry experiment, the General Aviation Aircraft.-During the past 3 years, SOLRAD-C and EOLE satellites, and the Barium Ion NASA has utilized a typical light twin engined air- Cloud (GRS-B) probe were launched from Wallops craft as a flying test bed with which to evaluate various Station, Virginia; and @heUK4 satellite was ollbited levels of control and display system sophistication. The from the WTR. The successful completion of these approach has been to use system and component tech- launches brought the Scout reliability record to 23 con- nology that has been developed for large ccrmmercial secutive successes, and 49 successes out of the last 51 transports or military applications, but because of cost launches. not feasible for wide use in general aviation. The The development of the Algol I11 first stage motor, objective of the program has been to demonstrate the which increases the Scout performance by approxi- improvements in handling qualities and precision of mately 30 percent, was successfully completed, and the flight possible, using modern control and display first production procurement of operational motors was technology as a means of identifying goals for future initiated with delivery commencing in the 4th quarter general aviation aircraft system capabilities. of 1971. Results to date have been impressive. When incor- The increased diameter 42-inch heat shield entered porating a direct attitude command control system operational use with its first flight on the PAET mis- with a standard flight director display system, pilot sion. This heat shield provides the spacecraft with ratings have improved to 'the near perfect level. This twice the volume ahead of the fourth stage motor has been consistently demonstrated during simulated instrument approaches in moderate severe previously available with the 34-inch heat shield. to atmospheric turbulence. The Delta launch vehicle system was used to launch Continued effort in this area will concentrate on five missions during this period: NATO B, IMP I, developing methods for achieving this system capabil- ISIS B, OS0 H, and ITOS B. Four launches ity by techniques that have the potential for economic were successful. Other significant achievements implementation. were the completion of the adaptation of an inertial guidance system to the Delta vehicle, the adapta- STOL Aircraft.-Short takeoff and landing (STOL) tion of the Titan IIIC transtage engine to the Delta aircraft offer important potential improvement for second stage, and the development of the TE-364-4 both civil and military short-haul (in the 500-de range) air transportation. STOL technology can be motor for use with the Delta and Centaur vehicles. applied to reduce community noise and pollution, to Each of these systems will be first flown in 1972. reduce congestion of the Nation's airways and air- New effort was initiated in 1971 to adapt an eSght- ports, and to improve the quality of both civil trans- foot fairing to the Delta system and to adapt the port and military tactical airlift. In the past year, the Saturn S-1B H-1 engine to the Thor booster. These growing urgency of the need led to an intensification of changes will be first flown in 1972 and 1973, the effort to assure technology readiness for the success- respectively. ful development and operation of STOL transports. 25 The most important step taken in STOL tech- V/STOL Aircraft.-Major progress was made in nology this year was the issuance in August largely completing the modification of a propeller- of a Request for Proposals for the design and driven C-8‘4 transport to an augmentor wing short development of quiet experimental STOL transport take-off and landing jet (STOL) research aircraft. research airplanes for use by NASA in flight The fan air from the turbofan engines is ducted to research essential to development of propulsive- “ejector type” flaps which pull air from over the wing lift technology. Industry responses were received to augment lift. This provides a STOL capability per- and contractors selected for Phase I, a competitive mitting the aircraft to operate from 1500-foot run- design and proposal phase. This will be followed by a ways at touch down speeds of about 60 knots and single contract for Phase 11, a final design and fabrica- slightly hligher lift-off speeds. Flight tests are scheduled tion phase. The two research aircraft to be built will be to begin in the spring of 1972. This is a joint program utilized for development of design, operation, and certi- with the Canadian Department of Industry, Trade cation criteria, and for evaluation of promising propul- and Commerce. sive-lift concepts. The flight research programs will be Although the modified C4A is a straight-wing developed in cooperation with other Government research aircraft, two series of large-scale model agencies and industry. tests completed this year in the Ames Research Center In preparation for the experimental airplane pro- 40- by 80-foot wind tunnel confirmed that comparable gram, the technology activity this year has included STOL performance can be achieved by swept wing basic analytical and wind-tunnel studies of turbofan configurations representative of modern high-speed powered-lift concepts with emphasis on externally- transports. blown-flap (EBF) configurations. In the EBF concept The large amount of high pressure air ejected primary and by-pass engine air are both directed through the augmentor flap creates a noise which has against the wing flap system. Internally-blown-flap to be alleviated to meet desired operational-STOL (IBF) or augmentor-wing (AW) configurations which noise limits. Preliminary results from two-dimensional use by-pass air ejected through special ducts in the tests started this year at Ames and under contract in- wing over or through special flap systems to generate dicated that exit nozzles which break up the flow and high lift and thrust were also being studied. In addi- acoustic lining can reduce sound emission appreciably. tion, the technology program encompasses studies of The new V/STOL wind tunnel at the Langley Re- general STOL design arrangements and studies perti- search Center became operational this year. It pro- nent to the special problems of flight control, ride vides greatly improved capability for scaled model qualities, noise and propulsion. The propulsive-lift testing. A program was initiated to test four STOL lift technology will permit development d quiet, clean, augmentation concepts on a common transport model. safe, and efficient turbofan transports capable of opera- Using simulated turbofan engines, the concepts of tion from runways 2,000 feet or less in length. internally blowing air over deflected flaps, and exter- Quiet, low-pollutant-emission propulsion is of nally blowing air onto deflected flaps were tested. particular importance. In the past year, the tech- A propeller driven OV-10 airplane was delivered to nology being generated in the NASA Quiet Ames modified with a high rpm rotating cylinder Engine program was utilized in establishing a ahead of its flap to promote flow attachment at very basis for meeting the particular requirements of STOL hiyh flap deflections and making possible landing transport. Investigations were conducted at the speeds and runway lengths of about 50 knots and 500 component level, on fans, turbines, combustion, in- feet respeatively. The airplane was tested in a wind lets, exhaust nozzles and materials. A study will be initi- tunnel and in flight to evaluate the concept, conduct ated shortly to identify the engine configurations and handling qualities research, and investigate noise meas- thrust levels of greatest potential interest for the civil uring techniques. STOL market. This work will lead to the definition In vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) air- and construction of low-polluting, quiet STOL experi- craft research, progress was made on lift fan and mental engines for ground-based research. Current advanced rotor-craft concepts. Two series of tests plans are to have quiet, clean experimental engines were completed in the Ames 40- by 80-foot wind available for research in late 1974 or early 1975. tunnel of a large swept wing transport model having In parallel with the technology programs, related lift fans with vectorable thrust to provide cruise pro- analytical studies were initiated and coordinated with pulsion. The favorable outcome of these and earlier DOT and FAA to establish a better understanding of tests together with control system and flight simula- short-haul STOL transport operation and economics, tion tests led to the initiation this year of three implementation requirements, and the relationship contracts with aircraft companies to study lift-fan between technical development and practical transport commercial transports for the 1980’s and to define a system design. research aircraft program for investigating the performance, propulsion, handling qualities, and opera- maneuvering simulator at the Langley Research Cen- tional characteristics, including noise, in the real flight ter was used in a cooperative NASA/Navy program in environment. support of the F-14 program. In mid-1971 NASA as- Investigations continued at the Langley and Ames sembled an intercenter study team that participated in Research Centers and under contract to gain a better the DDR&E prototype study. As a result of NASA’s understanding of helicopter rotor wakes, tip vortex gen- participation in the prototype study, the need for co- eration and break up, and dynamic loads. These operative NASA /WAF efforts in the STOL experi- investigations show considerable promise for design of mental aircraft program was brought out cleady and rotor systems with improved performance, vibration, a cooperative program was being prepared. and noise characteristics. Research on the tilt rotor Tilt/Rotor Research Aircraft.-An agreement be- concepts having higher speed capability than conven- tween the US. Army and NASA for a joint Army/ tional helicopters indicated the likelihood of improved NASA program for rhe procurement and flight test performance. Tests were completed of a full-scale of a V/STOL tilt-rotor research aircraft for research flightworthy rotor in the Ames 40- by 80-foot wind on the tilt-rotor concept was consummated on Nov- tunnel, and preparations initiated for similar tests with ember 1, 1971. The program will include investigations a different rotor control system with provision to fold of tilt-rotor handling and control characteristics, noise, the rotor for cruise flight. NASA/Army definition stud- and near-terminal operational techniques. The flight ies are underway to define a flight research aircraft. research vehicle will be used also for general research Variable stability capability has been incorporated of V/STOL instrumentation and automatic landing in the X-14B direct lift VTOL research aircraft to systems and of advanced rotor concepts. The program permit a broader spectrum of V/STOL handling qual- will be conducted over a two-year period and the ities flight research. V/STOL handling qualities research also continued using ground-based simulators, costs will be shared equably by the Army and NASA. the variable stability CH-46 helicopter, and the vari- Rotor Systems Test Vehicle.-An agreement between able stability tilt ducted-fan x-22 research aircraft. the US. Army and NASA for a joint program for The latter is a joint program with the Navy, Air Force, the procurement of Rotor Systems Test Vehicle for and FAA. flight test of advanced rotor concepts was consummated Military Support Programs.-During the past year, on November 1, 1971. The test vehicle will fulfill a steps were taken to better coordinate NASA’s aero- need for a cost-effective means of flight testing new nautical research efforts to assist the military. A Mili- advanced helicopter rotors and new control concepts tary Aircraft Programs Office was formed within the in the real and dynamic environment of flight to study Office of Advanced Research and Technology in problems under conditions that cannot be adequately NASA Headquarters to serve as a focus and be re- simulated in ground facilities. A number of new rotor sponsible for NASA programs in direct support of concepts are and have been under study analytically the military. and experimentally in ground facilities at small and Specifically, this office is responsible for the direc- large scale which show promise for significantly im- tion from the Headquarters level, of the ongoing sup proving rotorcraft performance, control, and vibration. port to the USAF on the F-15 and B-1 programs, The Rotor Systems Test Vehicle will be used to flight the ongoing support to the USN on the F-14 program, the direction of the USAF/NASA TACT Program, test the most promising of these advanced rotor con- the direction of the planned US. ArmyfNASA Rotor figurations. The program will be conducted over a Test Vehicle and the Army/NASA Tilt Rotor Research two-year period and the costs will be shared equably Aircraft Programs, and other ongoing and possible by the Army and NASA. joint research, experimental and prototype aircraft TACT (Transonic Aircraft Technology) Program.- programs. An agreement between USAF and NASA for a joint Other actions were also initiated in these areas. An USAF /NASA program for the procurement and flight experienced NASA aeronautical engineer was assigned to the F-15 System Program Office at Wright Field test of supercritical wing on an F-111 fighter aircraft and the B-1 System Program Office Operating Loca- was signed on June 16, 1971. The program will pro- tion No. l located at a contractor’s Los Angela divi- vide ‘‘prmf-of-concept” of the application of super- sion. These two NASA representatives report to the critical wing technology using a variable sweep F-111 Military Aircraft Programs Office. The operation of aircraft. Program go-ahead for the wing and aircraft the Army station at the Ames Research Center con- modification was approved in early July 1971. The tinues to be extremely successful. Similar NASA-based first design review for tooling go-ahead occurred in Army R&D groups are being built up at the Langley mid-December 1971. The final design review is sched- and Lewis Research Centers. The new differential uled for the Spring d 1972. 27 452-915 0-72-3 ]oint DOT/NASA STOL Program.-NASA and the materials, flight control, and avionics; exploratory DOT joined in a program which reflects common flight research on supercritical aerodynamics and re- interests in the development and investigation of air- lated laboratory developments ; and systems studies to craft and electronic technologies, operational proced- relate the evolving technical advances to realistic fu- ures, and system concepts which can improve the ture transportation requirements, markets, and operational efficiency, public acceptance, safety, and economics. reliability of a Short-Takeoff and Landing (STOL) During the past year, several significant events short haul system. Flight experiments will include the occurred in the program. The systems studies, which use of STOL research aircraft equipped with an will provide guidance on where our efforts should be avionics system to allow investigation of alternative concentrated for the next several years in the key long- avionics functional configurations, flight paths, opera- haul transport technologies, neared completion. Iden- tional procedures, levels of automation, and landing tification of advanced technology payoff areas and aids. Initial flight experiments will use an area naviga- recommendations for further studies were made by the tion system developed by the DOT’S Transportation contractors. The contractual effort was redirected Systems Center to evaluate radio navigation systems with strong emphasis on the application of advanced performance in various potential STOL environments technologies to specific design concepts to more fully and to evaluate the adequacy of existing com- evaluate their impact. munications and radar surveillance in this same Several flight tests were conducted to verify two environment. The navigation system and data acqui- applications of the supercritical wing: a thick wing sition system will be ready to begin flight experiments to permit structural weight savings, and a wing de- in April 1972. In September 1971, a STOL airplane signed for high-speed cruise. In a joint program with simulator at Langley Research Center was linked to the Navy, a thick supercritical wing was incorporated the FAA’s NAFEC-ATC simulation facility and flown on a T-2C trainer to investigate the performance of the in real time in a simulated ATC system to determine wing at moderate subsonic speeds. Thus far 24 the effect of the STOL airplane on the ATC system flights have been conducted. The results indicate that and the effect of the ATC system on the STOL air- the drag of the T-2C with the thick supercritical wing plane in the New York terminal area operating from a at the design Mach number is identical to that of the downtown STOL port. The Ames Research Center T-2C with the conventional thin wing, and the lift co- was developing the airborne equipment which will be efficient for the buffet onset is greater for the super- installed in a conventional C-8A “Buffalo” aircraft critical wing for all Mach numbers up to the limit and the Augmentor Wing Jet STOL Research Aircraft Mach number tested. This validates the new wing to investigate STOL transport approach, landing, and design concept as providing better structural efficiency takeoff performance as a function of navigation, guid- and maneuvering performance than the old concept. ance and control systems configuration, and flight man- A high-speed supercritical wing was constructed for agement techniques ; subsystem characteristics and flight tests on a TF4Aairplane. Performance, pressure performance; operational procedures and flight path distributions, stability and control, buffet and flutter geometry; and operational environment. The FAA have been investigated during the 24 flights con- will provide the microwave, scanning beam instrument ducted thus far. The drag and handling qualities were landing system. The flight experiments were defined as predicted from wind-tunnel tests. Buffet was intense jointly to provide engineering data requirements to but not severe, and no flutter was experienced. Flights support the FAA’s STOL short-haul system develop- have been conducted up to Mach 1.2 and up to an ment plan. The equipment development is proceeding altitude of 50,000 feet. on schedule with flight experiments scheduled to com- The results from these flights have been very en- mence in October 1972. couraging and indicated the importance of supercritical technology one of the key \technical advances for Advanced Transport Technology.-The Advanced as the next generation of air transports. Transport Technology program was initiated to develop technologies applicable to the next-generation Jet Transport Noise Reduction.-Methods of re- long-haul subsonic air transports. It is intended to ducing the noise of jet transport airplanes during provide the technology base for industry applica- take-off and landing were the subject of exten- tion by 1978. The goal of the program is to insure that sive research by NASA. This work showed the po- the next generation of US. long-haul air transports tential of a change in flight profile for noise reduction will have minimum environmental impact and will be and developed the requirements for airborne guid- competitively superior in the world market. ance and control systems needed to effect the flight The program has three major elements: funda- path control. The reduction that can be achieved with mental technology in the primary aeronautical a change in landing approach profile or technique discipIines of aerodynamics, propulsion, structures and will depend mainly on the amount of thrust reduction possible during the approach and the increase in NASA specified the very low noise goal of 95 EPNdB height above the ground at any point. Steepening the at 500 feet for its experimental STOL research air- approach angle will both decrease thrust and increase plane. There is a signficant noise research effort under- height above the ground. Noise reduction of about way to support that airplane program at all four NASA 18 decibels of perceived noise (PNdB) is possible research centers. when the approach angle is steepened from 2.65 de- A facility for noise investigations of lift fans suitable grees (the standard approach angle) to 6 degrees. for vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL) aircraft was However, a single-segment 6 degree approach results under construction at Lewis Research Center. The noise problem of such propulsion systems is severe. in a sink rate objectionable to most pilots, at least with Control of propulsion system noise is a ping tech- currently available propulsion system response times, nology for VTOL aircraft. flight control systems, and landing guidance systems. Construction started on the Acoustic Research Two-segment noise abatement approaches minimize Laboratory at Langley Research Center. This ldbora- the problem of high rates of descent near the ground tory will be devoted primarily to basic research on noise while providing significant noise reductions. The resources. Experiments will be initiated in the laboratory duction in noise-with a two-segment approach profile in about two years. having an upper segment of 6 degrees that intercepts Close coordination of noise research programs with the lower segment of 2.65 degrees at 400 feet altitude- the Department of Transportation and the Federal gave a noise reduction of about 10 PNdB at 1.25 nau- Aviation Agency was strengthened by the creation tical miles from the runway threshold, and a greater of a joint DOT/NASA Office of Noise Abatement. reduction beyond 1.5 mi. from the runway. NASA The NASA Deputy Chief of this office has been ap- and a commercial (airline completed a flight program pointed. Plans for implementation of 'the noise research which demonstrated that the technology and hardware recommendations of the Civil Aviation Research and are available now for two-segment noise abatement Development study are being coordinated through flight paths. Two problems require resolution before this office. this technique is considered practical for implementa- Community Response to Aircraft Noise.-The social tion: (a) selling the line pilot on the suitability of three and psychological factors which cause the communities dimensional area navigation flight procedures as a located adjacent to major airports to react adversely means of flying two-segment noise abatement proce- to aircraft noise were investigated under a grant from dures under typical schedule service airline conditions Langley Research Center. and (b) demonstrating to major airlines that the The US. conducted social surveys around airports avionics modifications to the aircraft are prac- of seven large cities and two small cities; the U.K. tical for fleet-wide implementation and are useful conducted two surveys near London's Heathrow Air- port. Detailed cross tabulations and special analyses for other applications as well as noise abatement. of answers to questions concerning common human NASA and FAA are planning a cooperative program response variables made it possible to develop a single with the airlines to accomplish these objectives. There analytical model based on over 7500 responses from are also effective departure procedures for noise abate- populations of more than one nation. Three of the ment. Noise reductions of from 6 to 14 PNdB can be most important variables influencing community an- realized between a maximum continuous power climb noyance were noise exposure levels or Composite Noise and an optimum climb-out procedure. Rating (CNR), fear of aircraft crashes, and feelings of misfeasance on the part of aircraft operators. Mis- Noise Research.-NASA continued to expand its re- feasance is the belief that the aircraft industry has search effort on aircraft noise. A new engine test the knowledge and ability to reduce the unwanted stand for measuring noise performance neared com- noise but chooses not to do so for reasons believed to pletion at Lewis Research Center. The first engine to be insufficient. The survey data indicated that feel- be tested there will be the Quiet Engine in its acousti- ings of misfeasance are positively correlated with in- cally treaked nacelle. Work to date indicated that sub- tensity of noise exposure; these data can be used 'by stantial amounts of noise reduction are available by DGT, FAA, and EPA in establishing guides and stand- the use of acoustic treatment with rather small penal- ards for maximum noise exposure levels. ties in engine performance. Systematic fan noise tests Quiet Engine Program.-The experimental quiet have shown that the key parameter to control for low engine program progressed on time and on sched- noise research resulted in the development of a scaling ule and within cost limits. Acoustic tests were initiated law for jet noise prediction. These developments in July on the first quiet engine assembly incorpo- together represent a significant advance in noise control rating a fan having low tip-speed, high aspect-ratio for conventional takeoff and landing (CTOL) aircraft. blades. The engine test program included : baseline noise tests with three different fan nozzles and two exhaust emission problem due to jet aircraft occurs core nozzles, investigation of two different types of during idle and other low power engine operating sound absorbent materials for the core nozzles and conditions where the greatest quantity of carbon mon- determination of the effect of acoustic treatment of the oxide and unburned hydrocarbon is produced. Re- fan inlet and fan exhaust ducts. Two different inlets search during the past year was directed to the reduc- were used in these tests; a thick lipped unit and a thin tion of these emissions by increasing the low combus- lipped unit with blow-in doors. Noise and performance tion efficiencies typical of reduced power operation. data were taken in all tests and are now being reduced During takeoff, cruise, and approach operations, the and prepared for publication. Preliminary results show that the original objectives of the program (15-20 engine is operated at much higher power levels and PNdB reduction in noise levels as compared to present very high combustor efficiency levels which result in 707/DC-8 commercial transports) have been ex- little or no emissions of carbon monoxide and unburned ceeded. A second experimental quiet engine, incor- hydrocarbons. However, the higher combustor inlet porating moderate tipspeed, high-aspect-ratio fan and exit temperatures tend to increase nitric oxide blades is now being assembled in preparation for tests emissions. NASA research in short length combustors to begin early in 1972. during the past year has indicated that nitric oxide Aircraft Wake Turbu&nce.-The swirling air masses emissions can be reduced by reducing the combustion trailing from the wing tips of large, heavy aircraft residence time, Le., the time that the air is subjected to contain strong winds which can be hazardous to other the high temperature zone within the combustors. aircraft encountering them in flight. NASA investi- Another research activity initiated this year will gated the problem of wake turbulence behavior at its lead to a program to determine the composition and Ames, Langley, and Flight Research Centers and at ambient characteristics of the troposphere over a pe- the Marshall Space Flight Center. Instrumented air- riod of several years. An instrument package for mea craft and towers, laser Doppler wind systems, wind suring selected constituents of the atmosphere is now tunnel models, water tanks, and analytical studies in preliminary design. It is planned to mount the were used to determine trailing vortex characteristics instrument package aboard a number of commercial and methods for reducing wake velocities. aircraft flying both domestic and international routes. On the basis of information from NASA and other Pilot Warning Indicators.-The final flight tests of studies, the FAA has published wake turbulence avoid- optical Pilot Warning Indicators (PWI) were com- ance procedures, ibut research was continued to dbtah pleted in July 1971. The device detects the infrared a better understanding of the phenomenon. Increased radiation from a Xenon flash lamp mounted on the in- NASA efforts were underway to develop an aerody- truder aircraft, and displays warning signals to the namic or mechanical method to either inhibit the protected aircraft. formation of high intensity vortices or to cause early Two types of PWI were tested in simulated collision dissipation of the wake. flights at the FAA flight test facility in Atlantic City, C&ar Air Turbulence Measurement.-NASA com- New Jersey. Average detection ranges of over one mile pleted the design of an airborne radiometric tempera- were obtained. One of the systems, of improved design, ture measuring device for the detection of areas of demonstrated warning ranges up to 1.8 miles, which is clear air turbulence (CAT) ahead of aircraft. This considered adequate to initiate collision evasion actions instrument was installed on a research jet aircraft under optimum conditions. at the NASA Flight Research Center and checkout The flight demonstrated that an optical PWI is and calibration flights were conducted. Experimental feasible, though considerable work remains to be done test flights will be started early in 1972 in cooperation to make it operational and inexpensive enough for use with the FAA. by general aviation aircraft. The purpose of this device is the early detection of Pilot-Oriented Management System.-A unique air- CAT ahead of an aircraft the pilot can either take so craft management concept for terminal area opera- evasive action or slow down to lessen the danger or tions, using an onMdisplay and computer, was discomfort to passengers. One of the characteristics developed by Langley Research Center. The desired of CAT is apparently a small but definite change in flight path, time deviations of actual and desired air- atmospherictemperature which would be sensed by the craft position, and the position of neighboring aircraft dual frequency radiometer and displayed to the pilot are provided by a situation display, associated software, in the form of distance to and degree of the threat. and information derived from the ground navigation Aircrajt Pollution Reduction.-The most significant and air traffic control (ATC) system. Initial simulation results for this concept indicate that existing air- weight, liquid-hydrogen regeneratively cooled engine port runway capacities could be significantly increased design and the other to determine propulsion perform- and that the hazard of mid-air collisions could be mini- ance of a test model designed to operate with both mized through incorporation of the pilot-oriented man- subsonic and supersonic combustion within the test agement approach into aircraft and future operational range of Mach 4 to Mach 8. ATC systems. The flight-weight, hydrogen cooled engine structural investigation was completed in mid-1971, with suc- Transonic Mamverability.-In early 1970, a flight cessful tests at Mach 8 structural temperatures and test program was initiated to investigate the use of thermal strains. These tests validated engineering thrust vectoring for improved maneuverability using design techniques, demonstrated requisite structural a Hawker-Siddeley Kestrel P-1127 aircraft. This air- performance at acceptable levels of weight, and proved craft obtains its maneuvering capability through rota- the feasibilsity of Mach 8 fight-type structures for super- tion of the jet exhaust nozzles. In 1971, flight tests were sonic combustion ramjets (Scramjets). concerned with performance and handling qualities. The propulsion performance model was being pre- Results from the initial phase of the program indicated pared for testing in the Lewis Research Center hyper- that vectored thrust is controllable in direction and sonic engine test facility located at Plum Brook, Ohio. magnitude, providing high longitudinal deceleration, This model will be used to investigate component inter- a modest increment in normal acceleration, an in- actions in the integrated engine, and to improve and creased turn rate, and the ability to fly and maneuver measure overall engine performance over a wide range at very low speeds. This program is continuing to corn- of operating conditions. plete the documentation of dynamic maneuvers and simulated air combat maneuvers. A joint United King- High Altitude Balloon Flights.-The second phase of dom-NASA program for further research on thrust measurement of the atmospheric propagation of laser vectoring in an expanded flight envelope was initiated energy using high altitude balloons was completed using British Harrier aircraft which has higher thrust by Goddard Space Flight Center. engines and fewer engine and airframe limitations than Carbon dioxide (CO,) and argon lasers were used the Kestrel. This aircraft will be modified in 1972. on the ground, and corresponding detectors in the balloon package. The two lasers radiating at wave- NASA-USAF YF-12 Flight Research Program.- length of 10.6 and .5 microns were used to obtain The Air Force and NASA YF-12 aircraft corn- measurement of atmospheric effects on radiation in the pleted 66 flights in 1971 under the funding responsi- visible and infrared portions of the light spectrum. bility of NASA. The instrumentation installation of Factors such as attenuation, scintillation, and beam the NASA aircraft was completed early in 1971 tearing were measured and related to local atmos- and the aircraft was returned to flight status in pheric conditions such as temperature, humidity, air March. Twenty-two flights were flown during which velocity and altitude. flight loads and temperature survey measurements were The knowledge of the effects of the atmosphere on completed from subsonic to supersonic cruise speed light propagation is important in the design of laser conditions and a stability and control investigation communications systems, altimeters, geodetic observa- was completed. This aircraft will undergo static calibrations, and earth resources applications. tion in the High Temperature Loads Calibration Lab- Space Shuttle.-Over 25,000 hours have been spent in oratory early in 1972. The Air Force YF-12 aircraft evaluating the aerothermodynamic characteristics of was flown to more fully define the tactical performance many different shuttle configurations in the Ames and and support requirements of an advanced interceptor. Langley Research Centers wind tunnels. These studies Twenty-four flights were made, nearly completing this were aimed at selection of the most promising con- phase of the program, when the aircraft was lost in a figurations for more detailed tests. Successful new crash on June 24, 1971. On July 19, 1971 a third techniques for studying space shuttle heating have aircraft was acquired by NASA from the Air Force been devised which greatly reduce the time and cost for propulsion research. This aircraft is currently being of experimental investigations. New computational instrumented and is expected to be flown early in 1972. methods have also been devised for theoretical study of Hypersonic Research Engine.-The hypersonic re- the flow field around the space shuttle. This work is search engine project was initiated to explore the po- important to fully understand the complex aero- tential of a type of engine capable of operation at very thermodynamic phenomena occurring during reentry high speed. Two distinct test models were constructed, into the Earth's atmosphere. Progress was also made in one to demonstrate the structural capability of a flight- developing low-cost, easily replaceable ablative heat protection panels for the shuttle. Additional tests were joint NASA /Air Force program will investigate fight carried out on alternate surface insulation concepts perfomnce and handling qualities from about Mach which would allow extended reuse of the shuttle with- 2 to landing. out replacement of the thermal protection system. Nuclear Systems.-The overall aim of the joint NASA-AEC space nuclear systems program to pro- Planetary Entry Program.-At Wallops Station, Vir- is vide the technology and flight qualified space nuclear ginia, in June the Planetary Atmosphere Experiment propulsion and power systems to meet the current and Test was successfully completed. The primary objective future needs of the Nation’s space program. Significant of the test was to demonstrate in the Earth’s atmos- advances in space propulsion and power will become phere that the structure and composition of an un- increasingly more important as the goals for space ex- known planetary atmosphere could be obtained from ploration become more ambitious. While the detailed a probe vehicle entering the atmosphere at high speed. nature and specific pace of post Apollo missions have During the test, density, pressure, and temperature as yet to be determined, the programs will require in- functions of altitude were deduced from onboard creasing amounts of energy for both propulsion and instrumentation and from the motion and deceleration power; nuclear energy will play an increasing part in of the probe vehicle. The composition of the atmos- fulfilling these needs. phere was also determined from other special instrumentation. The data obtained from the test agree Nuclear Propulsion.-The major space nuclear pm- very closely with independent meteorological data pulsion program objective is to provide a flight-rated taken during the day of the test. nuclear rocket engine, called NERVA, for application in a variety of space missions. NERVA development The ability of agineers to design lightweight heat is proceeding at a reduced pace based on technology shields for planetary probes was significantly improved stemming from more than fifteen years of research and by making use of dielectric materials which accom- experimental analyses. In addition to activities related modate very high radiative heating by means of reflection. By use of special materials which ablate and which to NERVA, the space nuclear propulsion program also diffusely reflect the very large amount of radiant heat includes a variety of advanced research and technology present in Venus or Jupiter probe entries, a potential activities designed to extend the capabilities of solid- reduction of the heat shield weight by nearly 25 per- core nuclear rockets, to conduct research on advanced nuclear rocket concepts and to provide a base of in- cent can be realized. The use of this type of heat shield would permit additional instrumentation in the probe. formation for the development of a nuclear stage. NERVA. development progress during the year was Lifting-Body Flight Research.-The joint NASA/Air marked by completion and review of the engine base- Force Lifting-Body Flight Research Program has been line design and the initiation of engine component underway for several years and has provided a valuable detailed design and development activities. From a sys- base. of technology for reusable horizontal landing tems engineering standpoint, this included the updat- spacecraft for the future. The successful demonstra- ing of all engine design documentation, e.g., systems tion of manned, supersonic and transonic flight and analyses, trade studies, data items, and the formal ap- landing using the M2-F2, HL-10, and X-24A pro- proval of the engine and component specifications for vided a major impetus for NASA’s current space shuttle proceeding with the next phase of engine developmemt program; Flight tests with all three of these vehicles The original plan for this period called for the com- have now been completed. The M2-F3 is currently pletion of the engine detailed design and the initia- the only vehicle in flight status, having completed tion of the detailed design of all engine components. seven test flights during 1971. Spacecraft reaction However, FY 1972 funding restrictions which became control systems were tested at low altitude and known at the beginning of the year necessitated a con- high dynamic pressures. This system will be com- tinuation of development activities on selected critical bined with an improved rate command augmentation engine hardware only. Significant manpower reduc- system next year and further tests carried out. Both tions also were made; however, a core of the estab- control systems have good potential for use on the lished NERVA capabilities was retained to permit the space shuttle. Early next year another test vehicle, the resumption of the full development program when X-24B, is scheduled to make initial test flights. The appropriate. X-24B is characteristic of a higher performance class Detailed NERVA design and development efforts of vehicle compared to the lifting-body vehicles al- conducted during 1971 were devoted primarily to the ready tested and has good potential as a high perfonn- turbopump assembly, nozzle and nozzle extension and ance military hypersonic aircraft for the 1980’s. The major valves and actuators. The detailed design review 32 of the turbopump assembly was completed and work A study was begun in December to assess the poten- was started on the fabrication of two units for devel- tial applications and utility of a dual-mode NERVA opment tests in 1972. Turbopump bearing tests were system, capable of operating as both a rocket and an continued to provide design information for the devel- electrical-power source. Mission requirements, sys- opment of radiation-resistant bearing assemblies capa- tem capabilities, and related design and operational ble of operating for long durations. The detailed factors will be combined to identify promising uses, design of the stainless-steel, regeneratively-cooled nozzle make comparisons with alternate propulsion and power section was initiated, and several shaped graphite mate- sources, and define the characteristics of a useful dual- rial samples were fabricated to permit the analyses of mode NERVA. Previous studies have indicated that design and fabrication problems associated with form- such a system may have attractive applications both as ing, graphitizing and testing a graphite nozzle exten- an alternative to a separate power supply for the pay- sion. The testing of other material selections for load and improvements in stage design and engine per- high-stress applications also was continued and final formance resulting from power availability and effi- test plans were approved for the cryogenic evaluation cient afterheat removal. Results from the current study of materials and components under irradiation at the will be available in July 1972. Nuclear Aerospace Reactor Facility at Fort Worth, Texas, and the Plum Brook Reactor Facility in Ohio. Vehicle Technology.-The activity in this segment of Test Operations.-In addition to the NERVA design the program is directed toward the development of and development activities conducted during the year technology to meet the requirements for the nuclear work was continued at the Nuclear Rocket Develop- stage. ment Station in Jackass Flats, Nevada, to prepare for During 1971, the activities of primary interest were the forthcoming tests of the first Nuclear Furnace, and long-term cryogenic storage, nuclear radiation effects, to modify Test Cells “A” and “Cy’for NERVA engine and hydrogen properties technology. The work cen- component development tests. Test Cell “A” is to be tered on development of suitable instrumentation, e.g., used this year for turbopump bearing tests. Test Cell to measure the properties of liquid/solid (slush) hydro- “C” will be used for the test of the Nuclear Furnace, gen mixtures. Work also proceeded on devices which and the NERVA turbopump assembly and parts. The could be useful in support of nuclear stage develop- Nuclear Furnace test program includes fuel-element ment flight operations such as neutron and gamma experiments relating to the detailed design of the detectors adapted for unusual environments. Two such NERVA engine nuclear subsystem. devices were recently successfully ground tested. One is a compact neutron detector which can operate Nuclear Stage Studies.Ctudies of nuclear rocket- satisfactorily in liquid hydrogen. The other is a neutron powered stages were continued with primary emphasiq spectrometer which can detect and transmit informa- on compatibility with space shuttle launch and logistic tion relative to the fast neutron energy spectrum of a support. The principal applications of such reusable nuclear reactor. nuclear stages, specified for the studies, were manned and unmanned flights between low earth orbit, lunar, Advanced Nuclear Concepts.-Research was con- orbit, and geosynchronous orbit. Propulsion of un- ducted on systems which offer high performance and/ manned payloads into deep space was also considered. or significantly improved operating characteristics such Study results for single-tank and modular-tank con- as improved life, higher thrust-to-weight ratios, higher figurations were published in May, presenting all as- specific impulse, and reduced handling requirements. pects of stage definition from preliminary design and The cavity reactor (gas-core reactor) appears to offer operations analysis to development and technology the potential for the highest performance, but its de- program requirements. One study contract was con- velopment will require solving several uniquely distinct tinued to define alternate modular concepts, incor- research problems. The present work consists of pro- porate the effects of changes in space shuttle design, pellant heating experiments approaching engine and to define enginelstage interface. operating temperatures, the development of radiant Consistent with plans to develop a reusable space energy sources approaching the heat fluxes of gas” core shuttle for economical transportation into low-altitude reactors, and fluid mechanics confinement simulation earth orbit, nuclear stages have been configured for tests to predict acceptable fuel-propellant separation. launch either inside the shuttle orbiter or externally Experimental investigations also were continued to mounted on some other shuttle cofiguration. Study determine the feasibility of the rotating fluidized bed results confirmed previous estimates of economy and reactor concept. The past year’s work included pres- high performance. This year‘s effort refined weight sure drop measurements, and high speed motion pic- and cost estimates yielding improved cost-effectiveness. ture analysis of the particle behavior. These results 33 have been sufficiently promising to warrant continued of 5000 hours tests at 3270°F. An out-of-pile therm- flow behavior studies, including heat transfer ionic converter passed 37,000 hours of operation at an experiments. emitter temperature of 3100OF with a steady electrical Nuclear Power.-The nuclear power program involves output of 8 watts per square centimeter. Externally technology efforts and flight system development fueled thermionic converters were fabricated and tested in response to specific scheduled missions. The flight as an alternate approach to the internally fueled therm- system development is conducted by the AEC with ionic fuel elements. A design study and a preliminary NASA involved only in system integration and space- development plan were completed for a 120 Kwe craft interaction effects and in performance verifica- nuclear electric propulsion system based upon a therm- tion testing. The technology efforts are a joint venture ionic reactor power supply. with the AEC concentrating on the nuclear heat Advanced Liquid Metal Reactor.-Irradiation of sources and static conversion and NASA concentrat- various fuel element materials for possible use in a ing on dynamic conversion and overall systems tech- high temperature space reactor passed 8000 hours at nology and verification testing. The major NASA 1900’F. A 1900°F liquid metal (lithium) corrosion funded activities are described below. loop completed 5000 hours of testing with no deleteri- Isotope Systems Technology.-Long-term tests of elec- ous effects observed. A zero-power criticality experi- trically heated modified SNAP-19 radioisotope ther- ment program for a “fast” space reactor assembly was moelectric generators (RTG) indicated that stable completed and produced significant reactor design and generator performance can lbe expected in the Pioneer control data. F/G and Viking Missions. Electrochemical Power.-To further improve the reli- Analyses indicated that the nuclear radiation field ability, safety, and longevity of nickel cadmium cells from the modified SNAP-19 RTG would not inter- and batteries, work was started on a non-gassing fere significantly with radiation-sensitive science instru- cell. This requires replacement of the nickel structure ments (charged particle telescope plasma probe) in with cadmium or perhaps silver on the cadmium side of the Pioneer F and G Missions. the cell. If successful, it will result in simpler charge Tests indicated that the modified SNAP-19 RTG control and elimination of all but a very low rate of would be able to perform satisfactorily under expected gas evolution (oxygen) from the nickel oxide cathode load transients, thermal cycling and surface winds on during charging. the Mars Lander of the Viking Mission. Another project that has just begun concerns pulsed Experimental and analytical RTG technology per- charging of sealed space cells. Commercial equipment formed at JPL contributed to improved understand- for unsealed cells is available, but is by no means opti- ing of Multi-Hundred Watt (MHW) RTG design re- mized. A basic study is required to determine the best quirements and provided an improved base for RTG/ kind of pulsed charge to eliminate the “memory” ef- spacecraft integration in nuclear radiation, thermal, fect in nickel-cadmium, to speed charge acceptance in mechanical and operational areas of very long dura- silver, and to eliminate dendrite growth in zinc cells. tion, multiple outer planet (Grand Tour) science Work continued on novel structure for solid ionic missions. conductors that operate below the boiling point of Brayton Power Conversion.-The 2-10 Kw Brayton water and that are compatible with alkali metals, spe- combined rotating unit which has been under devel- cifically sodium or potassium. The eventual goal is a opment for use with an isotope heat source success- cell with ten times the energy density of presently avail- fully passed 8000 hours of operation, for the most part able cells. unattended. The contract was awarded for the devel- Solar Power.-Recent theoretical studies indicated opment of a larger (1540 Kw) Brayton turbine-alter- that a doubling of the efficiency of a solar cell nator-compressor unit for eventual use with a long-lived should be possible. To reach this goal as well as to im- nuclear space reactor heat source. prove radiation resistance an investigation was begun Thmmionics.-Efforts continued on various thermi- of the factors responsible for degrading cell perform- onic materials and devices for use with high-powered ance and of ways in which they might be minimized nuclear reactor space power units. Irradiation tests of or avoided altogether. uranium carbide fuels at thermionic temperatures Activity was underway to provide technology for completed 12,000 hours at the Plumbrook Reactor. solar arrays with 50 watts/lb. perfonnance. Lighter Long term electrical stability of advanced tungsten solar cell substrates, solderless and glueless connections, emitters was demonstrated by successful completion and lighter, perforated booms are among the ap- 34 proaches being investigated for this purpose. It is the resources for this technology area towards FLOX- believed that this new goal should be attainable even Monomethylhydrazine pressure fed spacecraft propul- without improvements in cell efficiency, which would sion which is applicable to the small, low thrust further increase the power density. planetary orbiter and landers, typified by the Manner '71 and the Viking '75 Mars spacecraft. Nearer term Electric Propulsion.-The first breadboard model of a misison applications of interest such as a Jupiter fully automatic electric propulsion system for a inter- Orbiter would take advantage of the significant per- planetary spacecraft was placed in test following a formance increase available from advanced chemical four-year development effort. This system is designed propulsion systems. to demonstrate all the functions required of a solar Solid Propulsion Experimental Programs.-The sec- powered electric propulsion system on an interplane- ond and third static firings of the ASTROBEE F tary flight mission, and represents a major step sounding rocket took place this year. This 2700-pound in establishing this technology. Electric propulsion sys- motor is intended as an Aerobee system replacement. It tems are expected to provide an economical capability has a dual thrust level starting off with a 40,000-pound to reach extremely difficult exploration targets such as thrust boost for 2.5 seconds, followed by about 50 sec- comets, asteriods, and planetary orbits. onds of burning at a 10,000-pound thrust level. Its 25% In the area of auxiliary propulsion the prototype one cost advantage will allow its development to be amor- millipound north-south station-keeping ion engine tized in a 2-3 year period. The first firing in this period experiment for flight on the ATS-F spacecraft reached was satisfactory until the last few seconds when a case leak occurred. The propellant and insulation system the test stage. A contract was let for a 25-micro- were redesigned and a completely satisfactory test took pound-sec. pulsed plasma thruster to prove its capa- place in October. Hardware is now being processed for bility for the Synchronous Meteorological Satellite. loading of two motors for flight tests in early 1972. This system promises high reliability because of its lack Successful static firings of high performance, low of moving parts. Initial feasibility demonstration of a thrust motors having unusually long burning times for pulsed monopropellant hydrazine resistojet also took their size continued in this period. JPL fired two more place. Such thrusters offer the advantage of reliable 60 pound motors which successfully demonstrated per- operation at lower thrusts than those aahievable with formance of an all-carbon nozzle which is uninsulated catalyzed engines, as well as the possibility of operat- and operates at a white heat. They also successfully ing on propellants which are simpler to handle aboard fired one 800 pound motor to test propellant configura- spacecraft than those presently used. Initial tests were tion, insulation and nozzle design. A contractor com- carried out on ceramic materials which, as resistojet pleted a program which culminated in the static firing heaters, may be capable of withstanding the severe of two low thrust motors weighing 300 pounds each. environment associated with the use of space station This design was different from that used by JPL to waste products as propellants. date and included novel concepts such as a cork insula- Shuttle Auxiliary Propulsion.-The shuttle auxiliary tor and a carbon nozzle covered by carbon felt to propulsion technology program moved ahead. Sys- reduce the external temperature. The second of these tem study results clearly indicated the superiority was fired at simulated altitude and was satisfactory of the high pressure gaseous oxygen-gaseous hydro- except for having 6 percent less energy than pre- gen system over the low pressure design and all dicted. The reason for this performance loss is being component work was directed towards meeting the investigated. high pressure system requirements. In the thruster Solid Propulsion Research.-The addition of alumi- area, technology efforts in thrust chamber cooling num powder to solid propellants has been known to and performance, propellant valves and ignition pro- suppress combustion instability at relatively high fre- gressed to the point where an integrated thruster quency. Lewis Research Center (LRC) investigated assembly task can now be undertaken. Work in the potential reasons for its reduced effectiveness at the propellant conditioning component area was initiated low chamber pressures which are of particular interest with the award of contracts for both the turbopump to spacecraft propulsion. assemblies and gas generator/heat exchangers. Also in the field of low pressure combustion, the In the planetary spacecraft propulsion technology JPL studied a novel means of improving the distribu- area, a major redirection of the program war made. tion of aluminum in solid fuel. The JPL concept in- The program to demonstrate the operational capa- corporates the aluminum particle within the oxidizer bility of a FLOX-Methane spacecraft propulsion particle, thereby enhancing burnings of small particles system was deferred, and a decision was made to focus and avoiding surface agglomeration. Burning surface 35 pictures clearly indicated an improvement in combus- established and evaluated for long life capability. When tion efficiency. exposed to the propellant hydrazine, widely used in The concept of joining materials by exposing them deep space missions, the new elastomer, designated to an explosive shock was refined considerably in ex- EPT-10, was found to be quite compatible. periments at the Langley Research Center. RDX A new concept of rocket engine design was being es- explosive contained within a lead envelope in “tape” tablished to enhance the capability and flexibility of less than 3/8” wide and j&’’ thick was used to propulsion for future outer planet missions. In its con- develop up to 90 percent of base material strength ceptual form it is a bimodal engine with the in joining aluminum sheets. Clad aluminums and capability of burning one liquid fuel as a monopropel- other materials which are not normally weldable lant and burning the same fuel plus an oxidizer as a were joined very efficiently. Welds up to 12 feet bipropellant. The first operating mode lends itself well long were made in a single shot. The poten- to precision low energy trajectory and orbital correc- tial of the system for joining or repairing structures tions and to planetary or satellite landing maneuvers. and pressure vessels either in space or for earth appli- In the second mode of operation a liquid oxidizer is cations was also investigated. htroduced, promoting the secondary combustion and Liquid Rocket Research and Technology.-The producing high thrust at high specific impulse. This liquid rocket research and technology program, which bipropellant mode is more advantageous in high energy maneuvers such as orbit insertion and orbit plane continues to explore basic processes and devices for advanced propulsion systems, established a com- change. A number of bipropellant mode tests were completed revealing that the basic hardware and computerized visualization of the reaction of rocket motors ponent design is sufficiently understood to pennit more to pressure pulses. The simulation is printed out by a computer in the form of time lapse plots of pressure on ambitious and longer duration testing. the wall of a liquid rocket engine. It visualizes the Main Engine Technology for Space Shuttle.-The waves in the combustor when a sudden disturbance supporting tasks to the main engine requirements for is introduced. Through this method, the ability of an the space shuttle continued. Principal emphasis engine design to damp out a disturbance is visualized focused on investigations relating to the interaction of in a quantitative way, and concepts for further combustion with the vehicle structure producing an stabilization can be designed and evaluated for oscillating effect known as “POGO.” Devices to damp effectiveness. out “POGO” by positive feed back were under investi- A major focus of research effort was on the gation. Additionally, the operation of pumps and of definition of the flow fields from rocket nozzles ex- combustors in the presence of oscillating pressure and hausting into vacuum. The purpose is to reveal the flow fields was explored and designs to minimize design flow which can result in the deposit of materials on effects were being established. optical surfaces or spacecraft windows which may be Power Processing Technology.-Major advancements adjacent to the rocket. Such deposits will degrade the were made in power processing technology, particularly performance of experiments and observations, and in terms of reduced complexity and weight. Weight and must be avoided or minimized. The flow fields are being parts count (a measure of complexity) were reduced determined through tests of small rocket nozzles in over 50 percent and 60 percent respectively, in an ex- vacuum chambers. Ultimately this work will provide perimental 2.4 Kw power processor under investigation understanding of exhausts in vacuum thus giving the for future electric propulsion applications. This tech- capability to locate rockets to minimize contamination, nology is highly promising for the general field of and to design rockets for minimum contamination power processing for both aerospace and terrestrial material. applications. An element of the long life objective is the Long term reliability continues to be a major con- establishment of filters to remove from propellants the sideration in spacecraft electrical systems. Notable small contaminants which lead to clogging and fail- related progress was made during the past year in ures. A special filter was designed and tested with saturable transformer concepts which reduce stresses the capability of removing particulate contamination and losses in semiconductor switching devices, in self- which can cause a change in flow area or clogging. Such a possibility is especially severe in the small healing (resettable) electrical fuses, and in solar ar- thrusters used for long duration missions to make ray drive and electrical power transfer mechanisms. small changes in attitude or velocity. Fluid Mechanics.-Encouraging progress was made Long life elastomers are required for the bladders on resolving some of the confusion and scatter commonly used for the expulsion of liquid propellants that exist in wind tunnel measurements of the into the combustion chamber. A new elastomer mate- location and extent of the transition of the viscous rial based upon ethylene propylene polymer was boundary layer from laminar to turbulent at Mach 36 numbers greater than unity. Transition must be developed and tested by the Marshall Space Flight known accurately to assess shear forces, heat trans- Center. Each laser gyro measures angular rates about fer, shock location, and other effects that determine its axis by sensing the difference in spatial arrival times aeronautical and entry vehicle performance. Recent of a split light beam traveling within the gyro in physi- results of a research program to determine causes of cally opposite directions and at equal distances. The discrepancies in the measured data showed that fluc- digital gyro outputs are sent directly to a digital com- tuating sound fields radiating from the turbulent puter which processes the data to determine the precise boundary layer on the tunnel walls cause premature rate and position of the vehicle. Test results showed transition. The degree of disturbance varies between that drift rates, an important factor in developing tunnels and is a function of mean tunnel pressure. By inertial quality gyros, of better than .04 degree per comparing data at a given disturbance level, good cor- hour were achieved. Each gyro is in a five inch per relation was obtained among a number uf facilities. side triangular configuration and three gyros can be More work is needed, however, to assess the signifi- packaged in a compact three-axis module. The modu- cance of many other factors that also influence the lar design approach permits increased reliability, low- transition process. cost maintenance, testing and production, and reduced Electrophysics Research.-Tests were completed at weight and size for present flight guidance and control JPL to develop techniques for avoiding voltage break- systems and for future fully automatic aircraft landing down in radio frequency transmission lines and anten- systems. nas and thus increase spacecraft reliability. This elec- Control Moment Gyro.-Langley Research Center trophysics research resulted in the establishment of (LaRC) developed a high-response, variable-mo- rules for separation of electrodes with varying voltages mentum control moment gyro (CMG) protoype for and ambient pressures. spacecraft control systems. The CMG, which consists The Mariner spacecraft now orbiting Mars is an of a spinning flywheel supported by double gimbals, example of the application of these findings. While un- provides stabilization torques by changing the flywheel dergoing laboratory environmental testing, the trans- momentum vector relative to the spacecraft axes. The mitter for the vehicle experienced a voltage breakdown LaRC prototype has twice the momentum storage problem. As a result of the research data available, capacity of CMG’s under development for Skylab engineers were able to redesign the circuit with con- and represents a substantial increase in control system fidence that a similar failure would not reoccur. lifetime and bandwidth. This control capability is es- Micro-Diode and 0pica1 Mixing.-A researcher sential for high-accuracy experimental missions, such working under a NASA grant developed an infrared as Earth resources or astronomical observations, and tungsten-nickel rectifier diode and special micro- permits Earth-orbital or planetary spacecraft stabiliza- manipulation techniques which made it possible for tion for up to 10 years. the first time to measure light frequencies in the same Electronographic Camera.-A very high efficiency way microwave frequencies are measured. Response substitute for a photographic plate in which an optical time of the diode is of the order of a trillionth of a sec- image is converted and stored as an electrical pattern ond which makes it fast enough to react to the varia- was devised and fabricated. The device retains either tions of light waves. It therefore shows promise as a partially or fully the virtues of the photographic laser time-standard of greater accuracy than the best plate, such as large format, simplicity of operation, now available. and ease of handling and has the additional advantage Shielded-Gate Semiconductor Technology.-Langley that the electrical image can be directly read out as an Research Center developed a shielded-gate comple- electrical signal suitable for analyses by a computer. mentary metal-oxide semiconductor structure which At the same time, it eliminates such disadvantages provides higher density, higher frequency logic suit- as low photon efficiency, lack of sharp spectral discrim- able for use in large scale integrated (LSI) circuit ination, and inability to operate in the ultraviolet. It computer systems. The shielded-gate structure offers has immediate applications in astronomical instrumen- three primary advantages: ( 1 ) a 30 percent reduction tation and image recording systems for high perform- in cell area, (2) increased reliability, and (3) fewer ance and diffraction limited space telescopes. processing requirements. Associated with these are a Bubble Domain Magnetic Memories.-A one- reduction in the overall cost of fabrication and opera- thousand bit memory using magnetic bubble domains tion, elimination of interference between adjacent in- as information bits, was fabricated from a complex formation storage sites, and a minimization of leakage garnet film-substrate system. The bubbles are gener- currents and problems associated with conventional ated by the presence of a magnetic field and moved multiple-layer interconnections. from one position to another by the rotation of the Inertial Laser Gyro.-Inexpensive, high performance field. The system shows promise of providing small, laser gyros for a three-axis strapdown system were low cost computer memories for spacecraft and ad- 37 vanced landing control systems for aircraft. It pro- Low Noise Amplifier.-NASA successfully completed vides substantial reductions in weight, cost, size, and tests on developmental models of an ultrasensitive re- power consumption over present systems, and rep- ceiver design called a parametric amplifier. This God- resents the next generation in information storage and dard Space Flight Center development will make the retrieval techniques. communications systems of the space shuttle more feasible by reducing the size of the vehicle’s antenna Silicon Solid State Triode.-A solid state triode, fabri- and thus relieve the problems associated with reentry. cated for the first time from silicon, was operated It is estimated that the antenna size can be reduced in a mode analogous to that of a conventional ther- one half by the use of this receiver. The design is com- mionic vacuum tube triode. This device has the unique pletely solid state providing a compact and lightweight capability of performing reliably at high tempera- package weighing about seven ounce in a volume of tures and under high radiation fields as a driver for six cubic inches. The receiver design is expected to be switching magnetic and charge storage units in com- fully space qualified during the next year. It will be puter memories with a good frequency response, a low useful in both communications and radar systems where noise figure, and a high input impedance. It also has extremely sensitive and compact receivers are required. a wide range of electronic properties suitable for its use as an amplifier, impedance transformer, driver, Tracking and Data Acquisition and mixer. The Tracking and Data Acquisition program con- Green Light Emitting Diode.-A new material, syn- tinued to provide reliable, high quality ground support thesized from gallium and phosphorus by advanced to all the NASA flight programs. processing techniques,’ was used for the fabrica- During the year, the tracking networks supported tion of the first solid state electronic device capzble of the two Apollo lunar landing missions and provided emitting green light. Since the human eye is ten times the means for millions of Americans to Visually share more sensitive to green light than, for example, to red the experiences of the astronauts. Also, the networks light, this device can operate with greater efficiency as contributed to the success of several other flight proj- an indicator light, as a trigger for light sensitive de- ects, including Mariner 9 and OSO-7. vices, in small alphanumeric displays, in high-speed, In addition to meeting operational requirements non-contact printers, and in matrix displays. It has the placed on the networks, good progress was made on the advantages of high reliability, long life, high visibility construction of large antenna facilities in Australia in bright ambients, rapid rise and decay times, high and Spain. packing density, wide viewing angle, and low electronic Manned Space Flight Network.-The operations of power requirements. the Manned Space Flight Network were highlighted by the flights of Apollo 14 and 15. Precision tracking S-X Band Experiment for Venus/Mercury ’73.-As and high quality communications (both voice and tele- part of NASA’s efforts to improve deep space track- vision) were furnished by the network. ing and communications capability, JPL completed From the lift-off of Apollo 14 on January 31 until the design of a dual frequency experiment to be flown splashdown nine days later, the network was the only on the Venus/Mercury flight scheduled for 1973. The link between the astronauts and the Mission Control experiment combines the currently used S-Band radio Center (MCC) at Houston, Texas. In-flight problems link and an X-Band capability for a simultaneous during the mission were all solved, largely thmugh dual frequency operation. the ability of the crew to communicate with the flight The use of these two frequencies permits scientists controllers and ground-based support personnel at the to precisely calibrate the delaying effect of charged MCC. particles in space which contributes to large space- Perhaps the best illustration of the importance of craft position errors. Knowing this error contribution, this communications capability occurred shortly after a truer spacecraft orbit can be determined. Extreme the command module docked with the lunar module. accuracies are particularly important for Grand Tour Several attempts were necessary before the two space- missions in which a miss of 1000 kilometers in the craft docked and it was feared that the docking Jupiter encounter, for example, translates into a mil- mechanism was damaged. However, television enabled project personnel at lion-kilometer error at the third encounter with Nep- Houston to observe the astronauts as they disassembled tune or Pluto. the docking system and to issue step-by-step inspection In addition to the radio navigation enhancement, procedure. A thorough examination of the system by the experimental use of the X-Band link will improve the crew, as well as by the flight controllers via color telemetry reliability by providing a redundant capa- television, revealed that the equipment was not dam- bility, and will permit the exploration of the opera- aged and that the Apollo 14 mission could proceed as tional use of X-Band for future missions. planned. 38 Later in the flight, as the lunar module descended ping its erratic gravitational forces and looking for a for its landing on the moon’s surface, the precise track- pattern to its weak magnetic field. ing data provided by the network stations were wed In addition to its long-term support of the sub- to revise the landing trajectory. A correction of some satellite, the network will continue its support to the 2,800 feet was calculated from the network’s tracking Apollo Lunar Surface Experiment Package ( ALSEP) . data and transmitted to the spacecraft computer, re- The ALSEP left by the Apollo 15 crew was the sulting in a pin-point landing between Doublet and fourth automatic scientific station placed on the Moon Triplet Craters. by American astronauts. The ALSEPs from Apollo The network maintained a high level of operational 12 and 14 are still working and sending valuable in- readiness by supporting unmanned flight projects formation to Earth. as well as extensive Apollo mission simulations. Then, As the year ended, the network was preparing for the network supported the next manned flight, Apollo support of the Apollo 16 mission. As the Apollo Pro- 15, in July. Apollo 15 placed the most complex support gram approaches completion, the Manned Space Flight requirements on the network to date. Network’s most demanding tasks are operational in The new experiments on Apollo 15 required aug- nature as opposed to the initial construction and equip mentations and modifications to network equipment ment phases. During Apollo 16, the network must be systems. The most significant of these new experi- prepared to support four ALSEPs, two satellites, the ments was the Lunar Roving Vehicle. Rover, lunar lander module, and command and serv- The network received color television from the Rover ice module. as the astronauts made their investigations on the Moon and relayed the data for transmission over commercial Deep Space Network.-The Deep Space Network channels. continued to support Pioneers 6, 7, 8, and 9 and During previous Apollo missions, communications Mariner 6. Selected stations of the Network, including with the earth were transmitted via the lunar module. the 64-meter antenna station at Goldstone, California, The range of exploration from the lunar lander module provided joint support to the Apollo 14 and 15 mis- was therefore quite limited due to the short lunar sions along with the Manned Space Flight Network. horizon. To extend this range, NASA developed the The major new planetary flight program supported Lunar Communications Relay Unit (LCRU), which in 1971 was the Mariner ’71 mission to Mars. serves as a portable relay station for voice, television, From lift-off to insertion into its elliptical orbit and telemetry data between the astronauts and the around Mars, Mariner 9 was monitored and con- network stations on Earth. The LCRU was carried on trolled by the Network. On June 4, the first of two the Rover and transmitted signals directly to the 26- planned midcourse corrections was transmitted by meter (85-foot) and 64-meter (210-foot) parabolic the network to the spacecraft to correct the trajectory antennas located around the world. Special demodula- and refine the aiming point. The second mid-course tion systems were. installed at the stations to receive the correction had been scheduled for October 26, but LCRU transmissions which operate at a different fre- analysis of months of tracking data revealed that the quency than the lunar module. results of the first correction were so precise that fur- Another significant scientific addition to the Apollo ther correction was not needed. This is noteworthy in 15 mission was the Scientific Instrument Module the unprecedented accuracy required to orbit. Mars- (SIM) bay installed on the Command and Service the aiming point for Mariner 9 after a flight of about Module. Large amounts of data were acquired by 240 million miles was an area only 435 miles square. the network stations as the spacecraft orbited the On November 3, less than two million miles from Moon and were relayed to Houston for analysis. Al- Mars, the 2,200-pound Mariner lost navigational lock though it may be years before all the data are com- on its guiding star Canopus and its radio signal to pletely analyzed, several important findings were made Earth abruptly weakened. An exhaustive analysis of during the mission. For example, the real-time track- the tracking and telemetry data showed that the on- ing data acquired by the network provided the first board systems were working and that the C~~OPM detailed profile of the four large mascons-mas of sensor was locked onto the star Sirius. By commands unusual gravitational force-on the moon’s major seas. transmitted through the network, the spacecraft re- The largest area of mas concentrations, mascons, is gained its pmper orientation and its radio signal re- under the Sea of Serenity and forms a dome almost turned to Earth. four and one-half miles thick. On November 13, the 64-meter antenna at The network is still acquiring data on the lunar pv- Goldstone issued the commands for retroengine fir- ity field from an 80-pound subsatellite ejected into ing and Mariner 9 was injected into an orbit of Mars. lunar orbit by the astronauts before their return home. Since that time the spacecraft has been completing two The subsatellite, another scientific addition to the orbits of Mars each Earth day and recording some 30 Apollo missions, will circle the Moon for a year, map- television pictures of the Martian surface on each orbit. 39 After every orbit, when the spacecraft can be “seen” operational and the data received were processed at by the Goldstone antenna, it transmits back the the Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Mary- tape recorded pictures. The science data received land, and at the Canadian station in Ottawa. by the network to date has been excellent and should The NASA tracking station at Quito, Ecuador, along provide some clues as to whether Mars appears to be with the mobile Italian telemetry station in Kenya, hospitable to life forms. and the Koumu, French Guiana, tracking station pro- In addition to supporting the planetary flight mis- vided tracking and telemetry support to the San sions, the Deep Space Network played a major Marco-C satellite launched April 24. The NASA sta- role in the conduct of radio astronomy experiments tion provides coverage for two to three passes per day during the year. One effort in this area was an exten- of telemetry data and a back-up command capability. sive radar mapping of Mars. Initiated last spring, this Further U.S. /international cooperation was mapping is required to obtain elevation profiles for achieved through spacecraft support agreements. As possible landing sites for the Viking Program. noted in the report for 1970, mutual satellite tracking The first phase of the work was completed and arrangements between the French Centre National maps were obtained of the Martian surface in the $Etudes Spatiales (CNES) and NASA were instituted Southern latitudes of 15 to 25 degrees. Similar radar to provide support to each other’s spacecraft under measurements of the area 4 degrees North to 15 contingency situations. degrees South are also needed for Viking and it is An example of the value of this support was the planned to accomplish this work during the 1973 and CNES request for NASA support of the French D2-A 1975 Mars oppositions. satellite launch April 15, 1971. In early May, CNES The Goldstone facility was used in the spring advised NASA that the tape recorder onboard the for a joint US-USSR Very Long Base Line Inter- spacecraft has ceased operation and requested sup- ferometer (VLBI) experiment. The Goldstone port in accordance with the contingency plans. Under antenna, together with a 22-meter antenna of the the plan, NASA provides real-time telemetry support Crimean Astrophysical Observatory at Simeis, Crimea, from the network stations at Santiago, Chile; Orroral made measurements of several dozen extra-galactic Valley, Australia; Rosman, North Carolina ; and the radio sources. The objective of the experiment was Manned Space Flight Network station at Ascension to obtain a measure of the diameter of the sources Island. This additional coverage permits the recovery which were principally quasars. Soviet scientists proof importance science data that otherwise would be lost posed the experiment through the National Science due to the tape recorder failure. The French stations Foundation which contacted NASA for use of the providing support are located near Ouagadougou, Up- network facilities. per Volta; Pretoria, South Africa; Brazzaville, Congo; Construction work progressed throughout the Bretigny, France; and Kourou, French Guiana. period on the second and third 64-meter antennas NASA had requested similar assistance from the for the network. The antennas are in Spain, 40 CNES a few months earlier for the Small Astronomy miles from Madrid, and in Australia at Tidbinbilla, Satellite (SAS-A Explorer 42) launched December 12, a short distance from Canberra. Both are updated 1970, when its ontboard tape recorder failed in early duplicates of the Goldstone antenna, and are February. The necessity for 24-hours-per-day, seven- scheduled to become operational in 1973. At that days-a-week support for acquisition of telemetry data time, the three-antenna subnetwork will provide NASA required support from the CNES stations at KOUPOU, the capability for continuous tracking of spacecraft French Guiana, and Brazzaville, Congo. hundreds. of million of miles into space. This year several more saturation tracking ex- Satellite Network.-The Satellite Network continued periments were conducted for the International to provide tracking and data acquisition coverage to an Satellite Geodetic Experiment (ISAGEX). This average monthly workload of over 40 individual scien- international effort used the EOLE French space- tific and applications Earth-orbital satellites. Several craft and the NASA GEOS-2 satellite as prime data new flight projects were launched, including a number sources. Laser data was received at the Goddard Space of international cooperative satellites. Flight Center from the French CNES laser network, One of these cooperative missions was the Canadian the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory lasers, and project, ISIS-2, launched March 31 from the Western two mobile lasers located at Guam and at Goddard. Test Range. This international satellite, the third of In addition, numerous quick-look optical observations a series designed for ionospheric studies, continued to were obtained from the Astro-Soviet observatories. be supported by the Satellite Network, the Canadian The West German Max Planck Institute’s Barium Communications Research Centre network stations, the Ion Cloud (BIC) experiment was launched from Wal- French tracking network, and stations in the Euro- lops Station, Virginia, on September 20. The Satellite pean Space Research Organization (ESRO). All Network, Wallops Station, and the Smithsonian Astro- twelve of the experiments aboard the satellite were physical observatory provided primary support of the BIC launch. The objective of this cooperative -substantial improvement of existing satellite project was to study the electric and magnetic weather data exchanges, fields in the outer radiation belt by optical investiga- --coordination of meridional meteorological tion of the behavior of a barium cloud released at sounding rocket networks, several earth radii altitude. No major problems were --coordinated studies of ocean and vegetation encountered during the support of the mission and surveys in agreed areas by space and conventional good optical and telemetry data were acquired. means, and The Satellite Network provided the means for sav- -significantly expanded exchange of data on ing the Nation’s best equipped sunwatching satellite, space biology and medicine. OSO-7, which encountered problems shortly after The Joint Working Groups met in August and OC- launch on September 29. Control problems with the tober 1971 on these matters and successfully developed Delta launch vehicle’s second stage caused the space- recommendations for joint projects and exchanges. craft to go into an elliptical orbit instead of the planned These recommendations have been confirmed. 345-mile high circular orbit. The malfunction also left Three Joint Working Groups, which had been set up the spacecraft tilted so it could not acquire the sun’s to implement the October 1970 agreement on com- rays to convert solar energy into electricity to operate patible rendezvous and docking, met in June in the onboard scientific instruments. Houston and in November and December in MOSCOW A concentrated effort by the project and network to detail the technical requirements. Very substan- personnel determined the problems and solutions, and tial progress was made toward completing this task. resulted in a series of corrective commands radioed In addition, NASA and the Soviet Academy are con- to the spacecraft. Network stations in Ecuador and sidering the technical and economic implications of South Africa, using emergency procedures, transmitted possible missions to test in flight the compat?ble systems steering commands to realign the satellite. After thou- to be developed. A first such mission for considera- sands of commands and some eight hours later, the tion would entail the docking of an Apollo-type space- spacecraft was properly aligned and all systems were craft with a manned ofbital scientific station of the functioning well. The network is currently supporting Salyut type. OSO-7 in a normal mode of operation. In September a Joint US-USSR Editorial Board International Affairs met pursuant to the NASA-Soviet Academy agreement of October 8, 1965 for the preparation and pub- NASA’s international activities during 1971 were lication of a joint review of space biology and medi- marked by expanded discussions with the Soviet Union cine. The Joint Board meeting was devoted to review- on a variety of possible cooperative undertakings, a ing the chapter materials already exchanged, selecting continuing dialogue with the Europeans on post- authors to prepare the agreed sections of the review, Apollo participation, an active program of satellite and approving instructions to authors. and sounding rocket launchings, and a broad Post-Apollo Participation.-NASA continued its ef- range of other joint activities. In addition, in- fort to solicit and encourage substantial foreign par- creased efforts were made to provide opportunities for ticipation in the major programs of the post-Apollo era. uniquely qualified foreign scientists in the planning In September, the United States addressed a key con- and definition of future NASA missions such as the cern affecting European participation, the question of outer planets and High Energy Astronomical Observa- availability of United States launch services for for- tory (HEAO). eign satellites. The Under Secretary of State assured Marked progress appeared to be made in the re- the Chairman of the European Space Conference newed discussions between NASA and the Academy (ESC) that U.S. launch assistance will be available on of Sciences of the Soviet Union on the expansion of a purchase basis for those satellite projects which are bilateral cooperation in space science and applications. for peaceful purposes and are consistent with obliga- A meeting in January (following the successful meet- tions under relevant international agreements and ing of October 1970), produced an agreement on the arrangements. exchange of lunar surface samples and specified a num- Following an October briefing for ESC on current ber of additional cooperative exchanges and arrange- NASA planning for the space transportation system ments to be the subject of detailed recommendations and other elements of post-Apollo programs, Euro- and NASA technical experts met late in the year by Joint Working Groups: pean to begin joint definition of candidate areas for Euro- -joint consideration and exchange of informa- pean participation. Europe was involved substantially tion regarding the objectives and results of space throughout the year in pre-development studies to de- research by each side so that the other can take fine the technical requirements for the space trans- these into account to the extent desired, portation system. Six European firms, funded by their 41 governments, participated as subcontractors to NASA nications, including experimental transmissions at 12 prime contractors in the Phase A and B space shuttle GHz. Contracts were also signed in 197 1 with Canada studies. In addition, the European Space Research Or- for reimbursable launchings in 1972 and 1973 of two ganization (ESRO) conducted studies of space sta- Canadian operational telecommunications satel- tion modules and space shuttle missions. The Euro- lites (ANIK) and with the European Space Research pean Launcher Development Organization (ELDO) Organization (ESRO) for three scientific satellites, engaged in an independent study of alternative ap- HEOS-PA, TD-1 and ESRO-4, all in 1972. proaches to a reusdble space tug and, together with NASA, sponsored studies of the the technology needed Foreign Scientific Participation in Approved NASA for the space shuttle program. Approximately $6 mil- Missions.-Four foreign experiments were selected or lion in European funds were devoted to these efforts. flown during 1971 on NASA missions. A German experiment (BIOSTACK) to study the biological effects International Satellite and Probe Launchings.-Dur- of cosmic radiation (heavy nuclei) in the space flight ing 1971, six spacecraft were successfully launched environment was accepted from the University of under a variety of international arrangements: Frankfurt for flight in 1972 on Apollo 16. The Swiss ZSZS-ZZ.-In March this Canadian-built satellite, the solar wind experiment, originally flown on Apollo 11, fourth in the cooperative Alouette/ISIS program be- was flown on both the Apollo 14 and 15 missions. An gun in 1962, was launched by NASA fmm the Western advanced U.K. radiometer to obtain atmospheric tem- Test Range to perform a variety of ionospheric perature profiles was selected for flight on Nimbus F measurements. in 1974. In addition to these flight hardware experiments, San Marc0 ZZZ.-This third spacecraft in a joint scientists from the Paris Observatory and the Univer- US/Italian cooperative space program was launched sity of London were invited to become members of in April by an Italian crew on a NASA Scout vehicle the Television Sciences Team for the Mariner Venus/ from the San Marco platform off the coast of Kenya. Mercury 1973 mission. This satellite, desi,qed and built by Italy, carried one Italian and two US. experiments to study the density Mission Definition Teams and Preliminary Experi- of the upper atmosphere in the equatorial region. ment Selection.-A growing area of international space EOLE.-This cooperative experiment using a satellite/ cooperation is the participation of foreign scientists balloon system to prove new techniques for gathering in the early definition and other planning activities meteorological data was begun when NASA launched in connection with possible future NASA missions. the French EOLE satellite from Wallops Station in During 1971, sixteen scientists from 6 countries were August. selected to serve on 9 of the 13 planning teams for the missions to the outer planets; a French scientist Barium Zon Cloud.-This German-built probe was was chosen to head the Photo-Polarimetry Team. The launched from Wallops in September to create a bar- U.K. Science Research Council and ESRO sponsored ium ion cloud at about 18,000 nautical miles altitude. the participation of selected astronomers and space- Observations of magnetic and electrical field structures craft engineers with NASA in the design studies for were made from multinational ground stations lo- a cooperative ultraviolet astronomy satellite project cated in Brazil, Uhile, Canada, the Canary Islands, which, if approved, would become the fourth in the Portugal, and in the United States in California, Ari- Small Astronomy Satellite (SAS) series. A proposal zona, New Mexico, and Florida. by the Center for Nuclear Studies in Saclay, France, Explorer 45.-This NASA Small Scientific Satellite and the Danish Space Research Institute of Lyngby, was launched in November by Italy on a reimbursable Denmark, was selected as a candidate for HEAO-B basis from the San Marco platform. It was the second (High Energy Astronomy Observatory) . The experi- NASA satellite to be launched from this unique equa- ment would study isotopic and charge composition of torial facility. primary cosmic radiation. A British scientist from Uni- Ariel 4.-This fourth in the US/U.K. cooperative versity College, London was asked to bring his exten- satellite series was launched in December from the sive background in X-ray detectors to assist in the Western Test Range for advanced studies on the radio mission definition phase of HEAO-C. In addition, two properties of the upper atmosphere and their relation proposed experiments of University College, London to the charged particle environment. were being studied for possible flight aboard an ad- NASA and the Canadian Department of Communi- vanced Orbiting Solar Observatory (OSO-J) . cations concluded an agreement for an experimental Communications Technology Satellite with a planned Earth Resources.-NASA, joined by other US. agen- launch date of 1974. This satellite will test a variety cies, sponsored an International Workshop on Earth of new technology developments for satellite commu- Resources Survey Systems at the University of Mich- 42 igan in May. Representatives from 40 countries and Industry Affairs 16 international organizations attended. Following an international request for proposals to analyze data ac- Inventions and Contributions.-The Inventions and quired by Earth Resources Technology Satellites Contributions Board completed action and made rec- (ERTS) and the Earth Resources Experiment Pack- ommendations on 125 petitions for patent waiver re- age aboard Skylab, 37 experiments from 22 countries ceived from NASA contracton-a 20 percent increase were tentativelly accepted in the first round of an- from 1970. In addition, the Board recommended nouncements. Others are expected in the future. The the granting of monetary awards totaling approxi- remote sensing agreement with Brazil was extended mately $125,000 for inventions and other scientific for two years, and a similar extension of the earth re- and technical contributions made by NASA and sources agreement between NASA and Mexico is ex- NASA contractor employees. As a result of the pected. In May, Canada agreed to build a ground issuance of new NASA Patent Licensing Regulations station capable of acquiring earth sensing data direct in the final quarter of the year, the Board became from the ERTS satellites. In response to a request responsible, for the first time, for considering applica- fmm the United Nations’ Food and Agricultural Or- tions for exclusive and nonexclusive licenses to NASA ganization (FAO), NASA provided a specially instru- inventions, and for recommending disposition of the mented aircraft to assist in a hydrology survey of applications to the NASA Administrator. Jamaica. The Price- Wage Freeze.-The NASA Headquarters Lunar Sample Program.-The analysis of lunar Procurement Office served as the focal point in NASA’s samples returned by the Apollo 14 and 15 missions implementatioq of the contracting aspects of Execu- was being undertaken by some 201 scientists, includ- tive Order No. 11615, dated August 14, 1971, providing 64 foreign Principal Investigators from 15 coun- ing for stabilization of prices, rents, wages, and salaries. tries and one international organization (ESRO) . In- NASA Procurement Offices were directed to consider cluded for the first time are scientists from Brazil, as a decisive factor whether contractors are in com- ESRO, and the Republic of China. Ninety-five par- pliance with the price-wage freeze in all of their ticipants from 16 countries attended the Lunar Science transactions. In particular, contractors are required to Conference in Houston in January. certify on invoices submitted for payment that amounts billed under the contract comply with the criteria Sounding Rocket Programs.-During 1971 new established under the Executive Order. NASA worked sounding rocket agreements were signed wirh Norway closely with the Department of Defense and the Gen- and France. Launching under previous agreements eral Services Administration in implementing the Ex- took place from Argentina, Brazil, Canada, India, Nor- ecutive Order, and the coordinated approach way, and Spain. significantly minimized procurement problem areas Tracking and Data Acquisition Cooperation.- from the standpoint of both the Government and its Through Canadian cooperation, NASA conducted contractors. sounding rocket launches for polar cap ionospheric NASA Acquisition Study.-A study of the NASA ac- studies from a Dewline site and held a geology quisition process conducted by senior NASA officials field training trip for astronauts at Sudbury Crater in was completed in June. Three committees were formed Ontario. to prepare implementing policies and procedures that Cooperation continued between NASA and space agencies of other countries in support of each other’s will produce more effective utilization and controls space projects by their respective tracking and data over resources employed in acquiring new products acquisition facilities. NASA received support for its and systems. The specific areas king worked on are: Small Astronomy Satellite from French, Italian, and Project Planning-to improve the internal planning British facilities; the French network also supported and control process; Requests for Proposalsto clarify San Marco 3 and geodetic studies with Syncom 3. this interface document between NASA and industry Satellites of other countries supported by NASA were and generate economy in proposals; and Source Japan’s TANSEI and SHINSEI and France’s Tourne- Evaluation Boards--to insure clarity, equity, and sol. Arrangements were made for removal of the trans- understanding of the parties for the source selections portable Apollo support facility on Grand Bahama process. Island. Cost Sharing.-Regulations were published to imple- Through the cooperation of Mauritania and Por- ment cost sharing policies for NASA’s research grants tugal, a NASA team made an exploratory visit to and contracts pursuant to existing statutes and in con- northern Mauritania and the Cape Verde Islands as formity with general guidelines established by the Of- a possible site for sounding rocket launches in conjunc- fice of Management and Budget. The material is tion with the June 1973 solar eclipse. designed to standardize procedures among the various

4524l6 0-724 43 NASA installations and thus facilitate the submission Reliability and Quality Assurance.-The NASA-wide of proposals by prospective grantees and contractors. system of disseminating information of general concern on parts and materials problems was improved and Mass Severance Pay.-NASA questioned the reason- expanded to include safety reports and aerospace struc- ableness of allowing severance pay on support services tural materials. These NASA reports (called ALERTS contracts when an employee of the incumbent con- & SAF-ALERTS) reach contractors and Department tractor gains immediate employment with a succes- of Defense agencies through the Government-Industry sor contractor. The NASA Procurement Regulation Data Exchange Program, in which NASA is a leading was amended (Sec. 15-107) to include “severance pay participant. to employees on support services contracts” as an item Progress in microelectronics reliability continued suitable for an advance understanding. All Procure- through application of the scanning electron micro- ment Officers were notified of the change and told to scope in production monitoring. The application of investigate these matters before contract award and neutron radiography was developed to inspect to consider them in source evaluation. numerous pyrotechnic devices used in spacecraft and Small Business and Minority Business Programs.- launch vehicles, particularly to examine explosive mate- Increased emphasis placed on assisting small business rials and internal structures within metal housings. resulted in the highest percentage of NASA awards New Technical Publications.-Technical publications to that segment of industry since 1963. Small business released during the year included: This Island Earth, firms received $178 million in NASA prime contract Guide to Lunar Orbiter Photographs, Lunar Photo- awards or 8 percent of NASA total procurement graphs From Apollos 8, 10, and 11, The Pioneer Mis- awards to all business firms, Similarly, NASA increased sion to Jupiter, Apollo 14: Preliminary Science Report, its participation in the Minority Business Enterprise and the Third Conference on Sonic Boom Research. Program awarding $1.3 million to minority firms NASA REMOTE CONsok (NASAIRECON).-To through SBA Section 8(a) awards to the Small Busi- promote overall Government cost effectiveness in in- ness Administration. NASA also achieved good results formation processing, a number of Federal agencies in ensuring the participation of minority firms in sub- joined NASA in applying the NASAJRECON to their contracting opportunities. In recent major support needs. The Atomic Energy Commission, Department services procurements, 6 of 12 subcontract awards to of Justice, and the Central Intelligence Agency in- small business were made to minority firms. stalled the system, the Federal Mediation and Con- Industrial Relations.-Through September 30, the ciliation Service, Defense Communications Agency, and number of man-davs lost due to labor disputes and Department of Health, Education and Welfare (Na- strikes for all NASA contracts decreased 64 percent, tional Library of Medicine-Toxicology Information from 3,797 to 1,360. The major portion (2/3rds) of Program) have adopted the system and plan to install man-days lost at NASA Centers was directly connected it. to strikes arising from negotiation of labor agreements. Technology Utilization.-The Technology Utilization The balance of man-days lost was attributable to union Office is responsible for facilitating the useful appli- and contractor disagreement over employee represen- cation of NASA technology in commerce and indus- tation issues. try. Headquarters Industrial Relations personnel worked Added emphasis was placed on bringing NASA with Center management to eliminate or minimize the technology to bear in the solution of problems of na- impact of labor-management problems on Agency tional concern. Eight public sector application teams goals, and as a result there was no interference with actively seek to match available NASA technology to Apollo 15 or other NASA programs. important problems in health care delivery, urban con- Computer-Aided Decision Making.-NASA Head- struction, mine safety, criminalistics, law enforcement quarters used interactive computer terminals in con- and transportation. junction with time-sharing services to shorten and im- New Technology Publicatim.-Over 550 Tech Briefs prove management decision making and to make better were issued and nearly 40,000 requests for further de- use of NASA resources. The techniques are employed scriptive information were received. Almost 30 com- in connection with the development and refinement of pilations, collections of Tech Brief items published NASA long range schedules and cost plans, develop- under one cover and announcing innovations and im- ment of medium range budgets, analysis of manpower provements within a single technical category, and and salary distributions, development of budget projec- other special publications for the non-aerospace sector tions through regression analyses of financial data were published. Compilations contain reader service bases, development of cost estimates for program cards, and each issue produced an average of 800 re- alternatives, and similar applications. quests for further information. 44 Regional Dissemination Centers.-The six Centers, related aircraft accidents (an ad hoc group was estab- constituting a national network to provide technology lished to define a national program to accelerate R&D transfer services to industrial firms, governmental units, in stall and spin related technology) ; large new aero- universities, and other groups, continued to serve a nautical facilities; Army aeronautics activity; and the growing number of clients. More than 1,600 different status of satellite warning, defense satellite communi- fee-paying organizations made use of RDC services cations system, and future communications programs. for their own benefit. The military services continued to collaborate with Public Sector Afifilication Teams.-Biomedical and NASA in assigning military personnel to NASA for 2- technology application teams employ a problem-solv- to 3-year tours. In addition, several agreements were ing approach to match existing NASA technology with reached between the Air Force and NASA for exchange problems in health care delivery and public sector areas of engineering and scientific personnel. of concern, such as environmental quality, urban con- The Office of DOD and Interagency Affairs co- struction, and transportation. The number of problems ordinated arrangements between DOD and NASA identified by these teams continued to grow. Over 175 whereby the Advanced Research Projects Agency of institutions and other groups are now participating DOD selected the NASA Ames Research Center as with the teams and more than 200 problem solutions the site for the ILLIAC IV computer which is part have been proposed. of an ARPA program to develop, test, and evaluate the concept of parallel array processing. Ames will COSMIC.-The Computer So5tware and Manage- carry out final system integration and testing and ment Information Center (COSMIC) added 100 soft- operate the ILLIAC IV for the DOD and NASA. ware packages to its inventory, making a total of 900 Also coordinated were activities associated with programs available for dissemination to industry, gov- earth resources and environmental research and opera- ernment and other interested users. The first cumula- tions (including those at the Mississippi Test Facility) tive index of available programs was published in Com- by the Environmental Protection Agency, the National puter Program Abstracts, the quarterly journal avail- Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and the able through the Government Printing Office. Geological Survey. Research Grants and Contracts Additional agreements were concluded between NASA and other Federal agencies: with the Federal NASA funded 1,570 project-oriented research grants Aviation Administration for civilian aircrew and sup- and contracts at 233 universities with expenditures of port of the information system, civilian aerospace approximately $123 million. Their purpose is to in- physiology training, runway traction, and aeronautical crease fundamental knowledge in space science and technology related to civil aviation; with the Navy aeronautics in support of major NASA programs. covering endeavors at the Mississippi Test Facility; This year, emphasis was placed on cooperative ven- with the Air Force covering loan of two U-2 aircraft, tures. Unique equipment was made available to uni- logistic support for a NASA C-141 aircraft research on versities engaged in NASA research. The Agency made techniques for visual inspection of microcircuits, and project research grants to 14 predominantly black col- programs for transonic aircraft technology, runway leges and universities for research projects of mutual traction, C-130 wing box structure, and integrated interest. propulsion control systems; with the Army for tilt rotor Relationships With Other Government Agencies research and rotor system test vehicles; with the Department of Agriculture covering the corn blight Responsibility for coordinating NASA relationships watch experiment; with the National Science Founda- with other Federal agencies engzged in aerospace tion for additions and modifications to the National activities is assigned to the Office of Department of Astronomy and Ionosphere Center at Arecibo; with Defense and Interagency Affairs. the Department of Commerce for an ion microprobe The Aeronautics and Astronautics Coordinating facility; and with the General Services Administration Board, the principal formal organization for coordinat- covering conduct of the dual-fuel program. ing national space and aeronautics activities between The Office of DOD and Interagency Maim con- NASA and DOD, considered the following subjects : tinued to coordinate NASA reseamlh, design, develop- NASA-DOD FY '72 facilities program ; development of data relay satellites; NASA aeronautics program for ment, test and evaluation support of major DOD FY '72; areas where advance coordination and pooling aeronautical systems including the B-1, F-14, and of effort between NASA and DOD may be essential; F-15 aircraft. Phase B shuttle decisions and coordination; Apollo 14 NASA and DOD continued joint studies on meth- lunar science and exploration. ods of achieving manpower and resources economies Also, US. Navy space activities; coordination of un- in common endeavors; one result was that the two manned spacecraft programs ; shuttle site selection; spin agencies continued consolidation of activities at the 45 Kennedy Space Center and the Air Force Eastern NASA continued to assist the U.S. Bureau of Stand- Test Range. ards in studies on the impact on the Nation of the in- The Office of DOD and Interagency Affairs con- creased use of the international metric system of units. tinued to coordinate special reviews of the NASA NASA also adopted a policy making the metric system Space Transportation System Development by the the primary method of expressing measurements in Aeronautics and Space Engineering Board. Agency technical reports. The Office also provided a NASA representative to The Office of DOD and Interagency Affairs con- participate in the National Academy of Sciences study tinued to coordinate NASA activities with the Federal of NASA’s life science programs. Results of the study Council for Science and Technology, including the were reported in the Academy publication “Life spring previews of NASA technical issues for the Sciences in Space.” President’s Science Adviser.

IV Department of Defense

Introduction munications and other systems affected by solar disturbances. The list of achievements in the Department of Defense Progress was made in 1971 toward meeting the space and aeronautics programs continued to grow in country’s need for modern military aircraft. Flight tests 1971. Efforts in the space program were focused on of the second test aircraft of the advanced carrier- communications, navigation, solar radiation and based tactical fighter (F-14) began in May. Prelimi- monitoring and numerous areas of space technology. nary flight rating tests of the new engine for an im- The first two satellites of Phase I1 of the Defense proved tactical antisubmarine aircraft (S-3A) were Satellite Communications System (DSCS) were suc- successfully completed in April. The first flight of cessfully launched on a Titan IIIC space booster from key avionics equipment of the S-3A in a flying test bed Cape Kennedy on November 2. The objective of aircraft was accomplished in August. Development of Phase I1 of the DSCS is to provide on an evolutionary carrier-based aircraft with the capability of an im- basis improved communications capabilties for the proved airborne warning system (E-2C) and with DOD. Following testing and system evaluation these sophisticated electronics warfare capabilities (EA-GB) new high power satellites will be moved to equatorial continued with the first flight of a prototype E-2C air- positions over the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Devel- craft in January and the delivery and system evaluation opment of the Navy’s Fleet Satellite Communication testing of production EA-GB aircraft. The development System, an outgrowth of the Tactical Satellite Com- of these aircraft is leading to an improved readiness of munications Program, was initiated. This new system the fleet to operate in any warfare environment. The is intended to provide improved communications for Air Force’s advanced tactical fighter (F-15) program Navy ships on a worldwide basis and to satisfy a num- continues on schedule and the first flight test aircraft ber of Air Force communications requirements. The is being fabricated. Delivery of F-111D and F-111F second NATO Phase I1 communications satellite was aircraft began in August and September, while the successfully launched by the United States in Febru- F-111 force passed the 100,000 flying hour mark in ary. SOLRAD 10, a satellite for monitoring electro- June. Development of the B-1 bomber is proceeding magnetic and particle emissions from the sun, was on schedule and completion of the aircraft preliminary launched on July 8. This launch marked the beginning design review and full-scale mock-up review were im- of the transition of the SOLRAD program from a portant steps leading toward construction of the first single low-altitude research satellite to a system of test aircraft. The Air Force initiated development of high altitude satellites, designated SOLRAD-HI. the A-X, a close air support aircraft, to be optimized This system, when fully implemented, will provide con- for effective support of friendly ground forces. The tinuous real time monitoring and predictions of space A-X will be a single-place twin-engine aircraft with a environment disturbances in support of military com- short take-off and landing capability. Two competitive 46 radar systems for the AWACS aircraft (E-3A) were addition of new satellites, to improve the existing earth delivered in December and will be flight tested next terminals for use with the new satellites, and to de- year. The E-3A will provide command and control for velop concurrently new earth and shipboard terminals interceptor forces and for sustained air operations such for future acquisition. Work on this phase began in as close air support. A program was initiated to de- early 1969 with the award of a contract for procure- velop a heavy lift helicopter (HLH) to complement ment of six high-power geostationary satellites current lift capabilities. The HLH will be a tandum equipped with both broad earth coverage as well as rotor helicopter and will have the capability to trans- steerable narrow beam antennas. The higher power port a 22% ton payload. Development of the utility and wider bandwidth of these satellites and their syn- tactical transport aircraft system (UTTAS) began chronous orbits will offer significant improvements in in June. The UTTAS helicopter will carry a combat performance and capability. The first two satellites infantry squad and the design will stress improved were launched on a Titan IIIC space booster at maintainability, reliability, survivability, safety and the Air Force Eastern Test Range on November 2, performance. 197 1. Following system checkout, operational evalua- Space Activities tion and geographical positioning of each satellite, existing earth terminals will start using these satellites DOD Communications Satellite Program.-During for operational service in early 1972. the past year efforts began toward consolidating the DOD communications satellite endeavors into a single Progress was made toward converting present earth program to be named TRISAT. In the near term two terminals to permit their use with the new satellites and at the same time to improve their reliability and satellite systems are planned : the Defense Satellite Communications System (DSCS-Phase 11) and the bandwidth. Some of these terminals were moved to new locations to meet changed requirements. These Fleet Satellite Communications System (Fleetsat). terminals will continue to be used with the Phase These systems jointly will form a DOD space complex I satellites until the new satellites are committed to op- and provide complementary services. The FleetSat will provide multi-access service to many small ter- erational service. minal users such as airplanes and ships and later to The Army and the Navy continued the development mobile land vehicles operatirzg in a relatively un- of new Phase I1 ground and shipboard terminals, in- disciplined communications environment. The cluding more efficient modulation equipment. The DSCS-Phase I1 will provide wideband communica- new terminals will offer high reliability and large com- tions service in the controlled network of the Defense munications capacity. Communications System. The total numbers of new satellites and terminals needed for the Phase I1 system are being studied. Defense Satellite Communications S y s t e m s Other government agencies and certain allied govern- (DSCS).-The mission of the DSCS is to provide ments also will be provided service through the Phase secure communications in support of critical com- I1 satellites, via their own earth terminals. mand, control, intelligence and warning needs and to satisfy requirements of the President and other special Fleet Satellite Communications System.-The objec- users. tive of the experimental program, TACSATCOM, The DSCS is evolutionary by nature, thus ability was to investigate the use of spaceborne communica- of the system to satisfy its objectives will increase as it tions repeaters to satisfy selected communications progresses through each successive phase. Phase I, the needs of our mobile forces. The initial phase of this Initial Defense Satellite Communications System, has effort, using the Lincoln Experimental Satellite No. 6 continued to perform satisfactorily during the past (LES-6), the TACSAT I satellite, and 65 terminals year. It now consists of 21 operational satellites and 29 installed in aircraft, jeeps, trucks, ships, and sub- earth terminals. These small near-synchronous satel- marines is complete. The data obtained during the lites are low in power output and limited in band- test program confirmed the design concepts of both width. They are designed to turn off automatically the satellites and terminals. The communication links during the period 1972-1974. established through these satellites have proven the The Phase I system continues to satisfy unique and value of satellite communications to mobile users vital communications requirements in accordance throughout the world. The LES-6 and TACSAT-I with the DSCS mission. For example, it continued to satellites are currently positioned, in geostationary or- transmit high resolution photographs during the past bits, over the mid-Atlantic and mid-Pacific, respec- year and in mid-1971 the transmission of secure voice tively. The continued satisfactory orbital performance service was inaugurated. of the satellites has permitted the continued use of Procurement of equipment for Phase I1 of the TACSATCOM assets in an interim operational status DSCS continued. The objectives of this phase are to and for certain selected testing of techniques and provide significantly increased capabilities through the hardware. 47 The development of the Fleet Satellite Communi- ing the established equational network of precise cations System was initiated. This system, an out- reference stations for the World Geodetic System. The growth of the TACSATCOM program, is intended observation phase of the PAGEOS program wherein to provide improved communications for Navy ships geodetic positions are determined by photographing all over the world and, in addition, satisfy important satellites against a background of stars was completed. Air Force communications requirements. The data reduction phase has been initiated and is nearing completion. International Cooperation.-The United States, During 197 1 Navy’s Satellite Geophysics Program through negotiated agreements, has developed, pro- maintained 14 semipermanent tracking stations and cured and launched several advanced communications occupied 12 sites with mobile tracking stations in sup- satellites for the United Kingdom and NATO, the port of the overall DOD Geodetic Satellite Program. latest being the United Kingdom SKYNET satel- Data was acquired from the Navy’s navigational satellites launched in November 1969 and August 1970. lites and NASA’s geodetic satellites: the harmonic Since that time the United Kingdom has implemented coefficients defining the mathematical model of the full operation of their SKYNET space and ground earth’s gravity field have been determined to the nine- communications system. A new Memorandum of teenth degree and order. Position of any site on the Understanding regarding the follow-on SKYNET I1 globe can be determined to an accuracy of 10 meters system of two satellites has been implemented. These (rms) satellites are being produced by the United Kingdom As a corollary effort, data acquired by the Navy with the assistance of the United States. The satellites Doppler Tracking Network (TRANET) is being used will be launched by the United States, with the first to evaluate precise national and international time launch expected in mid-1973. In accordance with the standards as determined by astronomical observations. Memorandum of Understanding, an investigation was Polar coordinates derived by satellite geodesy are being undertaken to determine the desirability of implement- furnished to the U.S. Naval Observatory which is the ing a joint US-UK military communications satellite DOD facility responsible for precise time and time in- system for the post 1976 era. It is expected that a de- terval. In addition the Director of France’s Bureau cision will be reached early next year. International de l’Heure, the international time stand- The second NATO Phase I1 communications satel- ards agency, has requested on a continuing basis polar lite, the in-orbit spare, war, successfully launched by motion coordinates derived from doppler satellites. the United States in February 1971. The equipment These polar motion coordinates have made it possible for the 12 earth terminals is on site and undergoing to determine the instantaneous spin axis of the earth acceptance testing. All terminals are expected to be which moves in a five-meter circle with respect to the operational by June 1972. earth’s crust throughout the 400-day Chandler period. A new Memorandum of Understanding is under Analysis of the doppler satellite and astronomical re- review regarding development of a NATO Phase I11 sults by the Bureau Internatiod de l’Heure has satellite system by the United States. revealed small biases in the doppler results. Investiga- Titan 111 Space Booster.-A new member is being tion is continuing to determine the nature of the added to the Titan I11 family of launch vehicles. Tak- biases. ing its place beside the DOD space launch vehicle National Astronomical Observatories of Japan, “workhorses”, the Titan I11 B, C and D, is the Titan Belgium, Italy, and Chile have requested stationing I11 E. This version is similar to the Titan I11 D but of Navy doppler satellite tracking stations at their modified to launch a Centaur upper stage for the observatories for data analysis and comparison with NASA Viking program. NASA also has two Titan astronomical results. IIIC’s on order to launch the Applied Technology The Navy has continued to participate in NASA’s Satellites ATS-F and G. So far there have been 53 National Geodetic Satellite Program (NGSP) . TO Titan I11 launches, and 58 additional vehicles are in date TRANET has positioned to a high degree of ac- production or on order for firm launch requirements. curacy approximately 90% of the 45 sites comprising the NGSP. This effort represents the major DOD con- Geodetic SateZ2ites.-The mission of the Department tribution to NASA’s National Geodetic Satellite of Defense Geodetic Satellite Program is to define Program. more precisely by satellite the size and shape of the The Navy started procurement of highly accurate, earth, develop a refined mathematical model of the state-of-the-art, man portable doppler satellite track- earth‘s gravity field and provide highly accurate geo- ing stations identified as geoceivers (geodetic re- detic positions of world-wide sites on the earth surface. ceivers) . Thirty-six of these geoceiver tracking stations The final phase, data reduction and analysis, of the are being procured to meet the requirements of the original Sequential Collation of Range (SECOR) geo- Army, Navy, and Air Force. Portability and automatic detic satellite program was completed thus strengthen- operation of the geoceiver provides a cost effective, 48 readily deployable, and highly accurate mobile track- functions at Vandenberg have been consolidated at the ing station. new Oak Mountain site. Computerized telemetry proc- Navigation SateZZite Activity.-The DOD Naviga- essing functions have also been consolidated within the tion Satellite Program is a multiservice effort designed telemetry data center. During September, the range to investigate the feasibility and desirability of devel- acquired an IBM 360165 computer for range safety oping a precise, worldwide, three-dimensional posi- purposes. This third generation machine will replace tion and velocity capability in a common reference an older IBM 7044. The range hcas installed a preci- grid for use by passive users. The effort is coordinated sion C-Band tracking radar at Kaena Point, Oahu, by the DOD Navigation Satellite Executive Steering Hawaii. This radar should be fully operational in early Group. A number of studies, experiments and anal- 1972. Build-up of the new Pacific terminal instrumen- yses have been undertaken to validate system concepts tation site is nearing completion and it should be fully and establish a basis for the determination of equip- operational in the spring of 1972. ment performance and cost. For example, a joint Satellite ControZ Facility.-During 1971 satellite sup- Army-Navy-Air Force test program was recently estab- port activities increased because of the greater com- lished to use an experimental navigation satellite devel- plexity of satellite systems. Planning is underway to oped by the Navy and modified to include an Air increase the data handling capability of the system. Force navigation signal modulator. The joint tests will This improvement will allow faster handling of larger demonstrate a partial system capability with a. single amounts of data. The first of three new *-foot an- satellite and will influence decisions on the future of tennas to replace the present 14-foot antennas was this program. completed at the New Hampshire Station. Facilities work was completed at the Hawaiian Tracking Station Space Ground Support for the second antenna. Studies and analyses continue DOD National Range and Tracking Facilities.-De- to provide increased reliability and responsiveness of partment of Defense space activities are principally the overall system. supported by the Air Force Eastern Test Range, the Space and Missile Test Center (which includes the Aeronautics Activities Air Force Western Test Range), the Air Force Satel- CJA Heavy Logistics Transport Aircraft.-The lite Control Facility, the Navy Pacific Missile Range, C-5A is a heavy logistics transport which provides a and the Army White Sands Missile Range. Each is capability to airlift military forces world-wide under available to any Government user who may require general war, limited war and peacetime conditions. It its support. is capable of transporting and air-dropping troops and equipment. The C-5A is able to transport mili- Eastern Test Range.-The Eastern Test Range tary equipment larger and heavier than any other air- (ETR) continued its basic support role of providing craft in the free world. the necessary services to DOD space and missile pro- To date, 51 aircraft have been produced; 43 of these grams. Support to NASA space programs such as are assigned to the Military Airlift Command and Apollo also continued, but on a reimbursable basis have been performing strategic airlift missions on a as in the previous year. world-wide basis. Six aircraft are in test and refurbish- Resizing of the ETR to the configuration required ment programs, and two have been destroyed. Opera- to support the .basic DOD work load also continued tional aircraft have achieved over 30,000 flying hours. throughout the year. Significant actions resulting in The static and fatigue test programs have revealed this regard included the deactivation of ETR instru- certain weaknesses in the aircraft’s wing structure. mentation at Eleuthera Island, the subsequent transfer Analysis of these incidents indicates that the aircraft of certain facilities to the Navy on July 1, 1971, and have the static strength necessary to satisfy essential the complete deactivation of the ETR station at operational requirements. The aircraft can also be Trinidad on October 1, 1971. expected to operate free of fatigue damage for at Western Test Range.-The Western Test Range, op- least 6,000 hours, or over 5 years under normal usage, erated by the Air Force Space and Missile Test Center with relatively minor modification and repair pro- (SAMTEC) at Vandenberg AFB, California, con- grams. Additional modifications are under considera- tinued during 1971 to provide range support to all tion to increase both the static and fatigue life ex- launches from Vandenberg. pectancy of the wing. During 1971 many changes occurred in SAMTEC’s The results of the program to date indicate that range support capability. The range instrumentation the C-5A will meet the military operational ship fleet was further reduced by the deactivation of requirements. the telemetry reception ship, the USNS SWORD F/FB-ZZZ Aircraft.-The FIFE111 program involves KNOT, during the first quarter. Telemetry reception the production of four models of tactical aircraft, the F-1 11A, F-11 lD, F-1 11E and F-1 1lF, one strategic superiority mission. It is a twin engine, single crew, bomber, the FB-11 IA, and one model, the F-11 IC, fixed sweep-wing aircraft and is characterized by de- for the Royal Australian Air Force. sign features providing maximum acceleration and All of the F-111As, F-111Es and FB-111As have maneuverability. The F-15 is being developed to been delivered. Delivery of F-ll1D and F-l11F air- counter the threat predicted for the late 1970s and craft began in August and September 1971 and will early 1980s. be continued into 1973. A follow-on procurement of The program continues to proceed on schedule. De- 12 additional F-ll1Fs was approved and delivery of sign review of both the airframe and engine have been these aircraft is projected during 1973. Delivery of completed and the initial flight test aircraft is being F-1 11C aircraft to the Australians is anticipated after fabricated. Progressive test programs for the engine, completion of a modification program during 1972. avionics and other major subsystems will culminate Deployment of the last F-1 11E to USAFE occurred in first flight of the aircraft scheduled for July 1972. in July 1971. The Strategic Air Command continued A-7 Attack Aircraft.-Delivery of the Air Force A-7D crew training and operational mission qualification to the Tactical Air Command is continuing and will with the FB-111A and moved its combat crew train- be completed in 1973. The first operational wing at ing support activities from Carswell AFB, Texas, to Myrtle Beach AFB has achieved combat ready status. Plattsburgh AFB, N.Y. The Tactical Air Command Pilot training has been moved from Luke AFB to took delivery of its first F-111F at Mountain Home Davis Monthan AFB where the second operational AFB, Idaho in September 1971. wing is being formed. The program has achieved The extensive inspection program and cold proof marked success, meeting cost and schedule require- test of the airframe, which was established after an ments as well as weapon system performance F-111 accident in December 1969, has been com- guarantees. pleted and all operational aircraft have been returned to the using commands. B-1 Bomber.-The B-1 development program is pro- A significant milestone was passed in June 1971 ceeding on schedule and is within the projected cost when the F-111 force passed the 100,000-flying-hour estimate. Through improved management procedures mark. This represented approximately 39,500 flights. the original development contract has been restructured The contractor and the Air Force are continuing to reduce the number of flight test aircraft from five with the final phases of the F-111 development and to three. Recently proven practices of the aircraft in- test program which involves certification of the F-1 11 dustry for the structural testing of commercial air- to its full design maneuvering envelope and service life. lines -de possible the elimination of one of the two The demonstration of performance specification re- static and fatigue test airframes. This contract modi- quirements will be concluded in 1972 with completion fication significantly reduced the cost of the research of the static, fatigue and flight loads test programs. and development phase of the program. In October 1971, a plan for development of appropriate avionics F-14 Carrier-Based Tactical Fighter.-Engineering was approved and requests for proposal issued for a development of the F-14, a new advanced carrier- contractor to integrate and test the avionics suite. Most based tactical fighter, was initiated on February 3, of the avionics components will consist of off-the-shelf 1969. The F-14A will utilize the TF30-P412 engine equipments with new developments planned only in and the AWG-9 missile control system which will con- the navigation and threat counter-measures areas. trol Phoenix, Sparrow, and Sidewinder missiles and Program activities have concentrated on design 20 mm. guns. The F-14A will have an improved area validation and verification for the full release of engi- air defense capdbility and will be superior to the F-4 neering drawings and specifications. Two major mile- in other fighter roles. It will also have a significant air- stones were completed in 1971, the preliminary design to-ground capability. First flight of the F-14A occurred review and the full-scale mock-up review. Achieve- on December 21, 1970. ment of these milestones permits the contractor to The number one F-14A crashed on its second flight proceed with the actual construction of the test air- as a result of a hydraulic failure. The cause of the craft; the first flight is scheduled for 1974. failure was pinpointed and corrective fixes have been incorporated in subsequent aircraft. The flight test A one-year flight test program emphasizing airframe program resumed in May 1971 with the flight of the and engine performance will precede the B-1 produc- number two F-14A. Testing is proceeding on schedule tion decision point and allow the Air Force to con- with performance meeting or exceeding major design fidently make a timely and logical decision on specifications. The first total system aircraft has been production. delivered to Pt. Mum, California, for installation of Carrier-Based Antisubmarine Warfare Aircraft the AWG-9 weapons control system and avionics. (&‘-,?).--In 1971, the Navy continued engineering de- F-15 Advanced Tactical Fighter.-The F-15 is pro- velopment of the S-3A. A second major program re- . grammed as an advanced tactical fighter for the air view was held in September 1971. A significant engine 50 milestone was passed ahead of schedule in April 1971 ground forces. The A-X will be a single-place twin- when the TF-34 engine successfully completed the turbofan aircraft providing STOL characteristics, Preliminary Flight Rating Test. By the end of the excellent maneuverability, long loiter, large payloads, year a total of over 8,000 hours of running time, both and ease of maintenance. Firm-fixed-price contracts in the air (test-bed drcraft) and on the ground, had for the competitive prototype phase were awarded in been completed. This advanced turbofan engine will December 1970. First flights are scheduled for June give the speed, range and high-altitude capability to 1972 with the Air Force competitive fly-off evalua- the S-3A, while still enabling it to operate economically tion scheduled for October-December 1972. Award at lower altitudes necessary to complete the various of full scale development contract to the winning con- anti-submarine warfare tasks. The S-3A with its crew tractor is scheduled for February 1973. of four will be equipped with the latest ASW sensors E3A Airborne Warning and Control Systems which are integrated for optimum effectiveness by a (AWACS).-The E-3A radar development program, digital computer. A flying test bed (P-3 aircraft) is continued throughout 1971, resulted in the delivery being utilized to test the various components and total of two competitive radar systems during December avionics system to recognize and correct any develop- 1971. Both competing radar designs are characterized mental problems prior to S-3A testing. First flight with by the ability to detect low flying targets in the pres- selected avionics was accomplished by the flying test ence of severe ground clutter. The radar systems will bed in August 1971 and follow-on flights are provide extended low-altitude surveillance over both continuing. land and water. A competitive radar flight test pro- E-2C Development.-The E-2C is an all-weather, gram will be initiated in 1972 utilizing a modified carrier based combat information center aircraft which commercial Boeing 707 aircraft as the airborne extends task force defense perimeters by providing platform. early warning of approaching enemy units and vector- The E-3A system will provide an airborne surveil- ing interceptors into attack position. Additionally, it lance capability and associated command, control and provides command and control in air-to-surface strikes, communications functions in a military version of the search and rescue operations and general air traffic Boeing 707 aircraft. Tactical forces will use the E-3A control . for command and control during the movement of a Continued development and procurement of the Composite Air Strike Force, while achieving and E-2C, the latest of the E-2 family of airborne early maintaining air superiority in a battle area and for warning (AEW) systems, will result in increased op rescue and airlift missions. Defense forces will use the erational reliability and availability, improved radar E-3A to provide detection and tracking of enemy air- performance and will alleviate quantitative AEW aircraft and for battle management of interceptors. The craft shortages. E-3A will provide a long-endurance on-station capa- Two prototype E-2C aircraft have been flying and bility that will be enhanced with in-flight refueling. undergoing tests since January 1971. Testing is pro- Helicopter Research.-The Army seeks to improve the ceeding on schedule with performance meeting or response efficiency, economy, and utility of rotary exceeding design specifications. Initiation of produc- wing aircraft by focusing on the aerodynamics and tion was approved on 15 September 197 1. dynamics of lifting rotors, drcraft structures, and the EA-GB Development.-The EA-GB aircraft system control and stabilization of rotary wing aircraft. Ad- development will be a tactical airborne electronic jam- vanced rotor concepts being investigated are coaxial mer aircraft which will provide support for carrier and mounted rotors and the tilt prop/rotors. The use of advanced base strike aircraft. The EA-GB system will advanced armor concepts to reduce vulnerability is use the basic A4airframe, modified for a four-man being pursued to determine the feasibility of forming crew, with new powerful jamming devices. helicopter structures from armor. In the area of flight Several production aircraft have been delivered and controls, new anti-torque devices for helicopters are are engaged in systems evaluation and tactics develop- being analyzed with the objective of reducing tail rotor ment prior to an impending overseas deployment blade strikes and providing more responsive pilot con- aboard an aircraft carrier. Flights to date have been trol. Additionally, fluidics have progressed to the ad- most successful in validating the program concept, and vanced development phase for the design, fabrication in some areas have showed ,the system to exceed speci- and flight testing of a complete hydrofluidic control fications. A recent decision has been made to provide system for a helicopter. the basic EA-GB with an expanded capability against The Advanced Research Projects Agency completed additional threats. Testing is scheduled to begin soon. a program under the technical direction of the Army A-X (A-9/A-10) Aircraft.-The Air Force has which demonstrated that helicopters can be signifi- initiated development of the A-X, a new close air sup- cantly quieted. The noise emitted by the test vehicle port aircraft optimized for effective support of friendly was reduced to less than one-tenth of its original level. 51 This achievement is expected to have a major impact Supporting Research and Technology on the future design of military helicopters. Since low Advanced Liquid Rocket Technology.-The Air altitude flight over populated areas would be virtually Force advanced liquid rocket technology program has unnoticeable from the ground, a quieted helicopter been established to develop and demonstrate critical may also have important implications in the civil and propulsion technology neded for future space vehicle commercial sectors. systems. Heavy Lift Helicopter.-To complement current lift During 1971 the liquid rocket engine technology capability, a joint Army-Navy program for a Heavy development program emphasized fabrication and test Lift Helicopter development has been initiated. Com- of critical components of a lightweight aerospike en- petition was completed in June 1971 and a 36-month gine and conduct of system design analyses of advanced contract was awarded to design, fabricate, and test the aerospike and bell nozzle engines optimized for future critical components of a tandem rotor HLH. The high energy upper stage and reusable orbit-to-orbit Heavy Lift Helicopter will have a design gross weight stage applications. Specific task objectives of this proj- uf 118,000 pounds when transporting a 22fi-ton pay- ect are continuously coordinated with NASA as well load. Prior to initiation of full engineering develop as DOD program needs through the joint Advanced ment, the advanced technology rotor/drive system, Chemical Rocket Engine (ACRE) working group. cargo handling and flight control systems will be demonstrated. Upper Atmosphere Investigation.-A sounding rocket experimental program was conducted at Eglin Utility T a c t i c a 1 Transport Aircraft System Air Force Base, Florida, in January and February (UTTAS).-The utility tactical transport aircraft 1971 to study the characteristics of high-altitude ion- system (UTTAS) is to be the Army’s first true in- ized barium clouds. As a result of this program, fantry squad carrier. It is designed specifically to lift ambient ionospheric electron density profiles were ob- and infantry squad (11 combat equipped troops) with tained for seven rocket firings for those parts of the its normal attachments in tactical troop assault and trajectories where the radio signal did not pass through related missions now performed by the UH-1 series the clouds. The results will contribute to the general helicopter. The UTTAS provides a follow-on heli- understanding of the ionization phenomonology of the copter with increased payload and substantially im- ionosphere with significant applications in the fields proved maintainability, reliability, survivability, safety, of communications and radar tracking. and performance. Full-scale development was approved in June 1971. The Army is following the new Solar Radiation (SOLRAD) Monitoring Satellite Department of Defense weapons system acquisition Program.-The SOLRAD-10 satellite, launched 8 policy of competitive prototyping and fly-off prior to July 1971 into a 235 by 340 nautical-mile orbit, to- the award of a production contract. The UTTAS gether with SOLRAD-9, are measuring solar engine engineering development contract was awarded emissions. in December 1971. Contract award for the prototyp- Information gained by the satellites is contributing ing phase of the airframe development is scheduled to better understanding of the physical processes infor June-July 1972. volved in solar flares and other solar activity. This knowledge is being utilized in the development of im- AHJ6A (CHEYENNE) .-The Cheyenne is being proved techniques for predicting and assessing space developed to fulfill the Army’s requirement for an ad- environment disturbances that are required for sup- vanced attack helicopter with a day/night and adverse port of systems which operate in, or are affected by, weather antimechanizedfantitank capability which that environment. Operationally, the SOLRAD-9/ 10 can also perform the missions of direct aerial fire sup- satellite output continues to be routinely used by the port and.armed aerial escort. Cheyenne prototype air- Navy, Air Force and National Oceanic and Atmos- craft have completed over 1,200 flight hours. Flight pheric Administration to support the operation of evaluations by Army test pilots, initiated in early 1971, communication and surveillance systems and the are progressing satisfactorily. The weapons and navi- APOLLO lunar landing missions. gation subsystems have equaled or bettered contract The launch of SOLRAD-10 marked the beginning accuracy specifications. The integrated TOW missile/ of the transition of the SOLRAD program from a night vision subsystem is now undergoing flight and single, low altitude, research satellite to a system of firing tests and has scored a number of direct hits at high altitude satellites, designated SOLRAD-HI. The extended ranges. Flight testing with the improved SOLRAD-HI system now under development, con- rotor control system is progressing satisfactorily with sists of a replaceable satellite constellation deployed in no evidence of the previously encountered rotor in- a circular orbit 70,000 nautical miles high. This sys- stability. In 1972 the Cheyenne is scheduled to com- tem, when fully implemented, will provide continuous, plete its developmental tests. real-time monitoring, alerts and predictions of space 52 environment disturbances to operational users to was demonstrated and is undergoing life tests on orbit, qualify the performance of or determine alternative the BATSON command system was successfully dem- action for communication, navigation, surveillance and onstrated, and an experiment was completed which in- space systems affected by solar disturbance. vestigated energetic particle interaction with the ionosphere. The Space Test Program is the only substantial Space Vehic2e Subsystems Technology Program.- DOD spaceflight test bed capability available to fly- The space vehicle subsystems technology program is before-you-buy advanced and exploratory develop- an advanced development program to develop and ment designs and concepts for the military services and demonstrate satellite subsystems technology essential other government agencies. for a spectrum of DOD space missions in the 1975- 1985 time period. To meet advanced mission require- Advanced Turbine Engine Gas Generator ments, development efforts are under way to reduce (ATEGG).-The ATEGG program is an Air Force the volume and weight of satellite subsystems and to advanced development program in which new tech- increase subsystem performance, survivability and life- nology and advanced design concepts are tested in a time. turbine engine environment. It is based on the fact that Over the past year project activity included develop- new technical approaches which appear attractive in ment of advanced space guidance, power supply and laboratory or isolated component tests may not be satellite secondary propulsion systems components and representative of that component’s operation when in- initiation of a project to develop and demonstrate the stalled in a high-performance engine. A secondary ob- capabilities of a laser space communications subsys- jective is to maintain a strong competitive industrial tem. In October, a flight demonstration of the 1.5 base from which to procure advanced engines for kilowatt flexible, roll-up type solar array was success- future weapon systems. fully accomplished on a Space Test Program satellite Advances in propulsion have depended on the verifi- launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base. The cation of new technology and engine design philosophy demonstration of this high performance array pro- in representative engine conditions. This demonstra- vides the technology base to enable a 50 percent re- tion provides that verification and an accurate assess- duction in the weight and volume over existing solar ment of the capability to build future aeronautical cell array subsystems. Electric colloid thruster tech- systems. nology development was continued to provide a high The five participating engine contractors in the past performance secondary propulsion system to perform year have demonstrated continuing improvements in satellite attitude control and station keeping functions. the engine performance parameters of thrust-to- The colloid thruster will operate in the millipound weight, thrust-to-volume and fuel consumption by in- thrust range and will have a specific impulse which is creased thermal efficiency, higher operating tempera- at least four times higher than current state-of-the-art tures and higher pressure ratios per compressor stage. thrusters. Development of a laser communications sub- Advanced Propulsion S u b s y s t e m Integration system was initiated in 1971 with emphasis on critical (APSZ) .-This Air Force advanced development pro- component development. This device, scheduled for gram evolved in 1967 from the need to more effec- launch in 1976, will feature very high data transmis- tively define and substantiate the integrated pmpd- sion rates and a narrow beam carrier. The technology sion system performance of future weapon systems to be demonstrated includes the transmission, modula- prior to a vast commitment of engineering funds. In- tion, and alignment techniques associated with this itial program efforts were directed toward providing advanced concept communications subsystem. improved development procedures, techniques and cri- Space Test Program.-The DOD Space Test Pro- teria for assessing inlet engine compatability as a base- gram successfully conducted three primary missions in line for the F-15 and B-1 propulsion system evalua- earth orbit this year. The program provides the means tion and development. The continuing efforts in this to conduct flight tests of advanced development pay- area provide the critical technology baseline for future loads in space and to evaluate their contribution to new system development and are an important data source or improved DOD space systems. A refurbished Thor for insuring the early resolution of any integration booster with a Burner I1 upper stage launched an problems encountered during system development pro- infrared celestial mapping sensor system on 8 June grams. The current progrm is closely coordinated 1971. On 6 August 1971, a refurbished Atlas F booster with the ATEGG program to assure substantiation of placed two Orbiting Vehicle (OV-1) satellites into the turbine engine performance and propulsion sys- orbit carrying nine DOD experimental payloads. A tem integration technology required for future ad- Thor-Agena was launched on 17 October 1971 to test vanced aircraft. a closed cycle cryogenically cooled infrared sensor sys- The scope of this program encompasses the total tem to conduct celestial mapping. In addition to the propulsion system from the inlet through the nozzle. celestial mapping sensor, a 1500 watt roll-up solar array This includes the development of the advanced engine components necessary to adapt the ATEGG core gas beyond the required emergency flight envelope. This generator into a complete engine to meet specific sys- demonstration represents a significant step in the de- tems requirements. velopment of the complete fly-by-electrical-wire con- Current programs in the turbine engine component trol system. development area include the application of advanced Phase I performance testing was continued in 1971. high temperature and composite materials in future The emergency get-home-and-land capability of the engine designs. The APSI program is also developing Simplex integrated actuator package in the longi- components sized to be compatible with the ATEGG tudinal flight control control system of the F-4 test hardware. The integration of APSI components with aircraft exceeded design predictions. the ATEGG gas generators will establish a flex?ble Phase I1 flight testing of a three-axis, quadruply- turbine engine technology base for meeting the pro- redundant fly-by-wire system is scheduled to begin in pulsion system requirements of future aircraft. early 1972. Turbine Engine Development.-The Army completed Aircrajt Component Development Crash-Resistant the advanced development of two 1500-shp demon- Fuel System.-To reduce post crash fire casualties strator gas tupbine engines in July 1971. The tech- significantly, a new crash-resistant fuel system for nology demonstration of this program provided the Army helicopters has been developed. First tanks were basis for a decision to initiate engineering development installed beginning in 1970 and the program will be of the 1500-shp UTTAS engine. Significant reduc- completed by 1975. Accident data for helicopters tions in engine weight and fuel consumption were equipped with the system clearly depict its effective- demonstrated in this program. Advanced development ness. To date there have been no thermal injuries or of a small turbine advanced gas generator (STAGG) fatalities recorded in a survivable crash in which the was initiated in June 1971 with competitive solicita- crash-resistant fuel system was installed. tions. Contracts were awarded to four engine manu- facturers in November 1971. This advanced develop- Fly-by- Wire Contro1.-The advanced development ment will provide for the integration of turbine engine program continues on the Tactical Aircraft Guidance components investigated in the exploratory develop- System (TAGS) which is designed to replace all ment program and will provide the nucleus for dem- mechanical controls, stability augmenting systems, and onstrator or development engines oriented towards navigation systems with highly reliable, redundant future Army aircraft and APU power plants. STAGG electronic controls to improve all-weather mission is directed toward engines with 3500 to 1000 shp reliability and reduce pilot training time. A joint US. outputs. ArmyiCanadian government test program using CH- 47B helicopters is now in progress. Survivable Flight Control System Development Pro- gram (SFCS).-The objective of this program is to Circulation Control Rotor.-The Navy has performed develop technology to increase the tactical surviva- two-dimensional wind-tunnel tests of the Circulation bility of future aircraft by reduction in vulnerability Control Rotor (CCR) concept which demonstrated of present complex hydro-mechanical flight control good correlation with theory. Substantial increases in systems. Flight tests will demonstrate the principles of blade section lift coefficient at zero angle of attack are component separation, redundancy, and hardening as possible with consequently improved lift capability applied to aircraft primary flight control systems by over standard rotor configurations. An improvement use of an all-electronic control system and integrated in helicopter operational speeds appears to be feasible hydraulic servo-actuator package. Thc all-electronic using this concept. A six-foot CCR model has been system will decrease vulnerability of the control link- built for wind tunnel and hover testing for proof of ages from the pilot’s control stick to the surface actua- the concept. This test will be followed by more refined tors, while the integrated servo-actuator package will and optimized test models and investigations of struc- decrease vulnerability of the power source for the con- tural, dynamic and manufacturing characteristics of trol actuators. The integration of both normal and the CCR for ultimate application to full-scale flight backup operation into a single unit permits keeping vehicles. the weight to a minimum while increasing survivability Medical Projects.-The Naval Aerospace Medical and reliability. Research Laboratory (NAMRL) at Pensacola, The first of a series of flight tests was made in April Florida, continued to conduct aeronautics and space- 1970 and demonstrated the integrated actuator pack- related medical tasks. A study on the physiological age portion of the system which provides for emer- effects of long term exposure of mice to low magnetic gency control for a “get-home-and-land” capability fields was completed with normal findings. Vestibular in the event normal hydraulic power to the stabilator studies included the calibration of susceptibility to mo- is lost or rendered inoperative from battle damage. tion sickness, adaptation, and training at normal grav;ty The actuator exceeded performance expectations to overcome motion sickness in the weightless condi- 54 tion, and the development of hardware to test vestibu- are not convinced of this need. Other items that re- lar function in flight. The effects of radiation are being ceived attention during the year include the current measured for the Apollo 14 flight, for flight at SST family of launch vehicles for space, the general area of altitudes, and for flight at commerical altitudes. communications and data relay satellites, and naviga- Methods for evaluating the vector cardiogram under tion and air traffic control satellites. Through its weightless conditions for SKY LAB, the effects of en- Aeronautics Panel, the Board has stimulated coordi- hancing tolerance to gravitational forces through use nating efforts within the Army, Navy, and the Air of lower body negative pressure, and the preflight study Force and NASA on the problem of spin and stall of primates in long duration weightlessness are con- research. tinuing. The NAMRL detachment at New Orleans has Aerospace Feeding Systems.-Extensive storage test started an investigation to determine the dynamic and periodic evaluations for texture and flavor are in response of humans to impact acceleration. progress on a variety of dehydrated foods used aboard Aerodynamics.-The Services are conducting aerody- the different space flights. Nutritional analysis of these namic investigations in several areas which appear to and other space foods before and after storage is also have potentially high payoffs in improved aircraft being conducted. Four flexibly packaged, thermally performance. These include an improved family of stabilized meat products were produced in-house and airfoils, conformal carriage of external stores and the supplied for Apollo 14. Two new flex?bly packaged canard configuration. Full-scale flight tests of the su- meat products, hamburgers and beef steak, were added percritical wing have been encouraging. Analytical and to Apollo 15. Technical assistance has been provided experimental work on this new class of airfoils is con- to NASA on draft SKYLAB specifications for micro- tinuing. Analysis and wind-tunnel tests of conformal biological inspection procedures and is continuing in carriage of weapons have indicated potential decreases proposed food specifications. in drag and impmvement in aircraft range. An F-4 Apollo Mission Support.-The U.S. Army Engineer aircraft is being configured for full-scale flight tests of Waterways Experiment Station developed and pro- the concept. Wind-tunnel tests of a generalized vided information to NASA and its contractors con- canard/wing/fuselage research model have been concerning the mobility of the Lunar Roving Vehicle. This ducted at subsonic and supersonic speeds. Results in- information provided the principal basis for the design dicate improvements in lift and buffet. This work is of the vehicle and plans for its deployment on the lunar continuing in an attempt to develop a rational theory surface on the recent Apollo 15 mission. of canard/wing interference. Remote Sensing Oceanography (RTOC) Project.- Relationship With Other Government Agencies The Navy established under the Oceanographer of the Navy a Remote Sensing Oceanography (RSOC) The Department of Defense continued clwe coordina- Project to provide focus for related efforts under way tion and cooperation with ather Government agencies. at various Navy laboratories, and to promote appli- Four military officers (two Air Force, one Navy, and cations of aihorne and spaceborne sensing techniques one Army) are assigned to the National Aeronautics developed under the NASA Earth Resources Survey and Space Council in the Executive Office of the Presi- Program to Navy oceanographic environmental-data- dent and 132 military personnel assigned to NASA acquisition problems. The Navy participates in the (69 Air Force, 22 Navy, 38 Army, and 3 Marine NASA Earth Resources Survey Program by repre- Corps). Other areas of cooperation and coordination sentation on the Earth Resources Survey Program are described below. Review Committee and through program support p’y~. Aeronautics and Astronautics Coordinating Board vided by the RSOC Project. Navy consultants assisted (AACB) .-The AACB met four times during the past NASA in reviewing proposals submitted for Earth Re- calendar year. In performing its functions as the sources Technology (ERTS) and Earth Resources principal coordinating mechanism between the DOD Experiment Package (SKYLAB) experiments direoted and NASA in space and aeronautics, the Board gave toward oceanographic applications, and provided special consideration to a number of items. The Board membership for the Earth Observatory Satellite Mis- continued to examine the NASA Space Shuttle ac- sion Review Group. tivities and the implications to DOD for the future Other cooperative experiments in the RSOC Project operational use of the Shuttle. The Board recognized include a joint Navy/NASA/National Marine Fish- that, while knowledgeable DOD and NASA elements eries Service experiment conducted over the Gulf of are convinced of the need for large new aeronautical California in early 1971 to refine techniques of extract- facilities (Large Engine Test Facility, Full Scale Sub- ing sea-surface temperature data from satellite infra- sonic Tunnel, and High Reynolds Number Tunnel). red imaging and a Navy/NASA/NOAA airborne there are important segments of the aeronautics indus- microwave experiment to derive sea surface roughness try, educational institutions and the government that data under all-weather conditions. 55 V Atomic Energy Commission

Introduction other technology areas which are candidate systems for future space missions. Effort continued during 1971 on the development of nuclear power systems for future space applications Space Radioisotope Power Systems both for propulsion and for on-board electrical power. Highlight events include the following : Operating Systems in Space.-Two additional SNAP-27 units were deployed on the moon during Nuclear Space Power-Two more SNAP-27 radio- 1971 by the Apollo-14 and -15 astronauts. These two isotope generators were placed in operation oq the units joined the earlier SNAP-27 unit placed on the moon by Apollo-14 and -15 astronauts. The SNAP-27 moon by the Apollo-12 astronauts and are providing deployed during the Apollo-12 mission in November the electrical power for a network of three scientific 1969 has performed exceptionally well ,beyond its 1 stations at different locations on the surface of the year design life objective. moon. Each station has a design life of 1 year, but the All the isotope power units in space continued to first SNAP-27-deployed on the moon in Novem- operate beyond their design life goals with the first ber 1969-is still exceeding its design power (63 watts) nuclear space power unit (SNAP-3A) passing its tenth after over 2 years of operation, enabling the experiment anniversary in orbit. station to continue operation. The network of three The flight generator for use on the Navy’s advanced stations makes it possible to pin-point the origin of Transit navigation satellite was accepted by the AEC. seismic events, and to obtain more accurate data on Modified SNAP-19 generators were delivered to magnetic and charged-particle fields. Additional NASA for use on the Pioneer F Jupiter Fly-by mission SNAP-27 generators have been delivered to NASA scheduled for an early 1972 launch. for use on the planned Apollo-16 and -17 missions Requests were received and accepted by the Com- in 1972. mission to provide the modular multi-hundred watt Three other isotope generator systems launched dur- isotope generator for use on the DOD’s experimental ing the 1960’s, i.e., SNAP-JA, SNAP-SA, and SNAP- communication satellites (LES-8 and -9) and for 19 still continue to operate though at significantly NASA’s Grand Tour missions to the outer planets reduced power levels. The grapefruit-sized SNAP-3A, starting in 1976. the first isotope generator to be orbited in space, passed A study was completed, jointly with the Air Force, its tenth anniversary of continuous operation aboard concerning the use of a multi-kilowatt reactor- a navigational satellite during 1971. thermoelectric system on an unmanned military satellite mission. Such a system is potenttially much lower Transit Generator.-Fabrication and testing of the in costs than competitive power systems. 5-year-life Transit generator for the Navy’s advanced navigational satellite was continued. The first com- Nuclear Rockets.-Although funding restrictions have plete, electrically heated unit was delivered to the slowed progress in the development of the nuclear Navy for spacecraft integration efforts early in 1971. rocket propulsion (NERVA) system, technical prog- A complete plutonium-238 fueled ground-test unit ress continues and a capability has been retained for future resumption of the full development program. was tested at mid-year, and the flight generator was fabricated and accepted by the AEC late in 1971. Space Electric Power Pioneer Generator.-Modified SNAP-19 generators The objective of the joint AEC-NASA space electric are being developed for use as the sole electrical power power program is to provide operational systems and source of NASA’s Pioneer Jupiter Flyby missions sched- advanced technology development which will satisfy uled for launching in early 1972 and 1973. Fabrication the need for nuclear electric power in space applica- of four isotopically fueled prototype generators for tions. During 1971, the major emphasis was on opera- NASA spacecraft integration efforts was completed tional systems for the near-term national space and the generators were delivered to NASA early in program. Some effort was also continued on several 1971. 56 While undergoing testing with the spacecraft, the This makes a reactor system which is cost effective and generators exhibited more power degradation than was very attractive for high-powered unmanned satellite expected, The generators were returned to the AEC applications such as military and communications where the refractory metal components in the heat satellites. A similar, but heavier, shielded version of source were found to be embrittled and, in some cases, this reactor-thermoelectric system is also of interest for cracked. Corrections were made and new generators the manned space missions of the 1980's. with new heat sources were fabricated and delivered to During 1971, the AEC, jointly with the Air Force, NASA. late in 1971. studied the use of a multi-kilowatt reactor-thermo- Viking Generator.-Modified SNAP-19 generators electric system for an unmanned military satellite. This are also planned for use with the NASA Viking Mars study showed the potential usefulness of a reactor Lander missions scheduled for launch in 1975. Two power system for operational satellites of this type, but electrically heated generators were fabricated and were final selection of the power system must await results of further flight tests of various spacecraft components delivered to NASA in May 1971 for early spacecraft in the near future. integration tests. Further Viking efforts were deferred during the last half of 1971 until the Pioneer problems The AEC will also provide NASA a larger zir- could be solved. wnium-hydride reactor for use in a combined systems test at the NASA Plumbrook facility in the mid-1970's. Multi-Hundred Watt Generator.-A modular multi- This reactor will be operated under space-simulated hundred watt (MHW) generator is under develop- conditions in conjunction with a dynamic Brayton ment as a basic building block for space power sys- (closed gas cycle) conversion system currently being tems in the 100 to 1,000 watts of electricity range. developed by NASA. This generator technology program has been underway since 1969. In 1971, the AEC accepted a requirement Thermionic Reactor.-Progress continued on the de- from the Department of Defense (DOD) to deliver velopment of the thermionic fuel element and fabrica- MHW generators for use on the Lincoln Laboratories tion of an experimental reactor to be operated in the Experimental Communications Satellites, LES8 and late 1970's. This reactor will convert heat to electricity -9. With the approval of the Grand Tour missions to within the reactor core and be capable of long endur- the outer planets, NASA also requested the AEC to ance operation. Emphasis is currently directed toward support those missions by developing the MHW gen- demonstration of a full-length thermionic fuel element, erator to meet the stringent lifetime (10 years) and the first of which was tested in a reactor during 1971. weight constraints of the Grand Tour missions. The The in-core thermionic reactor power system is a high- first Grand Tour mission is scheduled for launch in performance source of power which can provide an 1976. electrical propulsion capability for missions to the outer Extensive testing of the MHW generator and heat planets or to perform comet rendezvous missions, e.g., source materials and components was conducted dur- with Halley's Comet (which would require a launch ing 1971. The first electrically heated MHW test-bed in 1983). When developed, the thermionic concept generator, employing siliwn-germanium ( SiGe) may also be used for high-power requirements for thermoelectric materials and high-temperature, vac- manned space laboratories and advanced unmanned uum foil-type thermal insulation, was fabricated and satellites. tested during 1971. Nuclear Rocket Program Space Zsotopic Fuel Development.-Efforts in 1971 were concentrated on the plutonium-molybdenum The major objective of the joint AEC-NASA space cermet fuel form for the Pioneer, Transit, and Viking nuclear propulsion program is the development of the programs and a pressed plutonium-oxide fuel form for NERVA (Nuclear Engine for Rocket Vehicle Appli- possible use with future generators. Investigations con- cation) flight-rated engine for a variety of space flight tinued, at a reduced level, on Curium-244, an alter- missions. This flight engine development is based on nate space fuel which potentially offers significantly technology stemming from many years of research and reduced fuel wsts. experimental investigations. The program also includes a variety of advanced research and technology activi- Space Reactor Power Systems ties conducted to support the NERVA development Zirconium-Hydride R e a c t o r.-The Zirconium- effort and to explore novel concepts for applying both Hydride reactor can be used with several conversion fission and fusion to propulsion. systems. The AEC is pursuing the development of NERVA Development.-NERVA development prog- the compact thermoelectric conversion system. The ress during 1971 was marked by the completion and reactor-thermoelectric system provides a long-lived review of the NERVA engine and nuclear subsystem power system of high reliability and simplicity from a baseline design and the initiation of engine and reactor few kilowatts up to around 35 kilowatts of electricity. component detailed design and development activities. 57 The original plan for this period called for the com- and technology activities were directed toward pletion of the detailed engine design and the initiation increasing the performance level of solid-core nuclear of the detailed design of all engine components. How- rocket engines and the investigation of advanced nu- ever, fiscal year (FY) 1972 (ending June 30, 1972) clear propulsion concepts. LASL is the principal con- funding restrictions became known at the beginning tributor to advanced research and technology. During of the calendar year which necessitated the deferral of 1971, the emphasis of the LASL effort was on the de- this design approach and a reduction of NERVA development of graphite-carbide composite materials velopment activities to the design and development of along with work on advanced carbide fuel materials selected critical engine and reactor hardware. By for possible use in advanced solid-core reactors. In ad- adapting this approach, technical progress continued dition to solid-core nuclear rocket reactor technology and a capability was retained which would permit activities during 1971, work also continued at LASL future resumption of the full development program. on advanced propulsion concepts. Most of this effort Nuclear subsystem design and development activi- was devoted to pulsed-propulsion studies and laser ties consisted primarily of work on the reactor fuel research. elements, core support structure and periphery components ; and, materials research and analysis. SATELLITE-BASED DETECTION OF NUCLEAR Fuel element development activities continued to be EXPLOSIONS IN SPACE AND THE ATMOSPHERE directed toward achieving the 10-hour, multiple-cycle Vela satellites (carrying neutron, gamma ray, x-ray, performance goal established for the NERVA engine. optical and electromagnetic pulse detection systems) It had been planned to test two of the prime NERVA continued to perform a monitoring function for pos- fuel element candidates in the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory (LASL) Pewee-2 reactor during 197 1. sible clandestine nuclear testing in the atmosphere and However, the funding restrictions forced the cancella- in space during 1971. They also are continuing to pro- tion of the Pewee-2 reactor test program. Laboratory vide valuable information to scientists on the nature of work on those elements was continued, and it is now solar x-rays, the solar wind, and other natural planned to test representative samples in the LASL phenomena. Nuclear Furnace early in 1972. The joint AEC-DOD satellite based detection pro- In addition to the fuel element development activi- gram began in 1963 with subsequent launches in 1964, ties, work is continuing on materials and fabrication 1965, 1967, 1969 and the last launch in 1970. Each processes. launch successfully placed AEC-instrumented twin Advanced Research and Development.-AX- funded satellites into near-circular orbits about the earth at activities in space propulsion advanced research an altitude of approximately 65,000 nautical miles.

VI Department of State

Introduction participation in major new US space programs in the '70s and '8Os, increased possibilities for cooperative Expansion of international space cooperation in sup- activities with the Soviet Union, significant develop- port of foreign policy objectives and the National ments in international cooperation in communication Aeronautics and Space Act was again a matter of satellite systems, several new bilateral space coopera- high priority to the Department of State during 1971. tion agreements, and expansion of interest and activi- Attention continued to be focused during the year both ties in earth resources survey satellite programs. on expanded cooperation with individual countries and on space endeavors with multilateral and international Activities Within the United Nations.-The Legal organizations. Subcommittee of the United Nations Committee on Progress in international space affairs during 1971 the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space reached agreement included continued discussions with foreign officials on in June 1971 on a draft international convention on

58 liability for damage caused by objects launched into study, and at the request of the Committee, the De- outer space. The convention was subsequently adopted partment made arrangements for Committee mem- by the parent committee and received the endorsement bers to discuss the subject with US officials and visit of the General Assembly at its 26th session. It is ex- space installations during a one-week visit in October. pected that the convention will be opened for signa- At the request of NASA, in October the Depart- ture by UN members early in 1972. ment instructed our Embassy in Rome to open discus- These actions culminated eight years of difficult ne- sions with Italian authorities on a renewal of the gotiations. In the US view the convention establishes bilateral agreement for launchings of NASA satellites an international legal basis for the prompt and reason- by Italian crews from the San Marco platform off the able settlement of claims for damage caused by re- coast of Kenya. In view of the highly successful launch turning space objects or fragments and represents a operations to date from the San Marco facility and significant advance in the development of space law. with the next NASA satellite to be launched from the Also during 1971 the Scientific and Technical Sub- site now scheduled for late 1972, an extension of the committee of the Outer Space Committee agreed on bilateral beyond its December 31, 1971, expiration the establishment of a Working Group on the Remote date was requested. As the year ended, agreement in Sensing of the Earth by Satellites. The Working Group principle for a renewal had been reached with the held an organizational meeting in September. Its sub- Italian government and an exchange of diplomatic stantive work will be keyed to the availability of ap- notes was expected momentarily. propriate data from the NASA experimental Earth At the initiative of British space officials, discussions Resources Technology Satellite ERTS-A, scheduled with NASA during 1971 produced an understanding for launch early in 1972. on arrangements for launchings of Britis'h satellites by In response to the growing international interest in NASA on a reimbursable basis. An exchange of diplo- the possible applications of earth resource surveys, matic notes to confirm the provisions of a Memoran- the United States was host in May to the first UN dum of Understanding between NASA and the Panel on Remote Sensing. The panel visited the Uni- British Department of Trade and Industry is expected versity of Michigan, Purdue University, the NASA early in 1972. Manned Spacecraft Center at Houston and the God- Cooperative sounding rocket activities with Euro- dard Space Flight Center near Washington. The pean countries continued in 1971. The Department Panel was a project of the UN Expert on Space Ap- provided assistance as NASA concluded two new ar- plications in his program of promoting the study of rangements with the Norwegian Council for Scientific possible applications of space technology, in particular and Industrial Research and the French National as they may be relevant for developing countries. An Center for Space Studies for additional scientific expanded 1972 program for the Expert was supported sounding rocket projects. by the United States and approved by the Outer Space Cooperation With Canada.-Discussions with Cana- Committee and the General Assembly in late 1971. dian officials begun in 1970 and continued in 1971 Cooperation With Europe.-Discussions undertaken in culminated in May in the conclusion of a ]bilateral 1970 with European space officials regarding possible agreement with Canada for a cooperative Communi- participation in the US post-Apollo program con- cations Technology Satellite (CTS) project. The tinued during 1971. Questions on possible arrange- CTS project is designed to advance the level of tech- ments for European participation in the develop- nology in telecommunications via satellites by development and use of a new space transportation system ing new equipment and conducting experiments with and several variations of Research Application a Canadian-built satellite launched by NASA. Modules were explored with representatives of the Another significant development in the long history European Space Conference at a meeting in Wash- of fruitful cooperation in space activities with Canada ington in February hosted by the Under Secretary took place in April when a bilateral agreement cover- of State for Political Affairs. Additional meetings ing a joint program in the field of experimental remote of technical experts were held in October in sensing from satellites and aircraft was concluded. Paris and December in Washington to further Under the agreement Canada will build ground sta- define possible areas for European participation in tions in Canada to receive data from NASA's Earth the whole range of NASA programs throughout the Resources Technology Satellites (ERTS) as part of rest of the 1970s. The Department also continued to a joint program to study the application of remote facilitate the participation of European firms in study sensing to the detection of environmental conditions efforts on post-Apollo programs by US industries. at and near the surface of the earth. The Western European Union Committee on In December agreement was reached on an exchange Scientific, Technological and Aerospace Questions of diplomatic notes with the Canadian Government to initiated a study in 1971 of European participation confirm provisions for the establishment and operation in the US post-Apollo program. In support d the of a tracking and communications facility near St.

462-3l6 0-72-5 59 John’s, Newfoundland, in support of NASA’s Skylab vous and dock during space operations. These discus- project operations now scheduled for 1973. The facility sions continued in 1971 as groups of US and Soviet will consist mainly of transportable equipment which experts met in June and November to more clearly will be removed at the conclusion of Skylab operations. define compatible rendemus and docking systems, Other NASA activities in Canada in 1971 arranged techniques and equipment. The group of experts also by the Department included geological training for made significant progress in describing a possible Apollo astronauts at Sud,bury Crater in July and a demonstration in orbit of these compatible systems series of sounding rocket launches during the year using US Apollo and Skylab and Soviet Soyuz and from the Fox-Main Dewline station in northern Salyut equipment. Such a demonstration could be Canada. conducted in the next few years. Cooperation With Japan.-Space cooperation between Communications Satellites.-The negotiations of the the United States and Japan during 1971 was domi- Definitive Agreements for the International Telecom- nated by an increased flow of space technology to munications Satellite Organization (Intelsat) which Japan, as authorized under terms of the 1969 US/ were begun in February, 1969, were successfully con- Japanese Space Cooperation Agreement. This tech- cluded in May. The Definitive Agreements will replace nology, being transferred under US/ Japanese industry the Interim Arrangements negotiated in 1964 by eleven arrangements subject to approval of the Department’s countries, including the United States, and which Office of Munitions Control, is to be used in Japanese eighty-one countries have now signed. The Definitive efforts to develop a space launch vehicle and a number Agreements consist of an Intergovernmental Agree- of scientific and practical applications satellites. ment to be signed by governments of participating As a matter of maintaining close coordination with countries, and an Operating Agreement to be signed by Japan on its launch vehicle and satellite development the governments themselves or by the telecommunica- programs, the Department hosted a meeting in July tions entities designated by the member governments. of US space officials and the President of the Japanese The United States has signed the Intergovernmental National Space Development Agency. Agreement and the Communications Satellite Corpo- The Department also participated with NASA in ration was designated to sign the Operating Agreement meetings with a special committee of the Japanese for the United States. These Agreements will come into Federation of Economic Organizations (Keidanren) , force when they have been signed and ratified by two- which visited the United States in July to gather in- thirds of the signatories to the Interim Arrangements formation on possible participation in the post-Apollo holding two-thirds of the investment in the system. It is program by Japan. The report and recommendations expected this will occur after mid-1972. of ,the special committee will contribute to decisions During 1971 four countries acceded to the Interim by the Japanese government with respect to post- Arrangements bringing the total membership to Apollo and other long range plans for space coopera- eighty-one countries. The new members are Mauri- tion with the United States and other nations. tania, Malagasy Republic, Gabon and Ghana. Cooperation With the Soviet Union.-Our long stand- In March the first satellite of the Intelsat IV series ing efforts to engage the Soviet Union in a significant was put into commercial service over the Atlantic measure of cooperation in space activities proved un- Ocean. It has a capacity of 3,000 to 9,000 telephone usually fruitful in 1971. Of particular note was the circuits depending upon antenna configuration, or 12 exchange between NASA and the Soviet Academy of television channels, or certain combinations of tele- Sciences of samples of lunar soil obtained in US and phone, television, data and other forms of communica- Soviet lunar exploration missions. tions traffic. Tshe Intelsat IV series will augment the In January, officials of NASA and the Soviet Acad- global circuit capacity now provided by Intelsat I11 emy of Sciences met in Moscow and agreed to establish satellites in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Ocean joint working groups to examine the possibilities for basins. collaboration in specific space tasks in such areas as Access to the Intelsat satellites increased as the re- space meteorology, biology and medicine, the study of sult of the construction of nine new antennas during the natural environment, and the exploration of the 1971. It is estimated that at the end of 1971 there will moon and planets. Subsequent meetings of these work- be 62 antennas at 51 ground stations in 38 countries. ing groups in August and October further developed Worldwide usage of the Intelsat system was stimu- subjects and tasks in these areas for more concentrated lated during 1971 by a 25% reduction on the first of consideration. January of the charge for full-time and occasional use In late 1970 the US and the Soviet Union agreed to (except television) of an Intelsat circuit. A further discuss the possibilities of defining the means and reduction of at least 13% is planned to go into effect equipment which would at some time in the future January 1, 1972. The total number of full-time cir- enable US and Soviet manned spacecraft to rendez- cuits using Intelsat statellites at the end of October represented an increase of 38% over those in use at the broad international participation in the pre-operational end of October 1970. test and evaluation. Such participation would facilitate The World Administrative Radio Conference for the emergence and widespread acceptance of standards Space Telecommunications (WARC-ST) was held at for use of aeronautical satellites beyond the experi- Geneva in June and July under the auspices of the mental period. International Telecommunication Union (ITU), to Earth Resources Survey Programs.-As part of our revise the International Radio Regulations as they pledge to the United Nations, the Department of State apply to space telecommunications. The new provi- co-sponsored with other US government agencies a sions, which take into account recent and anticipated ten-day workshop on remote sensing at the University technological advances, will come into force on Janu- of Michigan Ann Arbor campus in May. The work- ary 1, 1973, superseding those adopted in 1963. shop was designed to meet in particular the needs of The US objectives in the Conference were, in gen- the small countries. Invitations. to the workshop were eral, either achieved or acceptable compromises were extended through the offices of the United Nations, worked out. While broadcasting satellites proved to be with representatives from forty foreign countries and the most contentious issue of the Conference, in the sixteen international organizations attending the end, besides adopting radio frequency allocations ior sessions. broadcasting satellites, the Conference passed a resolu- The US was also represented at a seminar on remote tion calling for a World and/or Regional Broadcasting sensing held in November in Ankara, Turkey, under Satellite Planning Conference. Technical coordination the auspices of the Central Treaty Organization procedures were also adopted permitting the establish- (CENTO) . ment of such satellites until that Conference is held, In addition to the bilateral agreement with Canada which will probably not be until 1975 at the earliest. on remote sensing from aircraft and satellites, reported New provisions were also established in respect to above, the agreement with Brazil on earth resources other space telecommunication requirements, such as survey projects was extended for an additional two additional frequency allocations for communication years in February. Extension of a similar bilateral with satellites, space research, and radio astronomy; new Mexico was being considered at year’s end with a allocations for earth exploration satellites; and new formal extension expected early in 1972. procedures for the coordination and use of radio fre- Technology Transfer.-The Department of State’s quencies and the geostationary orbit. Office of Munitions Control continued its efforts aimed ApoZlo Program Support.-The Department and its at reducing the number of space-related items covered posts overseas continued their support during 1971 of by export controls in the International Traffic in Arms the Apollo program by arranging for basing of re- Regulations. The increased number of license requests covery, tracking and other support forces at foreign processed by the Office of Munitions Control in 1971 installations for Apollo 14 and 15 missions. Apollo con- for export of space-related hardware and technology tingency recovery procedures in the event of an emer- to foreign space programs included technical assistance gency landing were also again activated for the two and equipment for the Japanese Launch Vehicle and missions. Satellite Development Program, the NASA-German Facilities of the Department and its overseas posts Helios satellite, the United Kingdom Defense Com- continued to support NASA’s lunar samples investiga- munication Satellite (Skynet 11), and most recently tion program by transporting and handling lunar the NATO Satellite Communications (Phase 111) samples consigned to foreign scientists for experiments System. In addition, during 1971 an increasing num- and lunar material being returned to NASA after com- ber of applications for technical cooperation between pletion of analysis abroad. foreign industry and US industry were processed in Aeronautical Service Satellites.-Exploratory meet- conjunction with studies on post-Apollo programs, in- ings were held during 1971 between the United States, cluding the proposed Space Transportation System and member countries of the European Space Research program. Organization (ESRO), and Australia, Canada, Ire- Cooperation With the Department of Defense.-The land, Japan, the Philippines and Portugal to consider Department of State continued to work closely with an experimental program to test the feasibility of using aeronautical satellites for air traffic control and related the Department of Defense throughout 1971 on mili- civil aviation purposes in the Atlantic and Pacific tary related space activities having international im- Ocean basins. Because air traffic control technologies plications. Improvements in the NATO Satellite Com- and procedures must be integrated and coordinated on munications System continued with earth terminals in a global basis to ensure the safety of life and property, Belgium, Italy, and Germany having conducted satel- a major objective of the United States in these meet- lite communications tests during the year. The terminal ings has been to establish the basis for a program with at Norfolk, Virginia is now scheduled to be operational in February 1972. The NATO Satellite Communica- tion of some components shortly after launch in 1970, tions (Phase 11) System is expected to be operational the back-up Skynet I satellite remains operational. by mid-1972. Work on the design and construction of the second Cooperation with the United Kingdom on the de- generation Skynet satellite proceeded normally during velopment of the Skynet space communication system the past year with the initial Skynet I1 launch planned Continued throughout the year. Despite the malfunc- for mid-1973.

VI1 Department of Transportation mic, srAns 4

Introduction port, sponsored jointly by the Office of the Secretary of Transportation, the National Aeronautics and During the past year the Department of Transporta- Space Administration and the Federal Aviation Ad- tion made considerable progress in its research pro- ministration was completed in March 1971 and has grams relating to operations and utilization of been characterized as the most comprehensive, in- techniques and hardware generated by the aeronautics house interagency aviation activity that has been and space activities. There. are notable successes and undertaken in recent years. The study was collaborated one significant disappointment. A major advantage in and supported by the DOD, as well as by the CAB. derived from the establishment of the Department is Industry, academia, and local government organiza- evident from the manner in which research and en- tions participated by both direct involved contribu- gineering activities sponsored, coordinated and con- tion and by top management advice. ducted by the various elements of the Department In the 25 years since the end of World War 11, the are combined in an effective effort toward solution of growth of the air transport system has been spectacular, transportation problems. The great disappointment and has had a major impact on the way of life in the was the cancellation of the US. SST program which United States. This rapid growth has generated major is considered a major setback in aeronautical devel- problems which restrain continued increases in com- opment progress. mercial aviation. Allowing constraints to continue Within the Department, the Assistant Secretary for would not only result in a deterioration in service to Systems Development and Technology has the func- the public, but would limit the potential growth of tion of leading the research and development efforts of the economy and even the freedom of choice. all DOT elements in addition to conducting a research The problems that have beset the air transportation program under his own direction. A Research and De- industry are not exclusive to that mode. One of the velopment Management Council, established last year earliest of the systematic studies to develop solutions to facilitate the coordination efforts between the orga- for the new decade was the Northeast Corridor Trans- nizational elements of DOT, continued its role to assure portation Project (NECTP) , which in essence, focused that the intermodal aspects of any research project are upon implementation and current technology. It con- fully considered, that no unnecessary duplication sidered the near-term opportunities for new technical exists, and that effective utilization is made of the applications during the period between now and 1976 Transportation Systems Center and other depart- and utilization for the rest of the decade. The CARD mental research and development facilities. Policy Study focused on development and particularly Through such mechanisms, and by bringing the Sec- on new technical developments which could be retary’s broader perspective to bear on the Depart- achieved and implemented by the mid-70’s or ,beyond. ment’s research and development budgets, significant Therefore, the conclusions of the NECTP Report em- improvements are underway in the management of phasized implementation in the near-term transporta- all of DOT’S research and development effort, includ- tion technology and identified new options to be ing aeronautical R&D. evaluated. The Civil Aviation Research and Development Both studies concluded that substantial effort was Policy Study (CARD) mentioned in last year’s re- required in the air and ground systems to improve the 62 environmental quality of the transportation, to relieve cient operations is required in order to maintain a congestion, and to improve short-haul efficiency. growing productivity for commercial aircraft. There were new aerospace technology applications Regulatory Actions.-The CARD report suggested identified. As a clear example of the commonness of that the government examine its regulatory role in sev- purpose, in the area of access and egress to an airport, eral areas to be sure that current regulatory policies the desirability of implementing high-speed ground are not inhibiting innovation by industry. service between a major center's central business district and an airport serving long-haul operations was System-Wide Actions.-It was recognized that most emphasized by the CARD Policy Study. Such a sys- development activities have been oriented almost en- tem is certainly compatible with the recommendations tirely toward the physical sciences technologies. It is of the NECTP, whether it is an ancillary service pro- in the national interest to devise a set of indicators vided by a high density corridor operation or the local which can provide assessment of social impacts result- service Drovided by a metroDolitan district. ing from changes in service. Basic recommendations of the CARD Policy Study A joint DOT/NASA CARD policy implementation include: group was formed to develop a plan for implementing the recommendations of the Study. A draft of the plan Noise Abatement.-Because the problem is severe, was completed. noise abatement has been identified as the highest Increased emphasis has been added to the FAA's priority for aeronautical research and development. airport development and system engineering and de- The research programs are addressed at the reduc- velopment activities. This effort has been supported tion of noise at the source, the optimization of aircraft by a rapidly increasing capability at the Transporta- flight path in terms of noise abatement, and identification System Center (TSC) in Cambridge, Massachu- tion of compatible land use in the vicinity of airports. setts. This organization is taking the lead responsibility Air Pollution.-Although aviation has not been the for the long-range development program leading to a major contributor to air pollution, as the number of very high capacity traffic control system and several aircraft increases and the quantity of pollutants con- aerospace-related new activities. The Office of the Se- tributed from other sources is curbed, aviation must cretary is also assuring an integrated effort of the Fed- minimize the amount of pollutants emitted. Improved eral Railroad Administration, Federal Highway Ad- aviation fuels and engines will consider pollutant emis- ministration and the Urban Mass Tranport Adminis- sions a fundamental design parameter. tration in support of aviation interests. These activities utilized much aerospace developed technology in the Congestion.-Congestion at various points in the air form of control mechanisms, data processing, sensors transportation system is a complex problem and has and vehicle systems. several elements. Congestion in the terminal air traffic Although the SST prototype development effort control and air navigation system has caused quotas was terminated a result of Congressional action in to be placed on air traffic activity at major terminals. as March certain key technology efforts were con- Planned near-term development efforts, and long- 1971, term R&D efforts will produce a high capacity air tinued. These advanced technology projects were iden- traffic control system. Terminal congestion is usually tified by a multi-agency review panel and represented expressed in terms of aircraft in the holding pattern, carefully selected R&D projects. The Department rec- or aircraft awaiting takeoff. Airport congestion arises ommended that they should be completed and docu- in the process of movement of goods and serviecs within mented to make the technology available in useful the airport, as well as in access to the airport and in form to current and future air transportation de- the efficient processing of passengers, cargo, and bag- signers. Passage of enabling legislation by Congress late in the year has assured the continuation of this gage. vital effort. Low-Density Short-Haul.-The CARD Policy Study concluded that while noise and congestion constitute Regulation and Noise Abatement.-Accomplish- ments were made toward the completion and imple- a most urgent problem, solutions to the problem of low- mentation of a noise certification regulation for all civil density short-haul, or regional service are important aircraft. Benefits accrued to residents near airports to the future growth of civil aviation and can play a the new civil transports were certified, meeting the major role in satisfying the national goal of balanced as economic growth. new stringent Part 36 noise regulations. In addition, new regulations are being developed for existing air- Other R&D Requirements.-The long-haul market craft, for supersonic aircdt, and for other special has been the .backbone of the air transport system. A category aircraft. Demonstration programs have been continued effort in advancing the technology of effi- initiated for the development of hardware to help sup- 63 press existing jet engine noise. Contracts have been an instrumented nonflying test aircraft were used. awarded and flight tests will .be conducted next year. Further studies will be conducted before standards A joint DOT/NASA noise abatement function has may be issued. been established to provide overall leadership and to (b) Fog dispersal.-Fog, like other adverse act as a focal point for a national program to solve weather conditions, can result in flight delays and the noise problems associated with current and planned reduce airline revenues. A study was completed transportation systems. which determined the effects of airport terrain Environmental planning guides for airports have featur’es on the design and cost of thermal fog been prepared and several areas of legislation have dispersal systems. The conclusion reached was been developed. that no cost-benefit analysis pertaining to installa- Aviation Safety-En Route Operations.-The follow- tion of a thermal fog dispersal system can be re- ing program areas typify efforts during the year by the lied on unless specific terrain effects are taken into Federal Aviation Administration to reduce or eliminate consideration. Two major programs were initi- in-flight hazards: ated to evaluate such installations in a systematic way. (a) Wake turbulence.-The program to reduce this hazard continued during the year and Post Crash Safety.-Significant results were obtained its progress included: (1) Completion of several in the following areas: milestones on laboratory testing using laser and (a) Gelled fuels.-Effort in testing gelled acoustic devices; (2) beginning of field testing fuels to reduce post crash fire hazards continued. of two related but not identical acoustic devices, Results have shown that a number of gelled fuels and initiation of a scale study of airport environ- have excellent fire-reducing qualities, but the high ment modification. Viscosity of these fuels makes them incompatible (b) Aircraft piracy and sabotage.-A new with the fuel systems of modern jets. This inwm- weapon-detecting magnetometer and computer patibility between gelled fuel and jet fuel systems were installed and tested at Washington’s Dulles has been evaluated and it has been determined International Airport to screen passengers and that several gels represent the best compromise luggage before boarding of the aircraft. Work between fire-reducing ability and fuel-system was also continued on a concealed-weapon de- compatibility. Further extensive tests are planned. tector using X-rays, which thus far has been (b) Crashworthiness of general aviation air- unacceptable on two counts-high radiation craft.-Statistics show the survival rate for pas- emission and poor image quality. sengers in automobile crashes to be much greater (c) Midair-collision avoidance.-Efforts wn- than the rate for passengers in crashes of general tinued in the two basic areas of this problem, the aviation aircraft involving G-forces in the same collision-avoidance systems (CAS) and the pilot- range. The conclusions of a study by the Civil warning indicator (PWI) . This included review- Aeromedical Institute showed that the crash safety ing preliminary specifications for a family of design in light aircraft had fallen far behind that PWI’s, conducting detailed flight testing, and for equivalent automobile accidents. Many air- establishing separation criteria. In the CAS area, craft were found to have rigid instrument panels efforts have been concentrated on evaluating col- studded with heavy instruments, protruding lision-avoidance systems developed by private knobs, and sharp edges, and lack adequate re- industry. straint equipment and slow-return padding on (d) Head-up display.-Work continued on the instrument panels. Fatal or serious head injuries problem of pilots flying VFR (visual flight rules) were inflicted during airplane crash decelerations who sometinies lose visual reference and the low 3 or G‘s, whereas a single square inch ability to orient themselves. During the year, two as as 4 types of simple head-up displays were tested. Ad- of human forehead can withstand 80 G’s without ditional tests are required before system certifica- fracture if the force is evenly distributed over the tion can be made. area impacted. Takeoff and Landing Operations.-Efforts to reduce Air Traffic Control hazards attending these phases of flying were directed notably to the following: Upgraded Third Generation Air Trafic Control Sys- (a) Wet-runway stopping distance.-A series tem.-A technical Development Plan for the Discrete of wet- and dry-runway tests were conducted to Address Beacon System (DABS) has been developed obtain better information on which to base run- and a contract effort is being prepared. The DABS way-length requirements for airplanes on wet systems constitutes an element in the upgraded Third runways. Variable-slip runway friction tester and Generation ATC. Increased automation in data pm- essing and display being the primary functional constitute the first major expansion of the airway sys- improvements. tem since the introduction of omnidirectional navigational radio transmitters in the early 1950’s and permits Microwave instrument landing system.-A national new flight paths to be established without deployment plan for the development of new microwave-scming- of ground-based navigation aids along each path. Ap- beam instrument landing system (ILS) for civil-mili- proximately 89 high-altitude area navigation mute tary common use was published and implemented. segments are now available for use. This is the system recommended earlier by DOT’SAir Traffic Control Advisory Committee, and by a special Applications of Space Technology committee of the Radio Technical Commission for Aeronautics. The U.S. Coast Guard continued the development and application of space technology suitable to the Fourth Generation Air Trafic Control Systm.- operational needs of the maritime community. Pri- Draft reports of two in-depth technical studies, includ- mary emphasis has focused on the use of communica- ing conclusions and recommendations, were completed tion satellites for relay of safety and operational and submitted for DOT review. These reports are messages, including position determination for vessels major milestones in a program of concept formulation at sea. A long series of experiments in these areas con- and system definition to systematically arrive at a sub- tinues, using satellites from the National Aeronautics stantially higher capacity air traffic control system. and Space Administration (NASA) Applications Technology Satellites (ATS) series. Navigation and Communication The Coast Guard, the President’s Office of Tele- Aeronautical Satellite Policy.--On January 7, 197 1, communications Policy (OTP) and the Maritime the Office of Telecommunications Policy of the Execu- Administration, contracted for a special analytical tive Office of the President issued a Statement of Gov- study to examine technical criteria and frequency re- ernmental Policy on Satellite Communications for In- quirements for a maritime satellite system to serve the ternational Civil Aviation Operations which designated needs of world shipping. Data from this study were DOT/FAA as the lead management agency. It recoin- used heavily in the United States’ preparation for the mended the implementation of a preoperational ca- World Administrative Radio Conference for Space pability for test and evaluation in both the Pacific and Telecommunications (WARC-ST) . The study pro- Atlantic ocean areas. It also stated that the Govern- vides vital planning documentation for future efforts. ment should utilize commercial telecommunication fa- Efforts were continued to attempt to find a reliable cilities and services to the maximum extent feasible method of automatically locating and identifying the in both preoperational and operational systems. There position of vehicles in distress at sea. It has been con- is general agreement that an operational system will cluded that satellite relay of this information offers the be required in both the Atlantic and the Pacific by potential of worldwide satisfaction of the requirement. 1980; therefore, the policy statement directed that a A frequency allocation for this purpose has been pro- preoperational capability be established in a timely posed by the United States at the WARCST with fashion. The proposed satellite system, which would approval of all the participating nations. A develop- employ an ultra-high-frequency (UHF) band of near mental effort was initiated in coordination with NASA 1,600 megahertz (one MHz is a million cycles per sec- and the Navy Department, leading to an operational ond) , would provide the increased communications system. capability necessary in view of the increase in air In order to facilitate international experience in traffic projected by 1980. Extensive activity has been maritime satellite techniques, the Coast Guard loaned expended in exploration and definition of a feasible sets of shipboard satellite communications terminals to basis for international cooperation to provide the The Netherlands and England. These were installed on needed oceanic preoperational capability. merchant vessels of those countries, which then con- Area Navigation.-Four ,transcontinental high alti- ducted extensive experiments using the ATS satellites. tude area navigation routes were established in April Much of their work necessarily duplicated results between New York City and Los Angeles and Oak- achieved in earlier US. tests, but new information was land, California. These four transcontinental routes, obtained on modulation methods and reliability of forerunners of a nationwide area navigation network, selective signalling.

65 VI11 Arms Control and Disarmament Agency

I I

Introduction with particular attention to hardware design and application control. Along with other US government The Arms Control and Disarmament Agency con- agencies, ACDA takes an active interest in implement- tinues to have a strong interest in space programs, ing international space cooperation in a creative way, both international and national. The Agency maintains seeking to minimize the proliferation of missile tech- an active research effort on arms control aspects of nology while considering the legitimate needs of other international space programs, participates in pmpar- nations as they develop space launch vehicles and ing U.S. positions on international space policy issues satellites. and joins with other agencies in formulating and implementing bilateral and multilateral space agree- The Outer Space Treaty.-The Outer Space Treaty ments. In such activities the Agency seeks to direct serves three major purposes. First, it seeks to ensure space programs toward peaceful rather than military that space exploration and development will be car- goals. Regarding U.S. national space activities, ACDA ried out in accordance with international law and for continues to study the capabilities of existing and po- peaceful purposes only. By banning the emplacement tential satellite-borne sensors for verifying arms con- of “weapons of mass destruction” in space, on celestial trol agreements. An example of the use of such sensors bodies or in earth orbit, it closes off the largest of man’s is provided by the DOD’s VELA satellites that cur- new environments to the strategic arms race. Second, rently monitor compliance with the Limited Test Ban the treaty establishes a desirable precedent for gen- Treaty. In addition, ACDA is interested in the use erality in amcontrol agreements by banning all such of satellite communication systems to reduce the risk weapons, not just nuclear weapons. Along with the of war by providing secure, reliable communications Antarctica Treaty and the Seabed Arms Control channels between nations for use in potential crises. Treaty it has provided impetus for closing off other The improved “hot line” agreement, negotiated at frontiers on earth to the arms race. Third, the treaty SALT and signed in Washington on September 30, has contributed to steadily increasing confidence 1971, provides for such channels between the U.S. among nations that the arms race can be controlled. and the USSR. The spirit of optimism and dedication that underlies SALT and other current arms control negotiations can Zntmational Space Progratns.-Space programs in be traced in part to the success of earlier negotiations many countries can provide prestigious outlets for na- that produced agreements such the outer space tional ambitions that might otherwise be channeled as treaty. into the development of sophisticated weapon systems. These programs focus national energies on peaceful In 1971, the Federal Republic of Germany and Greece both ratified the outer space treaty, bringing rather than military uses of space. When carried out on a multilateral basis, such programs also set prece- to 64 the number of states that are parties to the dents for effective cooperation between nations in treaty. other constructive endeavors. In this way they ma- The Zmproved “Hot Line” Agreement.-The im- terially improve the climate for dealing with arms con- proved “hot line” agreement, on which negotiation trol issues and other problems on an international basis. was concluded at SALT in 1971, is intended to help The type of rocket system that a nation employs to preserve stability in possible future crises. Under the launch satellites is often adaptable to a ballistic missile agreement, satellite communications systems will allow configuration. ACDA has studied this problem for the U.S. and Soviet governments to communicate di- some time and believes that, under certain conditions, rectly without depending on radio relays or land lines this risk can be minimized through cooperative efforts in other countries.

66 IX Department of the Interior

I I

Introduction The Bureau of Mines utilized both fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters for transport of supplies and per- The Department of the Interior is responsible for the sonnel involved in the evaluation of mineral resources management of the nation’s natural and cultural re- in wilderness and primitive and for reconnais- sources. In order to meet this responsibility the Depart- areas, sance of rugged terrain. Aerial photography was used ment utilizes aircraft operationally and in research to monitor mine fire control operations and progress projects. It is also actively involved in space operations of surface mine reclamation projects. and research through its Earth Resources Observa- The Bureau of Reclamation, in the past, used air- tion Systems program and through the support of sev- as craft and helicopters to transport control survey par- eral Bureaus to lunar exploration and Martian map- ties to remote areas; for inspection, construction, and ping. International cooperation in aerospace activities repair of transmission lines and communication facili- exists both in departmental operations, primarily in ties; and for other project planning and operation ac- support of treaty commitments, and in departmental tivities. Contract aircraft continued to be used to ob- research programs. tain aerial photography for controlled mosaics to Aeronautics facilitate location of waterways, structures, and other Operations.-The Bureaus of the Department made features and to assist in project management and op- the following operational use of aircraft during 1971 : eration. Gross land characteristics, such as topography, The Bonneville Power Administration operated drainage, soil, and vegetation, continue to be inter- their own helicopter and fixed-wing aircraft, for aerial preted from aerial photography as basic information reconnaissance, site location, and maintenance of for water and land resource development planning. transmission lines, and for transportation of personnel The Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife main- to remote sites. Contract aircraft were used in a co- tains a fleet of about 40 small aircraft for use in its operative program with the Bureau of Reclamation to aerial wildlife surveys. The data gathered are for re- maintain remote controlled and cloud seeding equip- search and for the development of annual hunting ment in a network in the Hungry Horse Basin, regulations for those species over which the Federal Montana. Government has primary jurisdiction. These surveys The Bureau of Indian Affairs used government- are conducted in the appropriate seasons from the owned and contract aircraft for obtaining aerial Arctic south through Mexico and from coast to coast. photography and for visual observation in wildlife Another use of the Bureau’s aircraft is to aid in the management research and operations as well as for enforcement of Federal game laws. forest insect detection and control. Mineral surveys The Geological Survey used aircraft to acquire and evaluation of road and highway design and con- standard mapping photography for more than 205,000 struction were also accomplished with use of aerial square miles and high-altitude photography of approx- photography. imately 16,000 square miles of the conterminous U.S. The Bureau of Land Management continued to for the national topographic mapping program. The operate its own helicopters and fixed-wing aircraft as US. Air Force USQ-28 system in operation over well as those of private contractors for forest fire con- Alaska obtained additionally approximately 20,000 trol, cadastral surveys, seeding of storm clouds to in- square miles of aerial photography, which is being duce rainfall over newly formed forest fires primarily evaluated for its usefulness to the mapping program. in Alaska, for forest and soils inventory work, and to The Geological Survey operated aircraft on loan from locate hot spots in the heavy smoke of forest fires using other US. agencies and its own aircraft, both equipped an infrared scanner. High-altitude aerial photography with a variety of remote sensors, to monitor oil spills was obtained for both forest inventory work and for the and seepages, to conduct photo and other sensor recon- preparation of managerial photomaps. Photography naissance of proposed reservoir and damsites, to deter- already obtained represents approximately the first mine previous hydrologic conditions at archeological 1 percent of what is to be complete coverage of the sites, to conduct water sampling, wetland delineation, public domain in the conterminousUS. and water circulation studies of .bays, for algae and 67 phreatophyte studies, and for snowpack studies. Air- and ground observations in order to study shoreline craft were also used in 1971 for environmental impact processes and to relate the present nature of these bar- studies of the proposed Alaskan pipeline. Both fixed- riers to the conditions described in historical records. wing aircraft and helicopters were used in support of This is part of a larger study of the east coast barrier geological and geophysical research in reconnaissance islands, the purpose of which is to establish manage- geologic mapping, appraisal of mineral resources, and ment abjectives for all National Park holdings within evaluation of wilderness areas. Many of the studies this environment. Analysis of the spectral reflectance were conducted using one or a combination of the of shade tree leaves in the urban environment is con- following-aeromagnetic, electric, gamma ray, infra- tinuing with one emphasis of this study being the red, aerial photography, and geochemical (mercury) detection of diseased shade trees using remote-sensing instrumentation. Aircraft continued to be used in the techniques. management of Federal Outer Continental Shelf min- Space eral resources, mostly in the Gulf of Mexico, for trans- Research.-EROS (Earth Resources Observation Sys- portation of personnel to operation sites, for inspection purposes, and for locating and monitoring sources of tems) is the Department of the Interior program to itc- oil spills. quire, process, utilize, and disseminate remote-sensor data collected from aircraft and spacecraft of natural Research.-Research is conducted to improve tech- and manmade features of the Earth. It works directly niques and develop new methods for fulfilling the with NASA to coordinate and develop Interior De- Department's mission of natural and cultural resources partment programs in research of the applications of management. The following are Bureau research proj- aircraft and spacecraft as platforms for observations, ects in which aircraft have been used. and of remote sensors as information gathering devices The Bureau of Reclamation project in atmospheric to support resources mapping, evaluation, and man- water resources research is using aircraft as platforms agement. for cloud seeding and for collection and relay of me- The EROS Program has initiated Regional Ecolog- teorological and hydrological data. To augment re- ical Test Sites in Arizona (ARETS) and in the Cen- search capabilities, the Bureau has obtained a set of tral Atlantic (CARETS) area to consolidate research four cameras for use in aircraft, balloons, and on the effortsdesigned to test and evaluate air and spaceborne surface for acquiring multispectral imagery on 70mm remote-sensor methods and their application to envi- film. ronmental and resource problems such as the relation- The Geological Survey developed a surface sam- ships between changing land use and its environmental pling technique from a light aircraft for reconnaissance impact. The projects are open to Federal, State, and geologic studies. A study of Yellowstone National Park local organizations, universities, and resource indus- was completed to identify cool-water aquifers that tries willing to participate in the free exchange of in- may be suitable for potable water in park expansion, formation, and contribute their findings to through use of thermal imagery, radiometric studies, comprehensive project reports. A similar effort is being and interpretation of snow melt patterns, readily iden- made in the Pacific where several Bureaus of the De- tified on aerial photography. partment have identified their information require- The Office of Water Resources Research funded ments, collection of multiband photography is research in several subject areas: to develop a ,broad underway by Naval aircraft, and training and data spectrum microwave system for remote measurement collection centers have been established. of soil moisture; to determine applicability of remote- In the process of developing useful applications of sensing techniques for monitoring the quality of lake space remote-sensing systems, the Department, water; to test the ability to map land use categories by through the EROS Program, submitted 68 Earth airborne 'multispectral sensing using the technique Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS) experiment of spectrum matching; to investigate the values of proposals, 16 of which have been accepted and 29 of thermal mapping and aerial multispectral photography which are still to be negotiated. There were 24 Sky- to identify flow patterns and transverse differences in lab experiment proposals submitted by the Depart- water quality of lakes and streams; to conduct radar ment, of which 8 have been accepted. The proposals investigations of summertime land and lake rainfall reflect the wide range of interests within the Depart- variations over Lake Michigan; and to appraise aero- ment and should be very helpful in evaluating the magnetics, microwave reflectivity, multispectral pho- usefulness of satellite data to Department functions. tography, and other remote-sensing techniques for The EROS Data Center began operations at an measuring ground-water resources. interim facility in Sioux Falls, South Dakota, in Oc- The National Park Service has undertaken to cor- tober 1971. The Center is to provide access to ERTS relate high-altitude photography of Cape Lookout imagery for the general public, industry, educational National Seashore with lower altitude photography institutions, and foreign and domestic government agencies at all levels. In addition to the ERTS imagery, recovery, to aid in the selection of natural gas storage the Center also holds NASA aircraft imagery and sites, and to assist in the detection of potential for roof photography, and current Geological Survey aerial falls in coal mine fields. Aerial infrared imagery is photography. being used in an investigation of both burning areas Under the aegis of the EROS Program and in co- and moisture concentrations within coal refuse banks operation with NASA the Department is conducting in the Anthracite Region to develop heat flow equa- research on the development and evaluation of new tions and to generate models of each burning area, and techniques to specific departmental applications, and to update statistics on burning refuse banks there and for the development of new instruments and equipment. in part of the bituminous coal mining area in Penn- Aircraft are used as data gathering platforms for this sylvania. The Bureau of Mines is also investigating the research that is contributing to the understanding of possibility of detecting underground fires in coal beds the potential of space-acquired data and has led to the and abandoned mines with high-altitude aerial and ERTS experiment. Such departmental research for satellite multispectral photography, by identifying a 1971 has been as follows : unique spectral signature of effected flora. The Bureau The Bonneville Power Administration is a partici- studied space and high-altitude photography of the pant with the Bureau of Reclamation, and the Geo- Twin Buttes, Arizona, copper mining district and con- logical Survey in a contract research program to tinues to study high-altitude photography of Black develop techniques for determining estimates of pre- Mesa in Arizona to assess the potential of satellite cipitation from meteorological satellite images and to photography as an aid in solid waste inventory, in apply this information to the operation of hydroelec- monitoring progress of strip mining and evaluating its tric systems. impact on the semi-arid environment, and in evalua- The Bureau of Indian Affairs is conducting a study tion of reclamation measures. Research was begun in of the use of remote sensing in making a soil and range 197 1 on applications of remote-sensing techniques for inventory of Indian lands in South Dakota using aerial monitoring and inventorying surface mining of coal multispectral imagery. These inventories are to be used in Appalachia and other eastern States, and two to help make land management decisions. The Bureau studies are in progress, one in Farmington, New Mex- has completed a comparative study of the use of ico, and the other in Pennsylvania, to investigate the Apollo 9, multispectral high-altitude, and low-altitude utility of remote-sensing data and imagery for moni- photography and aeromagnetics in mineral resource toring the environmental effects of air pollution dis- evaluation of the Papago Indian Reservation. The charged from large coal-fired electric powerplants. study correlates the space and high-altitude photog- The Bureau of Outdoor Recreation is evaluating raphy to mineral exploration and to location of min- various sensors and imagery interpretation techniques eralized zones which might contain economic ore for their capability to generate essential recreation deposits. The economic potential of a circular struc- planning data at the required level of detail. A second ture on the San Carlos Indian Reservation, first identi- project underway is evaluating aerial remote-sensing fied from an Apollo 9 photograph, continued to be techniques for measuring use of outdoor recreation studied by the Geological Survey at the request of the resources. Bureau. The Bureau of Reclamation is investigating the The Bureau of Indian Affairs and the Bureau of feasibility of using data from aircraft and satellite Land Management contracted for the design of a Nat- overflights to aid in the management of undesirable ural Resources Information System to store, process, vegetation on Bureau water projects. A research proj- and display a variety of natural resources and land use ect has been completed to develop techniques for using data in both graphic and tabular form. Emphasis is multispectral data from aircraft and satellites in de- placed upon the use of air and space-acquired remote- tection of wetlands, ascertaining the severity of the sensing data as the main input to the system. A dem- wetness, and evaluating the effectiveness of subsurface onstration of the system will be performed utilizing drainage in irrigation regions afTected by rising ground- data from southeastern Arizona. water levels. The technique has only limited applica- The Bureau of Land Management used infrared tion on existing irrigated land, but shows more poten- imagery together with conventional aerial photography tial for detecting wet areas on undeveloped land or for in a research project to determine the feasibility of detecting seepage from canals. The Bureau has under- using such imagery for cadastral surveys in heavily taken the development of a monocyclic radar system wooded areas. to measure the depth and water content of snowpack, The Bureau of Mines is conducting research into currently from stationary and moving ground-based the use of various types of photography, thermal in- platforms, but with expected adaptability to aircraft. frared imagery, and side-looking radar imagery to- The Bureau of Sports Fisheries and Wildlife is pre- gether with surface and subsurface data to guide well paring for its participation in ERTS experiments in placement in oilfields to attain maximum oil and gas Alaska, Hawaii and the conterminous U.S. These include studies of: waterfowl production habitat in the in Biscayne Bay and of detecting some contamination northern United States and Canada; ice leads in bays effects on vegetation along the Alafia and Peace and general hydrology of wetlands in Alaska; thermal Rivers. Film density analysis of aerial photography of sensing of the Porcupine caribou herd ;spectral charac- the karst terrain near Tampa revealed lineations be- teristics of arid lands vegetation in Arizona; and pollu- lieved to reflect fracture zones related to underground tion of bays and infestations of the predacious starfish water flow. A study is underway to determine the (Acanthaster) in Hawaii. source, movement, and fate of sediment and other pol- The Geological Survey produced an experimental lutants discharging into Long Island Sound using photomap of the Phoenix quadrangle with the pub- high-altitude aircraft data obtained over the northern lished conventional line map on one side and space part of the Sound by NASA. An investigation is being photo-image on the reverse side; a photomap covering made of the application of computer-processed the Atlanta, Ga., quadrangle from Apollo 9 photog- thermal infrared scanner data to the determination raphy, reproduced photographically in various color of the thermal regime of a reach of the Missouri River. tones; and photo-image maps of the Mesa, Arizona, A study on the Sabine estuarine system indicated film area from very high altitude aerial photographs taken and filter preferences for enhancement of certain in- by U-2 aircraft. Tests and studies were conducted on dustrial wastes and indicated the importance of the the resolution of space and aerial photographic sys- background water effects in pollution detection. And tems, and on characteristics of precision mapping a study of the Raritan River attempted to identify a photographs using various film and filter combinations. known exothermic reaction of industrial effluents by A universal thematic mapping system is being devel- use of thermal imagery. Although the exothermic re- oped and currently involves experimentation on the action was not evident, the thermal patterns of in- automatic extraction of the distribution of snow, open dustrial wastes could be identified. Aerial photography water, vegetation, and the massed works of man. Basic was used to provide surficial thermal information on data for this system will come from all types of remote Barnegat Bay prior to the operation of a nuclear sensors carried on both space and aircraft platforms. powerplant, and shortly after the plant became opera- A space photograph simulation program has been pro- tional. A research project in South Dakota is being duced that mathematically simulates different camera conducted to determine by analysis of vegetation cover systems in different orbits and evaluates the photo- and condition the availability of soil moisture. The graphs as maps on four different projections. In addi- relationship of surficial thermal patterns to identification, a data bank of photoidentifiable ground images is tion of shallow aquifers is also being investigated. being compiled to relate ERTS and other space These projects are utilizing aircraft-acquired data in imagery to a specified map projection. The EROS Pro- the development of techniques leading to better water gram is cooperating with NASA and RCA in a geo- resources management. High- and low-altitude pho- metric calibration of the Return Beam Vidicon system tography over sites in the Great Plains, Lake Ontario, for ERTS. Calibration is essential for register and southern Florida, Long Island Sound, and the regional cartographic referencing of photo-image data and is ecological test sites were obtained for simulation stud- required by the NASA Data Processing Facility. The ies of ERTS. These data provide a means of calibra- Geological Survey is investigating distortion patterns tion of the forthcoming data from space. and methods of applying corrections to RBV systems. The Geological Survey in cooperation with the Uni- Preparation of ground and satellite data relay sys- versity of Michigan and the Air Force Cambridge tems for use in the ERTS experiments is underway, in- Research Laboratories completed a thermographic cluding successful testing of a seismic event counter mosaic for most of Yellowstone National Park which and borehole tiltmeter; the existing Water Resources depicts the thermal characteristics of a large area and stream gaging network is available for integration into the relationship of active geothermal phenomena to the system. Relay of temperature data from thermal topographic, hydrologic, and other geologic features. probes installed in steam vents near the summit of Mt. An airborne scanning technique was used success- Rainier has been performed via the Nimbus satellite. fully to permit selective imaging of quartz sand and In continuing research to develop ecological predic- quartz sandstone versus dolomitic limestone. A study tion models for a given hydrologic condition a mosaic of thermal contrast on infrared imagery of limestone, of three, high-altitude, near-infrared photographs of the Shark River Slough in Everglades National Park dolomite, and granite showed image density to have was prepared. This work revealed the presence of a good agreement with values predicted from mathe- previously unknown hydraulic flow barrier and an area matical models of such rock properties as thermal of ground-water upwelling in the Slough. Continuing inertia, albedo, and emissivity. An analysis of satellite research in data processing of multispectral, optical- photographs of the southwestern U.S. revealed strik- mechanical scanner data demonstrated the feasibility ing parallelism between major fracture trends and ad- of delineating benthic and on-shore vegetation species joining boundaries of the copper belt. The Geographic Applications Program of the International Cooperation Geological Survey focused its major efforts on the use of aircraft and satellite-acquired data in the develop- The EROS Program was a co-sponsor of the Inter- ment of land use information systems and environ- national Workshop on Earth Resources Survey Systems mental changes which are national or regional in scope, held in May 1971 to provide other nations with knowl- thus providing the overview of national conditions edge of the latest techniques for acquiring earth re- and the means of integrating the results of state and sources information by use of aerial and satellite local studies that differ in date, scale, category of in- remote-sensor systems. Tutorial papers on applications formation and objectives. Pilot studies are 'king car- as well as papers on remote-sensing program concepts, ried out to develop cost effective techniques for map- organization, and operational aspects were presented ping and computerizing data pertaining to land use by Departmental personnel. The workshop was at- changes. In 1971, efforts were concentrated on Wash- tended by about 250 scientists from 40 nations and 16 ington, D.C., Boston, Phoenix, San Francisco, and the international organizations. The EROS Program co- surrounding regions. operated with the Central Treaty Organization in the The National Park Service investigation of archeo- presentation of a seminar, Application of Remote logical sites in the southwest using infrared photog- Sensors in the Determination of Natural Resources, raphy is continuing. in Ankara, Turkey, in November 1971, providing co- The Office of Saline Water-NASA sponsored re- ordination and leadership in seminar planning. Turkey, Iran, Pakistan, and @heUS. participated. U.S. dele- search on porous glass for recovery of powble water gates presented papers describing aerial and space from urine was discontinued when it became evident flight remote-sensing systems being developed to sup- to OSW that there were more promising approaches port resources exploration, evaluation and manage- than reverse osmosis. However, development of sys- ment functions. EROS and the Geological Survey are tems for wash water recovery was continued. At participating with Canada in the International Field present there is a joint NASA-OSW research program Year for the Great Lakes (IFYGL) which is develop- on the development of new reverse osmosis membranes ing studies of lake meteorology, energy balance, ter- capable of renovating wash water in a space vehicle. restrial water balance, and water movement, using the The key requirement of the membranes is the capability Lake Ontario Basin as the test site. Intensive data of rejecting components of wash water (detergent, collection is set for 1972 to coincide wirh ERTS-A lactic acid, sodium chloride, etc.) at a sterilization and to utilize the potential of this data source. Current temperature of 165'F for an extended period of time. research by the Geological Survey involves analysis of Membranes which have shown promise for this ap- infrared imagery and multispectral aerial photography plication are a cross-linked cellulose acetate meth- in the study of the dynamics of heat plumes, delineation of ground-water discharge for inference of adjoining acrylate and a polyphenylene oxide sulfonate. areas underlain by high-yielding underdeveloped Operations.-Investigations were made in Bureau of aquifers ; sedimentation dynamics; and application of Mines Research Centers on the utilization of lunar ERTS analog data to limnological problems. resources. Simulated lunar materials were tested in The Geological Survey is cooperating with the Gov- simulated lunar environments to develop systems and ernment of Jamaica, the United Nations Development methods of utilization of extra-terrestrial resources on Programme, the Food and Agriculture Organization, future space missions. The Bureau also made infrared and NASA to develop and demonstrate remote sensing and Raman spectroscopy analyses of moon rock sam- for resources planning and development. Aerial ples from Apollo Missions 11, 12, and 14. This re- imagery and photography were obtained during the search seeks to determine mineral and chemical summer of 1971 and Geological Survey hydrologists properties of lunar samples. are assisting in the hydrogeologic interpretation of these data. As part of a UNESCO-sponsored study of the The Geological Survey provided support to NASA hydrogeology of the Canary Islands, aerial thermo- in the form of astronaut training, mission planning, and graphic surveys were made by contract aircraft and post-mission analysis for the Apollo 14 and 15 missions. interpreted by a consultant from the Geological Survey Geologic mapping of the frontside of the moon culmi- during 1971. Research into the usefulness of color infra- nated in publication of a summary map at a scale of red aerial photography in the identification of arche- 1 :5,000,000. Additional geologic mapping of the moon ological sites was undertaken with permission of the concentrated on the limbs and fmide and made use Mexican National Institute of Anthropology and His- of photography taken by the orbiting Apollo space- tory and using NASA photography of Tehuacan craft. The first geologic maps of Mars were constructed Valley, Mexico. It was determined that visibility of from Mariner 6 and 7 photography and analysis of sites depends primarily on their environmentalsituation photographs returned by Mariner 9 was started. and that the delineation of such environments and 71 microenvironments is especially easy with this type of exploration. In cooperation with the U.S. Depart- film. The Geological Survey has provided advisory as- ment of State and the Government of Saudi Arabia, sistance to the Government of Brazil on the interpreta- airborne photographic and radiometric surveys were tion of Brazilian-acquired radar imagery and aeromag- made in support of a geologic mapping program to aid netic surveys for their Amazon Basin development in definition of the mineral resource base of Saudi program and is cooperating with the Colombian Insti- Arabia. In addition, fixed-wing aircraft and helicop- tute of Geological Mining Investigations in interpret- ters werefrequently used for logistic support of ground ing radar imagery as a major source for geologic parties. With the Agency for International Develop- mapping in a deep tropical environment. ment (AID) and the Government of Indonesia, a con- In a cooperative geologic-geophysical-geographic tinuing study of the resource base of Indonesia is mak- mapping and minerals exploration program with the ing use of a broad spectrum of aircraft-collected data, Republic of Liberia, fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters particularly photograph and magnetic surveys. Of par- are providing the only feasible means of rapid regional ticular interest has been a study of potential geother- geologic reconnaissance, ground checking of photo, mal power sources in central Java. The Geological magnetic, and radiometric data interpretation, and Survey is involved in joint planning with Brazil, Argen- river-trail traverse field party support. Survey scien- tina, Mexico, and Peru in preparation for the use of tists and their Peruvian counterparts engaged in natu- ERTS data in geological interpretation and resource ral disaster reconstruction work are utilizing fixed-wing studies. Personnel also served on an AID-NASA in- aircraft and helicopters in observing debris and geo- vestigational team in Mali to determine specific appli- logical effects of earthquakes. The Geological Survey cations of ERTS data in the interpretation of geology, carried out tests from fixed-wing aircraft over known exploration for mineral and water resources, and better copper deposits in Panama in the process of studying utilization of grasslands and areas of heavier vegetation the use of infrared reflectance of vegetation in mineral cover.

X Department of Agriculture

Introduction experiments in its space flight investigations program. Among the proposals were experiments to utilize space- Helping to establish sound public policies for the acquired data for potentially more comprehensive and use of agricultural, forestry and wildland resources, as timely collection of agriculture, forestry, and range well as aiding farmers in the efficient conduct of their data, and the dissemination of these data for rapid work, are primary responsibilities of the U.S. Depart- interpretation into meaningful information required by ment of Agriculture (USDA) . To meet these responsi- various components of the agricultural community. bilities, the Department is constantly concerned with The Department also participated in an intensive improving the efficiency of its activities concerning simultaneous coordinated effort with NASA, and other agricultural crops, soil surveys, watershed management, Federal agencies, to evaluate and prioritize some 700 forests, range and wildlife management, land use man- domestic and foreign ERTS-A and Skylab flight ex- agement and classification, environmental protection, periment proposals. and outdoor recreation. In 1971, as part of these efforts, USDA’s Agricul- Remote Sensing Activity tural Research Service and Forest Service continued to collaborate with NASA in remote sensing research Research and Development.-The Department’s ob- investigations. The Department also continued its jectives in developing remote sensing technology are preparation for the anticipated 1972 ERTS-A satel- to study, develop, and utilize the unique multispectral lite program. Ten technical proposals for investigations characteristics of aerospace-acquired data. These data to utilize data from the ERTS-A and Skylab satellites, will improve the use of agricultural, forestry, and range were submitted to NASA for consideration as potential resources and will develop greater efficiency in the in- 72 ventory, protection, and management of these re- 4. Development of a multi-stage probability sam- sources as a major part of man’s critical environment. pling theory for single parameters, and its successful The research is devoted to both software and hard- implementation in a pilot timber inventory covering ware development, including updating the state-of-the- 10 million acres. Utilized in making the inventory art, and developing systems and methods. This ap- were space photography, three scales of aircraft pho- proach is made from ground, aerial, and space vehicles tography, and ground measurements. and makes use of multispectral photographic, multi- 5. Completion of systems analysis and accessory point scanner, and thermal infrared technology, as well computer programs for testing the effects of photo as through various biophysical and biochemical tech- rotations and image matching procedures. These niques. Computer processing and analysis techniques will be used in the automatic mapping d wildland are used to solve the data handling problems. resources with digitized stereopairs of aerial Such R&D approaches prove new capabilities for: photography. (1) detecting and assessing disease, insect and weed 6. Use of Apollo 9 photos to develop optical density infestation, salinity and moisture stress, drought, and signatures for high altitude photography and for 13 fire; (2) assessing crop and timber stand vigor to pre- land-use classes. dict yield; (3) determining soil characteristics; (4) 7. Classification and mapping of specific range- identifying, mapping, and measuring agricultural, land ecosystems through aircraft and spacecraft forestry, and rangeland use; and (5) assessing environ- photography, for use in photo interpretation testing. mental and ecological conditions, and man-environ- 8. Demonstration of the need for-and the advan- mental interactions. tage of-multiseasonal and multispectral imagery in Advances made during 1971 include the following: the remote sensing of native vegetational resources. Agricultural Research Service: Southem Corn Leaf Blight Watch Experimsnt: 1. Development of a better understanding of the A preliminary investigation, begun in late 1970, ex- interaction of diffuse light with leaves, and the effect plored the potential for using remote sensing tech- of variations in leaf structure on reflectance and nology to detect southern corn leaf blight. During transmittance. 1971, as joint USDA/NASA/States experimental 2. Publication of the following: effective optical operations and management plan was undertaken to constants of field grown leaves over the range of 0.5 evaluate further the use of these techniques and con- to 2.5 microns; a generalized plate model of leaves; cepts to: and a 5-parameter system for specifying plant canopy 1. Detect the development and spread of corn reflectance. These are essential in predicting reflectance blight during the growing season across the Corn as sensed by aircraft or spacecraft. Belt region; 3. Initiation of studies in crop species discrimination, 2. Assess different levels of infection present in utilizing film optical density differences. the Corn Belt; 4. Determination of the usefulness of aerial photog- 3. Amplify information acquired by ground raphy for ascertaining citrus fruit yield estimates. visits in order to better assess current blight status 5. Establishment of the feasibility of using aerial and the prdbable impact on crop production by thermal scanner data for monitoring frost distribution blight; and 4. Estimate through extrapolation the applica- and as a basis for scheduling crop irrigation. bility of these techniques to similar situations 6. Improvements in the estimates of parameters that may occur in the future. affecting watershed runoff. 7. Determination of space imagery usefulness to The Southern Corn Leaf Blight Watch Experiment soil scientists in preparing county soil surveys. was conducted over a seven state region, including approximately 64 percent of the total U.S. corn acre- Forest Service: age, or about 41,388,000 acres. The sample area in- 1. Development of microdensitometer techniques cluded 210 segments, each approximately one mile for interpreting and quantifying aerial photography. wide and eight miles long. Thirty of the segments 2. Establishment of the feasibility of utilizing space were concentrated in an intensive study area in west- photography for classifying forest and non-forest land ern Indiana to allow a more detailed study of the and for detecting forest disturbances. various modes of data collection. Low and high alti- 3. Continuation of work in establishing the feasi- tude aircraft flew over these segments, obtaining data bility of employing imagery that is both low and high that was analyzed and interped on a biweekly basis. altitude and small and large scale to detect forest and The size of the area monitored was determined by wildland vegetation stress due to insects, pathogens, resources available for the experiment, i.e., suitable and other agents. instrumented aircraft, numbers of data analysts and 73 photo-interpreters, computer processing, amount of area (western third of Indiana). A sampling model ground data which could be collected, etc. The area allowed inferences to be made concerning the degrees under study was the largest possible with available of blight present over all of these areas. The field resources. observation data was also used as training data in This experiment involved the resources and person- analyzing the remote sensing data. nel of 26 Federal and State agencies and organizations. Results of the experiment have been encouraging. Participating were the Agricultural Research Service, While very early detection of southern corn leaf blight Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service has not been accomplished, fields suffering medium (ASCS) , Cooperative State Research Service, Eco- to severe levels of infection were found to be identi- nomic Research Service, and the Statistical Reporting fiable. The ability to delineate different species and Service; NASA; the Department of Commerce; seven to identify crops and land uses has also .been extremely Agricultural Experiment Stations; Cooperative Exten- encouraging. A framework has been established for sion Services of the States of Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, continuing efforts to solve problems in crop identifica- Missouri, Nebraska and Ohio; Purdue University tion, acreage measurements, and land use inventories. (Laboratory for Applications of Remote Sensing) ; One important benefit from the experiment was and the University of Michigan (Willow Run Labora- the development of guide lines for similar research in tories). NASA made available an RB-57F aircraft to the future. Key problem areas have already been iden- collect high-altitude photography and a C-47 aircraft tified and efforts are being made to find solutions. with a multispectral scanner to dbtain data over an The experiment is providing investigators with an intensive study area. NASA also provided research opportunity to evaluate more fully how well remote effort funding, photography and photographic support, sensing techniques can be used to identify different photo-interpreters, and other technical assistance. The crop species at various stages of maturity over a very Department of Commerce's Agricultural Climatologi- large geographic region. cal Office monitored the weather through its various' The Watch has also provided a real world eqwiron- stations and exploited the data through its EPIMAY ment in which to make evaluations. Much was gained project. through learning the mechanics required to operate Corn Blight Watch activities were divided into three a large information system that makes use of remote phases. Baseline information was obtained during sensing on a scheduled basis. The experiment has Phase I. High-altitude black and white photographs also given participants from all of the cooperating in- of the selected segments, obtained in late April and stitutions a better .basic understanding of remote sens- early May, were used by county ASCS personnel while ing and a greater appreciation for its applicability to interviewing farm operators within each segment. blight detection and other agricultural problems. These Fields were identified on the photographs, and basic people are now considered to be better qualified to information about crops and land use was obtained. support future research and development programs The purpose of Phase I1 was to obtain soil back- involving remote sensing. ground information. In early May, high-altitude color The effectiveness of the Federal, State, and Uni- infrared photographs were taken over all segments versity interagency cooperative effort was outstand- and multispectral scanner data were obtained over ing. This cooperation could well serve as a model for the intensive study area segments. These data were future large-scale investigations involving remote analyzed to identify soil patterns. sensing. The flight portions of Phase I11 began June 14 and continued through October 3, 1971. During this International Cooperation phase, the incidence and severity of southern corn leaf blight were mapped in the sample segments and In view of the recognized potential for international inferences drawn for the total area. High-altitude cooperation and benefit from Earth remote sensing color-infrared photographs were taken biweekly, and surveys, USDA is participating with other Federal multispectral data were collected over the intensive agencies in programs to inform the international com- study area segments on the same schedule. munity about program developments, to provide ori- A sample of corn fields, stratified by cytoplasm, was entation and training, and to give technical assistance selected before the start of Phase 111. These fields were in cooperative projects involving remote sensing. visited at two-week intervals by Extension and ASCS USDA and other Government agencies sponsored a personnel, who abtained data on the general condi- two-week International Workshop on Earth Resources tion of the crop, and particularly on the severity of Survey Systems at the University of Michigan in May southern corn leaf blight. The ground sampling scheme 1971. USDA also participated in the Seventh Inter- was designed to provide data throughout the large national Symposium on Remote Sensing of Environ- area (seven-state region) and in the intensive study ment held in May 1971 at the University of Michigan. '14 In order to apprise FA0 of recent remote sensing USDA also participated in the Remote Sensing developments that could be useful to UN member Symposium sponsored by the Inter American Geodetic nations which do not have facilities in remote sensing Survey held in the Canal Zone, November 30-Decem- technology, USDA participated in the FA0 Techni- ber 2, 1971. Nineteen Latin American countries were cal Consultation on the Applications of Remote Sens- informed of the potential for using remote sensing ing to the Management of Food and Agricultural techniques in inventorying, protecting, and managing Resources held in Rome, Italy, September 1971. their national resources.

XI Department of Commerce

Introduction ice, the Environmental Research Laboratories, the National Ocean Survey, and the National Marine Department of Commerce activities that contribute Fisheries Service. directly to the national aeronautics and space program are concentrated within four major organiza- National Environmental Satellite Service.-The Na- tional elements. These are the National Oceanic and tional Environmental Satellite Service (NESS) has Atmospheric Administration, the National Bureau of the responsibility for establishing, operating, and im- Standards, the Maritime Administration, and the Of- proving the nation’s system of operational environ- fice of Telecommunications. Other elements contrib- mental satellites. To satisfy the operating requirement ute to the national program through indirect efforts. NESS commands and controls satellites in orbit, ac- Among these latter units are the U.S. Patent Office, quires and processes data from satellites, arranges for which issues patents on inventions with aeronautical dissemination of both processed and unprocessed data, and space application, and the National Technical and works with the NOAA Environmental Data Serv- Information Service, which collects and distributes ice to maintain an archival system for making data scientific and technical information produced through available for research and application to specific en- the national program. vironmental problems. The NESS maintains and improves current ground and data handling systems, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration plans for future spacecraft systems, and coordinates with the NASA in the development of new and im- The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra- proved sensors and spacecraft systems. Major research tion (NOAA) fulfills the Department of Commerce and development efforts are devoted to the analysis responsibilities for improving man’s comprehension and and application of satellite data, and the development uses of the physical environment and its oceanic life. of new sensor systems for use on or with spacecraft. These responsibilities stress exploring, mapping, and charting the global oceans, their basins, their geo- Operation of NOAA Satellites.-As the year began, physical forces and fields, and their mineral and living NESS was controlling four polar-orbiting spacecraft. resources ; monitoring and predicting the character- Two of these were the primary source of data used istics of the physical environment in real time to warn operationally; the other two spacecraft were controlled against impending environmental hazards ; and moni- in orbit as backup data sources in the event of failure toring and predicting gradual changes such as those in the primary operational system. The primary space- of climate, seismicity, marine-life distribution, earth craft were the ITOS 1 (TIROS Mya NASA funded tides, continental position, the planet’s internal cir- prototype), and NOAA 1 (ITOS A), the first op- culations, and the effects of human civilization and erational NOAA spacecraft of the ITOS series. The industry on the environment and oceanic life. Six ITOS spacecraft provide two services, global observa- major subelements of NOAA provide direct contributions for centralized application, and direct readout tions to the aeronautics and space program. These are for immediate local use. Day and night observations the National Environmental Satellite Service, the Na- of the earth and its cloud cover are stored on the tional Weather Service, the Environmental Data Serv- satellite, read out at one of two command and data 75 acquisition stations (CDA) ,and transmitted to central Ojmational Applications.-During this year the oper- processing centers for operational use on a global scale. ational environmental satellite system completed five In addition, day and night observations are broadcast years of uninterrupted service. As part of an on-going continously for reception by relatively simple and in- program to assess the value of the satellite system in expensive direct readout stations for realtime applica- terms of practical benefits, the wide range of satellite tion in local or regional environmental service data applications was reviewed. A number of applica- programs. Measurements of the solar proton flux are tions with practical benefits were reported by users of recorded over the polar regions, acquired at the CDA the satellite system. Among the benefits cited were the stations, and relayed to NOAA’s Space Environment use of these data in forecasting weather conditions Laboratory at Boulder, Colorado for use in national which endanger livestock in western ranching regions; and international space environment advisory services. specialized forecasts for harvest conditions; use in pub- All data transmissions from the ITOS spacecraft lic news media; marine advisories; sea and lake ice ended in mid-year as a result of spacecraft malfunc- forecasts; public weather forecasts; and in forecasting tions associated with the stabilization and control as- east coast winter weather. The satellite data are applied sembly. The replacement spacecraft, ITOS B, was routinely as basic guidance information by the Na- launched October 21 but failed to orbit due to prob- tional Meteorological Center (NMC) . One of the lems associated with the second sfage of the launch more important and well known applications is the use vehicle. This failure necessitated “calling up” the two of satellite data in tracking and forecasting movement stored in orbit backup spacecraft. These two, the older and intensity of severe storms and hurricanes. TOS series ESSA 8 and 9, continued to provide useful An operational technique has been introduced for information through the remainder of the year. These deriving quantitative heights of constant pressure sur- spacecraft differ from the later ITOS series in that faces using satellite observed cloud patterns. This each is limited to a specific service and that only day- technique known as Satellite Input to Numerical time observations are obtained. ESSA 8 is the Auto- Analysis and Prediction (SINAP) ,is applied routinely matic Picture Transmission (AFT) satellite and to the northeast North Pacific Ocean weather analysis. provides direct local readout. ESSA 9 pmvides the SINAP separates the 12-hour 500 millibar (about 5.6 stored data (global) service. kiIometers) height field forecast into short- and long- wavelength components. Satellite data used to Applications Technology Satellites (ATS) .-NESS, are modify the short-wavelength components. Statistical with the cooperation of NASA, continues to acquire techniques have been developed to derive the magni- and the data from the NASA research and develop- use tude of the deviations where spiral cloud centers occur. ment geostationary satellites ATS 1 and 3. ATS day- Addition of the long-wavelength and the modified time pictures, which cover most of the Western short-wavelength components produces the 500 milli- Hemisphere, can be acquired at 15 to 30 minute inter- bar height field. vals. A time-lapse movie sequence technique has been In cooperation with the USAF Air Weather Service, applied to show development and motion of large and a global climatology of relative cloud cover was pre- small scale cloud systems during daylight hours. Move- pared. Data from the period 1967-1970 were used as ment of cloud elements is used to estimate low and the base for computing the relative cloud cover upper level wind speed and direction; these wind esti- statistics. mates are used in the numerical weather prediction program. The animated cloud sequence also is used Research and Development Programs of the National Environmental Satellite Service.-Research efforts in diagnosis of hurricane and severe local storm during the year continued to emphasize the develop- situations. ment of more objective, quantitative methods of in- Technical difficulties prevented picture taking by corporating environmental satellite data in the daily the ATS 3 from July 30 through September 1. The routine of numerical analysis and prediction of meteor- difficulty was corrected so that pictures were available ological fields. Satellite data are being studied to en- for use in September, the busiest tropical storm period hance our knowledge of the behavior of circulations in 1971. and energetics, particularly in areas where conven- Nimbus ZV.-The NASA research and development tional data are incomplete or do not exist. satellite, Nimbus IV, continues to provide environ- Studies of satellite visual and infrared observations mental information which is used daily in operational over several years, have shown that most tropical programs. The Satellite InfraRed Spectrometer cloudiness and intense cloud development is confined (SIRS B) provides data which is converted to a de- to South America, Africa, and Indonesia southeast- scription of the vertical temperature distribution in the ward to French Polynesia. Relatively cloud free areas atmosphere. These data are used daily in objective extend for great distances along the equator between weather analysis techniques. these three areas. 76 Satellite pictures have revealed that tropical storms an outgrowth of the US.-U.S.S.R. agreement for co- sometimes have an extensive cloud band extending operation in space science and applications, the NESS northeastward into middle latitudes. Studies of data was actively represented in the negotiation of the basic over the North Pacific show that this feature is the bilateral agreement, and on the Joint Working Group source of major heat injection from the tropics into on Meteorological Satellites and the Joint Working the middle latitudes. Thus this feature may have some Group on the Natural Environment. These groups important part to play in the resulting middle latitude developed tentative cooperative experiments using circulation and weather. satellites and other facilities of both countries, includ- Techniques for producing 12,24 and 36 hour cloud ing acquisition and exchange of data.. cover forecasts using satellite pictures as the initial Washington-Moscow Data Exchange.-The U.S. and cloud data were perfected in time to use these fore- U.S.S.R. have exchanged satellite data routinely over casts experimentally in support of the Apollo 15 a direct circuit since September 1966. In 1971, this mission. flow of information was virtually uninterrupted except Data analysis techniques were developed to assist for brief periods when the circuit was not operational in determining distributions of sea surface temperature for technical reasons. The U.S. began transmission of and sea ice. Methods for correcting scanning radiom- direct readout and stored scanning radiometer data for eter data for atmospheric attenuation and for filtering the first time during the middle of the year. The system noise were tested and experimental global maps U.S.S.R. continues to provide television and infrared of sea surface temperature produced. data from the Meteor series of satellites. Meteors 7, 8, Methods of monitoring polar ice packs have been and 9 were launched this year. At year end, data were improved by displaying composite minimum brightness being received from Meteors 8 and 9 and from Meteor charts in five gray tones which correspond to five cate- 5 launched in a prior year. gories of ice concentration and condition ranging from compact, snow-covered pack to very open pack or ice National Weather Service.-The National Weather free. Service (NWS) both serves and is served by the aeronautics and space program. Through its widespread Near-infrared imagery obtained from Nimbus 3 high observations and forecasting network it provides direct resolution data shows that thawing ice packs have little services to civil and military aviation, and through its or no reflectivity in this spectral interval. Early detec- Space Operations Support Division it provides specific tion of melt periods of sea or lake ice could result from weather services to the space The NWS re- monitoring in the vis?ble and near-infrared bands. program. search programs are aimed at improvement and en- Thermal infrared measurements are being evaluated largement of all these services. The aeronautics and to determine their usefulness for snow mapping and for space program provides benefits to the NWS with data determining snow surface temperatures. A means has gathered by aircraft and spacecraft, and by rapid data been found for detecting thaw conditions snow of relay through spacecraft. The NWS participates in fields. When the snow cover is dry, it is bright in both the planning of spacecraft data gathering and dissemi- the visible and the near-infrared parts of the spectrum. nation systems, and in the enhancement of the useful- When the snow cover is wet, the reflectivity drops to ness of weather data gathered by satellites. low levels in the near-infrared but remains fairly high in the visible band. Snow Mapping by Satellites,--NOAA satellite photographs of snow fields were used by the River Forecast International Cooperation.-Worldwide availability Centers in the preparation of river and flood forecasts. of Automatic Picture Transmission (APT) pictures The products provided by the National Environmental and the experimental semioperational transmission of Satellite Service more timely and accurate a variety of satellite products through the ATS space- permits analysis of the areal extent of snow cover. This craft continued throughout the year. There are now information when augmented by ground reports of about 500 APT stations located in 94 countries and water equivalent of snow is important to accurate trust territories. predictions of potential fldiand water supply The NESS provided training and study facilities for forecasting. Brazilian meteorologists and briefings for many other foreign scientists. Through the auspices of the World Collection and Rekay of Data by Satellites.-Data re- Meteorological Organization’s ( WMO) Voluntary As- lay equipment on the ATS 1 satellite permits collec- sistance Program, the NESS furnished a training mis- tion of information from instrumented, unmanned sion to Thailand, Nepal, Zambia, and Somali. The observation sites. Because this pilot program has NESS also participated as part of the US. delegation proven successful, sites have been selected for hydro- to the Sixth Congress of the WMO. logic data collection platforms (DCP) of river and The NESS participated in the US.-U.S.S.R. bi- rainfall stations to be used with the Geostationary lateral negotiations on peaceful uses of outer space. As Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) S~S- 77 tem to be initiated in 1973. The Columbia Basin of landing of the Apollo 15 flight, on July 26 and Au- the Pacific Northwest was chosen as the location for gust 7, respectively, but there was an unusually high the 15-20 prototype DCP’s because of extensive inter- frequency of thunderstorms in the Kennedy Space agency prediction and monitoirng activities. Center area during the 2-month checkout period. As Special efforts toward full use of geostationary a result of their forecasting and warning assistance, weather satellite pictures have been made at the Na- the NWS team at the Kennedy Space Center received tional Hurricane Center, Miami, and the National a NASA Group Achievement Award “for exceptional Severe Storms Forecast Center, Kansas City. The performance of duty during the checkout and launch- system has been in operation for a full year during ing of Apollo 15.” which time procedures have been developed to in- Forecasting for Earth ObservationsAircraft Flights.- corporate the new pictures into analysis and forecast- The NWS Spaceflight Meteorology Group provided ing techniques. The photographing satellite was placed almost daily forecast support to the NASA Earth Ob- at the most favorable positions for viewing mid-con- servations Aircraft Program and has made studies of tinent severe storms during the spring, and then moved weather as it may affect future earth-viewing satellite to look at hurricane areas during the summer and fall. programs. The temporary malfunction of this satellite during the The NWS unit at the NASA Wallops Station sup- hurricane season served to point up our dependence ports a variety of space projects. One significant NASA on this new observation tool. test, the Planetary Atmospheric Experiment Test of Satellite Zmagety Distributed by Facsimile Circuit.- June 20, required forecasts, meteorological rockets, Pictures, of cloud systems over the earth, taken by and shipboard observations near Bermuda. Another polar-orbiting weather satellites, are distributed to major support effort of the Wallops team-that for NWS forecast offices over NWS facsimile communica- the cooperative Germany-United States Barium Ion tions systems. These include pictures made by the Cloud experiment, involved surface and upper air ob- Automatic Picture Transmission (APT) system, which servations and forecasts for several sites in the South- can be received directly from the satellite when neces- western United States and in South America. A clear sary, and the Advanced Vidicon Camera System view of the 20,000 mile high cloud was successfully (AVCS) and large area mosaics of cloud imagery. forecast for all primary observatory sites. A different kind of “look” at the earth cloud cover is Units of the NWS at San Nicolas Island, California, supplied by infra-red sensors on the weather satellites, and Barking Sands, Hawaii, assisted in the weather and during 1971 NWS initiated real-time communica- support for the Navy Pacific Missile Range. Also the tion of this additional analysis tool to our forecast NWS furnished the full weather observing and fore- offices. casting service for the Army Safeguard System Com- mand at the Kwajalen Missile Range. Remote Sensing of the Water Equivalent of Snow.- Techniques for remote measurements of the water Support to World Meteorological Organization.- equivalent of snow cover from sensors aboard aircraft NWS technicians completed the installation of nine have shown great promise in initial testing. The sens- APT ground receiver stations in foreign countries and ing technique is based on change in attentuation of provided training in satellite picture interpretation natural earth-emitted gamma radation due to varia- as part of US. support to the World Meteorological tions in the water equivalent of snow. The method Organization Voluntary Assistance Program. Addi- was used on a limited operational basis in the winter tionally, APT systems were purchased and arrange- of 1971. The feasibility of wide operational applica- ments made for their installation in six more countries tion in river forecasting is presently being determined in 1972. from research results. Utilization of Aircraft.-Meteorologist-pilots of the Meteorological Support to Space Operations and Test quality control staffs at NWS Headquarters fly small Facilities.-The NWS through its space operation sup. single or twin-engine aircraft (either rented or pri- port division continued its guidance to several NASA vately owned) in connection with quality control Programs. In the manned space flight area the 1971 duties. These flights permit in-flight monitoring and support covered two lunar flights. Weather was of real evaluation of NWS furnished aviation weather serv- concern at the time of the Apollo 14 launch on Jan- ices; they also are used as a means of travel for station uary 31, since the Kennedy Space Center was experi- visits and on-station services evaluation. encing rapidly moving clouds and numerous showers. In addition, aviation forecasters take familiariza- On the basis of a short-range forecast the space ve- tion trips as passengers in airline and other aircraft to hicle successfully passed between the thick clouds, become better acquainted with their areas of forecast avoiding the danger that it might trigger a damaging responsibility and the use made of NWS products. lightning discharge. There were no serious forecasting Services to Aviation.-Specialized weather informa- difficulties for the launch and North Pacific Ocean tion is provided to pilots, controllers, and aircraft operators to promote efficiency in aviation activities. Selected Stations and the Month of September)” This information is in the form of observations, fore- which also include a statistical climatology of tropical casts, warnings, and pilot briefings. In addition: cyclone movements in the North Atlantic Ocean, weather consultation and guidance are provided to Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico. assist the efficient flow control of the Air Traffic Serv- 2. Compilation of surface climatological information ice. Observations are made at 954 locations; many by for 20 selected stations to aid in the site selection of other Government agencies, airlines, and airport per- the space shuttle launches. These data were published sonnel. Terminal forecasts are made for 427 airports, in NASA CR-61342, “Surface Climatological Infor- generally every 6 hours. Area forecasts and in-flight mation Twenty Selected Stations for Space Shuttle advisories are also provided. Forecasts for international Studies.” aviation covering all of the Northern Hemisphere and 3. The data summary and analysis programs de- most of the Southern Hemisphere are also provided in signed to furnish up to date statistics on peak surface facsimile and/or digital forms, the latter being used ex- winds and thunderstoms at Cape Kennedy and serially tensively in computer flight planning by the airlines. complete upper air wind data for Cape Kennedy, Pilot weather briefings are available through 269 Florida and Vandenberg AFB, California were NWS offices, plus 327 FAA offices and 215 unmanned continued. FAA facilities. About 2 million briefings are provided 4. In cooperation with the Naval Weather Service annually by the NWS and about 13 million by the Command, the second and final volume of upper air FAA. climatology of the Northern Hemisphere was published Environmental Data Service (EDS).-The Environ- in NAVAIR 50-1C-59, “Selected Meridional Cross mental Data Service collects, processes, archives, Sections of Heights, Temperature and Dew Points of publishes, and disseminates environmental data and the Northern Hemisphere.” information gathered on a global scale, providing a 5. Efforts to reduce the wind and thermodynamic single source service, readily accessible to specialized data collected on the 150-meter instrumented tower at and general user groups. EDS maintains data centers the Merritt Island Launch Area, Cape Kennedy, for oceanographic, meteorological, aeronomic, geo- Florida were continued. magnetic, and seismological data, and provides ad- 6. Analysis of atmospheric conditions relating to the ministrative support for corresponding World Data development of a method for interpreting measure- Centers-A, which receive data from cooperative in- ments of aircraft flyover noise was carried out in a vestigations and other international sources. In addi- NASA-FAA cooperative effort. The analysis is in the tion, it maintains an Environmental Science Informa- process of publication. tion Center, the NOAA focus for scientfic and tech- 7. Cloud analyses from the facsimile charts trans- nical information, publications, and library services. mitted on the National facsimile circuit are being coded EDS also sponsors and conducts research and develop- and punched into cards for use in a cooperative ment activities to improve its performance of those NASA-NOAA research effort. Some of the results are functions and coordinates with world scientific orga- published in “NASA-Technical Note D-563 1.” nizations our Nation’s international activities in the 8. The NCC continued its efforts in the processing, data and information management areas of NOAA publication, and distribution of the High Altitude responsibility. Meteorological Data received from the Meteorological The National Climatic Center (NCC).-The NCC at Rocket Network (MRN) and the EXAMET Net and participating foreign countries. These data are pub- Asheville, N.C. processes, publishes, distributes, and archives surface and upper air meteorological data, in- lished for the WDC-A for Meteorology and Nuclear Radiation. Data for the months May 1969 through cluding certain satellite data. Both the raw and processed data from the National Weather Service and its February 1970 were published in 1971. cooperators-the National Envorinmental Satellite 9. The last three volumes on the Upper Air Cli- Service, the Air Weather Service of the US.Air Force, matology of the Southern Hemisphere were produced the Naval Weather Service Command and foreign in cooperation with the Department of Defense and meteorological serviceen- archived at the NCC. the National Center for Atmospheric Research Accomplishments at the NCC relating to aeronau- (NCAR), and were published during 1971. The titles tics and space activities during 1971 include: of these volumes are: Vol. I1 “Temperatures, Dew 1. Computation of tropical cyclone strike probabil- Points, and Heights at Selected Pressure Levels”; Vol. ities for the NASA installations at Houston, Texas; I11 “Vector Mean Geostrophic Winds (Isogon and Mississippi Test Facility at Bay St. Louis, Mississippi; Isotach Analysis) ” ; Vol. IV “Selected Meridional Cape Kennedy, Florida ; and Wallops Island, Virginia. Cross Section of Temperature, Dew Point and Height These data were published in NASA CR-61355, (Cross Sections at 30” Intervals Around the “Atlantic Tropical Cyclone Strike Probabilities (For Hemisphere) .” 79 In addition to the above, satellite data achieved at are furnished annually to space researchers through- the NCC provide an important contribution to the out the world. global Basic Data Sets which have been organized for The National Geophysical Data Center also main- research purposes by the NCC. This program, under tains a file of magnetic survey data which it uses to the auspices of the Global Atmospheric Research Pro- provide magnetic declination information for the gram (GARP), has assembled the most complete hundreds, of U.S. aeronautical and airport charts meteorological collection in existence for one winter which are printed or revised each year. Mathematical month (November 1969) and one summer month models of the earth‘s magnetic field have also been (June 1970). ATS cloud and wind data as well as distributed by NGDC to numerous airlines, airports, SIRS data provide unique and otherwise unobtain- and other groups concerned with using automated able information over large ocean areas. techniques for deriving magnetic declination information. The Aeronomy and Space Datu Center (ASDC).- This center archives monitoring type solar-terrestrial The National Oceanographic Data Center.-NODC data recorded by satellites and space probes The is actively involved with three types of oceanographic Center is the primary source to scientists for the data collected by aircraft and satellites: aircraft ex- ionograms taken .by the topside ionosonde satellites. pendable bathythermograms ( AXBT) and sea surface In addition, several solar parameters (protons, X-rays, temperature determined by airborne radiation ther- and solar wind) measured by satellites and space mometry (ART) or by satellites. probes are archived and also published monthly in NODC has completed development of a processing Solar-Geophysical Data, to provide the international system for certain types of AXBT’s and has begun scientific and technical community with data values digitization of the approximately 5,000 observations for understanding many solar-terrestrial relationships. presently in the archives. These are the only such data published routinely on Storage and retrieval criteria for ART’S have been a reasonably rapid schedule, some even in the first established by the NODC, but at present no data are month after observation. available in the required digitized mode. Analyses of satellite and space probe measurements A format and accessions system for NOAA satellite- are included in special data compilations for times of sensed sea surface temperature data has been estab- unusual solar-geophysical activity. These are published lished. Routine storage at EDS’ National Climatic in the Upper Atmosphere Geophysics Report series Center of daily global sea surface temperature data of the collocated World Data Center A. The data should begin by mid 1972. catalog, also issued in this series, specifies which of the The Laboratory for Environmental Data Research.- holdings in the field of solar-terrestrial physics are LEDR is’ exploring climatological applications of from satellite and space probes. meteorological satellite data as follows : Until July 1971 the ASDC had the responsibility 1. Monthly cloud cover amounts are being esti- for processing, scaling, and archiving of solar flare mated from meteorological satellite data for tropical patrol films and solar radio noise data abtained at areas of the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. Long period special patrol observatories at Boulder, Colorado, Car- variations in cloud amount in these Ocean areas, and narvon, Australia, and the Canary Islands. These sites the interocean cloud cover variations, are being are spaced in longitude to normally keep the sun studied because the amount of cloud cover is closely under watch for a full twenty-four hours each day. related to the characteristics of the general atmos- Their operation was part of a contract program be- pheric circulation. tween the NASA, Manned Spacecraft Center and the 2. Standing waves in the atmosphere induced by Space Environment Laboratory of the NOAA Re- orographic features are being studied with seasonally search Laboratories. The program produces a highly averaged pressure-heights derived from meteorological homogeneous set of quality controlled data in support satellite radiometric data. The standing waves con- of the Apollo space missions for the detection of haz- tribute significantly to observed mean vertical pressure- ardous solar particles. height distributions and therefore are probably closely related to weather variations in persistent areas of The National Geophysical Datu Center.-NGDC cyclogenesis. A better understanding of standing digitizes many magnetograms for use by NASA sci- waves in the atmosphere will probably lead to a better entists; in particular, for comparison with their satel- understanding of the general atmospheric circulation. lite magnetic field measurements. These digitized Environmental Research Laboratories.-The Envi- magnetograms are also used to prepare indices which ronmental Research Laboratories, (ERL), with are, in turn, most valuable in correlation studies with headquarters in Boulder, Colorado, conduct the funda- satellite magnetic field data and in interdisciplinary mental investigations needed to improve man’s under- space studies. Hundreds of observatory years of data standing of the physical environment. Ten laboratories and two centers conduct research in the various scien- tion and for design specifications for the spacecraft tific disciplines required in support of NOAA missions. transmitter. This system will provide improved meas- Space Environment Laboratory (Boulder).-The urement of electron density, integrated over the path, NOAA Space Environment Laboratory (SEL) pro- in the ionosphere and magnetosphere. A prototype vides services and conducts research in solar-terrestrial version of the ground receiver has been constructed physics to develop technology required to monitor the and is under test. Final design plans will be made state. of the earth's environment and to forecast geo- available, internationally, to those groups desiring to physical effects produced by solar disturbances. Ex- participate in cooperative studies using the ATS radio perimental, observational and theoretical research is beacons. directed towards the understanding of the physics of A special report on effects of solar disturbances on solar flare development and other solar activity, and high latitude aeronautical communications was com- the manner by which the solar produced electromag- piled for the SST panel of the International Civil netic and particle radiations affect the magnetosphere Aviation Organization. In this report the state of pres- and ionosphere of the earth. ent knowledge on the subject was assembled in order Services performed for NASA and other agencies to estimate the extent of communication problems include : that may arise during periods of high solar activity. -The operation of SPAN (Solar Proton Alert Low energy solar protons, detected by particle de- Network), a network of four sttitions spaced tectors on the NOAA meteorological satellites, were around the world to permit continuous solar found to occur at latitudes lower than anticipated by observations by optical and radio methods. present theories of particle behavior in the earth's -Support of the Apollo 14 and 15 missions, with magnetic field. An explanation for the observation of respect to solar disturbances, was provided by these particles was made suggesting a diffusion process SEL personnel who manned the Space Radia- during magnetic storms to be a plausible mechanism. tion Console at the Manned Spacecraft Center The SEL is developing instrumentation for a num- in Houston, Texas, and by special forecast and ber of space experiments to be launched at future monitoring efforts. dates. These include: -Operation of the Boulder Telemetry Station to -Particle and radiometric instrumentation for obtain data from the ionospheric sounding rockets to be launched in Norway, satellites Alouette 1, Alouette 11, ISIS 1, and -Energetic particle experiments for IMP H ISIS 2. and J, -Development of techniques for forecasting the -Particle, X-ray, and magnetic field sensors for position on the sun, and time, of solar flare operational space environment monitoring, eruptions to support the Advanced Telescope and for research purposes, to be included in Mission (ATM) of Skylab. These predictions, the geostationary meteorological satellites if successful, will enable astronauts to point (SMS/GOES) under development for NOAA high resolution optical instrumentation in by NASA, order to record the early development of flare -Particle instrumentation for ATS-F and 43. activity. Theoretical studies were made of the earth's mag- A number of experimental programs make use of netosphere and its interaction with the solar wind (a satellite and rocketborne measurements. continuous, but variable, stream of particles flowing --Observations of energetic charged particles by away from the sun) in order to understand the man- a rocket launched at high latitudes suggest ner in which solar flare energy produces the various these particles were accelerated close to the geophysical effects observed at and near the earth. In earth by an electrostatic field directed along a one recent study, the shock wave produced by a flare, geomagnetic field line. This result has implica- its propagation through the solar wind, and its inter- tions for theories of charged particle behavior action with the magnetosphere was modeled numeri- in the geomagnetic field. cally. The complicated dynamical behavior was made -Low energy particle data from the satellite visible by means of computer produced motion pic- OGO F-15 are under analysis with improved tures. Plasma and magnetic field data from the time resolution. These results will improve spacecraft Pioneer interplanetary shock observa- understanding of aurorally associated charged 7 particle behavior. tions, were used to compare with the theoretical -Particle and magnetic field data are also ob- computations. tained on an operational basis from the geosta- Model magnetospheres of several of the outer tionary satellite ATS-1. planet- Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and The SEL is responsible for the design and construc- Pluto-were computed for NASA. These computation of the ATS-F and -G radio beacon receiving stations, which incorporated solar wind parameters, and the best available data and theoretical deductions -A theory has been developed which predicts pertaining to the planets, will provide information for under what conditions lightning will be trig- design of spacecraft for planetary exploration. gered by a specified rocket: Aeronomy Laboratory (Boulder).-Laboratory meas- -Field experiments have been carried out and lightning flashes have been triggered by a urements of the rates of ion-molecule reactions rele- 20 Folding Fin Aircraft (FFA) rocket; vant to the upper atmosphere continued, with have -New instruments developed for these field tests some emphasis on the complex clustering reac- include a lightning triggering and field measur- tions that take place at altitudes below about 85 kilo- ing payload for the FFA rocket, and airborne meters. Recent has included the first definitive progress electric field measuring system, and a real time measurement of the electron affinity of NO, believed lightning plotter which plots the positions of to be the dominant species of negative ion in the lower lightning discharges occurring within a radius ionosphere. The program is currently being extended of about kilometers. to allow investigation of many free-radical reactions 48 Outstanding results of the high altitude water vapor important in air-pollution episodes, exploiting new and radiometric measurements from jet aircraft plat- technology opened up by development of the sph-flip forms are follows : infrared laser. as -Flights around individual large thunderstorm Further direct rocket measurements of atomic- anvils have shown that these storms may inject oxygen distribution in the upper atmosphere have been several times as much water vapor into the carried out, using a thin-fiIm detector developed in the stratosphere exists upstream from the storm. Aeronomy Laboratory. The technique has aroused as Further studies are needed to ascertain the resi- considerable interest, and programs involving its use are now being planned by several groups in country dence time of this injected water vapor after this storm decay. This problem is related directly and abroad. to SST operations. Radar studies of the small-scale structure of the ion-. osphere during auroral displays are being carried out in -Contrails in heavy jet traffic corridors decrease the mean local surface temperature by only cooperation with the Space Environment Laboratory. 0.15C The global change is negligible. These studies involve use of a 50-MHz radar located at Anchorage, Alaska, and a portable doppler spectrum -Observations of changes in stratospheric water analyzer with an on-line computer. Preliminary experi- vapor content over extended jet aircraft tra- ments have yielded much more insight into the mech- verses have been made from the NASA Con- anisms that give rise ,to auroral ‘turbulence’ in the ion- vair 990 aircraft. These measurements permit osphere than has previously been obtainable. The re- an analysis of the spatial variations of water sults will have important practical consequences for vapor which is not possible by balloon probes. radar and communications operations in the Arctic A theoretical study has been completed on the prob- regions. lem of SST emissions and resultant modification of the The theory of plasma resonances is being advanced stratosphere. by results of a recent rocket experiment involving an Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Labora- improved ionospheric topside sounder. Analysis of the tories (Miami, Flu.).-AOML conducts a broad re- frequency spectrum of the received signal confirms the search program in marine geology and geophysics, wave propagation characteristics of the resonant-like physical oceanography, sea-air interactions, and hurri- behavior. In addition to their contribution to basic cane research and modification. plasma physics, the resonances may also be used as a Monitoring and analysis of the Gulf Stream and the tool for accurate measurement of magnetic field Loop current in the Gulf of Mexico have been carried strength and electron density and, most importantly, out using the high-resolution infrared imagery avail- electron temperature. able from ITOS and Nimbus IV. These studies sup- Atmospheric Physics and Chemistry Laboratory port and extend the classical surface and aircraft (Boulder).-An analysis of the Apollo 12 lightning observations and give an overview of meanders and in- strike has shown that the launch vehicle itself triggered stabilities along the northwest edge of the Stream, an the lightning by causing sufficient concentration of the item of interest to fishing and shipping activities. electrical field at its tip to initiate a lightning discharge. A laser sea-surface profilometer has been flown into An investigation to determine the feasibility of trig- both tropical storms and northern disturbances aboard gering lightning by small rockets to dischar-geelectrified RFF aircraft, and ocean wave spectra obtained under clouds immediately prior to Apollo or other space ve- dynamic, evolving wind conditions. An understanding hicle launch, has produced the following major of the generation of waves by high winds is required results: for oceanic and atmospheric monitoring and predic- 82 tion, as well as for research into the nature of the fine the structure of amplified booms resulting from interactions of these two fluid envelopes. slightly supersonic and transonic flight, and influence Analyses of weather satellite data have revealed that of atmospheric conditions on such booms. solar energy input to tropical regions is considerably There has been a noticeable increase in the amount higher than thought earlier, thus stimulating a search of high cloudiness at seven weather observing stations for mechanisms that can transport this extra energy in the US. during the late 1960's. Many of these sta- poleward. tions are located near major commercial jet-aircraft Earth Sciences Laboratories (Boulder) .-Construc- flight tracks and the increases in cloudiness correlate tion began on a magnetometer to be used as a space with the increased consumption of jet fuel. These data environment monitor on the NOAA geostationary suggest that jet contrails may increase the amounts satellite SMS/GOES. In preparation for the measure- of high cloudiness. ment, automated geomagnetic data analysis techniques Research Flight Facility (Miami, Fla.).-In conjunc- are under development in the Boulder Laboratories. tion with the FAA and NHRL the RFF performed a In a joint effort with NASA, NOAA is using com- contingency program to determine the Operational puters to process geomagnetic analog records from capability of the Omega navigation system for civil worldwide magnetic observatories, and geomagnetic aviation. During the program the RFF recorded data collected by satellites and space probes. Omega phase data and processed these data for analy- Developmental work continued on modifications to sis of the phase variation of the Omega signal, and of the International Geomagnetic Reference Field. This the frequency difference as derived from the two basic mathematical model of the earth's magnetic field is frequencies. Additionally the RFF performed flights used as a common base by scientists worldwide in to evaluate the performance of the Omega system dur- studies of related atmospheric, ionospheric, and outer ing periods of precipitation, and static conditions. space parameters. In collaboration with NASA, syn- National Ocean Survey.-The National Ocean Survey thesis programs for spherical harmonic models of the (NOS) plays a key role in the management and use main geomagnetic field were tested. Studies were made of the national airspace through the publication of to compare magnetic chart models developed from aeronautical charts. The basic programs of NOS in- ground data with those developed from satellite data, clude the operational use of satellites for geodesy and and the feasibility of using satellite data in the produc- precise navigation, research to determine the feasibility tion of world magnetic charts was evaluated. for using satellite techniques to perform assigned tasks, Plans were developed for broadcast of the NBS and operational aerial photography for charting and orginated time codes by the NOAA SMS/GOES gee coastal mapping. stationary satellite as timing information for seismological observatories supported by NOAA. Aeronautical Charts.-Advancing technological developments for the management and use of the National National Severe Storms Laboratory (Norman, Airspace System placed increasing demands on the .-In a cooperative program, NSSL, NASA, Ok&.) NOS for aeronautical charts and navigational in- FAA, and USAF Air Weather Service have been study- formation. ing the distribution of cloud tops extending above At the request of the Federal Aviation Administra- 12 kilometers, the probability of Occurrence of turbulence above severe storms, and the horizontal tempera- tion, a Controller Chart Supplement was prepared for computer processing and 28-day updating. This con- ture gradients above those storms. This study aims to tains an Airway Fix File listing each airway from ter- improve safety of flight in the vicinity of thunder- minal to terminal, and the geographic position of each storms. Satellite data are used to aid correlation of fix along the airway. These data are an important aid radar echo and weather characteristics, to identify to air traffic control and are the beginning of essen- cloud and storm systems in their incipient phases, and tial input to automation in the control tower and in- to estimate the role of meteorological parameters in flight navigation systems. storm development. Analyses of satellite cloud photo- This introduction of Area Navigation techniques graphs indicate regions of vertical motion in the lower required new chart graphics. A new series of High troposphere and are being increasingly used with Altitude Enroute Area Navigation Charts was first NSSL surface network and radar data for the study published in April 1971. Instrument Approach Proce- of severe storms. dures based on Area Navigation were added to the Air Resources Laboratories (Silver Spring, Md.) .- chart inventory. Studies of the effects of the atmosphere on the sonic A milestone of 1971 was the completion of the Sec- booms produced by supersonic aircraft have continued tional Aeronautical Chart series to common specifica- under the sponsorship of the FAA. Studies were made tions for both civil and military aviation use. The last near Las Vegas, Nevada, and in central Idaho to de- chart, Seattle, was published in July. 83 Geometric Satellite Triangulation.-Data acquisition plies, and recreation of the United States. To this end for the North American Densification Program of the NMFS conducts biological and ecological research satellite triangulation was completed at the following on the living marine resources and their environment stations: Shemya, Cold Bay, and Pt. Barrow, Alaska; and analyzes the economics-of both commercial and Moses Lake, Washington; Valkaria, Florida; Cam- recreational aspects of fishing operations. It develops bridge Bay and Whitehorse, Canada; Bermuda; and methods for improving catches and the products Puerto Rico. At yearend, field teams were conducting through technological products. NMFS is deeply in- observations in the United States, Canada, and Green- volved in the environmental aspects of the oceans and land. This final phase of field operations will terminate estuaries through research on, and by reviewing the in April 1972. effects of, pollutants and development programs on Computation and analysis for the Worldwide Pre marine resources. An extensive aquaculture program gram of Geometric Satellite Triangulation continued is carried out, particularly in salmon under the Colum- during the year. Publication of results is scheduled for bia River Fishery Development Program. A joint mid-1972. International acceptance of this Program enforcement and surveillance operation is conducted as a unified reference system relating all major land in conjunction with the Coast Guard both in territorial masses to & 10 meters is a primary goal. waters and in the high seas on both foreign and Investigations are being conducted into the use of domestic fishing fleets. Doppler satellite tracking methods that have a poten- Remote Sensing Program.-The marine environment tial utilizaion within the NOS. As part of these studies, determines the activity and movement of Ocean crea- cooperative field operations with the Department of tures. In the past, measurements of the marine Defense are in progress to test the geodetic positioning environment were of necessity limited to those that capabilities of a new version of Doppler tracking in- could be acquired by ships and shore stations. strumentation. Further evaluation of satellite naviga- However, the development of remote sensors has tion receivers was also made. made possible a more efficient and effective National Data Buoy Project (NDBP) .-This project method of acquiring detailed, timely measurements of was established for the purpose of developing a na- certain parameters over large areas of the ocean. The tional capability to deploy and operate networks of NMFS, through an agreement with NASA, is carrying automatic buoys to retrieve useful information de- out a program to assess the value of remote sensing scribing the marine environment on a reliable, real to its mission. This is being done at the NMFS Remote time basis. The basic concept of the National Data Sensing Program at NASA’s Mississippi Test Facility. Buoy System involves the use of a number of buoys, During this past year, the applicability of spectrom- of one or more types, moored or drifting in the deep eters and image intensifiers to fisheries has been ex- Ocean in a systematic array. The buoys will be equipped tensively tested. A 25,000-gallon-live-fish test tank was with sensors to measure environmental parameters and built at MTF and various species and concentrations will use direct or satellite radio links to transmit the of fish were studied with the spectrometer. The instru- coded data to shore stations for dissemination to data ment was then flown over schools of fish in the Gulf processors and users. of Mexico and off California. Preliminary data is not In 1971, the NDBP progressed through the prelimi- encouraging, but the analysis is continuing. nary and contracting stages of procuring data buoys of Low-light-level image intensifiers have been flown various designs and with associated instrumentation over calibration targets at MTF and over the Gulf of for use in the Engineering Experimental Phase (EEP) Mexico and waters off Oregon and Washington. The of the program. The EEP will entail intensive criti- instrument, which magnifies the light given off by cal analysis of the hardware under consideration for minute organisms in the presence of fish, has definite use in the resulting National Data Buoy System. This promise as a fisheries tool. Major drawbacks are its year was, primarily, a time of procuring hardware for requirements for clear, dark nights. test and evaluation, preparing for the deployment of Airborne photography techniques are in a continu- developmental hardware, and the continued evaluation ing state of development with present emphasis on of data needs, uses and benefits. selecting the proper types of films and filters for each National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS).-The need. Lasers will join the testing program during this National Marine Fisheries Service plays a major role coming spring. in the development and utilization of national fishery A joint program between NASA and NMFS related resources. NMFS vessels, laboratories, and offices lo- to the development of instrumentation and sensor sys- cated throughout the nation are involved in this tems to gather data from spacecraft during the pro- mission. The mission is to discover, describe, de- posed Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS) velop, and conserve the living resources of the oceans, and Skylab (EREP) programs has been proceeding particularly those that affect the economy, food sup- rapidly. Two NMFS proposals for ERTS/EREP were 84 submitted and have been selected by NASA for fund- ments for radio channels. The growth of air traffic in ing. The experiments will study the Mississippi River the last few years suggests that in the near future many plume and eddy currents associated with islands in the more radio channels may be needed than are currently Caribbean. available. This projection is based on the assumption NMFS also is utilizing surface temperature patterns that each aircraft talks continuously to its controller of the oceans from infrared data obtained by NOAA’s and that the aircraft are located at the worst points Environmental Survey Satellites as part of a general from the view of causing interference to each other. program relating space-acquired oceanic data to the The recent work attempts to take a more realistic view NMFS requirements relating to assessing, monitor- of the situation by considering the intermittent nature ing, and managing marine resources and their of the communication, and by taking account of the environment. fact that the aircraft locations in the service volume are statistically distributed. Models. have been developed Office of Telecommunications which show that these factors will somewhat reduce the The Office of Telecommunications is responsible for need for more channels. an extensive program of telecommunications services, Use of Microwave Line-of-Sight Links for Transmit- economic and policy analyses, and technical and ting Air Trafic Control Radar Data.-OT has shown analytic support for the Office of Telecommunications that outages which occur in the microwave links used Policy (OTP) in the Executive Office of the President. to transmit air traffic surveillance radar data to con- The Office of Telecommunications operates as a pri- trollers can be greatly reduced by using space (or fre- mary unit in the Office of Assistant Secretary of Com- quency) diversity, without requiring higher transmitter merce for Science and Technology. power or more but shorter communication links. Office of Telecommunications studies have practical Improvement of Instrument Landing Systems.-Air- applications to aeronautic and space technology in craft instrument landing systems are vital for allowing areas of navigation, communication, remote sensing, landings to occur in a fog or heavy rain when the strip and technical input to support policy considerations in cannot be seen. Existing and new systems can yield frequency assignments. Work during 1971 included : inferior results because of reflections from buildings Radio Navigation Systems.-Office of Telecommuni- and because of atmospheric effects. OT is working on cations (OT) is evaluating features affecting the ac- methods to reduce reflection effects, and has examined curacy of Loran A, C, and D navigation systems. These some of the problems which are involved in going systems operate primarily in the medium frequency to frequencies as high as 15 GHz to obtain higher band (1900 kHz for Loran A) and the low frequency precision. The conclusions are that for greatest reli- band ( 100 kHz for Loran C and D) . They are pulsed ability in heavy rain, a frequency less than 6 GHz systems, primarily using ground wave propagation. should be used, but within 1-2 miles of touchdown Over sea water accuracies of a few hundred feet are a frequency as high as 15 GHz could be used to provide attainable. Over rough or irregular land however, the precise runway alignment or flareout information. accuracies are greatly reduced and errors of a few Satellite Communications.--OT is working on several thousand feet may be experienced. Evaluation of problems associated with satellite communication methods of predicting or reducing these errors is being sp tern. These involve interference between satellite and continued. terrestrial systems sharing the same band, and questions Compatibility of Aircraft Collision Avoidance and concerning the use of very wide band digital transmis- Radio Altimeter Systems.-OT has investigated the sion through the atmosphere. practicality of sharing the 1600 MHz aero navigation Work has been done in methods for estimating the band between collision avoidance systems and radio interference caused (by rainfall occurring in a common altimeters. Radio altimeters operating in this band are very common. Collision avoidance systems, which volume visible from borh satellite earth stations and offer great potential for avoiding mid-air collisions, are terrestrial stations. The work has been both experi- new and have, as yet, received little use. The investi- mental and analytical and was used as the basis for gation shows that there will be major problems in shar- international regulation in this area. Other completed ing the same band on the same aircraft since pulsed work has produced methods for estimating the inter- altimeters may prevent the collision avoidance system ference between satellite and tropospheric scatter com- from giving the proper warnings when appropriate. munication systems. The problem may also occur even when the two sys- Measuremen,&have also been made of the electro- tems are on different aircraft in proximity to each magnetic environment of proposed earth terminal loca- other. tions near large metropolitan areas for the NOAA Radio Channel Requirements for Air Trafic Con- Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite trol.-OT has examined air traffic control require- (GOES) system. 85 lonospheric Modification.--OT has completed a very realistic data relating to maritime traffic advisory f high power (2MW-CW) high frequency radio trans- control as well as facilitating accurate navigation and mitter and directive antennas at Platteville, Colorado. reliable communication services. These are being used to examine the effects of high power electromagnetic fields on the D, E, and F regions National Bureau of Standards of the ionosphere. Experimental observations indicate that the transmissions cause major modification in the The goal of NBS is to strengthen and advance the ionosphere. Electron density profiles and collision fre- Nation’s science and technology and to facilitate their quencies are changed and large irregularities are pro- effective application for public benefit. In working duced. Many of the results are totally unexpected and toward this goal, the Bureau pursues a wide range of when explained will contribute significantly to iono- activities, including many projects in space and aero- spheric theory and the theory of plasmas. nautics, in its three major institutes: the Institute for Basic Standards, the Institute for Materials Research, Znternational Cooperation.-OT staff participated in and the Institute for Applied Technology. U.S. National Committees of the International Radio Consultative Committee (CCIR) and also provided Institute for Basic Standards the chairmen of three of these committees. Staff also Lunar Ranging Analysis.-Apollo 11 and 14 missions contributed to the work of the International Telegraph placed retroreflector packages on the moon for deter- and Telephone Consultative Committee (CCITT) and mination of the rotation, polar motion, and large scale the Scientific Committee for Antarctic Research crustal movements of the earth as well data on the (SCAR). Contributions to the World Administrative as lunar orbit and its librations. NBS is participating in Radio Conference held in 1971 were embodied in the the Lunar Ranging Experiment Team which advises revised regulations for space systems which are now NASA on the conduct of the experiment and performs being promulgated. Other international bodies that analysis of the ranging data. Major progress was made staff has participated on are the International Radio this year in analyzing the difference between calculated Scientific Union (URSI) ,. the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG) , the NATO Advi- and observed ranging distances to the retroreflectors. sory Panel on Radiometeorology, and the International Improvement in the models used in calculations has resulted in fits 15 meters accuracy, compared with Committee on Solar Terrestrial Physics. of initial range uncertainties of roughly 300 meters. NBS Maritime Administration work supplements the primary andysis being performed at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory and the University The Maritime Administration has completed the first of Texas. phase of a program directed towards the use of Astrophysics of Stellur Atmospheres.-NBS scientists synchronous satellites for improved navigation, com- conduct theoretical studies of stellar atmospheres and munication and surveillance of commercial ship opera- particularly of the solar atmosphere. These studies tions. The results of the initial phase indicate significant are complemented by an observational program carried cost and operational advantages can be obtained by out jointly with the University of Colorado and Sac- implementing this program. ramento Peak Observatory. Specific efforts this year The recent allocation of the 1971 International Tele- included solution of the radiative transfer problem in communications Union World Administrative Radio- extended, spherical gaseous systems, a problem which frequency Conference on Space Techniques of 15 MHz has been outstanding since the early 1930’s. Applica- in the “L” band (1600 MHz) region for exclusive tion of this solution to Rayleigh scattering spherical maritime mobile satellite application supports the direc- systems has shown that the degree of polarization of the tion of the Maritime Administration program. Experi- radiation escaping at large angles to the normal will mental communications and position determination be close to unity, a fact of considerable interest in the studies undertaken by the Maritime Administration interpretation of certain eclipsing binary stars. Also have previously proven the technical feasibility of solved this year was the problem of nonradiative trans- using “L” band systems for commercial maritime fer of energy by the drift of excited atoms which accom- applications. panies ordinary radiative transfer. NBS completed The current second phase of the Maritime Admin- formulation of a new approach to the structure of istration program calls for the development and fabri- stellar atmospheres, wherein nonequilibrium depar- cation of ten shipboard transmitting and receiving tures from the classical atmosphere are described in systems to be operated by ships of opportunity in con- terms of population and transfer effects. In coopera- junction with a shore-based Maritime Coordination tion with scientists from Harvard and the California Center using current NASA ATS 1, 3, and 5 satellites. Institute of Technology, theoretical calculations are This Center will have the capability of providing being compared with data from the 1970 solar eclipse 86 in order to determine a new model for the solar possible importance in planetary atmospheres and chromosphere. measurement of parameters of molecules of importance Microwave SpectroscoW.-NBS work in microwave in the sun and interstellar space such as water, carbon spectroscopy is used by radio astronomers in identify- monoxide, and thioformaldehyde. ing observed emissions from molecules in interstellar Careful experimental determination of Stark shifts space. This year NBS laboratory measurements led to in the Balmer lines in hydrogen may modify the cur- positive identification of methyl alcohol, which had rently held theories of white dwarf stars. The new been observed and misinterpreted, formamide, and values are larger than previous measurements, reduc- cyanoacetalene. The latter measurements were an order ing the amount of the observed red shifts that can be of magnitude better than previously available values, attributed to gravity. The magnitude of the red shift allowing identification of Doppler shifts for accurate due to gravity is used to calculate the mass of these location of the molecules in moving clouds; this will stars. allow correlation with other molecules and investiga- Cryogenic Data and Engineering Support.-NBS tion of the chemical dynamics of those clouds. Data provides basic data and engineering services to NASA, on various isotopic forms of hydrogen cyanide have the Defense Department and aerospace contractors for been accurately measured and are being used as refer- cryogenic systems used in spacecraft for fuel cells and ences by radio astronomers. The NBS measurements on propulsion fuel storage. Work proceeds on thermo- thioformaldehyde, published last year, were used to dynamic, electromagnetic, and transport properties of make astronomical searches for that molecule ; the cryogenic fluids, mechanical and thermal properties fourth attempt, at the Parkes Observatory in Australia, of materials at cryogenic temperatures, measurement was finally successful this year. techniques and instrumentation, and safety procedures A radio astronomy data center has been formed to and standards. For example, NBS is providing consulta- critically evaluate both laboratory data and observation and advisory services to the joint NASA-AEC tions on all 20 molecules that have been detected in Space Nuclear Systems Office and its contractors-the interstellar space. Formamide, formaldehyde, thio- Aerojet General Corporation and General Dynamics/ formaldehyde, and methyl alcohol were completed Fort Worth Division-in support of the NERVA nu- this year. clear rocket engine program. Another NBS project is Calculations of Energy Deposition.-NBS has devel- to develop, under NASA sponsorship, the technology oped computer programs, under NASA sponsorship, for handling slush hydrogen as a space vehicle fuel. that use Monte Carlo techniques to calculate energy Calibration and Measurement Services.-NBS de- transport and deposition, Three dimensional luminosity velops basic measurement techniques and provides patterns for natural and artificial auroras were cal- calibration services for NASA, the Defense Depart- culated and corroborated by comparison with observa- ment, and industry. Many of these services are in direct tions. The same calculation techniques were used to support of NASA and Defense Department aerospace evaluate response functions of sodium iodide detectors activities in the areas of communications, optical SYS- carried on the Apollo 15 mission. NBS is participating tems, temperature measurements, and mechanical in the analysis of the lunar gamma ray data obtained measurements. Specific services included antenna on that mission. standards, electromagnetic radiation shielding tests, de- Laboratory Astrophysics.-NBS conducts extensive velopment of noise sources for microwave telecom- research programs in atomic and molecular physics and munications and radar system calibrations, load cell the interaction of radiation with atomic and molecular calibrations for rocket engine thrust measurement, systems. Much of this work is in direct support of fatigue studies of sealing type aircraft fasteners, studies investigations of stellar and planetary atmospheres. of mechanical properties of composite materials for Integrated theoretical and experimental efforts include aerospace applications, high temperature thermo- collisional excitation, dissociation, and ionization stu- couple evaluation and calibration, development of a dies ; radiative transfer and radiative dissociation meas- wall stabilized arc for ultraviolet radiometric calibra- urements; and spectroscopic work in the microwave, tions for the Apollo Telescope Mount Space Station infrared, visible, and ultraviolet regions of the spectrum. ( Skylab) , development of vacuum ultraviolet transfer Specific achievements included measurements of cross standards, and far ultraviolet and x-ray calibrations of sections for dissociation of negative ions of oxygen detectors for astronomical observations by balloon, molecules, cross sections for hydrogen ion dissociation, rocket, and satellite. determination of excitation cross sections for the Fraun- Institute for Materials Research haufer lines of sodium and calcium and line broadening parameters for the calcium H and K lines. Infrared, Specular Spectral Refictance Standards.-NBS has visible and ultraviolet spectroscopic studies included developed a set of specular spectral reflectance stand- investigation of dimers of water and other molecules of ards for calibration of reflectometers used to evaluate 87 thermal radiation properties of materials. Knowledge available for determining site occupancy in this type of these reflection properties is essential to balancing of material. spacecraft heat loads. Metallic inclusions and other metal particles in Chemistry of the Stratosphere.-The possible chemical Apollo 12 lunar soil were studied cooperatively by reactions between the exhaust gases of high flying air- scientists from NBS, Lehigh University and NASA. craft and the natural constituents of the stratosphere The microstructure and chemical differences between have been surveyed by NBS. Photochemical processes metals of lunar and meteoritic origin found in Apollo control the composition of the stratosphere. They are 11 and l,2 soil samples was investigated. Samples of responsible for formation of the ozone layer that filters meteorites from Meteor Crater, Arizona were included out harmful ultraviolet radiation. Exhausts from high to compare their microstructure with that of meteorites flying aircraft will introduce small quantities of chem- found on the moon. A criterion for determining icals, such as water, carbon dioxide and the nitrogen whether metal in the lunar soil was indigenous or of oxides, that might react with ozone and change the extra-lunar origin was developed. This criterion has ozone shield. Data on speeds of these chemical processes been applied successfully to Apollo 12 and Apollo 14 are needed in models that can predict the chemical specimens. dynamics of the stratosphere. NBS is preparing a sum- Eflect of Zero Gravity on Crystal Growth from mary of the best available values for rates of these Melt.-In zero gravity temperature gradients in a melt reactions, has identified systems on which experiments would not be expected to create convective flow. This must be made, and is undertaking studies to obtain condition may then make it possible to produce more needed data not currently available. perfect single crystals. NBS scientists have developed a Thermodynamic Properties of HNS.-Results of NBS method to study the degree of perfection in single studies of thermodynamic properties of hexanitro- crystals by means of dynamical diffraction of X-rays. stilbene (HNS) have found application on the Apollo At the request of NASA this method is being applied missions. This explosive substance is used in the landing to melt grown single crystals to determine crystal per- gear of the Apollo Lunar Lander and as a source of fection under various conditions of liquid flow in the shock waves for seismic studies. It has very good keep- melt. ing qualities for the hostile environment of the moon Institute for Applied Technology because of its stability and very low vapor pressure. Evaluation of Battery Cell Separator Materials.-NBS The enthalpy of combustion and enthalpy of forma- is developing test procedures and techniques for NASA tion necessary for predicting its explosive properties for evaluation of polymeric separator materials for were determined at NBS. nickel-cadmium batteries used as power sources in Analysis of Apollo Lunar Samp&s.-Several speci- space applications. Some of these separator materials mens collected on the Apollo 12 and 14 missions were have failed 'in operation before completing their desig- analyzed at NBS in cooperation with NASA-Goddard, nated cycli'ng times. using electron microprobe equipment and techniques Aerospace Fire Safety.-NBS is charged with develop- specially developed at NBS. These procedures provided ing the fire safety portion of the NASA Aerospace important information on the identity and distribution Safety Research Data Institute on-line information of mineral phases in the specimens. storage and retrieval system. Reports, journal articles, Analyses for some 12 elements on the same sample and other documents related to aerospace fire safety have been completed with precise and accurate isotopic and hazards have been evaluated, catalogued, ab- ratios and assays having been obtained. Important stracted, indexed, and reviewed. A state-of-the-art results to date indicate that those elements which show report is being prepared on fire extinguishment in oxygen constant isotopic ratios in terrestrial materials also do so enriched atmospheres under normal and reduced grav- in the lunar materials examined. Confirmation has ity and for both hyperbaric and hypobaric conditions. been obtained of an older component in lunar soils NBS has in the past performed experiments on fire which gives apparent lead-uranium ages of 4.88 billion growth in model enclosures and made extensive inves- years. As found previously, rubidium-strontium ages tigation of smoke and gases produced by aircraft in the soil tend to be distinctly younger. interior materials. These data are helpful in evaluating Mossbauer spectroscopy was applied to the deter- potential hazards of various materials, but the complex mination of site occupancy factors in certain lunar phenomena of flashover as it might relate to aircraft minerals through cooperative work by NBS and NASA cabins is not well defined. Flashover appears to involve Goddard. Apollo 12 powdered samples were separated gas phase combustion reactions from the products of into a variety of crystal phases and samples of ortho- thermal decomposition of solid organic materials within pyroxenes and pigeonites were studied by Mossbauer the cabin enclosure. NBS is using carefully designed spectroscopy. This technique appears to be the best laboratory models to analyze the flashover problem and to obtain precise quantitative data on combustion prod- belts and nuclear power sources have been performed ucts and reactions. for NASA Goddard. It has been shown that some types Tehtering-Transistor Wire Bond Reliability.- of damage effects can be minimized by keeping the NASA-Marshall Space Flight Center recently requested detector constantly under an applied electric field. NBS assistance in the identification and correction of Measurements are also underway to determine the pos- the mechanism of wire bond failure in a transistor used sible effects of chemical reaction products from space- in a telemetering application. Failures occurred after craft control thrusters on semiconductor performance about ‘1000 operating cycles in many samples; some and life characteristics. The end purpose of these various measurements is to improve existing methods of were not so affected. NBS investigations suggested that control of wire bond loop height should reduce the predicting long-term performance of semiconductor thermal and mechanical effects leading to the failures. nuclear radiation detectors in space in order to aid in detector selection for the Grand Tour mission. Successful implementation of these controls by the device manufacturer has reduced the failure rates as Aircraft Landing Instrumentation.-Under support shown by tests underway at NASA where, at last report- by the Naval Air Systems Command, NBS is developing, devices had passed 41,000 cycles without a failure. ing and improving instrumentation to aid in aircraft landing : instrumentation for measuring and displaying Semiconductor Nuclear Radiation Detectors.-NBS wind speed and direction ‘to assist in the control of has assisted NASA-Goddard Space Flight Center in carrier-launched aircraft ; instruments for measuring pre-flight testing of commercial semiconductor nuclear atmospheric haze at airports by means of a pulsed-light radiation detectors intended for experimental appli- backscattering principle; and a see-through sighting cations on IMP and Pioneer space packages. Studies of and indicating console to present the carrier-deck land- long-term damage effects on detectors by nuclear radia- ing officer with simultaneous visual and digital infor- tion of the type found in trapped planetary radiation mation needed in his control of approaching aircraft.

XI1 United States Information Agency

Introduction tific results of the mission, which had been extraor- dinary. To convey these to the scientific community, The U.S. Information Agency maintained a high level round-table sessions with up to two dozen of the most of activity in projecting United States space operations eminent scientists from the disciplines supporting lunar and accomplishments during 1971. In carrying out exploration, were convened. After a slide presentation, NASA’s public information functions overseas, Agency the lunar explorers were questioned first-hand on their officers noted that the demands of foreign audiences for findings by geophysicists, cosmologists, physiologists, information, which had slacked off somewhat in earlier geologists, astronomers, and lunar rock experimenters Apollo missions, again rose to a peak with Apollo 15. who were seated with the crew. The astronauts gave USIA was already directing its efforts towards telling such a presentation at Cambridge University and before the story of Skylab and the space shuttle, the manned the Royal Society in London, ‘before the Academy of programs which would follow Apollo in the seventies. Engineering in Stockholm, and before selected scien- The practical benefits of space exploration, and the tists in Munich, Milan, and The crew also ways in which these afFect man on Earth continued Paris. ad- to be stressed. So were NASA’s cooperative arrange- dressed university audiences, held press conferences, ments with the U.S.S.R. to develop a mutually cum- and appead on national television in England, patible docking system. Sweden, Germany, Italy, and France. It was one of The Agency initiated and assisted in a five-country the most successful of astronaut tours, and the appear- Presidential good-will tour of Europe, carried out No- ance of the crew before the membled scientific com- vember 6-21 by the Apollo 15 crew. Unlike previous munity of European countries was a measure of how astronaut tours, this one focused chiefly on the scien- far scientific exploration under Apollo had come. 89 Radio Special feature packets of articles on the scientific importance of the missions, backgrounders on the The 10th anniversary of the United States in space was astronauts, explanations of the ALSEP packages and commemorated in a special Voice of America docu- Lunar Rover-all accompanied by appropriate photo- mentary narrated by Alan Shepard. USIS posts in graphs and drawings-were on the desks of editors, 45 countries ordered the feature for placement with science writers and radio and television space specialists local radio stations. Another VOA English special, well before launch. USIA reporters filed wireless stories “The First ‘A’ in NASA,” reported on aviation research from Cape Kennedy and Houston during the flights projects carried out by the Agency. and followed up with post-flight analyses of moon rocks English and language services broadcast and dis- and other data obtained by the missions. tributed for local placement a wealth of interviews with scientists and engineers involved in the space program. Responding to a need for material on US. space The Bulgarian Service interviewed a California physi- plans for the future, USIA writers produced a variety of stories on Skylab, the space shuttle and the planetary cist on Apollo 14 instrument design while VOA Man- darin invited five Chinese-American scientists to par- Grand Tour proposed for late in the decade. Mariner 9 ticipate in its broadcasts. Professor Hermann Oberth, was the subject of numerous wireless file items and fea- the distinguished pioneer rocket scientist of West Ger- tures, while the Agency expedited shipment of the pic- many, commented on the importance of lunar explora- tures taken by the Mars orbiter to all posts as they tion for a Romanian broadcast, and Dr. Wernher von became available. Other subjects treated included the Braun discussed space plans for the seventies in an INTELSAT Agreement, plans for educational TV English science series. satellites and the Earth Resources Technology The U.S.S.R. Division gave full play to the Lunar Satellites. Science Conference in Houston and to developments in US.-Soviet cooperation in space was treated in US.-Soviet space cooperation. Russian broadcasts in stories based on talks at Moscow and Houston and April offered comments by NASA Acting Adminis- interviews with the NASA officials involved. USIA trator George Low, Manned Spacecraft Center Direc- press materials also noted many examples of coopera- tor Robert Gilruth and Astronaut Neil Armstrong. tion between NASA and other countries, such as the Astronaut Edwin Aldrin also joined VOA’s Russian distribution of lunar samples for investigation by for- language correspondent at the mike during Apollo 14 eign scientists, and NASA’s role in providing rocket to recall his pleasant association with Soviet cmo- boosters and other assistance for the Italian San Marco nauts Nikolayev and Sevastyanov and to acknowledge project. the congratulatory message from Soviet cosmonauts. USIA’s Russian-language America Illustrated maga- All VOA services carried world reaction to the zine caried a variety of features and photographs on tragedy of the Soyuz 11 cosmonauts and provided a space, including “The Giant Harvest from Space- constant flow of features and news reports on other Today and Tomorrow,” “Moon rocks-What Scien- significant space developments. The Mariner-9 voyage tists are Learning from Them,” “The Great Promise of to Mars, the Earth Resources Technology Satellite, and Zero G” (on the potential for manufacturing in space), Skylab were all treated by the Voice. stories on Apollo 14 and 15, and a feature on TV cov- The Voice provided fullest coverage of the Apollo 14 erage of lunar exploration. and 15 missions to world audiences. This included pre- Articles on the future of the space program, the flight interviews with the astronauts and key mem- promise of space, lunar rocks and space-age communi- bers of mission control, live broadcast of the flights with cations appeared in Topic and A1 Majal, the Agency’s commentary by Astronauts Edwin Aldrin and Fred magazines for readers in Africa and the Arab world. Haise, and extensive follow-up on the scientific achieve- These and other space stories were used by Agency ments of the missions. Special broadcasts in Chinese, periodicals in Britain, India, Pakistan, Iran, Yugoslavia Russian, Spanish and Portuguese reported live on ma- and East Asia. jor flight events while all 36 language services carried In pamphlets, the Agency’s major effort was a 24- full news reports and features on flight progress along page, color-illustrated publication, “America in Space : with on-the-csene news from VOA’s multi-lingual cor- The 1970’s,” which featured an interview with Wern- respondent teams at Cape Kennedy and Houston. her von Braun on space travel in the seventies. Soon VOA Spanish and Portuguese broadcasts of the Apollo after the missions USIS posts abroad were distributing 14 missions were relayed by 1,017 stations in 16 Latin leaflets on Apollo 14, and an Apollo 15 pamphlet, American countries, reaching an estimated 35 million “Three Days on the Moon.” listeners. Press and Publications Motion Pictures and Television The two Apollo flights in 1971 received special atten- Overseas viewers continue to exhibit the greatest in- tion from the Agency’s press and publications service. terest in new films and television programs on sp’lce.

90 USIS posts requested 28 language versions and 491 10 and 12 Command Modules, the Gemini 12 space- prints of the NASA Apollo 14 h,alf-hour color docu- craft and other assorted space artifacts have been mentary adapted by USIA. The Apollo 15 film is widely toured and displayed. Reports from USIS posts meeting a similar response. Older space films including attest to the tremendous impact of flight-tested hard- the Agency’s special film on the first moon landing, ware as exhibit items. The six small moon rock speci- “The Infinite Journey,” and “Project Apollo,” and mens on loan to the Agency from NASA had been NASA films on Apollo 8-through-14 missions were viewed by almost 7 million people in 14 countries dur- used repeatedly during Apollo 15 on foreign TV and ing the first half of 1971 and were reserved for show- in direct projection screenings. A tally shows that space ings as much as six months in advance. films provided by USIA have now been shown in 150 The exhibit, “Man in Space,” at the Belgrade Cos- countries. mos Space Fair was the largest and most complete of The number and type of USIA satellite-beamed tele- the 1971 U.S. space exhibits, and possibly the finest vision programs grew considerably. Twenty-three pro- space exhibit yet seen abroad. Featuring the Apollo 12 grams were transmitted abroad via satellite. The Command Module, full-scale models of the Lunar Agency initiated a monthly discussion series on various Rover, the Skylab living quarters, and other space aspects of US.-Japanese relations that were seen items, the exhibit used special design, lighting and widely in Japan. Two pilot programs, one featuring an sound to create a space-like environment which ob- interview with Dr. von Braun, were broadcast to Ar- viously fascinated viewers. The presence of Astronaut gentina. A test program was transmitted to the new Thomas Stafford lent added interest. receiving station in Morocco. A USIA special pro- In late October the Apollo 10 Command Module gram inaugurated the Congo, Kinghasa, receiving sta- completed a lO-city tour of rhe United Kingdom. Ac- tion in June. The monthly satellite show to Brazil, companied by display panels and a 40-frame exhibit “First Friday,” included interviews with Astronaut of postage stamps issued by foreign countries in honor Edwin Aldrin and Dr. von Braun. of the U.S. space program, the Command Module was The Agency continued to distribute NASA Aero- viewed by more than 277,000 persons. nautic and Space Reports and film clips to USIS posts The US. exhibit at the Kinshasa Trade Fair told for use in telecasts and newsreels abroad. USIA’s Sci- the story of space satellite communications to some ence Report, sent to 78 countries monthly for use on 307,000 visitors. Full-scale mock-ups of the Lunar television and in schools, featured Apollo 14, the Rover and part of Skylab were displayed at the Ger- Lunar Science Conference, Manner ’71 and Apollo 15. man Industries Fair in West Berlin and at the Buda- A half-hour documentary “Windfall from Space,” de- pest and Plovdiv International Trade Fairs. Staged on scribing the practical results of space exploration, was a somewhat smaller scale, eighteen Agency traveling produced by USIA for Latin America but distributed space exhibits circulated among posts in five world world-wide to help meet the need for material on the areas. The exhibits included %-scale models of the benefits of space exploration. Another documentary, Apollo Command and Lunar Modules, a life-size simu- acquired from NASA, “Seeds of Discovery,” telling lated space suit worn by a manikin, an 8-foot Saturn the story of various scientific discoveries that made the V model, space photos, it panel exhibit on “Space Bene- space program possible, has been adapted into four fits,” a Telstar satellite model and a stamp exhibit en- language verisions at the request of USIS posts over- titled, “Africa Honors Apollo.” seas. In addition to acquiring and distributing NASA On July 26, when Apollo 15 lifted off the pad, the films, USIA maintains a film library in Rome stocked Netherlands’ Minister of Education officially launched with NASA films for loan to universities, schools and the “Moonrock Express,” a space exhibit train that was television stations in Europe. to tour 36 Dutch cities. The train, carrying a moon During Apollo 14 and 15, representatives of the rock, numerous space artifacts, models and photo- Agency’s motion picture and television division assisted graphs, attracted visitors from all walks of life, but foreign TV producers and newsmen from 19 coun- was particularly welcomed by teachers and their school tries at Cape Kennedy. Commentaries and interviews classes. By the end of the year the Moonrock Express were filmed for use on the newsmen’s home TV sta- tour had been extended to German cities, and plans tions. This Agency service is provided for those foreign were in preparation for tours of parts of Italy and medi,a who do not have camera and sound equipment Switzerland. at the scene. During 1971 USIA published translations of 11 books on space, in Burmese, Spanish, Thai, Bengali Information Centers and Exhibits and Portuguese, which totaled 46,000 copies. In response to world-wide field requests the Agency has dis- USIA space exhibits continue to be in demand at tributed 15,000 copies of its space science reader “The fairs, museums, and universities and schools. With the Apollo Story: Footprints on the Moon,” used for cooperation of the Smithsonian Institution the Apollo English teaching. 91 XI11 National Science Foundation

Introduction altitude region, is the incoherent backscatter radar. Studies of this region, of importance to radio com- The National Science Foundation contributed to the munication, have been supported in tropical, subtropi- support of aeronautics and space sciences through a cal, temperate and polar latitudes with this tool. The number of its programs in 1971, principally individual chemistry and physics of the ionosphere is complex, and research projects, the polar research proo;rams, and each latitude region ha3 distinctive features not yet a variety of educational programs including institutes clearly understood. For instance, the need for under- and fellowships. Most of the research work supported standing neutral winds at altitude near 100 km is now by the Foundation in the aeronautics and space becoming plain from radar backscatter and other sciences is carried out by investigators affiliated with studies. A three-prong attack-theoretical, observa- US.colleges and universities, many of whom use the tional and experimental-on problems of the normal specialized facilities available at the national research ionosphere is funded. In the upper atmosphere of the centers or the unique facilities of the Antarctic earth, minor constituents play an important role- continent. ozone in the stratosphere and nitric oxide in the D Solar-Terrestrial Research Program.-The outer region. Modification or destruction of such constituents reaches of the solar atmosphere, the interplanetary or the addition of others could conceivably have far plasma, and the earth's mavetosphere are concerns reachinq consequences. Studies of chemical reactions of solar-terrestrial research. The normal sun continu- of possible importance in the upper atmosphere are ously forces out from its surface a flow of charged supported. Tests of our understanding of the earth's particles-the Solar Wind. Intermittently, much atmosphere can be applied in the atmospheres of other smaller numbers of particles in disturbed solar reyions planets, but for such tests data on the other atmos- are accelerated to hiyh eneryies, by mechanisms not pheres are required. A hiKhlight of the vear was the yet understood, and are spewed into space. A large success of an observation of a star occulted by Jupiter part of the program is devoted to these particles and giving information on the atmosphere of Jupiter. their interactions. Optical and radio studies of the Meteorology Program.-In meteorology, a wide range dynamics of the atmosphere are supported. Investiga- of investigations into the dvnamical behavior of the tions of the Solar Wind which use cosmic rays as a atmosphere are supported. Our understanding of the probinq tool are funded. Observational and theoretical formation of clouds and precipitation, and the air research on the interaction of the Solar Wind with the motions which accompany these processes, has been earth's magnetosphere and the atmospheres of other increased through a balanced program of laboratory planets are sponsored. Major attention is also devoted experiments in the areas of fundamental cloud physics to the earth's matrace constituents in the stratosphere, such as better resolution, permits probing the conditions in calcium, mapesium, sodium, chlorine and bromine, interstellar dark clouds and the investigation of iso- have also been determined. In cooperation with the topic abundance of carbon and oxygen. Certain or- AEC and the Air Force, NCAR personnel are pres- ganic molecules, already detected in interstellar dust ently engaged in a series of flights roughly along the and gas clouds, are precursors to amino acids which 93 have been found in meteorites; but the connection, if namics of planetary atmospheres and stellar ultravio- any, between these phenomena is not yet understood. let and x-ray sources. Using facilities at Kitt Peak, a staff member of the observatory found in 1971 the National Radio Astronomy Observatory (West Vir- largest red shift yet observed, 80% of the velocity of ginia and Arizona) .-The National Radio Astronomy light, for the quasi-stellar object 4C05.34. In its spec- Observatory (NRAO) maintains three major radio trum there is evidence of several intergalactic gas telescope facilities at Green Bank, W. Va. These in- clouds lying between this distant object and the earth, clude a three-element array of 85-foot diameter tele- from the several absorption line patterns observed. scopes used as an interferometer; a 140-foot diameter fully steerable telescope ; and a 300-foot diameter tran- Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory (Chile).- sit telescope. A 36-foot diameter millimeter-wavelength Six telescopes were in operation during the year and telescope is maintained at Kitt Peak, Ariz. There is available to scientists and students with observing pro- heavy demand for observing time with these instru- grams, with the largest a 60-inch reflector used in a ments by visiting radio astronomers and staff members wide variety of investigations including low- and high- of the observatory for a wide range of radio astronomy. dispersion spectroscopy, photometry, and wide-field photography. A 150-inch telescope is under construc- The new surface for the 300-foot telescope extends the tion and should be ready for use in 1973. This instru- frequency coverage three fold and the provision of a ment is similar to the one under construction at Kitt travelling box for the feed near the focus permits longer Peak and is being jointly funded by the National Sci- integration times with this transit instrument. New im- ence Foundation and the Ford Foundation. Visitors proved receivers have been constructed with emphasis and staff are conducting programs of research in photo- on spectral line work. A notable result during the year metric, spectroscopic, and photographic observations was the first detection of radio emission fmm a normal of the moon, planets, asteroids, stars, pulsars, gaseous star, other than the sun. The red supergiant star An- nebulae, clusters, quasars, and galaxies, many of which tares, a first magnitude star in the summer sky, was de- are visible only from the southern hemisphere. tected in the ll centimeter wavelength range. In During the favorable opposition of Mars in August, addition, several bright novae observed in the past few Kitt Peak staff made high dispersion spectroscopic years were found to be emitting radio waves in the observations at CTIO for mapping the topography of same range. Mars, supplementing the parallel radar observation by Kitt Peak National Observatory (Arizona).-Re- other astronomers. The excellence of the site for infra- search is carried on in three principal fields-solar, stel- red observations has encouraged such work on southern lar, and planetary sciences. In addition, major efforts hemisphere objects, including the flaring object Eta are directed towards the design and construction of Carinea. Eta Carinea was the second brightest star in auxiliary instrumentation for use on telescopes and the sky during the nineteenth century but now has rockets. The observatory maintains seven telescopes faded to be barely visible to the naked eye. Its present for use of resident staff and visiting scientists: an 84- infrared output however, ranks it as the brightest object inch diameter general-purpose telescope; a remote in the wavelength range, outside the solar system. control 50-inch telescope used mostly for photometric National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center (Puerto observations; two 36-inch photometric and spectro- Rico) .-The Arecibo facility was officially designated scopic telescopes; two 16-inch photometric telescopes; as a national center on October 1, 1969. A 1,000-foot and the world's most powerful and versatile instru- diameter telescope is available to scientists and students ment for the study of the sun's surface and atmos- throughout the United States. This unique facility con- phere-a 63-inch aperture solar telescope. A new 150- sists of a fixed horizontal spherical antenna with an inch telescope is expected to be in operation in 1972. antenna beam that can be moved to angles of 20" Instruments at both Kitt Peak and its sister observatory in any direction. Radar research at the Arecibo Ob- in the southern hemisphere on Cerro Tololo are used servatory has provided high spatial resolution maps to study the composition and characteristics of stars of the moon and nearer planets, which are of great within our own galaxy as well as of distant galaxies and importance to space missions. Improved time resolution objects in remote regions of the observable universe. in the observation of pulsars, interpreted as rapidly The unique solar telescope facility has been particu- rotating neutron stars of high magnetic field, have larly useful in the study of physics of the outer layer resulted in a better definition of detail for these of the nearest star, our sun, and has resulted in a better phenomena. A particularly interesting pulsar understanding of solar-terrestrial relationships. The ( CP0950) frequently, though irregularly, emits a rocket program has contributed to the solution of im- remarkably strong pulse of less than seven millionths portant problems concerning the chemistry and dy- of a second and at such times is momentarily by far the strongest radio source in the sky and detectable on There also are many scientific similarities between an ordinary television set. the pplar environments and outer space. As one ex- Engineering Division.-The Engineering Division sup- ample, the earth’s magnetic field causes a spectrometer- ports a broad spectrum of research programs related like action on the charged particles approaching earth to aeronautics and space activities. In general, space from all directions. The near vertical field in polar related research support is provided in rarified gas regions permits the entry of lower energy particles than dynamics, plasma dynamics, lasers and heat transfer does the near horizontal equatorial field. This means which are fundamental to space-vehicle and space- the polar particle population is more like that in inter- communications applications. Support is also provided planetary space than is the equatorial population. Con- in earth-based problems and aeronautical applications sequently, the ground-based NSF polar program can such as wind effects on structures, unsteady wakes, investigate approximately the same phenomenology as transition and turbulent boundary-layers, dispersion of the satellite and space probe based program of NASA. pollutants in urban areas, just to mention a few. Both agencies use measurements of the aurora, the Fundamental areas of research supported include geomagnetic field, the particle composition and spec- the effects of free stream turbulence on the drag of trum, and the electromagnetic radiation across a wide blunt and bluff bodies, experimental determination of spectral range to investigate the magnetosphere and molecular nonequilibrium parameters, and the struc- ionosphere, how solar activity affects these regions and ture of free turbulent vortex decay and breakdown. how they interact with and influence each other. In Specific engineering investigations have been under- order that each organization may remain cumnt on taken in building aerodynamics such as the effects of the progam of the other, there are frequent formal tornado or wind loadings on structures, high efficiency and informal meetings between representatives of the jet separation processes, and solid particle dispersion two organizations. in the lower atmosphere. Research is also supported Research Applications.-Two projects utilizing aero- in direct energy conversion including thermionics, nautics and space technology are currently being sup- thermoelectrics, and magnetohydrodynamics. If the ported by the Research Applications Directorate. The efficiency of these processes can be improved, alternate University of Michigan, Willow Run Laboratories is sources of energy may be possible. applying remote sensing technology to the problems Mathematics.-Research in mathematics includes a of urban and regional planning. This is an effort to wide range of projects which support aeronautics and increase the effectiveness of public planning agencies space activities. The development of fundamental by improving the information gathering potential via remote sensing technology using airborne imaging in- mathematical methods provides techniques for the frared and optical equipment, multi-spectral scanner, construction and manipulation of abstract models and side-looking imaging radar data. These data will leading to the solution of particular problems in these be integrated into existing data sources of the plan- fields. Both analytical and numerical methods are being ning agencies. The transformation of information into investigated. Control and optimization theory find public policy will be studied, as well as the effective- many applications to atmospheric and space flight. ness of remotely-sensed data compared with contact Studies are being conducted in stellar dynamics which methods on cost, technical capability, and procedural include stability of stellar models, dynamics of pulsating acceptability. A project at the University of Wisconsin stars and the structure of isolated and interacting gal- supports investigators working with the staff of the Na- axies. Investigations of compressible flow at various tional Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) on Reynolds numbers have a direct bearing on aeronautics. the analysis of photographs from the NASA “SMS” Air traffic studies, encompassing optimal runway and satellite, which will be launched in 1972. The photo- gate utilization at airports, are being supported. Re- graphs are expected to yield important information on search on problems of celestial mechanics is underway. the duration, motion, and energetics of principal U.S. Polar Research Programs.-In many ways the storms occurring in northeastern Colorado, the experi- polar regions, especially the Antarctic, provide the mental area for the National Hail Suppression Project most realistic terestrial approximation to the condi- administered by NCAR. tions expected to be encountered on journeys to and Educational Activities.-In Fiscal Year 1971 approxi- occupation of the moon and the near planets. For mately $1.9 million was obligated by the Foundation’s this reason a NASA-Geological Survey team is cur- three Education Divisions for activities which were rently using the ice free valleys in Antarctica, which related to the aeronautic and space sciences. The great- compare closely with a typical Martian surface, to test est proportion of these funds supported the training of instrumentation being developed for use in the Mars graduate students through Fellowships and Trainee- landing spacecraft. ships. These funds also provide for upgrading the 95 aeronautic and space science subject matter back- education. Fiscal Year 1971 funds provided for the ground of teachers in secondary schools, colleges and training of 962 individuals in the aeronautic and space universities, unusual independent study and research sciences. Over one-third of these individuals experiences for students and the improvement of in- were junior and senior high school teachers of science structional programs in these disciplines at all levels of and mathematics.

National Academy of Sciences National Academy of Engineering National Research Council

Introduction Soviet Union. Close liaison was maintained with the National Academy of Engineering‘s Aeronautics and The National Academy of Sciences and the National Space Engineering Board (see below) and with NASA’s Academy of Engineering are private organizations of newly established internal advisory groups. As is cus- scientists and engineers that serve as official advisors to tomary, sessions were scheduled to take into account the Federal Government under a Congressional act of critical times in budget planning and formulation; incorporation. These advisory services are carried out thus the Board‘s views have been made available to largely by the National Research Council, which was program planners for consideration. established by the Academy to act as an operating agency. Outer Planets Exploration.-A study on outer planets Highlights of the work of the Academies-Research exploration was conducted by the Board at Woods Council in aeronautics and space during 1971 include Hole, Massachusetts, during August 1971. Undertaken the Space Science Board’s study on outer planets ex- at the request of NASA, the study addressed one seg- ploration ; counselling by the Aeronautics and Space ment of a broader study carried out in the summer of Engineering Board on the space shuttle, and on the 1970 on priorities in all areas of space research. The EROS programs by the Committee on Space Pro- 1970 study,’Priorities for Space Research 1971-1980, grams for Earth Observation; completion of a two-year considered seven areas and recommended priorities survey of the status and needs of astronomy; publica- within and among each: planetary exploration, lunar tion of the report, The Atmospheric Sciences and exploration, astronomy, gravitational physics, solar-ter- Man’s Needs: Priorities for the Future; administra- restrial physics, earth environmental sciences, and life tion of NASA fellowships; and advisory and review sciences. The 1971 study, Outer Planets Exploration work in aeronautics, space applications, and space 1972-1985, considered the outer planets portion of science. the total planetary program in light of new engineering cost studies conducted by NASA since the 1970 Space Science Board priorities study. The Space Science Board is the National Academy of The study developed priorities at three levels of Sciences’ principal advisory group on scientific direc- funding for missions including intermediate-lived tion of the US. space program and acts as Academy Pioneer-level spacecraft to Jupiter and Saturn, long- representative to the Committee on Space Research lived Thermoelectric Outer Planet Spacecraft (TOPS) (COSPAR) of the International Council of Scientific for Grand Tour Missions to up to five of the outer Unions (ICSU). The Board carries on much of its planets and beyond, and advanced-propulsion plan- work through its specialized committees and panels and etary missions in the 1980’s. The seven major recom- through groups of scientists assembled for intensive mendations of the study were presented by the Board study of topics of concern and timeliness to the space to NASA management in August 1971 and published program. The Board itself met four times during 1971. in the NAS report in November 1971. Briefings and discussions gave particular attention to Space Biology and Medicine.-Increasing attention in scientific activities planned for Skylab, exploration of space-planning and scientific circles has focused on the the outer planets, scientific results of Apollo, plans for biological effects of high-energy, heavy (HZE) cosmic- the space shuttle, and increasing cooperation with the ray particles as a result of observations during recent 96 Apollo lunar missions. Light flashes seen by astronauts Throughout 1971, the Board continued its review at the back of their eyes are believed to be caused by the of the NASA space shuttle program. Special attention impact of these particles on the retina and proximate was given to (1) the study and analysis of alternative areas and raise the question of what hazard they might configurations of both shuttle booster and orbiter, present on extended spaceflights. The Committee on (2) development of an improved, longer-term mission Space Medicine’s Radiobiological Advisory Panel is model, and (3) consideration of the space shuttle pro- looking into this phenomenon, at NASA’s request, with gram as an economically feasible national program a view to advising the agency on policies and research based on a fixed discount rate. As a result of its dis- in its radiobiological program. The study got under way cussions on these subjects, the Board submitted its in October and is expected to require about a year. comments to the NASA Administrator for his In March 1971, the Committee’s Cardiovascular Re- consideration. view Panel conducted its third annual evaluation of In the field of aeronautics, the Board created an ad NASA’s ground-based research projects in cardiovas- hoc Study Advisory Committee on Aeronautics cular physiology. Another ad hoc group reviewed pri- (SACA) which reviewed recommendations of the mate research in May. Such evaluations of individual Joint DoT-NASA Civil Aviation Research and Devel- NASA research projects are carried out at the agency’s opment Policy Study Group (CARD). Views d the request for use in program management. Committee were transmitted by its chairman to the Gravity and the Organism, the proceedings of an in- Joint Study Group on those areas which the Com- ternational symposium conducted by the Space Science mittee believed required special emphasis in the im- Board in September 1967 and updated in 1970, was mediate future. published in 1971 by the University of Chicago Press. The Board has established several new points of The volume contains 39 contributed papers focusing on contact with other countries in an effort to improve the influence of gravitation on the properties and be- international cooperation in the development of future havior of living matter. aeronautical and space transportation systems. Efforts At year’s end, the Board formed a space biology in this area will continue. group which, together with the Committee on Space Medicine, constitutes the Committee on Space Biology Division of Behavioral Sciences and Medicine. The Space Biology Section and the Committee on Vision.-A working group on Visual Space Medicine Section will meet separately on mat- Elements in Flight Simulation has surveyed research ters related to only one or the other of the groups planned and in progress at Langley Research Center of disciplines involved’and jointly to deal with topics and Ames Research Center. This working group will of mutual interest. make recommendations to NASA concerning its plans Znternational Relations.-The Board‘s formal inter- for determining what visual cues are necessary and national activities are centered in the Committee on sufficient in a training simulator for commercial pilots. Space Research (COSPAR) . COSPAR, an inter- A working group on Ocular Effects of Microwave Union organization of ICSU, fosters fundamental re- Radiation has recommended priorities for future research in space science through the use of space ve- search in ocular hazards of microwaves and plans to hicles. Data and significant results are exchanged study in considerable detail problems in measuring through the World Data Center system. COSPAR ac- far-field microwave radiation. cepted the invitation of the US. National Academy A review of the literature on orthokeratology is being of Sciences to host the 197 1 Annual Meeting in Seattle, written, and the final report will describe what must Washington, June 21- July 2. Symposia included : Re- be known before this can be considered a useful tech- sults of the Total Solar Eclipse of March 7, 1970, nique to improve pilots’ vision. In addition, the Com- High Angular Resolution Astronomical Observations mittee is forming a working group to advise the Army from Space, and Dynamics of the Thermosphere and on its program to study visual effects of drugs. Ionosphere above 120 km. As in past years, the Board’s Committee on International Relations organized the Division of Earth Sciences US. participation in the COSPAR meeting, reviewed Committee on Space Programs for Earth Observa- SJ.S. contributed papers, and prepared the annual re- tions, Advisory to the Department of the Interior port to COSPAR on U.S. space research during 1970. (COSPEAR) .-COSPEAR and its specialized panels continue to advise the Department of the Interior on Aeronautics and Space Engineering Board its Earth Resources Observation Systems (EROs) p~ The Aeronautics and Space Engineering Board gram. A wide range of activities within the Department (ASEB) of the National Academy of Engineering pro- is aimed at developing more effective methods for ac- vides advisory services to government agencies inter- complishing the Department’s missions through appli- ested in aeronautical and space engineering. cation of remote sensing, and these constitute the EROS 97 program. The progmm, in cooperation with other materials for radiation detection, and a study of prob- offices and especially in cooperation with NASA, strives lems involved in producing high-temperature-resisting for improvement of relevant technology, plans and metallic composites by directional solidification. conducts aerial and spaceflight programs to gather remote sensing data, and develops programs for data Division of Physical Sciences management and interpretation. Astronomy Survey Committee.-The Astronomy Sur- The parent Committee and each Panel (Car- vey Committee has completed work on its assessment tography and Mapping Requirements, Geography and of the status and needs of astronomy. The report of Human and Cultural Resources, Geology and Mineral the Committee outlining a ten-year program embrac- Resources, Hydrology and Water Resources, and ing both ground- and space-based studies will be avail- Oceanography and Marine Resources) meet two to able early in 1972. four times a year to review the various facets of the The Survey was in active progress for two years, and EROS program. The groups’ advice is sometimes given its Steering Committee and eight panels involved over in formal recommendmations by the Academy to the 100 astronomers who have met frequently during this Director of the EROS program, but more frequently period to dicsuss priority items to be incorporated in is offered informally in round-table discussion with the final report of the Survey. representatives of the Department of the Interior. The advisory role of COSPEAR is expected to ex- Committee on Atmospheric Sciences.-The Commit- pand to include additional government agencies and tee on Atmospheric Sciences, through reviews and to address general problems in earth observations that studies of research and technology in the several fields of meteorology, strives to evaluate and encourage ac- are too broad for adequate treatment by single agencies or the specialized panels now under COSPEAR. tivities that will provide for a balanced national pro- With this new orientation and scope, the Committee’s gram in the science. Providing guidance and advice name will be changed to Committee on Remote Sens- to the several federal agencies having responsibilities in ing Programs for Earth Resource Survey. meteorology, the Committee has recently examined and reported on the developments in basic and applied Division of Engineering research which firmly indicate notable advances in measuring and analytical techniques. These advances National Materials Advisory Board.-The Board’s suggest that the difficult problems of atmospheric general purpose is to advance materials science and dynamics, energy exchanges and transformation, and engineering in the national interest. More specifically, chemical and photochemical processes can now be in- it undertakes to define technical pr@blemsin materials vestigated, and that techniques for precipitation aug- and point out opportunities of national concern and mentation and remote measurement can be utilized relevance to government, industry, or academia. Re- with an enhanced potential of reaching new levels of cause aeronautical and space materials and their ap- understanding. plications challenge the most advanced capabilities of A recent Committee study, The Atmospheric Sci- materials technology, a substantial part of the Board’s ences and Man’s Needs: Prioritiesfor the Future (NAS, attention and effort is devoted to furnishing advice to 1971 ) , notes that many of man’s enterprises and modes the government on its program of aerospace materials of habitation throughout the world are becoming in- research and development. creasingly vulnerable to daily and seasonal vagaries Beryllium, a highly useful material in certain aero- of meteorological phenomena. The report urged that space applications, still presents problems relating to greater efforts be given to developing improved brittleness and inherent anisotropy. An NMAB ad hoc capabilities for both short- and long-term weather Committee analyzed present and potential require- prediction. This task will depend increasingly on data ments for beryllium and recommended policy options on atmospheric temperature, moisture, and trace con- for government action to enhance the utilization of stitutents obtained from polar-orbiting and geostation- beryllium in applications in which it would provide a ary satellites. In addition, it is foreseen that such space performance advantage. The Committee’s report, vehicles will be utilized to interrogate remotely placed NMAB-281, was issued in October. Two other reports platforms on the land, sea, and ice to obtain crucial of NMAB studies on aerospace materials problems, is data from areas for which information is not now ob- sued in 1971, were: “Accelerating Utilization of New tainable through conventional means. Further, ad- Materials” (NMAB-283), and “High Temperature Oxidation Resistant Coatings” (NAS Publication vances in techniques and understanding of weather ISBNO-309-01769-6) . modification have reached a point where efforts in the Several studies bearing on aerospace materials were near future may contribute to alleviating the nation’s initiated by the NMAB during 1971. Among these are: water resource needs. Investigations of severe storm a study of testing methods useful in predicting material phenomena such as hail, lightning, and hurricanes in- performance in structures and components, a study of dicate an increasing potential to reduce significantly their destructive effects. The advanced models of elec- A geostationary satellite located over the GATE area tronic computers are critically important in current has been singled out as the most important element studies of weather prediction and modification : these of the program. Such a satellite will provide day-and- computers permit experimental numerical studies that night imaging of the tropical cloud systems that will help to guide the conduct of field experiments which, permit decisions assuring optimal exploration and study in turn, will provide the additional observations needed of the tropical systems available during the period of for improved models of atmospheric behavior. the experiment. US.Committee for the Global Atmospheric Research Committee on Radio Frequencies.-The Committee Program.-The Global Atmospheric Research Pro- on Radio Frequencies and its Subcommittees on Space gram (GARP) is an international atmospheric research Science, Radio Astronomy, and Earth and Life Sci- program being developed by many nations working to- ences, serve as a channel for coordinating the knowl- gether through the International Council of Scientific edge and views of the U.S. scientific and engineering Unions (ICSU) and the World Meteorological Or- communities regarding the radio frequencies needed ganization (WMO) . The objective of the GARP is to for research. Their recommendations for changes in increase understanding of the dynamical processes of frequency allocations for space research and radio as- the atmosphere which will lead to sound physical and tronomy were used in preparing the U.S. Proposals for mathematical bases for extended prediction of the the World Administrative Radio Conference of the large-scale atmospheric motions. The U.S. Committee International Telecommunication Union, which was for GARP is the principal scientific mechanism for the held in Geneva in June 1971. Most of these recom- development of U.S. scientific objectives and plans, mendations in the U.S. Proposal were accepted by the specifications of observational requirements, and for WARC. guidance on detailed project design and planning. The Committee on Solar-Terrestrial Research.-The Com- Committee serves as the communication link between mittee on Solar-Terrestrial Research of the Geophysics the scientific community and the several govenunent Research Board is the National Academy of Sciences' agencies involved, and is the focus in the United States affiliate to the ICSU Inter-Union Commission on for the scientific planning carried out under interna- Solar-Terrestrial Physics ( IUCSTP) which coordinates tional auspices. for ICSU on an international level solar-terrestrial re- During 1971, the Committee's activities centered search programs which cut across lines of the tradi- around the first major field program of the GARP, a tional scientific disciplines. Specifically this Committee tropical experiment to be carried out across the Atlan- reviews, on a continuing basis, the status of U.S. re- tic Ocean from about 40" east to 90" west longitudes search related to solar-terrestrial problems, assists in between 10" south and 20" north latitudes. This in- coordinating this research with that of other countries, ternational program is known as the GARP Atlantic and provides advisory services to federal agencies con- Tropical Experiment (GATE) and will be carried out cerned with domestic solar-terrestrial programs. The during the summer of 1974. A second observational following studies, although dealing with ground-based program on the global atmosphere is planned for research, are of direct relevance to the space program, 1976. because these ground-based observations are used in International plans for the GATE are in an ad- support of, and in some cases in lieu of, observations vanced stage of development and relate to the utiliza- with space vehicles. tion and deployment of ships and aircraft, polar-or- In response to recommendations of a study on Phys- biting and geosynchronous satellites, and buoys and ics of the Earth in Space: The Role of Ground-Based balloons. Research conducted by the Committee in Aspen, Colo- The tropical regions encompass fifty percent of the rado, in 1969, an ad hoc panel of US. scientists, in- earth's surface and much of this area is oceanic. Tropi- cluding a number of U.S. associate members of the cal phenomena and their interaction with mid-latitude Geophysical Institute of Peru, was formed to provide atmospheric processes only recently have received in- liaison for U.S.-Peruvian cooperation in conducting creasing attention. New observations from satellites incoherent-scatter measurements of the upper atmos- have demonstrated that the tropical atmosphere re- phere using the Jicamarca Radio Observatory in sponds to and interacts with the atmospheric processes Lima, Peru. existing at higher latitudes. The nature and extent of The Aspen study also recommended that a new in- such interaction is of great importance to atmospheric coherent-scatter facility, of more advanced design than developments. Therefore, the planning for the GATE exists elsewhere, be constructed near the U.S.- is emphasizing the study of motions which will clarify Canadian border for investigation of ionospheric and the close interdependence of convective and synoptic magnetospheric dynamics. An ad hoc panel of the Com- scales of motion which together provide for much of the mittee conducted a feasibility study to examine the exchange of heat, energy, and momentum. scientific need and to develop criteria for the propxed \ I observatory. Their report, Upper Atmosphere Obser- provided to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric vatory-Criteria and Capabilities, was issued by the Administration in November 197 1. NAS in February 1971. Based on the results of this IUCSTP proposed in 1969, and COSPAR en- study the National Science Foundation awarded a dorsed the next year, international cooperation in grant to the University of Illinois to conduct a prelimi- long-term magnetospheric experiments. Initial steps to nary design study. The Illinois study was completed in organize this program, known as the International July. A consortium of six universities, including one Magnetospheric Survey, were taken at the June 1971 Canadian institution, was formed (Upper Atmosphere IUCSTP meeting in Seattle. The Committee on Solar- Research Corporation) and has submitted a proposal Terrestrial Research will have a role in coordinating to the Foundation for construction and management of U.S. participation in this program. the facility. A new panel of the Committee was recently estab- Office of Scientific Personnel lished to advise on priorities for support of ground- based observations of cosmic radiation. The panel will The Office of Scientific Personnel conducts two activi- address questions on the relative emphasis appropriate ties in behalf of NASA, namely the NASA Interna- to different types of observations, including meson tele- tional University Fellowships in Space Science and scopes and neutron monitors, and on the network of the NRC-NASA Resident Research Associateships neutron monitors that should be maintained around (postdoctoral and senior postdoctoral). On August 31, the world in the face of decreasing funding. 1971, there were 181 Associates on tenure. In cooperation with the Committee on Atmospheric In the NASA International University Fellowships Sciences, the Committee on Solar-Terrestrial Research program, jointly financed by NASA and participating has formed an ad hoc panel on ozone to study the space agencies of other countries, there were 52 full- physical and chemical characteristics of the atmos- year fellowships in 1970 and the same number in 1971. pheric ozone layer, including the effects of introduced From September 1961, when the program began, to matter, with a view to assessing needed research. In 31 December 1971, 322 fellowships have been granted. addition, an Academy ad hoc working group was con- The Fellowship program affords young scientists vened in July 1971 to make a preliminary assessment of from other countries an opportunity for study and space the potential effects on the atmosphere of nitric oxide research at leading universities in the United States. In from the supersonic transport, as evaluated in a re- the Associateship program, scientists and engineers of cently published paper. Conclusions of this group were unusual ability conduct research at NASA Centers.

xv The Smithsonian Institution

Introduction screened from ground stations by the earth’s atmosphere. Smithsonian laboratories analyzed both re- The Smithsonian Institution contributes directly to turned lunar samples and recovered meteorite this nation’s aeronautics and space program through specimens for new clues to the mystery of lunar and the activities of its bureaus: the Smithsonian Astro- planetary evolution. And, while Smithsonian labora- physical Observatory (SAO), the Smithsonian Center tories and field stations increased man’s knowledge for Short-Lived Phenomena (SCSLP) , the National about the universe, its museums diffused and dissemi- Museum of Natural History (NMNH) and the Na- nated this new knowledge to the public through tional Air and Space Museum (NASM) . exhibits, displays, and special programs. During the past year, Smithsonian observing sta- The modem Institution’s concern with aeronautics tions used space techniques to gather data pertinent to and space research actually is part of a long heritage geophysical and astrophysical research. Smithsonian that began with Samuel Pierpont Langley, third experiments aboard high-altitude ballons and satellites secretary of the Smithsonian and founder of its As- measured radiation from distant energy sources trophysical Observatory. Langley was (both a pioneer 100 in manned air flight and one of the first scientists to nent to a variety of earth-physics phenomena such study systematically the relationship between solar and as polar motion, continental drift, solid-earth tides, geophysical phenomena. and seasonal variations in the earth’s gravitational field. In 1890, Langley called his innovative research “the Another precise means of satellite tracking-espe- new astronomy” ; today, the Smithsonian Institution’s cially for synchronous orbit objects-is promised by innovative and dynamic research in space sciences SA0 experiments with a technique normally used in could rate the same title. radio astronomy. Very Long-Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) makes use of the minute discrepencies in the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory times that a radio signal fma satellite will be re- The leadership of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Ob- ceived at two or more widely separated ground sta- servatory (SAO) in world science was demonstrated tions. This slight time lag can provide a very accurate this year by innovative and vital contributions to the indication ofthe satellite’s position in space. Obviously, fields of earth physics, lunar investigation, space ob- the greater the distance between tihe stations, the more servations, and high-energy astronomy. precisely the satellite’s po6tion can be determined. For example, SA0 played a central role in two SAO’s adaption of VLBI uses independent and highly of the most intense programs ever undertaken to study stable atomic time standards that can be located any- the earth as a planet. The analysis of lunar samples where, indeed, even on opposite sides of the earth. in SA0 labs has provided one of the cornerstones for Lunar Investigations.-Returned lunar samples from a new concept of planetary evolution. Similarly, the the Apollo 12, 14, and 15 missions, as well as samples massive statistical data on ultraviolet stars obtained by from the Soviet automated probe Luna 16, were anal- SAOs Celescope experiment is being used to establish yzed by one SA0 group using optical microscope, X- new models of theoretical stellar atmospheres. And, ray diffraction, and electron microprobe techniques. the development of a new and improved gamma-ray Another SA0group used mass spectrometer techniques detector for balloon and satellite use promises to be and low-level counting methods to determine the an important advance in high-energy astronomy. isotopic abundances in this lunar material. Earth Physics.-The Smithsonian Astrophysical Ob- By concentrating on the randomly mixed samples servatory operates a worldwide network of satellite- of the lunar soil rather than larger and more specific tracking stations in support of both special missions specimens, SA0 scientists have had an opportunity to and general research in geophysics, geodesy, and at- examine and classify literally thousands of tiny “lunar mospheric physics. At five of these stations, Baker- rock” specimens in the form of individual soil particles. Nunn cameras are coupled with special laser ranging These primordial moon rocks have been identified as systems. Cooperating foreign agencies provide addi- (1) anorthosite, a light-colored rock of low specific tional lasers at other Baker-Nunn sites. gravity consisting primarily of the mineral plagioclase; Because of this network’s global distribution and (2) several types of gabbroic rock probably related to tracking precision, SA0 served as one of the major the anorthosite; and (3) dark, volcanic basalts that subcenters for rhe International Satellite Geodesy Ex- erupted in the lunar surface a billion years after the periment (ISAGEX) . This 8-month satellite observing formation of the moon and filled the giant impact program for dynamic geodesy was coordinated by the craters, or &. French space agency, CNES, and involved 18 countries Another appmach to studying the structure and com- operating 14 laser and 30 cameras sites. In addition position of the moon is to probe the lunar interior to SA0 and CNES, other subcenters included: the with radio waves. During the Apollo 15 flight, SA0 Goddard Space Flight Center, the Soviet Academy scientists recorded the first reception of radio signals of Sciences, and the Ondkjov (Czechoslovakia) Ob- broadcast from a spacecraft behind the .moon. The servatory. As the largest single tracking network in experiment confirmed in part a suggestion made in the program, SA0 contributed significantly to the more 1966 that the moon’s dry, pumice-like upper layers than 10,000 laser observations that have yielded range might act as a medium for conducting radio waves measurements accurate to within a meter or less. in a manner similar to the weak surface propagation Many of the Same US and foreign agencies are of radio waves on earth. Future adaptations of the now cooperating in an observation program organized experiment could produce radio profiles of the lunar and coordinated by SA0 for other scientific objectives. interior by beaming signals of various frequenciee This Earth-Physics Satellite Observation Campaign through the moon from satellites to ground receivers. (EPSOC) is using precise laser chervations of earth The radio transmissions were observed with a 150- satellites to study irregular motions in the rotation of foot radio telescope 115 seconds after the Apollo 15 the earth, especially the phenomenon known as the command module, Endeavor, passed behind the moon Chandler Wubble. The 14-month EPSOC program and out of sight of earth on the evening of August 3. is part of SAO’s long-term effort to obtain data perti- 1971. 101 The OAO Celescope Experiment.-The Celescope By correlating data on the chemical and mineralogi- experiment prepared by SA0 for flight aboard the Or- cal composition of the lunar specimens with similar biting Astronomical Observatory was designed to sur- data on terrestrial rocks and meteorites, NMNH scien- vey the sky in ultraviolet light and to produce a catalog tists have thus been able to compare and contrast the allowing the study of the basic statistical properties processes involved in the gensis of rocks on the earth of as many stars as possible. During its 16 months of and on extraterrestrial bodies. Particular attention has operation, the Celescope gathered some 8,000 pictures been given to analogies between the lunar rocks and a of 1,700 star fields, covering approximately 10 percent specific group of meteorites, the pyroxeneplagioclase of the entire sky and about 20 percent of the region achondrites. These meteorites are comparatively rar- near the Milky Way where the majority of ultraviolet comprising about 5% of all meteorites seen to fall- stars are found. A preliminary analysis already has and present striking similarities to some lunar rocks. identified a group of stars in the constellation Orion However, the present data indicate that the meteorites that are anomalously bright in ultraviolet light. probabily originated from a fragmented asterpid with Ground-based observations of the same stars from a similar but not identical history to that of the Moon. SAOs observatory in -4rizona reveal that the stars also Meteorite research has continued in parallel with exhibit subtle peculiarities in other parts of their work on the lunar rocks. Two specimens (Allende, spectra. Mexico and Murchison, Australia) have been of spe- The Celescope data are also being used by SA0 as cial interest, for both belong to the rare class of carbo- a guide in the computer modeling of theoretical stellar naceous chondrites. atmospheres. Because most of the radiation from hot stars is emitted as ultraviolet light, the Celescope re- Center for Short-Lived Phenomena sults should prove invaluable in the mathematical construction of this type model star. The Smithsonian Center for Short-Lived Phenom- At the end of 1971, the magnetic tape catalog of all ena (SCSLP) serves as an interntional early-alert high-priority Celescope da.ta was delivered to the Na- system for the rapid receipt and dissemination of in- tional Space Science Data Center at the Goddard formation concerning unpredictable and short-lived Space Flight Center where the information is avail- geophysical, biological, and astrophysical events of able to the scientific community. major scientific importance. During 1971, the Center participated in 15 astro- Gamma-Ray Astronomy.-A major advance in the physical events, including the report of 9 major fire- sensitivity of gamma-ray detectors was achieved this ball dbservations from India, Mozambique, Sweden, year with the development by SA0 and Cornell Uni- Germany, Austria, and the United States, and the re- versity of a large-area gas-Cerenkov telescope suitable covery of 6 meteorites in Ethiopia, the Sudan, Swazi- for use in high-altitude balloons and satellites. The land, Venezuela, Mauritania, and the United States. massive instrument-9 feet in diameter and 20 feet All investigations included contact with event areas long-combines extreme sensitivity, high efficiency, by telephone and cable to obtain eyewitness reports of and good angular resolution with simple design. Most magnitude, direction, duration, color and sound phe- important, the detector offers excellent rejection of the nomena associated with the fireballs, and the probable charged-particle background, normally a significant impact location of any resultant meteorites. The re- factor interfering with the observation of gamma ports were relayed, in turn, to interested scientists. rays-also charged particles-emitted by point sources Specimens of all meteorites were quickly re- in the heavens. six covered and distributed to appropriate laboratories for The new detector was flown successfully twice this year aboard high-altitude balloons. The experiment radioistope analysis. In some cases, the time between made extended observations of such suspected gam- the meteorite’s fall and its analysis in a laboratory ma-ray soucces as the Crab Nebula, the Pulsar NP was no more than a few days. After two major fireball 0532, the Quasar 3C273, and the Radio Galaxy M87. events, ablation products were sampled in the atmos- Although the analysis of data is still in progress, pre- phere by high-altitude aircraft. liminary results indicate the new telescope functioned perfectly and should make significant contributions to National Air and Space Museum gamma-ray research. One of the highlights attracting an estimated five mil- National Museum of Natural History lion visitors to Smithsonian museums during 1971 was a special Apollo 11 display organized by the Na- During the past year the National Museum of Natural tional Air and Space Museum (NASM) to commemc+ History (NMNH) continued its research on extrater- rate the first manned landing on the lunar surface. The restrial materials, including both recovered meteorites, exhibit included the Apollo 11 Command Module, the and lunar materials returned by the Apollo missions. space suits worn by astronauts Armstrong, Aldrin and I02 Collins, and other significant artifacts from that his- The $1.9 appropriated in 1971 for the redesign of toric mission. The central element in the this exhibit, the new National Air and Space Museum building was however, was an actual moon rock returned by the committeed to an architect. The redesign of the build- astronauts. ing is in process.

XVI Office of Telecommunications Policy

Introduction Eight complete satellite communication systems were proposed to serve the domestic market, as well as addi- Under Reorganization Plan No. 1 of 1970, which was tional earth terminals to be owned and operated in- approved by Congress on April 20, 1970, the office dependently of the satellite operators. Ameng the cur- of Telecommunications Policy was established. Execu- rent applications are the major domestic communr'ca- tive Order No. 11556, signed on September 4, 1970 tions common carriers, prominent aerospace fim, and delegated certain responsibilities assigned to the Presi- the Cammunications Satellite Corporation. dent by the Communications Satellite Act of 1962 to The systems which are planned for domestic service the Director of the Office of Telecommunications are innovative in technical design and in proposed Policy. The dynamic nature of satellite communica- marketing arrangements. The proposed satellites are tions technology and the ever-increasing requirements large relative to INTELSAT IV, ranging from 12-120 for domestic and international communications serv- transponders in communications capacity and from ices require constant review of our communications 6004,400 pounds in weight. Most of the satellites are policies and institutions. As such, the Office of Tele- based on current state-of-the-art technology. However, communications Policy focuses primarily on the appli- there is considerable diversity in the designs, some cation of space technology rather than research and of which propow advanced stabilization techniques, development. advanced antenna configuration, use of frequencies ZnteZsut.-In the spring of 1971 the negotiations for above 10 GHz, and other advanced features. the Definitive Arrangements of INTELSAT were com- The applicants expect to use their satellite facilities pleted. 54 nations signed the agreements on August 20, to serve many long-distance communications require- 1971. After final ratification by the participating na- ments within the United States that presently are tions, these agreements will come into force; thus, served by terrestrial technology. These include the establishing a permanent INTELSAT institution. trunk requirements of the telephone and record com- INTELSAT has now grown to a community of more munication systems and the distribution of television than 81 nations working toward a common goal of a programs from the network studios to the affiliated viable, global, commercial satellite communication broadcast television stations. In addition, the applicants system. The reliability of the global satellite network envision that their systems will generate new com- continues to increase. munications requirements, such as national intercon- The initial INTELSAT IV satellite was placed in nection of CATV systems and expanded Picturephone orbit in 1971 and is now in continued service over the and data communication service. Atlantic ocean. After reviewing the current applications, the Ofiice of Telecommunications Policy reaffirmed the desira- Domestic Sutellites.-Domestic satellite communica- bility of an open entry policy toward domestic satellite tion advanced toward reality in 1971. Following the communication, concluding that the potential benefits recommendation of the White House in January 1970 of satellite bxhnology would be realized moBt fully that all financially and technically qualified firms be under such a policy. The first generation of domestic authorized to participate in domestic satellite com- communication satellites systems could be in operation munication, the FCC called for applications in March in 1973 if authorizations are granted in late 1971 or 1970. By April 1971, the commercial response from early 1972. Swift implementation of the domestic satel- potential satellite communication firms was complete. lite communication proposals will bxing to the Ameri- 103 can public real returns from the Federal government’s national Telecommunication Union to review and investment in space research. vise as necessary the International Radio Regula- Aero$&-The Office of Telecommunications Policy tions as they pertain to space telecommunications. The set forth policy guidelines for satellite communications results of this Conference contain carefully developed to serve the international aeronautical community in engineering criteria to facilitate increased sharing be- January of 1971. The Department of Transportation tween space and terrestrial communications systems, and the Federal Aviation Agency have formulated pro- modify th? international table of frequency allocations grams for the establishment of Atlantic and Pacific so as to provide considera‘bly expanded spectrum re- Basin aeronautical satellite services. sources for space communications, and reflect procedures to assure the necessary coordination among na- World Administrative Radio Conference on Space tions in planning for and implementing terrestrial and Telecommunications (WARC) space systems. The results of this Conference, which upon ratification by the respective Administrations will During the period June 7-July 17, 1971, over 100 become effective on January 1, 1973, provide a sound countries, involving some 700 representatives, met in foundation for the application of space communica- Geneva, Switzerland, under the auspices of the Inter- tions for the next decade.

N . 0 XVII Federal tiornmunications Commission

Introduction into force in 1972, when signed and ratified by at least two-thirds of the members of INTELSAT who hold Significant progress took place in satellite mmmunica- two-thirds of the investment in the organization. tions. Climaxing two and one-half years of negotiations, Membership in INTELSAT has grown to a total of international agreement was reached Definitive Ar- on 82 countries as of December 3 1, 197 1. The first launch rangements for the International Telecommunications of the latest generation of INTELSAT satellites, the Satellite Consortium (INTELSAT) . high capacity INTELSAT IV series, took place on Membership in INTELSAT increased to 82 coun- January 25, 1971 and began providing commercial tries, and the first of a new larger series of satellites telecommunication services in the Atlantic region on (INTELSAT IV) was put into service over the At- March 26,197 1. The second launch of an INTELSAT lantic. Important new frequency allocations and regu- IV satellite on December 19, 1971 provides for a two lations for space communications and radio astronomy satellite operation configuration in the Atlantic region. services were adopted at the World Administrative At the end of 1971, 52 earth stations with 63 antennas Radio Conference (WARC) of the International Tele- operating in 39 countries were providing satellite communications Union (ITU) . communications in the INTELSAT System. The Communications Satellites configuration of the space portion of the Global System now consists of two INTELSAT IV satel- On August 20, 1971, the Definitive Arrangements for lities serving the Atlantic region; one INTELSAT I11 INTELSAT were opened for signature at Washington, Satellite serving the Pacific Ocean region; one INTEL- D.C., marking the end of two-and-one-half years of SAT I11 satellite serving the Indian Ocean region, and international negotiations. The Intergovernmental one INTELSAT I11 satellite serving as an in-orbit Agreement was signed on behalf of the United States spare. by Secretary of State William P. Rogers, and the The eight U.S. earth stations are located at Andover, Operating Agreement was signed by Dr. Joseph V. Maine; Etam, West Virginia; Cayey, Puerto Rico; Charyk in his capacity of President of the Communica- Brewster Flat, Washington ; Jamesburg, California ; tions Satellite Corporation (Comsat), whioh is the Paumalu, Hawaii; Talkeetna, Alaska; and Guam. designated communications entity of the United States. Construction has been completed on a new replace- The Definitive Arrangements are expected to come ment antenna at the Andover, Maine earth station. 104 At the end of 1971, the US.international communi- US. Chairmen and one as International Chairman. cations common carriers were leasing from Comsat 85.0 Preparations are under way for an interim CCIR voice-grade half circuits to provide their portion of meeting for all study groups to be held in Geneva satellite communication service between United States during April, 1972. and Europe, Africa and the Near East, and 663 half circuits for service between the United States main- Radio Astronomy and Space Services land and Puerto Rico and other points in Latin Amer- Of major importance was the ITU World Administra- ica. There were 1014 voice-grade half circuits operated tive Radio Conference on Space Telecommunications between the United States and countries in the Pacific (WARGST) which had as its primary objective the Ocean region and between continental United States updating of the international Table of Frequency Al- and Hawaii, Alaska and Guam. locations to accommodate new space services and to Some 866 hours of television were transmitted from meet the expanding needs of existing space radiocom- or received in the United States by means of the Global munication services, as well as radio astronomy. Prior Satellite System during 197 1. to the conference, the Commission was very active in International Tebcommunications Union.-The In- the extensive preparatory work required. This included ternational Telegraph and Telephone Consultative the issuance of a series of Notices of Inquiry (Docket Committee (CCITT) and the International Radio 18294) to the public to assist in the development of Consultative Committee (CCIR) are permanent or- Draft Proposals of the US.in coordination with other gans of the International Telecommunications Federal offices involved. The conference was completed Union (ITU), established under Article 14 of the on schedule and the new international Radio Regula- International Telecommunication Convention ( Mon- tions adopted constitute a treaty which must be signed treux, 1965) to study technical and operating ques- by the President and ratified with the advice and tions on telegraphy and telephony, and radio, respec- consent of the Senate before the US. is bound by its tively, and to issue recommendations on such questions. provisions. The new Regulations are scheduled to enter Many of these questions deal directly or indirectly with into force on January 1, 1973. (New international space communications. Regulations are implemented by the FCC for non-Gov- The World Plan Committee is a joint CCITT/ ernment services through established rule making CCIR study group administered by the CCITT and is procedures.) the parent body of the four Regional Plan Committees for Africa, Asia and Oceania, Europe and the Mediter- Aeronautical Services ranean Basin, and Latin America. The work of the Plan Committees involves the de- Representatives of the Commission participated in the velopment of telecommunications traffic and circuit preparation of guidance material for the use of US. forecasts, the compilation of data on major antenna representatives to international conferences including and routing, and the preparation of questions on tech- those of the ITU, the CCIR, and the ICAO. nical assistance matters. This work involves all media At the WARC changes to the ITU rules which of telecommunications including satellite communica- would, inter alia, provide more suitable frequen- tions. One FCC member attended the meeting of the cies for allocation to the Aeronautical Services. Regional Plan Committee for Africa held in Lagos, The very limited number of frequencies available Nigeria in January, 1971, and two FCC members at- for the use of satellite systems to serve the me tended the meeting of the World Plan Committee held nautical requirements was expanded and supple- in Venice, Italy in October, 1971. mented with the aim of satisfying the near term Commission representatives attended meetings in needs through the decade of the 1970s. Basically, and Geneva of the CCITT study group on general tariff to a great degree, the results of the WARC are in ac- principles and lease of telecommunications circuits in cordance with the needs of the US. aeronautical com- June, and of the study group on telegraph operations munity as well as the worldwide aeronautical system and tariffs in September. and, if ratified by the Congress, will result in necessary changes to the Commission’s Rules. Such changes will Five engineers were sent by the Commission to the make it possible to proceed with system development at Special Joint Meeting of the CCIR held in Geneva the allocated frequencies. during February, 197 1. This meeting assimilated all of New or renewed authorizations for various test pro- the available technical data and adopted it for WARC grams utilizing existing satellites were authorized. The utilization. The output of the SJM was published by staff has continued to work with FAA and OTP in the ITU as a two volume report. the current program development for a preoperational During 1971, a reorganization of the study groups aeronautical satellite system. Further programs, par- of the CCIR became effective. Four Commission em- ticularly regarding the use of frequencies in the 1535- ployees provide leadership in these groups, three as 1660 MHz band, joint usage between aeronautical and 105 marine users and the suballocation of the band by ATC Working primarily with the OTP and the govern- and operational control function are being studied. ment and non-government representatives in the Other aerospace problems, which may be solved by RTCM, staff members are developing programs for means other than the use of satellites, continue to re- the evaluation and development of equipment and quire concerted effort. The staff is presently involved systems to supplement the maritime communications in studying the merits and drawbacks of particular and navigation system by space techniques. Addition- systems, now in the developmental stage, which are ally, preparation for the forthcoming ITU Maritime intended to provide a measure of safety concerning air- Conference has been initiated. Several problem craft midair collision and terrain avoidance. RFI specifically relating to the utilization of maritime fe problems with such equipment in the aifborne environ- quencies were referred to the ITU Maritime WARC ment are a factor in determinations. Low cost indica- by the Space WARC. The staff is placing particular tors to warn pilots of general aviation aircraft when emphasis on the aspects of search and rescue, safety a collision is imminent are, as yet, only in preliminary of life and property and economics in the preparation stages of development. The Commission has outstand- for the Maritime WARC, as well as in the system ing authorizations to licensees pursuing these problems program development studies. but has not yet made a regular operational frequency authorization pending resolution of several technical Amateur Radio Service pblems. The ITU World Administrative Radio Conference for Channel splitting of the band used primarily for Space Telecommunications ( WARC-ST) which con- air carrier operational control purposes was pmvided vened in Geneva, Switzerland, on June 7, 1971, estab- in the rules in 1971. Similar rule chan

106 Appendixes

APPENDIXA-1 U.S. Spacecraft Record

Earth orbit Earth escape Earth orbit Earth escape Year Year Success Failure Success Failure 1 Success Failure Success Failure

1957 ...... 0 1 0 1965 ...... 94 8 3 0 1958 ...... 5 8 4 1966 ...... 95 12 5 '1 1959 ...... 9 9 2 1967 ...... 77 4 10 0 1960 ...... 16 12 2 1968 ...... 61 15 3 0 1961 ...... 35 12 0 1 1969...... 58 1 8 1 1962 ...... 54 12 1 1970 ...... 36 1 3 0 1963 ...... 60 11 0 1 1971...... 45 2 8 1 1964 ...... 69 8 I.. O1 Total.. ... 714 116 50 12

1 This earth escape failure did attain earth orbit and therefore men: of earth orbit or earth escape rather than a judgment of is included in the earth-orbit success totals. wion success. This tablulation includes spacecraft from cooperating Notes: The criterion of success or failure used is the attain- countries which were launched by U.S. launch vehicles.

APPENDIXA-2 World Record of Space Launchings Successful in Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond

United Chinese United Year States U.S.S.R. France Italy Japan Peoples Australia Kingdom Republic

1957 ...... 2 ...... 1958 ...... 5 1 ...... 1959 ...... 10 3 ...... 1960 ...... 16 3 ...... 1961 ...... 29 6 ...... 1962 ...... 52 20 ...... 1963 ...... 38 17 ...... 1964 ...... 57 30 ...... 1965 ...... 63 48 1 ...... 1966 ...... 73 44 1 ...... 1967 ...... 57 66 2 1 ...... 1 ...... 1968 ...... 45 74 ...... 1969 ...... 40 70 ...... 1970 ...... 28 81 2 11 1 ...... 1971 ...... 30 83 1 '2 2 ...... 1 Total...... 543 548 7 4 3 2 1 1

1 Includes foreign launchings of U.S. spacecraft. spacecraft. Some launches did successfully orbit multiple Note: This tabulation enumerates launchmgs rather than spacecraft. 107 APPENDIXA-3 Successful U.S. Launches-1971

Apogee and Perigee (in Launch date (G.m.t.) statute miles)- Spacecraft name Spacecraft data Period Remarks Cospar designation (minutesh Launch vehicle Inclination to Equator (degrees)

Jan. 25 Objective: Development of space flight techniques 244 Decayed Feb. 9, 1971. Defense and technology. 81 5A Spacecraft : Not announced. 89. 2 Titan IIIB-Agena 110.8 Jan. 26 Objective: To provide equivalent of 3,000 to 9,000 22,608 Launched by NASA for Comsat Intelsat IV(F-2) telephone circuits simultaneously or 12 color TV 22,209 Corp., manager of Intelsat. 6A channels or a combination of telephone, TV, and 1,450. 2 First satellite in improved Atlas-Centaur other forms of communications traffic between 0. 6 Intelsat IV series and first North America, South America, and Western launched by Atlas-Centaur. Europe. Largest commercial communi- Spacecraft: Cylindrical 93.5-in. diameter and cations satellite ever launched, 17.6-ft. high; spin stabilized; 12 communications both in weight and communi- repeaters (transponders); 6 antennas; 42,240 cations capacity. Stationed at solar cells; weight after apogee motor fire: 24.5O west longitude. Space- 1,584 lbs. craft operating normally. Jan. 31 Objcctive: To perform selenological inspection, N.A. Crew consisted of Alan B. Shepard, Apollo 14 (CSM 110) survey, and sampling of materials in a preselected Jr., commander; Stuart A. 8A region of the Fra Mauro Formation; to deploy Roosa, command module pilot; Saturn v and activate an Apollo Lunar Surface Experi- Edgar A. Mitchell, lunar ments Package (ALSEP); to develop man's module pilot. All primary capability to work in the lunar environment; to mission objectives were suc- obtain photographs of candidate exploration cessfully accomplished. Lunar sites. module landed at 09:17:00 Spacecraft: Carried full lunar landing configu- (G.m.t.) on Feb. 5 and lifted ration, including command module, service mod- off again at 18:48:00 (G.m.t.) ule, and lunar module. Total weight at initial on Feb. 6. Total lunar stay Earth orbit insertion: 302,626 lbs.; at translunar time 33 hours, 31 minutes. Total injection: 102,177 Ibs.; 64,438 lbs. CSM: 34-ft. flight time 216 hours, 1 minute, long, 12.8-ft. diameter. 57 seconds. Jan. 31 Objective: To bring payload to lunar transfer in- N.A. Lunar strike. Saturn IVB (SA 509) jection; then to fly independently to impact the 8B moon in further seismic tests to be detected by Saturn V Apollo 12 ALSEP instruments. Spacecraft: A cylinder about 61.3-ft. long by 21.7 ft. in diameter. Total weight at impact, about 30,842 lbs. Jan. 31 Objective: To support lunar landing and takeoff N.A. Lunar Excursion for return to lunar orbit in support of tasks Module (LM 8) named above. 8C Spacecraft: Combined descent and ascent stages Saturn V about 13.5-ft. high, 12.3-ft. wide, and 10.3-ft. deep. Total weight about 33,680 lbs. Feb. 3 Objective: The NATOSAT-2 is a military com- 22,283 Launched by NASA for USAF NATOSAT-12 munications satellite placed in geostationary 21,394 which acted as the agent of (NATO 2) orbit over the mid-Atlantic Ocean. It will be 1403.4 NATO. Spacecraft success- SA' used for command and control of NATO mili- 2.8 fully placed into synchronous Thorad-Delta tary forces. transfer orbit and apogee Spacecraft: Cylindrical 54-in. diameter and 32-in. motor fired Feb. 5. hi h spacecraft constructed of two concentric cyfmders with the apogee motor withii the inner cylinder. A despun antenna system, partially mounted within the inner cylinder, is mated on the spacecraft bottom. High pressure hydrazine system used for stabilization and positioning. Weight: 535 lbs.

108 APPENDIXA-3-Continued Successful U.S. Launchet1971-Continued

Apogee and Perigee (in Launch date (G.m.t.) statute miles)- Spacecraft name Spacecraft data Period Cospar designation (minutese Launch vehicle Inclination to Equator (degreol)

Feb. 17 Objective: Development of space flight techniques 517 Still in orbit. Defense and technology. 477 12A Spacecraft: Not announced. 100.8 98.8

Feb.~ 17.. Objective: To provide targets for radar calibration 518 Still in orbit. Calsphere 3,4,5 aid to evaluate surface material erosion and 474-480 12B, 12C, 12D drag effects vis-a-vis the inert gold or aluminum 100.8 Thor-Burner 2 surface. 98. 8 Spacecraft: three 10-inch spheres, two gold surface, one aluminum surface, each with a weight of approximately 2 lbs. March 13 Objective: To investigate, during a period of de- 127, 124 First of a series of second-gen- Explorer 43 (IMP-I) creasing solar activity, through several solar rota- ‘21 9 eration Explorer spacecraft ; 19A tions, the nature of the interplanetary medium 5,656. 1 largest and most advanced in Thorad-Delta and the interplanetary-magnetospheric interac- 28.8 series. Exceeded its mission tion including characteristic features of the solar objectives, with 11 of 12 scien- wind; the interplanetary fields and sector struc- tific experiments operating ture; and modulation effects on cosmic rays. successfully. Spacecraft: 16-sided 71-in. high drum-shaped structure, consisting of aluminum honeycomb RF shield panels and three bands of solar panels (16 panels per band) mounted on honeycomb aluminum platform. The experiment and instrument modules are mounted in the instrument compartment in the topside of the honeycomb shelf. Two diametrically opposed experiment booms (each 11%-ft. long) and two attitude control system booms (each 5 ft. long), spaced 90° from the experiment booms, are appended to the s acecraft exterior and deployed after launch. $he spacecraft is fitted with eight equally spaced, RF antennas (turnstile type) which extend from spacecraft top. Spacecraft is spin stabilized, and contains 12 scienufic experiments, an onboard ex- pmental computer, and a silver cadmium attuy. Weight: 635 lbs. Mar. 21 Objective: Development of space flight techniques 24,399 Still in orbit. Defense and technology. 204 21A Spacecraft : Not announced. 701.8 Titan IIIBAgena 63.2 Mar. 24 Objective: Development of space flight techniques 146 Delayed Apr. 12, 1971. Defense and technology. 107 22A Spacecraft : Not announced. 88. 5 Thorad-Agena 81.5

109 APPENDIXA-34ontinued Successful US. Launches-1971Pontinued

Apogee and Perigee (in Launch date (G.m.t.) statute miles)- Spacecraft name Spacecraft data Period Remarks Cospar designation (minutes)- Launch vehicle Inclination to Equator (degrees)

AD^ 1 Objective: To inject the spacecraft into a near 887 Still in orbit. IS'IS 2 circular earth orbit which will permit the study 844 24A of the topside of the ionosphere above the elec- 113.6 Thorad-Delta tron peak of the F re ion; to continue and ex- 88. 1 tend the cooperative &nadian/U.S. program of ionospheric studies initiated by Alouette I by combining sounder data with correlative direct measurements for a time sufficient to cover lati- tudinal and diurnal variations during a period of declining solar activity. Spacecraft: Eight-sided oblate spheroid with 50-in. diameter and 48-in. high. Spacecraft frame consists of a central 16-in. diameter thrust tube which supports eight radial ribs. Sixteen solar cell panels and eight equatorial panels are mounted on the ribs. In addition to twelve ionospheric experiments, the spacecraft contains telemetry and tracking transmitters, command receiver and decoder, PCM equipment, tape recorder, housekeeping and power electronics, and attitude and spin control systems. Append- ages include eight telemetry antennas, two 15-m. probes, and a beacon antenna 14 in. in diameter. When in orbit, four soundin antennas are extended to form orthogonal & oles 240 ft. and 61% ft. tipto-tip. Weight: 582 pbs. Apr. 22 Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 249 Decayed, May 13, 1971. Defense and technology. 81 33A Spacecraft: Not announced. 89. 8 Titan IIIE-Agena 110.9 May 5 Objective: Development of spacecraft techniques 22,271 Still in orbit. Defense and technology. 22, 154 39c Spacecraft: Not announced. 1.434.0 Titan IIIC 0. 9 May 30 Objective: To select an orbit which will permit, In Martian Mission still in progress. Mariner 9 during the primary orbital operational lifetime of orbit FilA 90 days, the viewing of about 70 percent of the Atlas-Centaur planet's surface with the wide angle imaging camera at a resolution of about 1 km. per TV line; to study the dynamic characteristics and time variable features of Mars from a Martian orbit selected to permit the viewing of selected areas periodically during the primary operational lifetime of 90 days. Spacecraft: Basic octagonal structure 54s-in. high with four solar panels attached, each 84344x1. long and 3536-h. wide. Spacecraft measures 8 ft. from the separation plane to the top of the low-gain antenna and its span is 22 ft., 734 in. with the solar panels extended. Two sets of attitude control jets, consisting of six jets each, are mounted on the ends of the solar panels. High-gain antenna 40-in. diameter; low-gain antenna &in. diameter extends 57 in. from the top of the octagonal structure; medium-gain antenna is mounted on a solar panel outrigger. Canopus star tracker located on the upper ring structure of the octagon. Six scientific experiments include a TV, an ultraviolet spectrometer, an infrared radiometer, and an infrared interferometer spectrometer. Large propulsion subsystem for orbital insertion; attitude control subsystem; nickel-cadmium battery with 600-w.- hr. caDacitv. Weinht at launch: 2.200 Ibs. 110 APPENDIXA-34ontinued Successful US. Launchec1971Fontinued

Apogee and Perigee (in Launch date (G.m.t.) statute miles)- Spacecraft name Spacecraft data Period Remarks Cospar dcaignation (minutes>- Launch vehicle Inclination to Equator (degrees)

Objective: To test an infrared celestial mapping 360 Still in orbit, but experiment Gp” sensor system. 338 completed. 54A Spacecraft: Not announced. 95.8 Thor-Burner 2 90.2 June 15 Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 180 Decayed, Aug. 6, 1971. Defense and technology. 111 56A Spacecraft: Not announced. 89. 1 Titan IlID 96. 3

ElY 8 Objective: To place the satellite into an orbit that 392 Third of a series of cooperative plorer 44 (Solrad will enable it to monitor the sun’s X-ray and 269 NRL/NASA missions. All space- 10) ultraviolet emissions in order to better under- 95.3 craft o rations are functioning 58A ‘ stand the solar physical processes, and to improve 5 1.0 norm$ and all 15 scientific scout the prediction techniques of solar activity and instruments are operating satis- ionospheric disturbances. factorily and returning data. Spacecraft: Twelve-sided cylinder, 23-in. high and 30411. diameter. Four symmetrically placed 7-in. by 21-in. solar cell panels deployed after third- stage burnout. Spin-stabilized; carries 15 scientific experiments; two redundant telemetry transmitters. Weight: 253% Ibs. Objective : Development of spaceflight techniques 315 Still in orbit: and technology. 303 6OA Spacecraft : Not announced. 94.5 Thorad-Agena 75.0 Objective : To paform selenological inspection, N.A. Crew consisted of David R. i%1i615 (CSM 112) survey, and sampling of materials and surface Scott, commander; Alfred M. 63A features in a preselected area of the Hadley- Worden, command module Saturn V Apennine region; to emplace and activate sur- ames B. Irwin, lunar face experiments; to evaluate the capability of mod e pilot. Fourth successful the Apollo equipment to provide extended lunar lunar landing mission. Ex- surface stay Ume, increased EVA operations, and tensive geology traverses with surface mobility; to conduct in-fli ht experi- first lunar roving vehicle. ments and photoyphic tasks from funar orbit. Lwmodule landed at Spacecraft: Carried ull lunar landing con uration, 22:16:000 (G.m.t.) on July 30 including command module, service maule, and and lifted off again at 17:11:00 lunar module; also lunar roving vehicle, added (G.m.t.) on Aug. 2. Total lunar module consumables, and Scientific In- lunar stay time 66 hours, 55 strument Module (subsatellite) for extensive minutes. Three dual EVA’S lunar orbital scientific investigations. Total totalin 18 hours, 36 minutes. weight at initial Earth orbit insertion: 309,330- Total light time 295 hours, lbs; at translunar injection: 116,314-lbs.; 69,445 11 minutes, 53 seconds. CSM: 34-ft. long, 12.8-ft. diameter. Objective: To bring payload to lunar transfer in- Lunar strike. ?kki61VB (AS 510) jection; then to fly independently to impact the 63B moon in further seismic tests to be detected by Saturn V Apollo 12 and 14 ALSEP instruments. Spacecraft: A cylinder about 61.3-ft. long by 21.7- ft. in diameter. Total weight at impact, about 30,203 lbs. ply 26 Objective: To support lunar landing and takeoff N.A. unar Excursion for return to lunar orbit in support of tasks named Module (LM 11) above. 63C Spacecraft: Combined descent and ascent stages Saturn V about 13.5-ft. high, 12.3-ft. wide, and 10.3-ft. deep. Total weight about 36,155 lbs.

111 APPENDIXA-34ontinued Successful U.S. Launches-1971-Continued

Apogee and Perigee (in Launch date (G.m.t.) statutedes)-- Spacecraft name Spacecraft data Period Remarks Cospar designation (minutes+ Launch vehicle 'Inclination to Equator (degrees)

J~Y26 Objective: To pursue extensive, continuing lunar Lunar orbit: Still in orbit. Subsatellite scientific studies from lunar orbit. 88 63D Spacecraft: Hexagonal 31-111. long and 14-in. 63 Saturn V diameter with three 5-ft. booms extended; 119.8 carried magnetometer and charged particle 151.3 sensors. Weight: 80 lbs. Aug. 7 Objective: Energetic proton analyzer to study the 1,201 Decayed, Aug. 28, 1971. ov 1-20 intensities and energy distribution of protons 85 67A trapped in the earth's magnetic field, particle 105.9 Atlas energy and flux thermal detector to study the 92.0 effects of space plasmas on experimental antennas, and UV solar radiation intensity variations in wavelength and time. Spacecraft: Not announced. Aug. 7 Objective: Velocity maa spectrometer; atmas- 570 Still in orbit. ov 1-21 pheric composition sensor to measure ion 490 67B densities, composition and temperature; ELF/ 101.9 Atlas VLF antenna effects transceiver, operating on 87.6 7 frequencies and at 7 voltages, in 14 narrow bands and 1 broad band. Spacecraft: Includes 2-60 feet arms dipole antennas. Aug. 7 Objective: Accelerometers to model atmospheric 1, 115 Still in orbit. Cannonball 2 (OAR densities.-~~ 81 901 1 Spacecraft: Low altitude density sphere, ejected 104.2 67C from OV-1-20. 92.0 Atlas Aug. 7 Objective: Electric field measurement, ion density 406 Decayed Sept. 19, 1971. Musketball and composition sensors to measure variations in 81 (OAR 907) density during increased geomagnetic activity. 92. 3 67D Spacecraft: Sphere also carrying C-band trans- 87. 6 Atla ponder, ejected from OV 1-21. Au .7 Objective: To gather aerodynamic data for use in A$L 802 design and development of orbiting vehicles. 67E Spacecraft: 2-ft rigid-aluminum sphere, ejected Atlas from OV 1-21. Aug. 7 Objective: To gather aerodynamic data for use in 570 Still in orbit. AVL 802 design and development of orbiting vehicles. 474 67F Spacecraft: 7 ft inflatable s here of aluminum foil ioi. 6 Atlas and mylar, ejected from 8V 1-21. 87.5 Aug. 7 Objective: To gather aerodynamic data for use in 570 Still in orbit. AVL 802 design and development of orbiting vehicles. 483 67G Spacecraft: 7 ft inflatable grid sphere 1, of wire ioL8 Atlas mesh and sumbliming plastic skin, ejected from 87. 8 ov 1-21. Aug. 7 Objective: To gather aerodynamic data for use in 570 Still in orbit. AVL 802 design and development of orbiting vehicles. 483 67H Spacecraft: 7-ft inflatable grid sphere 2, of wire 101.8 Atlas mesh and subliming plastic skin, ejected from 87.6 ov 1-21. Aug. 7 Objective: Radar calibration target of one meter 569 Still in orbit. RTD 701 crw section. 481.~~ 675 Spacecraft: 44-in. rigid sphere of aluminum, 101.7 Atlas ejected from OV 1-21. 87. 6

112 A~PENDIXA-3-Continud Successf u I U. S. Launches-197 1Fontinued

Apogee and Perigee (in Launch date (G.m.t.) statute miles)- Spacecraft name Spacecraft data Period Remarks Cospar designation (minutes)- Launch vehicle Inclination to Equator (degrees)

~~ ~ Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 250 Decayed Sept. 3, 1971. and technology. 83 &?270A Spacecraft: Not announced. 89. 8 Titan IIIB-Agena 110.9 Aug. 16 Objective: To place the spacecraft into an appro- 562 Second cooperative France/United Eole (CAS1) priate earth orbit to analyze the meteorological 42 1 States project. French-built Co- 71A data acquired from constant density surface bal- 100.6 operative Applications Satellite Scout loons for the study of the characteristicsand move- 50. 1 launched successfully by NASA. ments of air masses. All spacecraft operatlons are Spacecraft: Octagonal-shaped prism 23-in. long functioning normally and moni- by 28-in. diameter. Eight 24-in. long by 11-in. torin air temperature and pres- wide rectangular polar panels extend from satel- sure 8om balloons released daily lite body. Stabilization system consists of 33-ft. from three sites in Argentina. long gravity gradient boom. A 400 MHz antenna resembling a truncated cone is usad to communicate with and receive data from the s acecraft. Silver cadmium battery. Weight: 187 lL. Sep. 10 Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 137 Decayed. Defense and technology. 105 Oct. 5, 1971. 76A Spacecraft: Not announced. 88. 3 Thorad- Agena 74. 9 Sep. 10 Objective: Development of spacecraft techniques 315 Still in orbit. Defense and technology. 303 76B Spacecraft: Not announced. 94. 5 Thorad-Agena 75.0 Sept. 29 Objective: To obtain high resolution data from 355 Although placed into non- os0 7 the solar corona in particular spectral bands 202 circular orbit by second-stage 83A in the XUV and in the visible regions during one 93. 5 launch vehicle anomaly, pitch Thorad-Delta solar rotation. 33. 1 angle was corrected by ground Spacecraft: Revolving 9-sided polyhedron 56-in. controllers and all spacecraft diameter made of aluminum honeycomb material. operations are functloning Rectangular-shaped sail, mounted on top of the normally. Spacecraft located wheel, carries the solar cell array and pointed and observed for the first time experiments. Spin stabilized; carries six scientific a large (class 2) solar flare; experiments. Overall height is 80 in. Weight: also obtained the first obser- 1,400 lbs. vations of the corona in white light and extreme ultraviolet. Sept. 29 Objective: To test NASA’s Manned Space Flight 354 Test and Training Satellite TETR 3 Network and to train MSFN personnel. 250 ejected successfully from Delta 83B Spacecraft: 45-lb. satellite carrying an S-Band 94.3 2d stage; satellite receives and Thorad-Delta transponder mounted in near section of Delta 33. 0 transmits signals simulating 2d stage; magnetically stabilized. those of the Apollo spacecraft. Oct. 14 Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 546 Still in orbit. Defense and technology. 494 87A Spacecraft: Not announced. 101.6 Thor-Burner 2 98.9

113 APPENDIXA-3-Continued Successful U.S. Launches-1971Fontinued

Apogee and Perigee (in Launch date (G.m.t.) statute miles)- Spacecraft name Spacecraft data Period Remarks Cospar designation (minutes)- Launch vehicle Inclination to Equator (degrees)

Oct. 17 Objective: To test advanced development payloads : 498 Still in orbit. SESP 1971-2 celestial mapping infrared scanner to test the 481 89A closed loop radiator/pump cooler and to gather 100-5 Thorad-Agena celestial background radiation pointed toward 92. 7 tracking ballistic missiles during midcourse of flight; 1,500 watt flexible roll-up solar cell array, with multiple deploy-retract cycles, to verify both mechanics and long term power generation characteristics; test of a secure command and control system; and study of energetic particles interaction with the ionosphere. Spacecraft: Basic Agena craft carries 5.5-ft. wide solar cell panels rolled up like window- shades which roll out on parallel extension arms stored in ribbon form which extend as stStubes to a length of 32 ft. To sustain the principal experiments, conventional arrays supply 500 watts of power. Oct. 21 Objective: To place in orbit an improved TIROS 922 Payload placed in preliminary Debris of ITOS B oppational weather satellite of the NOAA 182 orbit, but failed upon attempt 91A SerleS. 102. 7 to circularize orbit. Thorad-Delta Spacecraft: The base of the main body was about 102.5 40 in. by 40 in. height was about 40 in. Three solar panels were to extend outward from the structure. Total weight, about 675 lbs. Oct. 23 Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 244 Decayed Nov. 17, 1971. Defense and technology. 83 92A Spacecraft: Not announced. 89. 7 Titan LIIB-Agena 110.9 Nov. 3 Objective: To provide communications channels 22,255 Still in orbit. DSCS 2-1 for the automatic voice, automatic digital, and 22,250 95A secure voice communications networks of the 1,436. 1 Titan IIIC Defense Department. 2.6 Spacecraft: Carries single frequency conversion X-band repeaters, with a bandwidth of 410 MHz to carry up to 1,300 duplex voice channels, or a million data bits pez second. Spacecraft is cylindrical with 8 solar array curved panels generating 520 watts. Dimensions: 9-ft. diameter, 13-ft. tall. Final orbital weight: 1,200 lbs. Nov. 3 Objective: Same as above. 22,255 Still in orbit. DSCS 2-2 Spacecraft: Same as above. 22,250 95B 1,436. 1 Titan IIIC 2.6

114 APPENDIXA-34ontinued Successful U.S. Launchec1971Fontinued

Apogee and Perigee (in Launch date (G.m.t.) statute miles)- Spacecraft name Spacecraft data Period Remarks Cospar designation (minutap Launch vehicle Inclination to Equator (degrees)

Nov. 15 Objective: To measure the characteristics and 16, 799 Fourth spacecraft in a joint Explorer 45 (SSS) formation of the Earth’s ring current and devel- 137 Italian/United State cooper- Scout opment of main-phase magnetic storms; the 469.0 ative space program. Launched relation between magnetic storms, aurora, and 3.6 successfully from an Italian the acceleration of particles within the inner platform in the Indian Ocean magnetosphere and relative importance of vari- off the coast of Kenya, Africa ous diffusion mechanisms in populating the by an Italian crew. All space- radiation zones at a 4-5 Earth radii elliptical craft systems operating normally. equatorial orbit. Five of six experiments turned Spacecraft: 26-sided polyhedral shaped satellite on and operating satisfactorily. 25-in. diamater. 30-in. boom along the spin axis supports a three-axis fluxgate magnetometer. Search coil magnetometers are packaged on two of the 2-ft. long radial booms and electric field spheres are in the two 9-ft. long booms. Total length with booms deployed 19 ft. Spacecraft body covered with solar cells; spin stabilized; silver cadmium battery; four antennas six experiments. Weight: 110 Ibs. Dec. 11 Objective: To investigate interactions among the 365 U.K./U.S. Cooperative program Ariel 4 (UK-4) plasma, charged particle streams and electro- 293 All experiments which have 108A magnetic waves in the upper ionosphere. 95.2 been turned on are operating Scout Spacecraft: A cylindrical body with booms. The 83.0 satisfactorily. main body is 30 in. in diameter and 36in. long. After launch, the four booms are deployed increasing the diameter to 11 ft., and the antennas are deployed to 45 ft. Weight: 218 Ibs. Dec. 14 Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 62 1 Defense and technology. 61 1 Still in orbit. 1lOA, 1 lOC, 1lOD, 110E Spacecraft: Not announced. 104.9 Thoral-Agena 70.0 Dec. 18 Objective: To provide equivalent of 3,000 to 9,000 22,387 Launched by NASA for Comsat Intelsat IV (F-3) telephone circuits simultaneous1 or 12 color TV 22,196 Corp., manager of INTELSAT. 115A channels, or a combination oltelephone, TV, 1,458 Second satellite in improved Atlas-Centaur and other forms of communications traffic. 0.47 INTELSAT IV series. Will be Spacecraft: Cylindrical 93.5-in. diameter and stationed over Atlantic Ocean 17.6 ft. high; spin stabilized; 12 communications at 19.5O West longitude. re eaters (transponders); 6 antennas; 42,240 SOLcells; weight after apogee motor fire; 1,548 Ibs.

115 452-316 0 - TI - 8 APPENDIXA-4 Aeronautics Events of 1971 Jan. 1 ...... The S-67 Blackhawk helicopter set a world’s speed record of 216.7 mph over a 3 Km. closed course. Jan. 7...... A statement of U.S. Government policy to promote satellite telecommunications for International Civil Aviation operations was released. Jan. 15 ...... The new V/STOL Wind Tunnel at the Langley Research Center became operational providing greatly improved testing capability for scaled models. Mar. 9...... A modified F-8 jet aircraft flew su ersonic for the first time with the NASA high-speed supercritical wing. Mar. 29.. . . . The X-24 lifting body research veEicle flew to its maximum speed of 1,048 mph. Mar. 30.. . . . The joint DOT-NASA Civil Aviation Research and Development Policy Study (CARD) was completed. The Study defined the direction of aeronautical technology in the mid-70’s and beyond. Apr. 30 ...... Pacific Southwest Airlines became the first airline to equip its entire fleet with new jet engine combustors reducing visible smoke. May 21 ...... Congress voted to terminate the United States SST program. June 15.. . . . A new Terminal Area Control concept was initiated which separates air traffic around major terminals. July 15...... The McDonnell Douglas DC-10 became the first commercial airplane certified under the new Federal Noise regulation, Part 36. Aug. 5., . . . . The McDonnell Douglas DC-10 “airbus” made its first commercial flight, which lasted 3 hours 18 minutes between Los An eles and Chicago. Aug. 25.. . . . The M2-#3 lifting body research vehicle made its first supersonic flight. Sept. 2...... The F-14 fi hter aircraft successfully demonstrated the first automatically programable variable wing sweep. Sept. 6...... The Anglo-french Concorde 001 supersonic transport made its first trans-Atlantic test flight. Sept. 9...... The Cessna Citation, a small twin-engine jet airplane, was certified for commercial operations. Oct. 15...... The FAA established a rule requiring emergency locator transmitters on all aircraft (except turbojets, scheduled air carriers, and icultural aircraft). Oct. 26...... The U.S. Army%H54B helicopter set a new world altitude record of 16,798 ft. while carrying a payload of 10,OOO kilograms. Nov. 16.. . The General Electric Quiet Experimental Engine successfully completed initial tests in a NASA program to reduce jet engine noise. Dec. 3 ...... The NASA let c03tracts on Phase I, competitive design, of a program to develop a quiet experimental short take-off and landing (STOL) transport research aircraft.

APPENDIXB U.S. Applications Satellites 1958-1971

Date Name Launch vehicle Remarks

GEODESY

Oct. 31, 1962 Anna 1B Thor-Able Star Used 3 independent measuring techniques : Doppler frequency shift, flashing lights, and radio triangulation. Jan. 11, 1964 Secor I Thor-Agena D Uses radio triangulation and trilateration. Oct. 10, 1964 Beacon-Explorer scout Conducted reflecting-light geodetic measurements. XXII Mar. 9, 1965 Secor I11 Thor-Agena D Mar. 11, 1965 Secor I1 Thor-Able Star Apr. 3, 1965 Secor IV Atlas-Agena D Apr. 29, 1965 Beacon-Explorer scout XXVII Aug. 10, 1965 Secor V scout Nov. 6, 1965 GEOS-I Explorer Thor-Del ta XXIX June 9, 1966 Secor VI Atlas-Agena D June 23, 1966 Pageos I Thor-Agena D Spacecraft is a 100-foot-diameter balloon used as a photographic target to make geodetic measurements. Aug. 19, 1966 Secor VI1 Atlas-Agena D Oct. 5, 1966 Secor VI11 Atlas-Agena D June 29, 1967 Secor IX Thor-Burner I1 Jan. 11, 1968 GEOS I1 Thor-Delta Apr. 14, 1969 Secor XI11 Thor-Agena D Apr. 8, 1970 Top0 I Thor-Agena D

116 APPENDIXMontinued U.S. Applications Satellites 1958-1971Fontinued

Date Name Launch vehicle Remarks

COMMUNICATIONS Dec. 18, 1958 Score Atlas B First Comsat, carried taped messages. Aug. 12, 1960 Echo I Thor-Delta 100-foot ballon served as first passive Comsat, relayed voice and TV signals. Oct. 4, 1960 Courier 1B Thor-Able Star First active-repeater Comsat. Mar. 30, 1961 Lofti I Thor-Able Star Low-frequency experiment; failed to separate from rest of payload. at.21, 1961 westford I Atlas-Agena B First attempt to establish filament belt around earth; failed to disperse as planned. Dec. 12, 1961 Oscar I Thor-Agena B First amateur radio “ham” satellite. June 2, 1962 Oscar I1 Thor-Agena B July 10, 1962 Telstar I Thor-Delta Industry-furnished spacecraft in nearearth orbit. Dec. 13. 1962 Relay I Thor-Del ta Active-repeater Comsat. Feb. 14; 1963 Syncom I Thor-Delta Successfully injected into near-synchronous orbit but communication system failed at orbital injection. May 7, 1963 Telstar I1 Thor-Delta May 9, 1963 Westford I1 Atlas-Agena B Filaments formed reflective belt around earth as planned for emergency communications experiment. July 26, 1963 Syncom I1 Thor-Delta First successful synchronous orbit active-repeater Comsat. After experimental phase, used operationally by DOD. Jan. 21, 1964 Relay I1 Thor-Delta Jan. 25, 1964 Echo I1 Thor-Agena B 135-foot ballon, passive Comsat, first joint use by United States and U.S.S.R. Aug. 19, 1964 Syncom I11 Thor-Del ta Synchronous-orbit Comsat ; after experimental phase, used operationally by DOD. Feb. 11, 1965 LES I Titan IIIA Experimental payload did not reach intended apogee. Mar. 9, 1965 Oscar I11 Thor-Agena D Apr. 6, 1965 Intelsat I (Early Thor-Delta First Intelsat (Comsat Corporation) spacecraft, 240 2-way voice Bird) circuits; commercial transatlantic communication service initiated June 28, 1965. May 6, 1965 LES I1 Titan IIIA All solid state advanced experiment. Dec. 21, 1965 LES I11 Titan IIIC All solid state, UHF signal generator. LES IV All solid state SHF or X band experiment. Oscar IV June 16, 1966 IDCSP 1-7 Titan IIIC Initial defense communication satellites program (1DCSP)- Active-repeater spacecraft in near-synchronous orbit, random spaced. Oct. 26,1966 Intelsat 11-F1 Thor-Delta(TAT) First in Intelsat I1 series spacecraft; 240 2-way voice circuits or 1 color TV channel. Orbit achieved not adequate for commercial operation. Nov. 3, 1966 OV 4-1T Titan IIIC Transmitter and receiver for low-power satellite-to-satellite F OV 4-IR layer experiments. Dec. 7, 1966 ATS I Atlas-Agena D Multipurpose, including VHF exchange of signals with aircraft. Jan. 11, 1967 Intelsat 11-F2 Thor-Delta(TAT) Transpacific commercial communication service initiated Jan. 11, 1967. Jan. 18, 1967 IDCSP 8-15 Titan IIIC Mar. 22, 1967 Intelsat 11-F3 Thor-Delta(TAT) Positioned to carry transatlantic commercial communication traffic. Apr. 6, 1967 ATS I1 Atlas-Agena D Multipurpose, but did not attain planned orbit. July 1, 1967 IDCSP 16-18 Titan IIIC LES V Tactical military communications tests with aircraft, ships, and mobile land stations from near synchronous orbit. DATS Electronically despun antenna experiment. DODGE Multipurpose, gravity stabilized. Sept. 27, 1967 Intelsat 11-F4 Thor-Delta(TAT) Positioned to carry commercial transpacific communication traffic. Nov. 5, 1967 ATS 111 Atlas-Agena D Multipurpose including communications. June 13, 1968 IDCSP 19-26 Titan IIIC Aug. 10, 1968 ATS IV Atlas-Centaur Multipurpose; failed to separate from Centaur, did not reach planned orbit. Sept. 26, 1968 LES 6 Titan IIIC Continued military tactical communications experiments. Dec. 18, 1968 Intelsat I11 (F-2) Thor-Delta(TAT) First in Intelsat I11 series of spacecraft, 1,200 2-way voice circuits or 4 color TV channels. Positioned over Atlantic to carry traffic between North America, South America, Africa, and Europe. Entered commercial service on Dec. 24, 1968. b. 6, 1969 Intelsat III(F-3) Thor-Delta (TAT) Stationed over Pacific to carry commercial traffic between the United States, Far East, and Australia. .9, 1969 Tacsat I Titan IIIC Demonstrated feasibility of using a spaceborne re eater to satisfy selected communications needs of DOD mob& forces- I17 APPENDIX B-Continued U.S. Applications Satellites 1958-1971Fontinued

Date Name Launch vehicle Remarks

COMMUNICATIONS-Contiued May 22, 1969 Intelstat III(F-4) Thor-Delta(TAT) Stationed over Pacific to replace F-3 which was moved westwrad to the Indian Ocean. Completes global coverage. July 26,1969 Intelsat III(F-5) Thor-Delta(TAT) Spacecraft failed to achieve the proper orbit. Not usable. August 12, 1969 ATS V Atlas Centaur Multipurpose; for millimeter and L band communications; entered flat spin. Nov. 22, 1969 Skvnet I Thor-Delta( TAT Launched for the United Kingdom in response to an agreement (IDCSP-A) to augment the IDCSP program. Jan. 15, 1970 Intelsat III(F-6) Thor-Delta (TAT) Stationed over Atlantic to carry commercial traffic between the United States, Europe, Latin America, and the Middk East. Jan. 23, 1970 Oscar V Thor-Delta(TAT) Ham radio satellite built by amateur radio operators at Mel- (Australis) bourne University, Melbourne, Australia. Mar. 20, 1970 N ATOSATII Thor-Delta (TAT) First NATO satellite, stationed over Atlantic to carry military (NATO-A) traffic between the United States and other NATO countries. Apr. 23, 1970 Intelsat I11 (F-7) Thor-Delta (TAT) Stationed over Atlantic to carry commercial traffic between the United States, Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. Jul. 23, 1970 Intelsat I11 (F-8) Thor-Delta (TAT) Spacecraft failed to achieve the proper orbit. Nor usable. Last launch of Intelsat I11 series. Aug. 22, 1970 Skynet I1 Thor-Delta (TAT) Launched for the United Kingdom in response to an agreement (IDCSP-B) to augment the IDCSP program. Spacecraft failed to achieve the proper orbit. Jan. 26, 1971 Intelsat IV (F-2) Atlas-Centaur First in Intelsat IV series of spacecraft; 3-9,OOO 2-way voice circuits or 12 color TV channels. Positioned over the Atlantic. Feb. 3, 1971 NATOSAT-I1 Thor-Delta (TAT) Second NATO satellite, stationed over the Atlantic to carry (NATO-B) military traffic. Nov. 3, 1971 DSCS 2-1,.2 Titan IIIC Operational defense communications satellites launched as a pair to 24-hour synchronous orbits to provide hi h capacity voice, digital, and secure voice communications for mditary networks. Dec. 19, 1971 Intelsat IV (F-3) Atlas Centaur Second in new high-capacity series. NAVIGATION

Apr. 13, 1960 Transit 1B Thor-Able Star First navigation satellite. Used Doppler frequency shift for Dosition determination. Transit 2A Thor-Able Star Transit 3B Thor-Able Star Transit 4A Thor-Able Star Used the first spacecraft nuclear SNAP-3 as a secondary._ power supply. Nw. 15,1961 Transit 4B Thor-Able Star Dec. 18, 1962 Transit 5A Scout Operational prototype, power failed during first day. June 15,1963 NavSat Scout Used gravity radient stabilization system. Sept. 28, 1963 NavSat Thor-Able Star Used first nu3ear SNAP-SA as primary power supply. Dec. 5, 1963 NavSat Thor-Able Star June4,1964 NavSat Scout Oct. 6, 1964 NavSat Thor-Able Star Dec. 13, 1964 NavSat Thor-Able Star Mar. 11, 1965 NavSat Thor-Able Star June 24,1965 NavSat Thor-Able Star Aug. 13,1965 NavSat Thor-Able Star Dec. 22, 1965 NavSat Scout Jan. 28,1966 NavSat Scout Mar. 25, 1966 NavSat scout May 19, 1966 NavSat Scout Aug. 18,1966 NavSat Scout A r. 13, 1967 NavSat Scout day 18, 1967 NavSat Scout Sept. 25, 1967 NavSat Scout Mar. 1, 1968 NavSat Scout Aug. 27, 1970 NavSat Scout

118 APPENDIX B-Continued U.S. Applications Satellites 1958-19714ontinued

Date Name Launch vehicle Remarks

WEATHER OBSERVATION Apr. 1, 1960 Tiros I Thor-Able First weather satellite providing cloud-cover photography. Nov. 23. 1960 Tiros I1 Thor-Delta uiy12,' 1961 Tiros 111 Thor-Delta Ieb. 8, 1962 Tiros IV Thor-Delta June 19, 1962 Tuos v Thor-Delta SeDt. 18. 1962 Tuos VI Thor-Delta uhe 19,' 1963 Tiros VI1 Thor-Delta .b ec. 21, 1963 Tiros VI11 Thor-Delta First weather satellite designed to transmit continuously local cloud conditions to ground stations equipped with APT receivers. Aug. 28, 1964 Nimbus I Thor-Agena B Carried advanced videcon camera system, APT, and a high resolution infrared radiometer for night pictures. Tan. 22. 1965 Tiros IX Thor-Delta First weather satellite in a sun-synchronous orbit. 2,-'1965 Tiros X Thor-Delta eb. 3, 1966 ESSA 1 Thor-Delta First operational weather satellite; carried 2 wide-angle TV camera systems. Feb. 28, 1966 ESSA 2 Thor-Delta Complemented ESSA I with 2 wide-angle APT cameras. May 15, 1966 Nimbus I1 Thor-Agena B Oct. 2, 1966 ESSA 3 Thor-Delta Odd-number ESSA spacecraft carry 2 advanced videcon camera systems. Even-numbered spacecraft carry 2 automatic picture transmission camera systems. Dec. 6, 1966 ATS-1 Atlas-Agena D Provided continuous black-and-white cloud-cover pictures from a synchronous orbit, using a Suomi camera system. Jan. 26, 1967 ESSA 4 Thora-Delta Apr. 20, 1967 ESSA 5 Thor-Delta Nov. 5, 1967 ATS-3 Atlas-Agena Provided continuous color cloud-cover pictures from a synchronous orbit, using 3 Suomi camera systems.

~Nav. - . -~10. 1967 ESSA 6 Thor-Delta Aug. 16: 1968 ESSA 7 Thor-Delta Dec. 15, 1968 ESSA 8 Thor-Delta Feb. 26, 1969 ESSA 9 Thor-Delta Apr. 14, 1969 Nimbus I11 Thor-Agena Provided first vertical temperature profile on a global basis of the atmosphere from.the spacecraft to the Earth's surface. Jan. 23, 1970 ITOS I Thor-Delta Second generation operational meteorological satellite. (Tiros M) Apr. 8, 1970 Nimbus IV Thor-Agena Fifth in a series of 7 advanced research and development weather satellites. Dec. 11, 1970 NOAA-1 Thor-Delta Second generation operational meteorological satellite. (ITOS-A) Aug. 16, 1971 Eoie (CAS'l) Scout French satellite to gather data from constant density surface ballons relaying meteorological data for the study of the characteristics and movements of air masses. New balloons are released daily from three sites in Argentian, for this cooperative French/U.S. project.

119 APPENDIX c History of U.S. and Soviet Manned Space Flights

Spacecraft Launch date Crew 'Flight time Highlights

Vostok 1 Apr. 12, 1961 Yuri A. Gagarin 1 hr. 48 mins. First manned flight. Mercury- May 5, 1961 Alan N. Shepard, Jr. 15 mins. First U.S.flight; suborbital. Redstone 3 Mercury- July 21, 1961 Virgil I. Grissom 16 mins. Suborbital; capsule sank after landing. Redstone 4 Vostok 2 Aug. 6,1961 Gherman S. Titov 25 hrs. 18 mins. First flight exceeding 24 hrs. Mercury- Feb. 20,1962 John H. Glenn, Jr. 4 hn. 55 mins. First American to orbit. Atlas 6 Mercury- May 24,1962 M. Scott Carpenter 4 hrs. 56 mins. Landed 250 mi. from target. Atlas 7 Vostok 3 Aug. 11,1962 Andrian G. NiLolayev 94 hrs. 22 mins. First dual mission (with Vostok 4) Vostok 4 Aug. 12, 1962 Pavel R. Popovich 70 hrs. 57 mins. Came within 4 mi. of Vostok 3. Mercury- Oct. 3, 1962 Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 9 hrs. 13 mins. Landed 5 mi. from target. Atlas 8 Mercury- May 15, 1963 L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 34 hrs. 20 mins. First long U.S. flight. Atlas 9 Vostok 5 June 14,1963 Valery F. Bykovsky 119 hrs. 6 mins. Second dual mission (with Vostok 6). Vostok 6 June 16,1963 Valentina V. Tereshkova 70 hn. 50 mins. First woman in space; within 3 mi. of Vostok 5. Voskhod 1 Oct. 12,1964 Vladimir M. Komarov 24 hrs. 17 mins. First 3-man crew. Konstantin P. Feoktistov Dr. Boris G. Yegorov Voskhod 2 Mar. 18,1965 Aleksei A. Leonov 26 hrs. 2 mins. First extravehicular activity (Leonov, 10 Pavel 1. Belyayev mins.). Gemini 3 Mar. 23,1965 Virgil I. Grissom 4 hrs. 53 mins. First U.S. 2-man flight; first manual maneu- John W. Young vers in orbit. Gemini 4 June 3,1965 James A. McDivitt 97 hrs. 56 mins. 21-minute extravehicular activity (White). Edward H. White, 2d Gemini 5 Aug. 21,1965 L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 190 hrs. 55 mins. Longest-duration manned flight to date. Charles Conrad, Jr. Gemini 7 Dec. 4,1965 Frank Borman 330 hrs. 35 mins. Longest-duration manned flight. James A. hell, Jr. Gemini 6-A Dee. 15,1965 Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 25 hrs. 51 mins. Rendezvous within 1 foot of Gemini 7. Thomas P. Stafford Gemini 8 Mar. 16,1966 Neil A. Armstrong 10 hm. 41 mins. First docking of 2 orbiting space craft (Gemini David R. Scott 8 with Agena target rocket). Gemini +A June 3,1966 Thomas P. Stafford 72 hrs. 21 mins. Extravehicular activity; rendezvous. Eugene A. Cernan Gemini 10 July 18,1966 John W. Young 70 hrs. 47 mins. First dual rendezvous (Gemini 10 with Michael Collins Agena 10, then Agena 8). Gemini 11 Sept. 12,1966 Charles Conrad, Jr. 71 hrs. 17 mins. First initial-orbit rendezvous; first tethered Richard F. Gordon, Jr. flight; highest Earth-orbit altitude (853 miles). - Gemini 12 Nov. 11, 1966 James A. Lovell, Jr. 94 hrs. 35 mins. Longest extravehicular activity (Aldrin, 5 Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. hours 37 minutes). soyuz 1 Apr. 23, 1967 Vladimir M. Komarov 26 hrs. 37 mins. Cosmonaut killed in reentry accident. Apollo 7 Oct. 11, 1968 Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 260 hrs. 9 &. First U.S. 3-man mission. Donn F. Me R. Walter Cunningham Soyuz 3 Oct. 26, 1968 Geagi BCregOVOY 94 hrs. 51 mins. Maneuvered near unmanned Soyuz 2.

120 APPENDIXC-Continued History of US. and Soviet Manned Space Flights-Continued

Spacecraft Launch date Crew Flight time Highlights

Apollo 8 Dec. 21,1968 Frank Borman 147 hrs. 1 min. First manned orbit(s) of moon; first manned James A. Lovell, Jr. departure from earth’s sphere of influence; William A. Anders highest speed ever attained in manned flight. soyuz 4 Jan. 14, 1969 Vladimir Shatalov 71 hrs, 23 mins. Soyuz 4 and 5 docked and transferred 2 soyuz 5 Jan. 15, 1969 Boris Volynov 72 hrs. 56 mins. Cosmonauts from Sop 5 to Sop 4. Alecksey Yeliscyev Khrunov Apollo 9 Mar. 3,1969 ames A. McDivitt 241 hrs. 1 min. Successfully simulated in earth orbit operation avid R. Scott of lunar module to landing and takeoff Russell L. Schweickart from lunar surface and rejoining with command module. Apollo 10 May 18, 1969 Thomas P. Stafford 192 hrs. 3 mins. Successfully demonstrated complete system John W. Young including lunar module decent to 47,000 Eugene A. Cernan ft. from the lunar surface. Apollo 11 July 16,1969 Neil A. Armstrong 195 hrs. 19 mins. First manned landing on lunar surface and Michael Collins safe return to earth. First return of rock and Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. soil samples to earth, and manned deployment of experiments on lunar surface. Soyuz 6 Oct. 11, 1969 Georgiy Shonin 118 hrs. 42 mins. Soyuz 6, 7 and 8 operated as a group flight Valeriy Kubasov without actually docking. Each conducted soyuz 7 Oct. 12,1969 Anatoliy Filipchencko 118 hrs. 41 mins. certain experiments, including welding and Vladislav Volkov earth and celestial observations. Viktor Gorbatko Soyuz 8 Oct. 13,1969 Vladimir Shatalov 118 hrs. 50 mins. Aleksey Yeliseyev Apollo 12 Nov. 14, 1969 Charles Conrad, Jr. 244 hrs. 36 mins. Second manned lunar landing. Continued Richard F. Gordon, Jr. manned exploration and retrieved parts of Alan L. Bean Surveyor I11 spacecraft which landed in Ocean of Storms on Apr. 19, 1967. Apollo 13 Apr. 11, 1970 ames A. Lovell, Jr. 142 hrs. 55 mins. Mission aborted due to explosion in the red W. Hake, Jr. service module. Ship circled moon, with Johnb L. Swigert, Jr. crew using LEM as “lifeboat” until just prior to reentry. soyuz 9 June 1, 1970 Andrian G. Nikolayev 424 hrs. 59 mins. Longest manned space flight lasting 17 days Vitaliy I. Sevastianov 16 hrs. 59 mins. Apollo 14 Jan. 31, 1971 Alan B. Shepard 216 hrs. 42 mins. Third manned lunar landing. Miasion demon- Stuart A. Roosa strated pin-point landing capability and Edgar D. Mitchell continued manned exploration. soyuz 10 Apr. 22, 1971 Vladimir Shatalov 47 hrs. 46 mins. Docked with Salyut 1, but crew did not Aleksey Yeliseyev board space station launched April 19. Nikolai Rukavishnikov Crew recovered Apr. 24, 1971. sop11 June 6,1971 Georgiy Timofeyevich 570 hrs. 22 mins. Docked with Salyut 1 and Sop 11 crew Dobrovolskiy occu ied space station for 22 days. Crew Vladislov Nikolayevich peristed during final phase of Sop 11 Volkov capsule recovery on June 30, 1971. Vitor Ivanovich Patsay rev Apollo 15 July 26, 1971 David R. Scott 295 hrs. 11 mins. Fourth manned lunar land@ and first Alfred M. Worden 53 secs. Apollo “J” series mission which carry the James Bensen Irwin Lunar Roving Vehicle. Worden’s in-flight EVA of 38 min. 12 sea. was performed during return trip.

121 APPENDIXD-1 U.S. Space Launch Vehicles

Thrust Payload (pounds) (in thou- Max . Vehicle stag- Propellant 4 sandsof dia . Heights 100NM Escape First pounds) (feet) (feet) orbit launch scout ...... 1. Algol (IIB) ...... Solid ...... 100.9 3.3 64.4 410 5011965(60) 2 . castor I1 ...... Solid ...... 60.7 3. Antans I1 ...... Solid ...... 20.9 4 . Altair I11 or FW4 . Solid ...... 5.9 Thrust-augmented 1. Th~r(SLV-25) LOX/RP 205 11 109 4. 300 1. 050 1972(60) Thor-Delta . plus . nine TX 354-5 ... Solid ...... 2 57.3 2 . Delta (DSV.3) ... 9.... 2 3 . TE 364 ...... 15 Thrust-augmented 1. Thor (SLV-2H) 170 11 110 2. 900 ...... 1966(60) Thor.Agena . PIG. three Tx 354-5 ... Solid ...... 252 z . Agena ...... IRFNA/UDMH 16 Atlas-Burner I1..... 1. Atlas booster and LOX/RP 400 10 84 6. 000 700 1968 SUStainQ (SLV.3A) . 2 . Burner I1 ...... Solid ...... 10 Atlas-Agena ...... 1. Atlas booster and LOX/RP 400 10 100 8. 000 1. 430 1968(60) sustainer (SLV.3A) . 2 . Agena ...... IRFNA/UDMH .... 16 Titan IIIBAgena ... 1. LR-87 ...... Na04/Avozine ..... 464 10 113 9. 200 1. 700 1966 2 . LR-9 1 ...... N,O./Aerozine. .... 102 3. Agena ...... IRFN/UDMH ..... 16 Titan IIIC ...... 1. Two 5-scpent Solid ...... 2. 400 10x30 108 28. 000 6. 000 1965 120" &ametcr. 2 . LR-87 ...... N204/Aerozine..... 523 3. LR-91 ...... NaO,/Avozine ..... 102 4.. . Transtage...... Na04 Aerozine ..... 16 Titan IIID ...... 1. Two J-segment sod...... 2. 400 10x30 95 20. 000 ...... 1971 120" diameter. 2. LR-87 ...... NsOI/Aerozine .... 523 0 3. LR-91 ...... N,O,/Aerozine ..... 102 Titan 1IID.Centaur . 1. Two 5-segment Solid ...... 2. 400 10x30 128 ...... 11. 000 1974(est.) 12W diameter. 2. LR-87 ...... N*O4/Aerozine .... 523 3. LR-9 1...... N304/Aerozine..... 102 4 . Centaur (Two LOX/LH ...... 30 RL-10) . Atlas.Centaur ...... 1. Atlas bposter and LOX/RP ...... 400 10 103 11. 300 2. 700 1967(62) susmner. 2. Centaur (Two LOX/LH ...... 30 RL-10) . Saturn IB ...... 1. SIB (Ei ht H-1) . LOX/RP ...... 1. 640 .21.6 142 40. OOO ...... 1966 2. S-IVB (&e 5-2) . LOX/LH ...... 230 SaturnV ...... 1. SIC(Five F-1 ) . . LOX/RP ...... 7. 570 33 281 285. 000 103. 000 1967 2 . S-I1 (Five 5-2) ... LOX/LH ...... 1. 150 3. S-IVB (One 5-2) . LOX/LH ...... 230

~~ 1 The date of first launch applies to this latest modification combing in a single mixture both fuel and oxidizer-Solid; with a date in parentheses for the initial version . Inhibited Red Fumin Nitric Acid and Unsymmetrical Di- a Each motor . methylh drazine-IR#N/UDMH; Nitrogen Tetroxide and * Height to spacecraft interface. 50% UhHand 50% Hydrazine (NsH.)-Na04/Aerozine. 4 Propellant abbreviations used are as follows: Li uid Liquid Oxygen andLiquid Hydrogen-LOX/LH . Oxygen and a modified KerosentLOX/RP; Solid propeaant

122 APPENDIXD-2 U.S. Successful Launches to Earth Orbit or Beyond By Launch Vehicle, 1958-71

Launch vehicle Subtotals Launch vehicle Subtotals

Thor-Able. ... 3 Titan IIIBAgena ...... 34 Thor-Able Star...... 14 Titan IIIC ...... 16 81 Titan IIID ...... 1 160 5 TITAN total...... 65 13 SCOUT total...... 46

THOR total...... 276 Saturn I ...... 6 Saturn IB...... 3 Atlas ...... 17 Atlas- Agena ...... 90 SATURN I total...... 9 Atlas-Centaur ...... 20 SATURN V total...... 10 REDSTONE total. 3 ATLAS total...... 127 JUPITER total...... 4 VANGUARD total...... 3 Titan I1 ...... 11 Titan IIIA...... 3 Grand total...... 543

~PENDIXE Nuclear Power Systems for Space Application

Designation Application Status

SNAP-3 Navigation satellites (DOD) Units launched in June and November 1961. Unit still operating at reduced power levels. SNAP-SA Navigation satellites (DOD Units launched in September and December 1963. Unitsstill operating at reduced power level. Third satellite failed to orbit in April 1964. SNAP- 19 Nimbus B weather satellite (NASA) First Nimbus B launch aborted; Pu-238 fuel recovered from offshore waters. Replacement unit launched in April 1969 and has operated continuously at gradually reducing power levels since that time. SNAP-27 Apollo lunar surface experiment First SNAP-27 placed on lunar surface by Apollo 12 astronaut in package (NASA) November 1969. System is supplying total power for ALSEPS of Apollo 14 & 15. SNAP-1OA Unmanned missions Tested in orbit in 1965. Transit 1 Navigation satellites (DOD) Development program underway. Pioneer 1 Jupiter flyby mission (NASA) Modified SNAP-19 generator system will be used. Viking- 1 Mars unmanned lander mission Modified SNAP-19 generator- system will be used. (NASA) Multi-Hundred Outer planet missions (NASA) Development program underway. Watt 1

1 Planned missions. APPENDDLF-1 Space Activities of the U.S. Government 13-y~~~SUbthfARY AND 1973 BUDOETRECOM-NDATIONS, JANUARY 1972-N~~OBLIOATIONAL AUTEIOkITY [In millions of dollars (may not add due to rounding)]

NASA Department Total ofDefense AEC Commerce Interior Agriculture NSF space Total Space1

1959...... 305.4 235.4 489.5 34.3 ...... 759.2 1960 ...... 523.6 461.5 560.9 43.3 ...... 1 1,065.8 1961...... 964.0 926.0 813.9 67.7 ...... 6 1.808.2 1962 ...... 1,824.9 1,796.8 1, 298. 2 147.8 50.7 ...... 1.3 31294.8 1963...... 3,673.0 3,626.0 1,549.9 213. 9 43.2 ...... 1.5 5,434.5 1964 ...... 5,099.7 5,046.3 1, 599. 3 210.0 2.8 ...... 3.0 6,861.4 1965...... 5,249.7 5,167.6 1, 573. 9 228.6 12.2 ...... 3.2 6.985.5 1966...... 5, 174.9 5,094.5 1,688.8 186. 8 26.5 4.1 ...... 3.2 7;003.9 1967...... 4,967.6 4,862.2 1,663.6 183. 6 29. 3 3.0 ...... 2.8 6,744.5 1968...... 4.588.8 4.452.5 1. 921. 8 145. 1 28. 1 2. 0 0. 5 3. 2 6. 553. 2 1969...... 3i990.9 3i822.0 2i013.0 118.0 20.0 2. 0 0.7 1.9 5; 977.6 1970...... 3,745.8 3,547.0 1,678.4 102.8 8. 0 2.0 0. 8 2.4 5,341.4 1971...... 3.311.2 3.001.3 1,512.3 94.3 27. 4 5. 2 0.8 2. 4 4,643. 7 Bud et: 1952...... 3,294.6 3,058.7 1,424.9 57. 7 31.4 9.8 3.5 2.8 4, 588.8 1973...... 3,377.6 3,082.3 1, 782.8 66.4 44.6 9.8 3.5 2.8 4,992. 2

1 Excludes amounts for aviation technology. Source: Office of Management and Budget.

U. S. SPACE BUDGET - NEW OBLIGATIONAL AUTHORITY

-0th Dtlenrc BILLIONS OF DOLLARS 0NASA 8.0

1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1961 1969 1970 1971 1971 1973 RfOUtSl NASC SIAfI IAN 1912

124 APPENDIXF-2 Space Activities Budget, January 1972 [In millions of dollars]

New obligational authority Expenditures 1971 1972 1973 1971 1972 1973 actual estimate estimate actual estimate estimate

Federal space programs: NASA 1...... 3,001. 3 3,058. 7 3,082. 3 3, 171.0 2, 953. 7 2,940. 3 Defense ...... 1,512. 3 1,424.9 1, 782.8 1,693.0 1,487.0 1,647.0

AEC ...... 94. 3 57.7 66.4-~.~ 97. 3 62.5 56.0 Commerce ...... 27.4 31.4 44.6 29.8 25. 1 35.6 Interior...... 5.2 9.8 9.8 4.5 8.6 8.6 NSF ...... 2.4 2.8 2.8 2.4 2.8 2.8 Agriculture ...... 0.8 3.5 3. 5 1.0 3.0 3.2 Total ...... 4,643. 7 4, 588.8 4,992.2 4,999. 0 4,542.7 4,693. 5 NASA : Manned space flight...... 1, 781.8 1,633. 7 1,572.9 1,884.8 1,636.6 1,571. 1 Space science and applications...... 704.2 893. 1 1,013. 1 660.6 765.7 853.3 Space technology...... 264.0 214.6 171.4 272.0 220.0 187.9 Aviation technology...... 209.9 235.9 295.3 209.6 226.0 250.7 Supporting activities...... 362.7 330.3 336. 1 365.0 344.4 339.2 Less receipts...... -11.4 -13.0 -11.2 -11.4 -13.0 -11.2 Total NASA ...... 3,211.2 3,294.6 3,377.6 3, 380. 6 3, 179. 7 3, 191.0

~~ ~ 1 Excludes amounts for aviation technology. Source: Office of Management and Budget.

Aeronautics Budget [In millions of dollars]

New obligational authority 1971 1972 1973 estimate estimate

Federal aeronautics programs: NASA' ...... 209.9 235.9 295.3 DeDartment of Defense 1...... 1.707.5 1,984. 3 1,947.5 Department of Transportation...... 72.8 98. 3 102.2 Total ...... 1,990.2 2,318.5 2, 345.0

'R.&D.,R.&P.M.,C.ofF. Source: Office of Management and Budget. * R.D.T. & E. aircraft and related equipment. Note: Some of the estimates shown in the above table are * Office of Sec. of Trans. and FAA as of December 31, 1971, and may not agree with final budget figures.

125 US. 0011ERNMENT PRINTING CfFlCE:1972 0-452-316