International Influences and Local Adaptation in Urban Development A Research Note from City, Central Vietnam

Tim Kaiser

Abstract: As the built environment of urban areas is the result of interactions between different actors and power relations, researching urban dynamics in Vinh City in Central Vietnam’s Nghe An province reveals a rich field of international influences and local adaptations. Since the late 19th century, with the establishment of French Colonialism in Indochina, international influences have been a driving force behind the city’s development and have at the same time been adapted to local con- ditions. Three different economically thriving settlements were merged into the multi-centred city Vinh by the French colonial administration. After its destruction during the French and American Wars, Vinh had been reconstructed with help from the German Democratic Republic. From the 1990s on, inter- national cooperation promoting new priorities of community participation and sustainability in urban development became influential in Vinh City. Using (expert) interviews and participatory observation as well as document analysis and archival research, the author’s ongoing research analyses the po- wer relations and interactions between actors shaping the history and development of Vinh City. This research note introduces some of his preliminary findings, aiming at providing an overview of how different actors contributed to the particular development of Vinh City since the late 19th century.

Key words: Vietnam; urban development; international cooperation; local adaptation

[Submitted as Research Note: 15 March 2011, Acceptance of the revised reviewed manuscript: 19 September 2011] View from TECCO to Tower Quang Trung Zone C and the temporary Quang Trung market

18 Pacific News #37 • January/February 2012 Urban areas are the result of interactions between a large number of actors who try to put into concrete their visions of urbanity, thus expressing ideologies, political, social and personal agendas. The outcome of these interactions reflects the power relations shaping the urban envi- ronment. Applying this approach to an analysis of the history and development of Vinh City in Central Vietnam reveals the importance of international actors. Interactions between internati- onal influences and local adaptations have been part of urban development in Vinh City since the establishment of French colonialism in the region in 1885. Since then, different visions of urbanity were promoted by changing international actors and against the backdrop of shifting international power relations and politics. These were absorbed into local settings and adapted to social, institutional and political specifics, as well as geographic or climatic conditions.

Historical background While urbanisation produced social the city on 21.8.1945 (Del Testa, 2007; Before the establishment of French phenomena found in urban (colonial) Chu Trọng Huyến, 1998). Colonialism in Nghệ An Province, Vinh centres in general, Vinh’s size and posi- had been a small but important centre tion in the colonial urban system resulted Vinh during the French and of regional trade and administration. Its in particular urban structures and social American Wars importance grew when it became the site phenomena. Firstly, the specifics of co- After 1945, Vinh experienced nearly 30 of the mandarinate examinations in 1770 lonial cities, such as ethnically-distinct years of war. In the French war, Vinh’s and with the construction of a citadel districts or display of the grandeur of destruction was mainly due to a “dest- on the orders of Emperor in the mother country, were not prevalent. roy to resist” policy Hồ Chí Minh had 1802-1803 (Chu Trọng Huyến, 1998). This is partly due to the fact that, as a called for. In the first five months of re- In pre-colonial times Vinh had a small secondary centre, Vinh did not receive sistance, 1335 buildings, including 301 population of around 3000 inhabitants, as much attention and funds for urban multi-storey buildings, were destroyed. who served the imperial garrison and planning and development as Hà Nội After the Geneva Peace Conference in mandarins as well as transportation, rice (Del Testa, 2007; Logan, 2000). Secondly, 1954, Vinh was supposed to regain its export and handicraft enterprises (Del as a result of the absence of physical bar- role as an economic, administrative and Testa, 2007). Despite their importance, riers between different ethnic groups in educational centre. However, the efforts the citadel and the settlement did not combination with the relatively smaller to rebuild the city were destroyed during gain the status of an urban centre before foreign population the modern state and bombing campaigns in the American the French established their colonial rule economy were effectively run by the Vi- War. Vinh as an industrial centre, with in Indochina. etnamese by the late 1930s (Del Testa, the nearby harbour of Cửa Lò and its lo- In July 1885 French troops landed in 2007). Thirdly, while Vinh’s develop- cation on the Trường Sơn supply route the nearby river harbour Bến Thủy. They ment relied on a large number of indus- to the war in the south was the target of were quickly able to seize Vinh, from trial workers, these maintained close ties bombing raids from 1964 on. In response, where they set out to suppress resistance with surrounding villages. The resulting the city was evacuated in 1965. What in the countryside (Chu Trọng Huyến, flows of people and information between could be reconstructed during the war 1998). A résidence was established in the countryside and city were critical to the was destroyed in the bombing campaign same month and Vinh soon became the strong communist movement in Nghệ of 1972. When the Paris Peace Accord centre of the colonial economy of Nghệ An, culminating in the Nghệ-Tĩnh Soviet was signed in January 1973, Vinh had An and neighbouring Hà Tĩnh province Movement of 1930-1931, and playing been nearly totally destroyed (Hoàng (Del Testa, 2007). an important role in the liberation of Ngọc Anh et al., 2003).

Urban development under French colonialism In the following years, Vinh and the two nearby settlements of Bến Thủy and Trường Thi each developed as ad- ministratively separate centres. Vinh gained the status of an urban centre in 1898 / 1899, continuing its pre-colonial role as the administrative and commer- cial centre of northern Central Vietnam. Bến Thủy developed as a port that ser- ved the colonial economy as a transport hub and an industrial zone. From 1908 onwards, Trường Thi became the site of Indochina’s second largest railroads repair workshop. These three separate settlements each thrived on their res- pective specialisation and had gained the status of separate towns until they were merged to form Vinh – Bến Thủy Quang Trung Zone C with the new TECCO Towers, for which residential building C1 City in 1927 (Chu Trọng Huyến, 1998). was demolished in 2004

Pacific News #37 • January/February 2012 19 Buildings of Quang Trung Project: The plan for reconstruction tial buildings with cultural, sports and Residential Buildings reflected historical structures public facilities into integrated urban Public Buildings and characteristics of Vinh. space. Most apartments were designed realised When Vinh’s former inhabi- to be inhabited by only one family, and demolished tants had returned to the city had private facilities for cooking, wa- 500 km not realised after the bombing had stop- shing etc. “Most notably, it was strongly ped, old streets, remaining influenced by East German principles of burned-out buildings and the built environment that in the 1960s )

a the citadel’s remains ser- embraced a new ‘culture of privacy,’ as ( 1

ved as points of reference well as independent living” (Schwenkel, y

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their role as commercial cen- was created through make-shift loggias. t e

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g ministrative buildings. designing a base storey for these func- n u

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a of the Quang Trung residen- Trung project also served political pur- u tial area. poses. It was a showcase of what soli- Q Quang Trung Street / National Highway 1(a) The area was planned to darity between socialist countries could consist of 36 five-storey re- achieve, as well as of the bright future a sidential buildings as well as modern socialist state promised its peo- educational, entertainment, ple. Its location on Highway No. 1 was communal and cultural faci- chosen as a symbol of hope for the suc- lities. Apartments of different cessful liberation of the whole country

Pacific News Cartography: © Claus Cartens Source: Khu 2011, Quang Trung, Mat bang quy hoach chung. sizes were designed accor- (Mönnig, 1987). Fig. 1: Plan for the construction of Quang Trung residential area, realised and not-realised buildings. The location of the ding to the prevalent family Although the project of Quang Trung old citadel is visible in the West. structure with households of was successful in its goal to provide up to eight persons; each per- housing for many people in only a short Reconstruction as a socialist city son was to be allocated 4m² of living time, the project faced a number of pro- For help in reconstructing cities and space. Quang Trung was supposed to blems. Because of economic difficulties, infrastructure after the war, the Demo- house about 15.000 persons in 2.480 cooperation had to be extended for two cratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) turned apartments (Liên hiệp, 2011). years until 1980. In the end, only 22 of to its allies, the USSR and other socialist GDR-DRV cooperation in the const- the planned apartment buildings could countries. As a country with a lot of ex- ruction of Quang Trung produced parti- be built, housing close to ten thousand perience in rebuilding heavily destroyed cular results compared to housing estates residents (Schwenkel, 2010). Although cities, the German Democratic Republic erected with help of socialist countries the apartments were equipped with a (GDR) took on the task to rebuild Vinh in other Vietnamese cities (Schwenkel, plumbing system, this did not become under the slogan of “international soli- forthcoming; Marr, 2006; Đặng Thái fully operational until the 1990s, partly darity” (Vietnam-Ausschuss, n.d.). Hoàng, 1999). First of all, learning from due to a lack of water and electricity. In 1973 a bilateral process started that previous projects the Vietnamese request Until then, people used to carry water included fact-finding missions and the for delivery of pre-fabricated building from outside wells to the upper floors establishment of working committees, parts was rejected and the construction (Mönnig, 1987; Interview Ngô Văn Yêm, culminating in an agreement to rebuild of Quang Trung was embedded in the 12 August 2011). Vinh City signed in October 1973. It in- plan for a regional building material in- The General Plan for the construc- cluded the drafting of a “General plan dustry (Schaefer, 2011). Secondly, plans tion of Vinh accomplished its goal of for building the city”, the construction and designs for Quang Trung (and the projecting the general development of of several industrial plants, training of General plan for building the city) took the city, and has since been serving as cadres in the construction sector, as well climatic conditions into account, such the basis for development plans of the as the provision of building materials as the “Lao wind”. Vietnamese plan- city. The Quang Trung residential area, and machinery. The agreement envisi- ners and architects also incorporated however, did fare worse. With economic oned a period of four years to complete elements of Feng Shui into the works difficulties persisting throughout the these tasks (Liên hiệp, 2011). The of- (Interview Ngô Văn Yêm, 10 November 1980s, the buildings state deteriorated ficial vision of the future city was clear: 2010; Mönnig, 1989). Thirdly, the ideas quickly. Additional reasons were the “Vinh of tomorrow will be a socialist city” of modern socialist living were mainly partly poor quality of construction ma- (Vietnam-Ausschuss, n.d., 33). applied to the incorporation of residen- terial, hurried building in order to satisfy

20 Pacific News #37 • January/February 2012 demand, insufficient and uncoordinated In 1997, Vinh was selected for the Lo- Development 2000–2020“. However, maintenance work. Unsuitable habits of calising Agenda 21 (LA21) project of the project’s publication states that such inhabitants, such as raising animals and UN Habitat (Verschure & Tuts, 2004). plans represent “Unrealisable dreams cutting wood in the apartments, as well The project introduced to Vinh priorities [that] are projected upon the territory as the harsh climate also contributed to and processes in urban planning and ma- in a fashion that often has little to do the deteriorating quality (Interview Ngô nagement that had by then gained promi- with the existing typo/morphology and Văn Yêm, 12 August 2011). Despite nence in international cooperation. The landscape” (Shannon & Loeckx, 2004, these difficulties, GDR-DRV/SRV (So- World Summit in 1992 had promoted 123). cialist Republic of Vietnam, successor of sustainable development and the parti- While the new ideas of the LA 21 pro- the DRV since 1976) cooperation was cipation of communities in planning and ject were hard to realize in the 1990s, praised as exemplary for the creation of management under the name Agenda 21. the contemporary possibilities for par- urban space in both countries until the Article 4 of the Habitat Agenda, adop- ticipatory urban development are better. late 1980s (Mönnig, 1989, 1987; Trương ted at the Habitat II Conference states: Especially the Grassroots Democracy Huy Chinh, 1985). “Democracy, respect for human rights, decree (decree no. 29/1998/ND-CP is- Apart from the Quang Trung area, in transparent, representative and accoun- sued in 1998, replaced by Ordinance the 1970s and 80s housing in Vinh was table government and administration in no. 34/2007/PL-UBTVQH11 in 2007) usually provided by state companies or all sectors of society, as well as effective improved the environment for interna- agencies for their workers and emplo- participation by civil society, are indis- tional cooperation with a focus on deci- yees. Those who could afford it were pensable foundations for the realization sion-making processes and community able to build their own houses with of sustainable development” (UNCHS, participation. permission from the authorities. Urban 1996). In practise, this change of ideas Currently Vinh is involved in numerous development policies concentrated on signifies a shift away from a focus on projects promoting the application of transportation infrastructure and admi- technology in development cooperation best practice models, people’s partici- nistrative buildings. The number of peo- towards urban planning and management pation or horizontal exchange with Vi- ple building privately rose as the eco- on the basis of participatory processes. etnamese and foreign cities. nomy recovered in the late 1980s. From Implementing this approach, the LA21 Most notably, one urban upgrading 1990 on, state agencies and companies project faced difficulties. Vinh’s autho- project carried out in Vinh is currently started to sell houses and apartments rities were not used to the new ways promoted as an example of how coope- that had previously been rented out to of planning: “Seminars took the role ration between the people and authorities employees and workers. After the end of brainstorming sessions and the new can result in outcomes that are advan- of GDR help in urban development in ideas brought forth by foreign experts tageous for all stakeholders (T.L, 1 De- 1981, no international cooperation was were politely listened to and welcomed cember 2010). This project was carried carried out in this field until the mid- while simultaneously kept at arm’s out by the residents of Cửa Nam ward’s 1990s. length from the existing planning com- Hữu Nghị communal living area (khu plexities“ (Shannon & Loeckx, 2004, tập thể (KTT) in Vietnamese), under the International cooperation 133). However, the project succeeded in framework of the Asian Coalition for after the Renovation reforms opening up discussions about the city’s Community Action program (ACCA). International cooperation in the field future to more stakeholders than the top- ACCA brings together existing commu- of urban development picked up again down planning process that is usually nity development fund (CDF) groups or in the mid-1990s, in a very different followed in Vietnam. All of these stake- helps to establish new ones. On each political situation. The Vietnamese đổi holders were part of the existing structu- administrative level, a CDF board deci- mới (renovation) reforms of 1986 had res of the state or its mass organisations des on loan applications from member created a situation in which new interna- (Shannon & Loeckx, 2004). One visible groups. Currently, nine cities in Vietnam tional agencies with new approaches to result of these discussions was the revi- are part of the program that is carried urban development entered the country. sion of Vinh’s “General Plan for Urban out in 15 countries. It was initiated by Source: All photos by Tim Kaiser 2010/2011 Informally erected birdcages to extend living space area One of the „Culture Houses“ in Quang Trung

Pacific News #37 • January/February 2012 21 Mönnig, H.-U. (1989). Industrialization of rural the -based Asian Coalition of June 2011). While close cooperation with areas: A concept for the infrastructural development Housing Rights (ACHR). In Vietnam authorities is necessary for a project’s and satisfaction of basis needs in the developing the program is coordinated by the As- success, it also enables these to ensure countries. In Schriften der Hochschule für Architek- sociation of Cities of Vietnam (ACVN). that the borders of participation defined tur und Bauwesen Weimar, 75, 3–29. KTT Hữu Nghị was built in the 1970s by the state are not crossed. Parenteau, R., & Nguyen Quoc Thong (2005). The for the employees of the Cửa Tiền Com- role of civil society in urban environmental rehabi- Conclusion litation: A case study (Thanh Xuan district, , pany, which later became the Hữu Nghị Vietnam). In Environment and Planning, 17(1), Company. Like in most of the commu- This research note is only a first step 237–248. Retrieved from http://eau.sagepub.com/cgi/ nal living areas in Vinh, the buildings’ in analysing the driving forces of urban content/abstract/17/1/237. quality deteriorated over time. These development in Vinh City. However, it Schaefer, B. (2011). Die DDR und Vietnam bis areas are to be demolished or rebuilt shows that international actors influen- 1990: Ein besonderes Verhältnis. In Goethe-Institut under a provincial plan (UBND Tỉnh tial to the city’s development changed Vietnam (ed.). Deutsch-Vietnamesische Beziehun- Nghệ An, 2007). With the help of ACHR over time due to international politics. gen: Tagungsband zum 35jährigen Jubiläum der diplomatischen Beziehungen zwischen der Bundesre- and ACVN, the residents were able to It also shows that changing internati- publik Deutschland und der Sozialistischen Republik convince the authorities to allow them onal discourses on urban management Vietnam (pp. 14-20). Hanoi. to build smaller houses than provincial and planning are reflected in the city’s Schwenkel, C. (2010). Urbanization and uneven regulations allowed for. A number of re- landscape. Whether these discourses pro- redevelopment in Vinh City. Paper presented at the sidents would have to relocate if these moted the construction of a socialist city International Conference on Anthropological re- regulations would have been applied. As or people’s participation in public urban search and training in Vietnam during the period of transition and international integration (2010, 20 far as possible, all works were carried life, they have always been adapted to October), Hanoi, 293-306. out by residents themselves, material of the existing realities of the city. Schwenkel, C. (forthcoming). “Civilizing the Ci- the old buildings was reused and new ty: Socialist ruins and urban renewal in Central material bought jointly to reduce costs. References Vietnam.” In Schwenkel, C. & Leshkowich, A. M. Thus, compared to conventional ways of ACCA (Asian Coalition for Community Action) (eds.) (forthcoming). Neoliberalism in Vietnam, Spe- rebuilding KTT, costs were much lower. (2009). 64 cities in Asia: First yearly report of the cial issue of positions: east asia cultures critique. Asian Coalition for Community Action Program. Re- Shannon, K., & Loeckx, A. (2004). Rising from The CDF group of KTT Hữu Nghị used trieved from http://www.achr.net/ACCA/ACCA%20 the Ashes: Vinh. In Localising Agenda 21: Action the residents’ own funds and a loan of Downloads/ACCA%20First%20Year%20Re- Planning for Sustainable Urban Development (ed.). port%20Dec%202009%20PART%201.pdf 50.000 USD provided by the city’s CDF Urban trialogues: Visions, projects, co-productions to finance the project (Interview Lê Viết ACHR (Asian Coalition for Housing Rights) (2002). (pp. 122-155) Nairobi, Kenya: UN-Habitat. Housing by People in Asia: Newsletter of the Asian Hùng, 28 June 2011, Interview Tăng Thị T. L. (2010, 1 December). Thành công nhờ gắn Coalition for Housing Rights (14). Retrieved from Đương, 30 June 2011). kết lợi ích cộng đồng. Nghệ An Online. Ret- http://www.achr.net/ACHR%20newsletter%20 While new concepts of urban deve- rieved from http://baonghean.vn/news_detail. 14%20with%20photos.pdf lopment are introduced to Vinh through asp?newsid=70594&CatID=4. Chu Trọng Huyến (1998). Lịch Sử Thành Phố Trương Huy Chinh (1985). Phương pháp hiện thực international cooperation, these concepts Vinh: Tập 1. Vinh: Nhà xuất bản Nghệ An. are also adapted to local conditions. As trong quy hoạch thành phố Vinh. In Báo chỉ Kiến Đặng Thái Hoàng (1999). Kiến trúc Hà Nội: Thế trúc, 2, 55–57. mentioned above, all of the new actors kỷ XIX - Thế kỷ XX. Hanoi: Nhà xuất bản Hà Nội. the LA 21 project introduced to discus- UBND (Ủy ban nhân dân) tỉnh Nghệ An (2007). Đề Del Testa, D. W. (2007). Vinh, the Seed that would án giải quyết nhà ở tập thể cũ trên địa bàn thành sions on the development of Vinh were grow Red: Colonial Prelude, Revolutionary City. In phố Vinh. part of the extended structures of the Historical Reflections, 33, 305-325. UNCHS (United Nations Centre for Human Settle- state. This phenomenon is often found in Hoàng Ngọc Anh, Hà Văn Tải, Nguyễn Bá Dũng, ments) (1996). The Habitat Agenda. Retrieved from cooperation projects with a focus on pu- & Nguyễn Quang Vinh (2003). Lịch Sử Thành http://ww2.unhabitat.org/declarations/ch-1a.htm Phố Vinh: Tập II (1945-1975). Vinh: Nhà xuất bản blic participation. Participation is usually Verschure, H., & Tuts, R. (2004). Localising Agen- Nghệ An. channelled through mass organisations, da 21. In Localising Agenda 21: Action Planning notably the Women’s Union (Parenteau Liên hiệp (các tổ chức hữu nghị, Hội hữu nghị for Sustainable Urban Development (ed.). Urban Việt - Đức tỉnh Nghệ An & Ủy ban nhân dân thành & Nguyen Quoc Thong, 2005; Inter- trialogues. Visions, projects, co-productions, 14-27. phố Vinh) (2011). Những dấu ấn lịch sử về tình hữu Nairobi, Kenya: UN-Habitat. view Frank Pogade, 11 February 2011). nghị Việt - Đức thời kỳ đầu xây dựng lại thành phố Vietnam-Ausschuss (des Solidaritätskomitees der Many of ACCA’s CDF groups are saving Vinh 1973-1980. Vinh. DDR) (ed.) (n.d.). Vinh. Report über eine vietna- groups managed by the Women’s Union. Logan, W. S. (2000). Hanoi: Biography of a City. mesische Heldenstadt. Reihe für antiimperialistische Despite the program’s intention to break Seattle: University of Washington Press. Solidarität, 2. Berlin. up hierarchical structures, these continue Marr, R. L. (2006). Hanoi and : The long struggle of two cities/Recovering from endless to dominate decision making processes. Interviews: While CDF boards in other countries also war. In Schneider-Sliwa, R. (ed.). Cities in Tran- Ngô Văn Yêm, 10 November 2010 consist of community representatives, sition: Globalization, Political Change and Urban Development (pp. 273–320). Springer. Ngô Văn Yêm, 12 August 2011 the boards on the various administrative Mönnig, H.-U. (1987). Industrialisierung ländli- Ngô Văn Yêm, 7 July 2011 levels in Vinh consist of members of the cher Gebiete und Erfüllung von Grundbedürfnissen Frank Pogade, 11 February 2011 respective people’s committee and the in Entwicklungsländern. In Wissenschaftliche Zeit- Women’s Union (ACHR, 2002; ACCA, schrift der Hochschule für Architektur und Bauwesen Tăng Thị Đương, 30 June 2011 2009; Interview Tăng Thị Đương, 30 Weimar, 33(3), 126–131. Lê Viết Hùng, 28 June 2011

Tim Kaiser (Diploma of International Cultural & Business Studies), Scholarship Holder of the Federal State of Bavaria and PhD-student of Southeast Asian Studies at the University of Passau, International House, Innstraße 43, 94032 Passau / Germany, Phone: +49-851.509-2941, Email: [email protected]

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