A SEQUENTIAL ANALYSIS OF ISAIAH 24-27
By
Anthony Thomas Minear
A Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Theology of Wycliffe College and the Department of Theology of the Toronto School of Theology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Theology Awarded by the University of St. Michael's College
Toronto 2008
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While these forms may be included Bien que ces formulaires in the document page count, aient inclus dans la pagination, their removal does not represent il n'y aura aucun contenu manquant. any loss of content from the thesis. Canada Copyright @ 2008 by Anthony Minear All rights reserved A SEQUENTIAL ANALYSIS OF ISAIAH 24-27
Anthony Thomas Minear
Doctor of Philosophy in Theology
Department of Theology of the Toronto School of Theology
University of St. Michael's College
2008
ABSTRACT
Isaiah 24-27 is rarely recognized in critical scholarship as being the product of one hand.
Rarer still is the opinion that the individual responsible for these chapters may also have been responsible for parts of the Oracles to the Nations in Isaiah 13-23. The aim of this work is to demonstrate the plausibility of Isaiah 24-27 being the creation of one writer. I will also look at the possibility this individual may have been responsible for other passages within Isaiah 13-23. The primary method I will use to set forth for the unity of
Isaiah 24-27 is Sequential Analysis. By applying this form of scrutiny to Isaiah 24-27,1 will demonstrate that traditional divisions within these chapters, which are used to support the independent and fragmentary nature of the text, may not necessarily corroborate this conclusion. Rather, the basis for these divisions may be explained as a variation of style by one author. Also, these variations may have resulted from the given topic or occasion. Sequential analysis will also aid in assessing the meaning of Isaiah 24-
27. Dedicated To
My wife, Karen
My daughters, Stacy and Tiffany
First-Plymouth Congregational Church Tuesday Morning Study Group Lincoln, Nebraska CONTENTS
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION 1
Thesis Statement 1
Previous Scholarship 1
Steps in Defending the Thesis 10
Sequential Analysis In Comparison To Other Poetic Modes of Analysis 10
How Sequential Analysis Works 26
The Author of Isaiah 24-27 and Isaiah 13-23 30
Synopsis of Chapters 36
2. PART ONE: ISAIAH 24.1-16 39
Strophe One: Isaiah 24.1-3 39
Sequential Analysis 39 Literary Artistry 40 Translation 42 Intertexuality 43 Interpretation 45
Strophe Two: Isaiah 24.4-6 47
Sequential Analysis 47 Literary Artistry 49 Translation 49 Intertextuality 50 Interpretation 51 Strophe Three: Isaiah 24.7-9 55
Sequential Analysis 55 Literary Artistry 56 Translation 57 Intertextuality 57 Interpretation 59
Strophe Four: Isaiah 24.10-13 61
Sequential Analysis 61 Literary Artistry 62 Translation 63 Intertextuality 64 Interpretation 69
Strophe Five: Isaiah 24.14-16 71
Sequential Analysis 71 Literary Artistry 72 Translation 74 Intertextuality 74 Interpretation 76
3. PART TWO: ISAIAH 24.17-23 82
Strophe One: Isaiah 24.17-20 82
Sequential Analysis 82 Literary Artistry 83 Translation 85 Intertextuality 86 Interpretation 87
Strophe Two: Isaiah 24.21-23 90
Sequential Analysis 90 Literary Artistry 91 Translation 93 Intertextuality 93 Interpretation 94 4. PART THREE: ISAIAH 25.1-12 100
Strophe One: Isaiah 25.1-3 100
Sequential Analysis 100 Literary Artistry 101 Translation 103 Intertextuality 103 Interpretation 105
Strophe Two: Isaiah 25.4-5 109
Sequential Analysis 109 Literary Artistry 110 Translation 112 Intertextuality 113 Interpretation 114
Strophe Three: Isaiah 25.6-8 117
Sequential Analysis 117 Literary Artistry 118 Translation 120 Intertextuality 121 Interpretation 124
Strophe Four: Isaiah 25.9-12 130
Sequential Analysis 130 Literary Artistry 131 Translation 132 Intertextuality 132 Interpretation 135
5. PART FOUR: ISAIAH 26.1-11 141
Strophe One: Isaiah 26.1-3 141
Sequential Analysis 141 Literary Artistry 142 Translation 143 Intertextuality 143 Interpretation 145 Strophe Two: Isaiah 26.4-6 148
Sequential Analysis 148 Literary Artistry 149 Translation 150 Intertextuality 151 Interpretation 152
Strophe Three: Isaiah 26.7-9 157
Sequential Analysis 157 Literary Artistry 158 Translation 159 Intertextuality 160
Interpretation 161
Strophe Four: Isaiah 26.10-11 164
Sequential Analysis 164 Literary Artistry 165 Translation 166 Intertextuality 166 Interpretation 169 6. PART FIVE: ISAIAH 26.12-21 173
Strophe One: Isaiah 26.12-14 173
Sequential Analysis 173 Literary Artistry 174 Translation 175 Intertextuality 175 Interpretation 180
Strophe Two: Isaiah 26.15-18 187
Sequential Analysis 187 Literary Artistry 188 Translation 191 Intertextuality 191 Interpretation 192 Strophe Three: Isaiah 26.19-21 198
Sequential Analysis 198 Literary Artistry 199 Translation 199 Intertextuality 200 Interpretation 202
7. PART SIX: ISAIAH 27.1-13 206
Strophe One: Isaiah 27.1-3 206
Sequential Analysis 206 Literary Artistry 207 Translation 208 Intertextuality 208 Interpretation 218
Strophe Two: Isaiah 27.4-6 222
Sequential Analysis 222 Literary Artistry 223 Translation 224 Intertextuality 225 Interpretation 226
Strophe Three: Isaiah 27.7-9 228
Sequential Analysis 228 Literary Artistry 229 Translation 230 Intertextuality 230
Interpretation 233
Strophe Four: Isaiah 27.10-11 236
Sequential Analysis 236 Literary Artistry 237 Translation 238 Intertextuality 238 Interpretation 241 Strophe Five: Isaiah 27.12-13 243
Sequential Analysis 243 Literary Artistry 244 Translation 245 Intertextuality 245 Interpretation 247
8. THE UNITY OF ISAIAH 24-27 250
Part One: Isaiah 24.1-16 251
Part Two: Isaiah 24.17-23 255
Part Three: Isaiah 25.1-12 258
Part Four: Isaiah 26.1-11 262
Part Five: Isaiah 26.12-21 265
Segment Six: Isaiah 27.1-13 268
Ways in which Isaiah 24-27 as a whole fit together 271
9. ISAIAH 24-27 WITHIN THE LARGER CONTEXT OF ISAIAH 13-23 . 279
An Outline of Isaiah 13-23 279
Isaiah 13 279
Isaiah 14.22-27 285
Isaiah 14.28-32 288
Isaiah 15.8-9 289
Isaiah 16.6-14 290
Isaiah 17 293
Isaiah 19 298
Isaiah 21.11-17 301
Isaiah 22.25 303 Isaiah 23.13-18 304
Isaiah 24-27 as a conclusion to the Oracles against the Nations . . 306
10. CONCLUSION 307
11. APPENDIX 310
11. BIBLIOGRAPHY 315 ABBREVIATIONS
ABRL Anchor Bible Reference Library
AJS American Journal of Semiotics
ASTI Annual of the Swedish Theological Institute in Jerusalem
AT ANT Abhandlungen zur Theologie des Alten und Neuen Testaments
Aug Augustinianum
AuOr Aula orientalis
BASOR Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research
BETL Bibliotheca ephemeridum theologicarum Iovaniensium
Bib Biblica
BibOr Biblica et orientalia
BWANT Beitrage zur Wissenschaft vom Alten und Neuen Testament
BZAW Beihefte zur Zeitschrift fur die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft
CAT Cuneiform Alphabetic Texts
CBQ Catholic Biblical Quarterly
CC Continental Commentaries
CRAI Comptes rendus de L'Academie des inscriptions et belles-lettres
CR.BS Currents in Research: Biblical Studies
CTJ Calvin Theological Journal
EBib Etudes bibliques
EstEcl Estudios eclesidsticos
ETL Ephemerides theologicae lovanienses
ETR Etudes theologiques et religieuses EvQ Evangelical Quarterly
ExpTim Expository Times
FOTL Forms of the Old Testament Literature
EAR Hebrew Annual Review
HKAT Handkommentar zum Alten Testament
HSM Harvard Semitic Monographs
HUCA Hebrew Union College Annual
IB Interpreter's Bible
IBC Interpretation: A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching
ICC International Critical Commentary
JAOS Journal of the American Oriental Society
JBL Journal of Biblical Literature
JETS Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society
JJS Journal of Jewish Studies
JQR Jewish Quarterly Review
JR Journal of Religion
JSOT Journal for the Study of the Old Testament
JSOTSup Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series
JSPSup Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha Supplement Series
JTC Journal for Theology and the Church
JTS Journal of Theological Studies
LCBI Literary Currents in Biblical Interpretation
NCB New Century Bible NICOT New International Commentary on the Old Testament
OBT Overtures to Biblical Theology
OTL Old Testament Library
PEQ Palestine Exploration Quarterly
PRSt Perspectives in Religious Studies
RB Revue biblique
RelSRev Religious Studies Review
ResQ Restoration Quarterly
RevExp Review and Expositor
SB Sources bibliques
SBLDS Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation Series
SBLSP Society of Biblical Literature Seminar Papers
SJOT Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament
TBC Torch Bible Commentaries
TynB Tyndale Bulletin
TZ Theologische Zeitschrift
UF Ugarit Forschungen
VT Vetus Testamentum
VTSup Vetus Testamentum Supplements
WBC Word Biblical Commentary
WW Word and World
ZAH Zeitschrift fur Althebraistik
ZAW Zeitschrift fur die alttestamentlische Wissenschaft ZBK Zurcher Bibelkommenare
ZWT Zeitschriftfur wissenschaftliche Theologie SIGLA
Columns
Column One: verse number
Column Two: alphabetical identification of line
Column Two: line type
Column Three: word order
Column Four: Hebrew text
Line Type n-cl nominal clause n-ph nominal phrase v-y verbal yiqtol v-q verbal qatal
v-m verbal modal
":" + space used to separate the above indicators from the following clause type indicators
asyn asyndetic
conj conjunctive
cons consecutive
disj disjunctive
para paratactic Word Order
Cj conjunction
DO direct object
INF infinitive
10 indirect object
N noun
NS nominal subject
NP nominal predicate
PP prepositional phrase
PTC participle
SVB subject + verb
VB verb
w waw conjunction
/ a suffix usually functioning as a DO
{} further word analyses, for example a nominal predicate which consists of a participle with a direct object; the letters between the brackets are lowercase. CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Thesis Statement
The goal of my dissertation is to demonstrate the plausibility of Isaiah 24-27 being the product of one person and that this individual was also responsible for other passages within Isaiah 13-23.
Previous Scholarship
After examining various introductions to the Old Testament and various commentaries Redditt notes a remarkable agreement with regard to the major divisions of
Isaiah 1-39. "Chapters 1-12 contain a relatively high percentage of authentic oracles
dealing with Judah and Jerusalem. Chapters 13-23, containing less indisputably authentic material, deals primarily, though not quite exclusively, with foreign nations. The remaining chapters, 24-39, do not, however, comprise a homogenous section, and differences of opinion have risen about their compilation." ' This is especially true of
Isaiah 24-27. However, the majority of scholars would concur that that these four chapters are not the work of one author. I will examine why this is so, by dividing the
scholarly work in this area into three broad categories: (1) those employing redactional criticism and who see the formation of the chapters as a gradual process, (2) those
1. Paul Redditt, "Isaiah 24-27: A Form Critical Analysis" (Ph.D. diss., Vanderbilt University, 1972), 146.
1 2 utilizing liturgical bases as the principle of redaction, and (3) those that rely upon other criteria to explain the formation of Isaiah 24-27.
Before looking at the first category I pause to note the work of Duhm whose effort influenced the direction of future studies in Isaiah 24-27 in particular the idea that the chapters were apocalyptic in nature. Duhm2 divided Isaiah 24-27 along the line of two distinct forms - songs and apocalyptic oracles. His theory posited that the original
sections consisted of apocalyptic passages to which were later added songs and other passages.3 The apocalyptic oracles Duhm dated to 129 BCE, when Jerusalem was
besieged by Antiochus Sidetes soon after John Hyrcanus ascended to the throne (135
BCE). The song portions were added to the text during the Maccabean period. Other
scholars who also hold that the songs were secondary additions are Henry, Mulder, and
Fohrer.5 Procksch divided the text using the same criteria but based his divisions upon
meter.6 Variations of this twofold division consist of Eissfeldt,7 who sees the songs as
2. Bernhard Duhm, Das Buck Jesaja (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1892).
3. Outline of Duhm' s twofold division (apocalyptic passages and songs) is as follows: 24.1-23 apocalyptic 25.1-5 song 25.6-8 apocalyptic 25.9-26.19 song 26.20-27.1 apocalyptic 27.2-11 song 27.12-13 apocalyptic
4. Duhm, Jesaja, 144.
5. Marie-Louise Henry, Glaubenskrise und Glaubensbewdhrung in den Dichtungen der Jesaja apokalypse (BWANT 86; Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer, 1967). Egge Simon Mulder, Die Teologie von die Jesaja-Apokalypse, Jesaja 24-27 (Groningen: 3 preceding the apocalyptic passages, and Smend,8 who postulates that both types of genre
arose at the same time.
Dividing the text based upon the presence of so called 'apocalyptic' passages is
difficult in that there continues to be a lack of consensus on how this particular genre is to be defined and identified. A small sample of the various views offered regarding these
so-called 'apocalyptic' passages in Isaiah 24-27 follows: (1) prophetic judgment
literature,9 (2) prophetic eschatology,10 (3) proto-apocalyptic,11 and (4) late post-exilic
apocalyptic.12
Those scholars who concentrate on the history of growth of Isaiah 24-27 are
concerned "with the relative dating of various pericopes, the effects of redaction upon
J.B. Wolters, 1954). Georg Fohrer, "Der Aufbau der Apokalypse der Jesajabuchs. Jesaja 24-27," CBQ 25 (1963): 34-45.
6. Otto Procksch, Jesaja I (KAT 9; Leipsig: A. Deichert, 1930).
7. Otto Eissfeldt, The Old Testament, An Introduction Including the Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha, and also the Works of Similar Type from Qumran; the History of the Formation of the Old Testament (trans. P.R. Ackroyd; New York, NY: Harper & Row, 1966).
8. Rudolph Smend, "Anmerkungen zu Jes. 24-27," ZAW4 (1884): 178-83, 194- 95.
9. Edward Kissane, The Book of Isaiah (Dublin: Browne and Nolan Ltd., 1941).
10. Johannes Lindblom, Die Jesaja Apokalypse: Jesaja 24-27 (Lund: Gleerup, 1938).
11. William R. Millar, Isaiah 24-27 and the Origin of Apocalyptic (HSM 11; Missoula: Scholars Press, 1976).
12. Duhm, Jesaja. 4 once-independent material, and the theological motives rather than liturgical motives in the process of compilation."
Wildberger is extremely confident in his position that Isaiah 24-27 is "not attributable to Isaiah the son of Amoz"14 and that "it is virtually indisputable that these chapters ... form a unique part of the book of Isaiah that clearly stands out as being quite different from the rest."15 In its present form it is evident that the four chapters are
"offered as a unified composition."16 The best explanation for how they reached this final form is the expansion- or growth-hypothesis. This expansion was a complicated
i n process. Below is a brief outline of Wildberger's view of the formation of Isaiah 24-27.
I. Original body of material = 24.1-6,18 14-20; 26.7-21
II.19 Eschatological images = 24.21-23; 25.6-8, 9-10a20
III. The city songs = 25.1-5; 26.1-6.
IV. Later additions: eschatological impressions = 27.1-13
13. Redditt, "Isaiah 24-27," 188.
14. Hans Wildberger, Isaiah 13-27: A Commentary (trans. T. H. Trapp; CC; Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1997), 445.
15. Ibid., 446.
16. Ibid., 447.
17. Ibid., 459.
18. 24.7-13 is seen as an addition.
19. Wildberger notes that there is no way to determine which of these two textual groups (II or III) was inserted before the other into the original body of material. Wildberger, Isaiah 13-27, 460.
20. 25.10b-12 is an addition concerning Moab. 5
With regards to reading and understanding this Isaiah apocalypse, Wildberger asserts that the passage is to be treated "as a single unified prophecy about an eschatological turn of events, even though it might have a complicated history of development, and because each individual layer, each section, and each expansion is to be given its proper interpretation only in light of the overall scope of the entire work."
After a careful examination of Isaiah 24-27, Vermeylen concludes that within the present text as we now have it one may identify the oldest passages which originally made up this text. These consist of 24.2-23, 18b-20, and 26.8-9, 11-13, 16-18, 20-21.
Material was added to this basic material in two stages. "According to Vermeylen every generation expanded on the original text, each for its own reasons, thus commenting on what was before them."22
Blenkinsopp continues in the same vein of thinking that Isaiah 24-27 has
"undergone a process of successive restructuring over a significant period of time." He also argues that "the four chapters comprise a number of loosely connected passages of uneven length, the sequence of which manifests no immediately obvious logical order."
Other scholars see evidence of a redactor by noting the presence of hymnic passages. They conclude that chapters 24-27 are a liturgical composition. Gunkel
21. Wildberger, Isaiah 13-27, 460.
22. Ibid., 450.
23. Joseph Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1-39 (AB 19; New York: Doubleday, 2000), 346.
24. Ibid.
25. Song of Thanksgiving in 25.1-5 and Song of Victory in 26.1-6. 6 around 1924 proposed the speculative structure of 'prophetic liturgy'. He taught that this particular form contained three elements: (1) thoughts passed along orally from generation to generation, (2) alternating speech form, and (3) a definite Sitz im Leben.
"Hylmo was the first to suggest the presence of the so-called 'prophetic liturgy' in our
97 textual complex."
March's28 dissertation is based on this theory. He divides Isaiah 24-27 into two prophetic liturgies. The first section consists of Isaiah 24.1-20 and is entitled 'An
Announcement of Judgment'. The section follows the subsequent pattern: a prophetic
announcement (24.1-3), a descriptive lament-like poem (24.4-15), and a prophetic announcement (24.16-20). "We may speak of this material as being fashioned after a cultic model known to prophet and people which involved announcement, lamentation, and assurance. But the most important thing is that the prophet freely adapted his cultic model to fit his purpose." The second section goes from Isaiah 24.21 through 27.1 and
is entitled "A Liturgy of Praise and Promise." These verses are further divided into six pericopes. One will note, however, that 27.2-13 is not included in these two main divisions. Doyle points out that this is one of the weaknesses in March's argument, "the remainder of ch. 27 (vv.2-13) is dismissed as unrelated additions and glosses to the rest
26. Hermann Gunkel, "Jesaja 33, eine prophetische Liturgie," ZAWX (1924): 182-183.
27. Redditt, "Isaiah 24-27," 172.
28. Wallace Eugene March, "A Study of Two Prophetic Compositions in Isaiah 24.1-27" (Ph.D. diss., Union Theological Seminary, 1966).
29. Ibid., 61. 7
of the complex."30 Lindblom preferred the title 'cantata' over the term 'prophetic liturgy' to describe the content of the four chapters. The 'cantata' consists of alternating singing
T 1
voices that make requests and are given responses.
Fohrer32 treats the entire block of material in Isaiah 24-27 as a cantata. The
chapters are broken into three liturgical units - 24.1-20; 24.21-25.10a; and 27.1-6, 12f.
Holding these units together are two linking sections - 26.1-6 and 26.7-21. What we are
dealing with are secondary compositions that once were independent units of material.
Sweeney affirms the presence of hymnic material in chapters 24-27 and
suggests a liturgical setting for this text. He divides the chapters into two major
subsections. Isaiah 24.1-23 is a prophetic announcement of Yahweh's punishment of the
earth. In particular Yahweh's words in verses 4-13 constitute the form "a prophetic
announcement of punishment." The second subsection is 25.1-27.13 and is a "prophetic
announcement" of Yahweh's blessing of the earth and its results for Israel. The generic
character of the entire corpus is a "prophetic announcement of salvation" that focuses on
the establishment of Yahweh's new world order.34 Sweeney argues that the text's
30. B. Doyle, The Apocalypse of Isaiah Metaphorically Speaking: A Study of the Use, Function and Significance of Metaphors in Isaiah 24-27 (Leuven: University Press, 2000), 15.
31. J. Lindblom, Die Jesaja-Apohalypse, Jes. 24-27, 62-63.
32. Georg Fohrer, Das Buch Jesaja: 2. Band Kapitel 24-39 (ZBK; Stuttgart: Zwingli Verlag, 1962).
33. Marvin Sweeney, Isaiah 1-39 (FOTL 16; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996), 315.
34. Ibid. 8 structure and genre point to a high degree of coherence and unity of purpose. "Several lines of evidence support the contention that chs. 24-27 are a relatively unified composition, insofar as 24.1-26.13 appear to have been composed in relation to an earlier
27.1-13."35
The third category consists of those scholars who rely upon other criteria to explain the formation of Isaiah 24-27. Examples of such effort are found in the works of
Johnson, Millar, Doyle, and Lewis.
Johnson,36 in an effort to maintain the unity of the text, divides the chapters into three sections but maintains that each section is related to the destruction of Jerusalem in
586 B.C.E. The importance he places on the text's unity is noted in the following quotation: "Regardless of how one views the prehistory of these chapters, one may with some confidence speak of the compositional unity of Isa 24-27 in its present form."
Millar looked for structural unity via an overarching thematic pattern which would cover all sixty-nine verses. He identified this pattern by comparing Isaiah 24-27 with the Ugaritic Baal Cycle and its thematic pattern of threat, war, victory and feast. He named this pattern the Divine Warrior Hymn. He divided the four chapters into six units
- 24.1-16a; 24.16b-25.9; 25.10-26.8; 26.13-15; 26.16-27.6; 27.12-13.38 Each of these units contained at least some portion of the pattern.
35. Ibid., 316.
36. Dan G. Johnson, From Chaos to Restoration. An Integrative Reading of Isaiah 24-27 (JSOTSS 61; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1988).
37. Ibid., 15.
38. Millar, Isaiah 24-27, 70-71. 9
Doyle believed the unity of Isaiah 24-27 was maintained through metaphor.
Metaphorical language served as a "redactional/compositional principle uniting and distinguishing and integrating the final text of Isa 24-27 from and within BI."
Lewis in his doctoral dissertation, "A Rhetorical Critical Analysis of Isaiah 24-
27" uses the discipline of rhetorical criticism to describe how the message of the author is conveyed. Elements one may look for to determine the meaning of the text using this method include structure, sonority, rhythm, parallelism, structure, theme and motif. He divides the chapters into two sections - a communal lament (24.1-20) and an enthronement liturgy (24.21-27.13). Lewis entertains the possibility that the "description of the devastation and exile of the inhabitants in 24.1-13 and 24.18ef-20 may well have been an independent prophetic oracle of judgment originally, but it has been transformed and adapted to form the communal lament of the Enthronement liturgy."41 The second section is also seen as originally having other origins for "these poems and songs reflect in some places not creations of the prophet but actual elements which were borrowed from the Enthronement Festival of Yahweh."42
This succinct survey, looking at how various scholars approach Isaiah 24-27 and how they see them coming into the form which we now posses, demonstrates that the
39. Doyle, Apocalypse of Isaiah, 24. 40. Dale Lewis, "A Rhetorical Critical Analysis of Isaiah 24-27," (Ph.D. diss., The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, 1985), 37.
41. Ibid., 176.
42. Ibid., 177. 10 view that one person might have been responsible for writing these chapters is not popular.
Steps in Defending the Thesis
The steps I use in supporting my thesis are threefold. First, I identify and
demarcate the stanzas and strophes within Isaiah 24-27 as a means of establishing the
structure of these chapters. I use Sequential Analysis to complete this task. By applying this method of scrutiny to Isaiah 24-27,1 will demonstrate that traditional divisions
within these chapters, which are used to support the independent and fragmentary nature
of the text, may not necessarily corroborate this conclusion. Rather, the basis for these
divisions is due to a variation of style by one author. Secondly, I carry out a literary
analysis of the four chapters. If a single writer is responsible for this passage one would
expect to find a consistent literary style throughout. Thirdly, I note the intertextual links
between my passage and other texts both within and outside of Isaiah with the primary
focus being upon Isaiah 13-23.
Sequential Analysis In Comparison To Other Poetic Modes of Analysis
Within Hebrew poetry the presence of stanzas and strophes is widely accepted.
As Hu points out the dispute is in where they start and where they end. How does one
demarcate such units? Is it based on feel or are there markers within the text which point
where stanzas and strophes end and begin? Before looking at the work which has been
43. Wesley Hu, "Unit Delimitation in Micah: A Text-Linguistic Approach" (Ph.D. diss., University of St. Michael's College, 2007), 1. 11 done specifically in this area with regards to Isaiah 24-27,1 will briefly point out the major works and methods in the study of Hebrew poetry and in particular of the sequence of clauses.
Prior to 1970 the main focus of Hebrew poetry primarily centered on three areas of study. The first area was parallelism. Two lines parallel to each other shared either the same vocabulary, thought or grammar. Various types of parallel structure have been noted over time. The second area focused on the meter of a line. A poetic line is described as a string of alternating stressed and unstressed syllables. The accentual count is based on the number of stressed syllables. The third area dealt with strophic analysis.
This form of analysis depended on the coherence of content and progression of thought as well as parallelism.
Relying upon insights from other literary disciplines, Hebrew Poetry after 1970 moved in diverse directions. One such direction was linguistic analysis. Linguistic approaches explain the workings of Hebrew poetry primarily in terms of syntax. Michael
O'Connor's 5 work is an example of this approach. One of the distinguishing marks of
O'Connor's work is his understanding that the patterns of a text are not metric or rhythmic but syntactic. A line is shaped by syntactical constraints at the levels of units
(words), constituents (phrases), and clause predicators (clauses). By using this system of syntactical constraints one can analyze the fine structure between lines. Noting these fine structural features allows one to see how the lines interact to create gross structures. In
44. I am indebted to Hu's work for this synopsis.
45. M. O'Connor, Hebrew Verse Structure (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1980). 12 his survey of the historical background of Hebrew poetry, Hu notes the benefits of such an approach. "Knowledge of the syntactical constraints in Hebrew poetry has a practical dimension: we can more easily know how to divide up the layout of poetic texts into their true poetic lines, and thus approach a truer understanding of the mechanisms at work."
Adele Berlin used linguistics to explain how parallelism works. In particular she pointed out that it has diverse aspects and operates on many different levels. Parallelism
"may involve semantics, grammar, and/or other linguistic features, and it may occur on the level of the word, line, couplet, or over a greater textual span."47 Like Berlin, Pardee also uses a linguistical approach in discussing parallelism. One of Pardee's unique contributions was the structuring role parallelism plays. Pardee observes in the use of distant parallelism (that of elements of two or units separated from each other by at least one other poetic unit) a hierarchy of types of parallelism based on structural strength.
Distant parallelisms, whether repetitive, semantic or grammatical, should be taken into consideration when the text is separated into structural units.
Another direction arising after 1970 was an emphasis upon the literary quality of
Hebrew poetry. Hu points out that one of the benefits of this approach was that it aimed at treating the text as a coherent, artistic whole and not just its mechanics.49 Robert
46. Hu, "Unit Delimitation in Micah," 7.
47. Adele Berlin, Poetics and Interpretation of Biblical Narrative (Bible and Literature Series 9; Sheffield: Almond, 1983), 25.
48. Dennis Pardee, Ugaritic and Hebrew Poetic Parallelism: A Trial Cut ('nt I and Proverbs 2) (VTSup 39; Leiden: Brill, 1988), 190.
49. Hu, "Unit Delimitation in Micah," 10. 13
Alter's 1985 book The Art of Biblical Poetry50 looked at two artistic characteristics present in Hebrew poetry. First is narrative impulse. Alter explains this phenomenon as one line depicting an image or a motif and the next line or lines, which are parallel to it, developing it further. The second artistic characteristic mentioned by Alter which is employed by Hebrew poets is intensification. This principle works on the level of the whole poem. "An expression is escalated; an initial theme or image is brought into sharper focus. Through complementarity, focusing, heightening, specification, consequentiality, contrast, or disjunction, a Hebrew poet binds all parts together and fuses poetic formalities and meanings in a most engaging manner."51
A third direction arising in Hebrew poetry after 1970 was structural analysis.
This methodology sought to discover the structure through which poetry communicated.
An example of such effort is found in the Kampen School of Theology in the
Netherlands.52 Two representatives of this school of thought are J.C. de Moor and his student Pieter van der Lugt. For de Moor a poem was built upon the smallest block the foot (a word with at least one stressed syllable) and progressed upward via the colon, verse, strophe, canticle, subcanto, and canto. "Within certain limits every structural unit could be expanded or contracted to form a unit of the next level. Usually the levels of the strophe and above are held together by external parallelism, whereas internal parallelism
50. Robert Alter, The Art of Biblical Poetry (New York: Basic Books, 1987).
51. Hu, "Unit Delimitation in Micah," 11.
52. Johannes C. de Moor and Willem Van Der Meer, eds., The Structural Analysis of Biblical and Canaanite Poetry (JSOTSS 74; Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1988). 14 operates at the lower levels."53 Macrostructure is one particular area upon which van der
Lugt focuses upon. He sees the formal features of a poem arising from strophic analysis being verbal repetitions and transition markers such as imperatives, vocatives, certain particles, and demonstrative and personal pronouns.54
The last direction Hebrew poetry took after 1970, which I note, is based on the premise that any study of a text must start with syntactic analysis, rather than semantic or stylistic inquiries. This approach is known as syntactical analysis. Syntactical analysis
"focuses not just on the clause, which the traditional Hebrew grammars have belabored extensively, but also on the inter-clausal relationship, and then on the text as a whole."55
Talstra notes that the challenge is to "begin the analysis of pieces of literary art in terms of linguistic system: clause patterns, verbal system, pronominal reference, topicalizations, etc."56
These four directions of Hebrew poetry I chose to discuss place a great deal of emphasis on the role of parallelism in poetry. This is found not only on the level of the line but also in the larger structure of the poem. Is it possible that there are also other ways to note how lines function in relation to one another in poetry? And could it be that how a writer crafted a line in relation to other lines indicate the structure of a poem by some means other than just parallelism? Our focus now shifts to those individuals who
53. Hu, "Unit Delimitation in Micah," 13.
54. P. van der Lugt, Rhetorical Criticism and the Poetry of the Book of Job (Leiden: Brill, 1995), 38-41.
55. Hu, "Unit Delimitation in Micah," 15.
56. E. Talstra, "Reading Biblical Poetry - Linguistic Structure or Rhetorical Device?," JNSL 25, (1999): 107. 15 have dealt specifically with Isaiah 24-27 and the particular poetic method of analysis they employed.
In 1974, J. L. Koole founded the Dutch Isaiah Workshop. Parts of the resulting
en studies and discussions ended up in the volume, Studies in Isaiah 24-27. The editors,
H. J. Bosman and H.W.M. van Grol, each contributed an article dealing with the structure of Isaiah 24-27. Bosman's syntactical analysis, "Syntactic Cohesion in Isaiah 24-27,"58 is based on syntactic and text-syntactic considerations. Van Grol,59 on the other hand, uses literary analysis to uncover the verse structure of Isaiah 24-27. These two papers represent two different ways of determining a text's structure. Bosman points out these differences. "The two approaches, by their very nature, uncover two essentially different kinds of textual structure. Literary analysis investigates the text as a composition, a more or less consciously designed whole, with some degree of regularity and symmetry.
Syntactic analysis investigates the text as a sequence of clauses, which are connected through various linguistic signs to form a flow of discourse."6 Below, I will briefly examine these two methods, and then demonstrate how they differ from Sequential
57. Hendrik Jan Bosman and H.W.M. van Grol, eds., Studies in Isaiah 24-27: The Isaiah Workshop - De Jesaja Werkplaats (OtSt 43; Leiden: Brill, 2000).
58. Hendrik Jan Bosman, "Syntactic Cohesion in Isaiah 24-27," in Studies in Isaiah 24-27: The Isaiah Workshop ~ De Jesaja Werkplaats (ed. Hendrik Jan Bosman and H.W.M. van Grol; Leiden: Brill, 2000), 19-50.
59. H.W.M. van Grol, "An Analysis of the Verse Structure of Isaiah 24-27," in Studies in Isaiah 24-27: The Isaiah Workshop - De Jesaja Werkplaats, (ed. Hendrik Jan Bosman and H.W.M. van Grol; Leiden: Brill, 2000), 51-80.
60. Bosman, "Syntactic Cohesion in Isaiah 24-27," 19. 16
Analysis and state why I elected not to use their method of analysis. For the sake of comparison, I will show how each method analyzes Isaiah 24.1-3.
According to van Grol, Isaiah 24-27 is poetic, and therefore, will possess a prosodic structure, i.e. the hierarchic ordering of textual units of various proportions.
Subsequently, van Grol's first step in analyzing the text is to define the hierarchic order of the text's units along with their range and composition. Five units are identified: (1) a metrical unit consisting of stressed or unstressed syllables (on the level of a word), (2) a colon consisting of two, three, or four metrical units, (3) a line consisting of one, two or three cola, (4) a strophe consisting of one, two or three lines, and (5) a stanza consisting of one, two, three or four strophes.62 These five units are present in van Grol's analysis of Isaiah 24.1-3.
n 1 / a 2+3 strophe 1 i?T^? H^? Pfc^ 'IF' ^P :mnur ram / mia mm 2+2 T iv : 1 \ - •• : T VT JT - : strophe 2 nmaas nnatf3 / rhxs isjta / inio DID mm 3+2+2 x AT : • : - \T : • - T I- V V ~ I •• T T Each of the three strophes consists of two lines. The rhythmic line pattern for the first and last strophe is similar 2+3, 2+2 and 3+2, 2+2 respectively. The lines in the second strophe are longer and similar to one another, 3+2+2, 2+2+3. van Grol points out that there is interconnection between the first and third strophes through repetition and verse structure - both have lines which are bicola and a change in subject. The three 61. van Grol, "An Analysis of the Verse Structure," 51. 62. Ibid., 51-52. 17 strophes make up one stanza. The means for demarcating these three strophes as a closed unit is the fact that they form a balanced-pattern. No explanation is provided as to why two lines are assigned to each strophe rather than a larger number. In his analyses van Grol incorporated the work of three individuals who have analyzed Isaiah 24-27 and whose analyses are based upon the same methodology - Millar, Wildberger and Watts.64 Two other works dealing with Isaiah 24-27 and which also rely upon literary analyses to determine the text's structure are the dissertations of Wallace March and D.J. Lewis.65 I will briefly note their analyses of Isaiah 24.1-3 and why they demarcate these verses as one stanza. March notes that the parallelism and basic rhythm of 24.1-3 mark it as poetry. The metrical pattern varies between 3+2, 2+2, and 2+2+2 within the stanza, verse 1 Pip^iai T"1XH / ppia miT / H3H 3+2 UT : i I v \T T I I/" VT : s" :rraur ram / mas mm 2+2 T iv : \ \- - : T VT JT • : verse 2 nrnaaa nnatf? / va/rao laib /ins? DW rrrn 2+2+2 :ia Ktfa -itfK? nfe / ni^a 'rrr^a? / naiaa naipa 2+2+2 verse 3 Tian iriam /rixn pian ipian 3+2 A • J • : I V\T T I v • I s ' nin -iaT"nn"nx / -i:n nin*; •'s 2+2 The noticeable differences between March's analyses and that of van Grol's is in the third and fourth lines. Instead of a 3+2+2, 2+2+3 pattern like van Grol, March notes a 2+2+2 rhythmic pattern for both lines. In the third line March points out that iTn"] is best 63. Wildberger, Isaiah 13-27. 64. John D.W. Watts, Isaiah 1-33 (WBC 24; Waco: Word Books, 1985). 65. Lewis, "A Rhetorical Critical Analysis." 18 understood as standing outside the metrical pattern and in line four March modifies the third colon so only two metrical units are counted.66 March believes the stanza is demarcated by three indicators: (1) the presence of HJin which marks the beginning, (2) the subject matter (the earth) sets it apart, and finally (3) 24.3b serves to bring the pericope to a well-defined conclusion. "Thus 24.1-3 should be seen as a distinct unit."67 Before setting out his analysis of Isaiah 24.1-3 Lewis breaks down the verses into smaller working parts. This is done by noting the major accentual marks supplied by the Massoretes who placed various accents to mark the smaller thought-units. Such effort results in the following analysis by Lewis. verse 1 nim nan ma's mm T V T JT - I T iv : I \ • •• : verse 2 mm 66. March, J ,Ste/y of Two Prophetic Compositions, 2. 67. Ibid., 4. 19 Lewis agrees with March in placing IT!!"! outside the metrical pattern and by following the Massoretic accentuation the passage scans as 2+3, 2+2; 2+2+2, 2+2+2; 3+2, 2+3. Lewis identifies these three verses as a strophe. The limits of a strophe must be established by "the location of opening phrases, closing phrases, inclusion, abrupt shifts in rhythm, or changes in subject matter."68 Demarcation of these verses as a strophe is based on three factors: (1) the passage begins with the introductory word 7127], (2) the subject matter is different from what which precedes it, and (3) the section concludes with the standard formula 121 HiT "S.69 w • T : J • Van Grol and I agree that Isaiah 24.1-3 is a distinct unit, a stanza. Where we differ is the reason for such demarcation, van GroPs argument is that these three verses form a balanced pattern.70 With regard to identifying the strophes van Grol does not explicitly state what marks the beginning and ending of a strophe. Because of the importance he places upon "rhythmic regularity" I assume it is based on their rhythmic 71 pattern. In the analysis I propose there is a sequential break or punctuating mark identifying verses 1 -2 as a strophe and a break between verses 3 and 4 marking verse 3 as a strophe. The reason I chose to link these two strophes together as a stanza is more 68. Lewis, "A Rhetorical Critical Analysis," 7. 69. Ibid., 40-41. 70. Both Lewis and March rely upon formulary criteria found in verse one and verse three as well as a shift in the subject from the previous verses in chapter 23 and the following verse (24.4). 71. "During the discussions in 'De Jesaja Werkplaats' I became aware of the importance of rhythmic regularity in my analysis. If this criterium is not taken (very) seriously, the results will vary greatly." van Grol, "An Analysis of the Verse Structure," 54. 20 subjective and influenced by content. Verse 1 speaks of the land and verse 2 turns the focus toward those who dwell upon it. Verse 3 returns the focus back upon the land. Verse 4 (a strophe) deals with the land and the following strophe (verses 5-6) returns the focus back upon the inhabitants. In Sequential Analysis punctuation of a strophe is based on a shift in clause type or verbal tense rather than meter or rhythm. A second difference between our methods is the criteria used to define a line or clause, van Grol relies upon metrical units, i.e. the counting of syllables. I distinguish a clause by its type, nominal or verbal, and how it begins, either with or without a waw. The differences stated between van Grol and me also apply to Lewis and March who use literary analysis. Before moving on to Bosman's text-syntactic analysis, I pause to note the work of one individual, Cynthia Miller. , who has made unique contributions in the analysis of the structure of Hebrew Poetry, but has not published works in Isaiah 24-27. Miller's article, "The Relation of Coordination to Verb Gapping in Biblical Poetry," discusses verb gapping between lines and the role waw plays when it stands between two parallel lines. In my study I chose another way to look at the use of waw at the beginning of clauses. I see the presence or absence of waw as a marker of clause type and one indicator marking punctuation, i.e. the beginning or ending of a strophe. For this reason I decided not to pursue Miller's work in my study. A basic premise of the Bosman's text-syntactic analysis is that texts are hierarchically structured. "Small unites (e.g., words) form the building blocks for units 72. Cynthia L. Miller, "The Relation of Coordination to Verb Gapping in Biblical Poetry," JSOT 32 (2007): 41-60. 21 on a higher level (e.g., phrases), which in turn become the building blocks for units on an even higher level (e.g., clauses)."73 Bosnian goes through the text in five consecutive rounds each time identifying textual units. These units form the basis for the next round and larger units. Each time through Bosman is looking for where syntactic cohesion between subsequent textual units meets the arguments to group those units together into a larger unit. The choice of only five rounds is arbitrary because theoretically the procedure could go on, producing larger and larger units. The drawback of this is that "as the textual level becomes higher, the arguments become less formal and syntactic, until a point is reached where text-syntactic considerations no longer play a major role and considerations of content take over."74 Round one consists of units that "have the status of clauses constituent within another unit and are combined with that unit (e.g. 1CK - clauses, infinitive clauses). Elliptic clauses are also combined with their main clause in this round."75 Bosman's first unit consists of only two clauses, 24.2g and 24.2h, where 24.2h is an attributive clause with an implicit antecedent. To make this work Bosman must separate the preposition 3 from the relative pronoun "I2JK and assign them to different clauses. 24.2g 3 HC33 24.2h :13 N#3 "itfK Verb forms or clause types is the main argument to combine units in the second round. Bosman identifies four such units. 73. Bosman, "Syntactic Cohesion in Isaiah 24-27," 20. 74. Ibid. 75. Ibid., 21. 22 Unitl 24.1a pKH ppiB mm 71271 24.1b np^iai Unit 2 24.1c rna mri T V T J T • : 24. Id T iv : 1 \ ' " : Unit 3 24.2b 1H33 DUD 24.2c rnx| ..s _'"Qj T bT 24.2d rrrnaaa nnstf? 24.2e nipia? naip? 24.2f nte? nr?aa 24.2g 3 n|?33 24.2h :ia Kp 1«JK Unit 4 24.3a pan plan ipian 24.3b ?ian iTiam Unit 1 links the first two clauses together because they have identical verb forms (participle, ms) and the same subject (rpiT). The two clauses in Unit 2 share the same verb form iy/qatal) and subject (ITirP). The seven clauses in Unit 3 are linked together because they are all of the same type (y-3 x-3). Unit 4 has two clauses that have identical verb forms and share the same subject (infin. absol. + Yiqtol 3fs; subject fHXn). At this stage either verb forms or clause types tie units together. In round three the main assertion is that certain sequences of clause types can combine units. Bosman also points out that "the phenomenon of closure begins to play a role here: the switch to a different verb form or clause type at the end of a unit. Such a switch is unexpected and heightens the reader's attention. It often has a kind of 23 'crescendo' effect which suits the ending of a larger unit of text.",7 6 Bosnian identifies two units from this round. Unitl 24.1a pan ppi2 mn1 nan 24.1b 24.1c ma's, mm T i|V T J T • : 24. Id :rratf rsm T iv : I \ • •• : Unit 2 24.2a mm Bosnian argues Unit 1 begins with nan + participle and is continued by weqatal with the same subject (YHWH). Also, the object is the same throughout this unit: ]HKn, referred to by suffixes 3fs. In Unit 2 clauses 2b-2h form the 'subject' of mm in 2a and therefore, make up a unit. Like round three, in round four sequences of clause types are the determining factor in demarcating a unit, but this time they are applied to larger units. Patterns of pronominal reference play a role as well. Two units come out of this round. Unit l 24.1a pxn pp.i3 mm nan 24.1b ^i?"1 24.1c maa mm T VT JT • : 24.Id :^T rP^l 24.2a mm 24.2c T l~ V V - 24.2d _ - AT : • : \T : • 24.2e irnraa ^rnipa 24.2f ni^s 'nVpa? 24.2g ? n#a? 24.2h :ia xda ntiJN Unit 2 24.3a flKH plan I plan 24.3b nan mam A J • : 24.3c :mn "la^rrnK nan nirr r? The first unit again begins with nan + participle and is continued by two weqatal units. The second unit consists of Yiqtol followed by an explanatory ''p-qatal clause. Round five looks to actant patterns, semantic connections, as well as other unidentified considerations when identifying a unit. This unit consists of 24.1a-3c and Bosman notes three considerations linking this unit together: resumption of subject "|HKn; repetition of pp.ia; infinitive absolute + Yiqtol closing a vfqatal section. The reasons I chose not to use Bosman's text-syntactical form of analysis are the following. First, I do not agree with Bosman's basic premise that syntactical analysis should be based on the premise of a hierarchically structured text (words, phrases, clauses) and that smaller units become the building blocks for larger units at a higher level. Sequential Analysis is built on the premise that syntax is a matter of word order and clause type. The clause is the starting point. Also, Bosman admits that the choice of only five rounds is arbitrary because theoretically the procedure could go on, producing larger and larger units. Sequential Analysis cannot go on and on because it stops at sentence boundaries. Secondly, Bosman does not seem to note that sequences can begin in some ways, and end in others. Also, he does not describe the various types of 25 sequences. This is a vital part of Sequential Analysis. Thirdly, Bosnian emphasizes elision in the formation of units. In my analysis I note this phenomenon, but it is not a factor in determining the structure of stanzas. Finally, in his fourth round Bosman sees two units - 24.1a-2h and 24.3a-3c. In my analysis of 24.1-3 I also divide the text along the same lines. Bosman sees them as units. I label them as stanzas. My division is based upon a sequence of clauses and then punctuation. For example, 24.1-2 consists of two nominal clauses (la-b) followed by three verbal Yiqtol consecutive clauses (lc-2e) which mark the break. Bosman neither identifies the clauses nor speaks of punctuation. When there is a change of verb form or clause type, it is seen more in literary terms, closure, and how it impacts the reader. For these reasons I chose not to use Bosman's method of analysis. After considering van Grol's literary analysis and Bosman's text-syntactical analysis, I chose to use Sequential Analysis for five reasons. First, I appreciate the consistency and clarity by which this method of analysis identifies clauses. Clause types are either verbal or nominal and each is distinguished by how it begins - either with or without waw. Secondly, I hope to exhibit that this method can have ramifications not only with regard to the syntax of the text, but its interpretation. For example, consecutive sequences are narrative or discursive and follow a logical, chronological or topical order. Disjunctive sequences are explanatory and sometimes subordinate in translation. Thirdly, the method recognizes that texts are constructed in various manners. For example, variations may appear in the length of clauses, the dominance of one clause type over another, or how the clauses are arranged in forming a stanza. The length of a clause is not dependent upon either meter or rhythm. This is where the method excels. Fourthly, I 26 believe this form of analysis can be used in analyzing the structure of both narrative and poetic passages and different means of analyzing the text would not be required as the genre changed.77 Finally, in discussing the historical development of a passage, scholars first identify the boundaries of various sections within the passage, and then classify the sections according to form and conjecture as to how and why they are found in their final location. Sequential Analysis not only reveals the overall structure of the passage, but also hints how it might have been constructed. Such analysis may provide one step in allowing for the plausibility of a passage which traditionally has been seen as a composite work to be viewed as the product of one individual. As I apply this method I will also rely upon the various techniques that have traditionally been used in noting the text's literary artistry. For example, alliterations, assonance, parallelisms, and rhyme will be used in my analysis of the text. Again, Sequential Analysis does not require one to eliminate these techniques. How Sequential Analysis Works The underpinning of Sequential Analysis78 is found in the work of Thomas Lambdin (nos. 98, 107, 132, 197).79 A fundamental principle of biblical Hebrew syntax 77. In a book written by Niccacci in 2006, he wrote that prose and poetry share the same verbal system. A position he did not hold in 1997. Aviero Niccacci, "Analyzing Biblical Hebrew Poetry," JSOT1A (1997): 93. Aviero Niccacci, "The Biblical Hebrew Verbal System in Poetry," in Biblical Hebrew in its Northwest Semitic Setting. Typological and Historical Perspectives (ed. Steven E Fassberg and Avi Hurritz; Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2006), 247-268. 78. I am indebted to Dr. Brian Peckham for teaching me the principles of what I call Sequential Analysis. 27 is the notion of sequence. Sequence governs the relationship of all types of clauses in every kind of series in any prose or poetic genre.80 What is meant by sequence? A sequence ... is a series of clauses of the same type, introduced or not by unlike clauses, stopping with a clause of another type. Each type has a predictable value ... but syntax just tracks the meaning and is not confused with it. Clause type and word order, consequently, can be distinguished apart from their meaning by the features that make them syntactically significant.81 The smallest literary unit is the phrase and than the clause. A series of clauses forms a stanza and a group of stanzas a strophe. Sequential Analysis enables the reader to delineate what clauses make up a stanza. It is able to do this by noting the sequence of clauses and any change or break in that sequence. Such a change or break is a punctuation mark. Each clause has a purpose within the stanza. For example, a consecutive clause or sequence of clauses is narrative or discursive and follows a logical, chronological or topical order. A disjunctive clause or series of clauses is usually explanatory. Also, one must keep in mind that each type of clause is identified by its place within the sequence. It will be sequential, coordinate or subordinate. There are two types of clauses - nominal and verbal. Each is distinguished by how it begins. A clause may begin with or without wow. 79. Thomas Lambdin, Introduction to Biblical Hebrew (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1971). 80. Brian Peckham, "The Sequence of Clauses in Biblical Hebrew" (Unpublished Ms., 1998), 1. 81. Ibid., 2. 28 Nominal clauses that begin with waw are either paratactic or disjunctive. Without waw they are asyndetic, prepositive, or conjunctive. A nominal sequence is a series of nominal clauses of any type in any order. Continuity is broken by either a contrary use of waw, or by a verbal sequence of any kind. There are five types of verbal clauses: consecutive (positive weqatal or wayyiqtol, negative welo' qatal or welo'yiqtol), disjunctive (waw +X+ qatal, or + X+yiqtol), paratactic (we + qatal, we + yiqtol, or modal), conjunctive (with a conjunction), asyndetic (qatal, or yiqtol or modal in any position). Two notes of clarification: (1) a wayyiqtol clause functions as a consecutive Qatal clause, and (2) a weqatal clause in a nominal, Yiqtol or modal sequence functions as a consecutive Yiqtol clause and in a Qatal sequence functions as a paratactic Qatal clause. Below are examples of the various types of clauses within Isaiah 24-27. Nominal asyndetic 24.1a rixn ppia nirr run disjunctive 24.1b rtj^iai paratactic 24.23e nias rapt -uoi conjunctive 24.4e :Tp D1T3 D^-m mi ^3 Verbal consecutive - yiqtol 24.1c nraa mm T VT JT • consecutive - qatal 26.14f •.fob isrbs ia«m disjunctive - yiqtol 24.3b tian inarn disjunctive - qatal 24.16h :n:a D'naia naai paratactic - yiqtol paratactic - qatal 24.6h nrro ciax nx^ai conjunctive - qatal 24.5b n'lin nasns 29 conjunctive - yiqtol 24.13a flNPI :nj?3 rrrP Hi ""S asyndetic - qatal 24.4b flNH nbaa asyndetic - yiqtol 24.9b :T,nttfi? "Dtf "lO"' A verbal sequence consists of one clause, or a series of clauses in the same mood and conjugation and with the same use of waw. The most recognizable end to a sequence is (1) a clause of a different type in the same mood and conjugation, (2) a clause in the other mood or conjugation, (3) a nominal sequence. If one becomes confused as to where to place the punctuation to mark the end of a sequence of clauses, hence, forming a stanza, remember this simple principle - a sequence - a series of the same type of clause - is marked by the change to something different. This marks punctuation. Sequences may have either simple or compound or complex stops. A simple stop consists of a series of clauses of the same type followed by one clause of a different type. For example, a simple stop occurs when a single consecutive clause or a series of such clauses is broken. If there is one consecutive clause, punctuation is marked by another clause in the other mood or conjugation, or by a nominal sequence. If there is a series of consecutive clauses, the end of the sequence is marked by one clause of another kind, a clause in the other mood or conjugation, or a nominal sequence. A series of non-consecutive clauses may also end with simple stops. Non-consecutive sequences are disjunctive, asyndetic, or paratactic. A series of clauses may also end more diffusely with either compound or complex stops. For instance, a different type of clause appears and ends the sequence. But rather than a new sequence starting, this single clause may be continued by one or more clauses 30 that are related to it through sequence or coordination. This is a compound stop. A complex stop, on the other hand, is a clause of a different type ending the sequence which is modified by one or more subordinate clauses. In both compound and complex stops the ending is clearly marked by a different clause type, but the clause that ends the sequence is not necessarily last in the stanza.82 The relationship between clauses can be threefold. First, there is that of sequence. Clauses in sequential relationship to one another are of the same kind. The sequence ends when it changes sequence or there is a change in waw I non-waw. Second, clauses can be in coordinate relationship to one another. This is discernible by repetition or parallelism between the clauses. Third, one clause may be subordinate to another. This is marked by a subordinating conjunction and this clause may be followed by another clause, be it sequential or coordinate. The Author of Isaiah 24-27 and Isaiah 13-23 The third step I take in supporting my thesis is intertextuality. Patricia Tull notes that intertextuality is best understood in the context of rhetorical criticism especially rhetoric as a means of persuasion.83 Rhetorical criticism's initial focus in the arena of 82. For further information regarding the intricacies of Sequential Analysis I recommend the reader see Peckham's article, "Punctuation is the Point." Brian Peckham, "Punctuation is the Point," in Seeing Signals, Reading Signs: The Art of Exegesis. Studies in Honour of Antony F. Campbell, SJfor his Seventieth Birthday (ed. M. A. Obrien and H. N. Wallace; T & T Clark International: New York, 2004), 1. 83. Patricia Tull, "Rhetorical Criticism and Intertextuality," in To Each Its Own Meaning (ed. Steven L. McKenzie and Stephen R. Haynes; Westminster John Knox Press: Louisville, 1999), 156-80. 31 Biblical studies was on the text's stylistic and aesthetic features thanks to the work of James Muilenburg.84 He called attention to textual elements such as chiasms and inclusios, repetition of key words, strophic structure, repetitions of particles and vocatives, and rhetorical questions.85 Trible, a student of Muilenburg, built upon his insights and in her work recommended one pay attention to the details of a text's construction in order to properly articulate its meaning. These details included the following: the beginning and ending of the text; repetition of words, phrases, and sentences; types of discourse; design and structure; plot development; character portrayals; syntax and particles. This literary emphasis has also been referred to as stylistic analysis. A second aspect of rhetorical criticism is its interest in the hortatory nature of a text. What was the intent of the writer when he or she picked up their instrument of writing? How is this expressed within the text? And on the other side of the coin, how do those who are addressed respond to that which they either hear or read? Many factors influence the success of the individual who attempts to persuade another and the ability of one to be open to persuasion. In particular, "every text we hear or read becomes intelligible by means of association with what has already been heard or read. Moreover, 07 every text we write or speak is constructed from the building blocks of previous texts." 84. James Muilenburg, "Form Criticism and Beyond," JBL 88 (1969): 1-18. 85. Tull, "Rhetorical Criticism and Intertextuality," 158. 86. Ibid., 159. 87. Ibid., 164. 32 This is a dialogical process. The author is in dialogue not only with the intended recipient but also a variety of texts, whatever their form, that he or she has encountered to this point. These texts influence how one expresses one's thoughts. The recipient is in dialogue not only with the author but also all texts to which they have been exposed. This inseparability from associations with other texts Tull defines as intertextuality. Intertextuality therefore, is not limited to just written texts. "These connections can be as general and indirect as shared language, or sound as specific and direct as the footnoted quotation of one text in another."88 Tull provides two examples of rhetorical techniques found in texts which are in dialogue with one another. First, a writer may choose to expunge problematic material, such as the story of Bathsheba and Uriah.89 Or a writer may quote or reference another text in order to acknowledge that they know what is being said by others regarding a given topic and then argue in support of or against that particular position. This can result in a "tension-filled environment."90 Tull concludes her article by briefly illustrating how the constellation of rhetorical approaches might illuminate Genesis l.91 I note two of these. First, she points out the stylistic feature of unfolding repetitions found in the text; i.e., the repetitions of God's 88. Ibid., 165. 89. 1 Chron. 20.1-3 cf. 2 Sam. 11.1-12.31. 90. "Although the internal dialogism of biblical texts usually moves toward resolution, privileging one viewpoint over others, there are texts in which competing discourses are allowed to remain in tension." Tull, "Rhetorical Criticism and Intertextuality," 172. 91. Ibid., 176-77. 33 words that speak the universe into being. Secondly, Tull notes that if one looks at Genesis 1 in terms of pragmatic persuasion one might be hindered by direct clues to assist in understanding the rival viewpoint. Yet subtle intertextual features are present and can be useful in this endeavor. For example, the idea God created humanity in God's image (verse 27) puts a twist on the language of image-making in view of a text such as Isaiah 46.1-7. Hibbard92 in his work Intertextuality in Isaiah 24-27 is more limiting in his view of a "text" in his approach to intertextuality. One reason for this is based on his observation that "intertextuality has come to mean many things to many people, since no authoritative definition for either the term or the approaches to the text that it may represent has been forthcoming."93 The situation is not much better in the field of Biblical studies. "On the one end of the spectrum one can find post-structuralist critics who offer intertextual readings guided by overt ideological concerns while at the other end one finds a kind of intertextuality not that dissimilar from traditional models of source and redaction criticism. Between these two extremes lies a whole range of discussions that use the terminology of intertextuality with different emphasis."94 Hibbard limits his focus as to how "the ancient reader read earlier texts and constructed a textual conversation with that text through the composition of her or his 92. J. Todd Hibbard, Intertextuality in Isaiah 24-27: The Reuse and Evocation of Earlier Texts and Traditions (FAT 2/16; Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck), 2006. 93. Ibid., 10. 94. Ibid., 15. 34 own text."95 In my thesis I elect to follow Hibbard's approach and follow Hibbard's first three conditions for identifying an intertext.96 First, there must be some amount of shared vocabulary between the two texts. "The rarer the language in common between the two texts or the more extensive the verbal overlap, the more probable it is that one is dealing with an actual case of intertextuality."97 Second, there must be some degree of thematic coherence. At times two texts may address a similar theme or topic yet not share the same vocabulary. I follow Hibbard's stance that thematic coherence needs to be accompanied by shared vocabulary to qualify as an intertextual connection. Third, the textual relationship between the two passages must be meaningful in some way. That is, it must have some bearing on the meaning of Isaiah 24-27. In my analysis of Isaiah 24-27 (chapters two through seven in the dissertation), I look at intertextual connections between Isaiah 24-27 and passages within and outside of Isaiah. The texts are chosen for their interpretive value in explaining how Isaiah 24-27 works as a unit. In chapter nine I look at links between chapters 24-27 and the fourteen chapters preceding them. The prevalent position, concerning Isaiah 24-27 and its place within its surrounding context, is that it is a late addition. I will argue that one person was responsible for Isaiah 24-27 and also authored passages in Isaiah 13-23. I will approach this argument in the following manner. First, I will identify themes and imagery which are found in chapters 24-27 as well as chapters 13-23. Secondly, after setting forth the 95. Ibid., 4. 96. Ibid., 5. 97. Ibid. 35 overall thrust of my passage I will check to see how this fits in with those texts which may have come from the same writer. Time and constraints placed upon the length of the dissertation will limit the number of themes and passages I will be able to compare. Before moving on it is important to take note of Marvin Sweeney's article "Textual Citations in Isaiah 24-27."98 As a result of the discussion surrounding the redactional unity of the book of Isaiah in the 1980's, Sweeney believed it was important to examine the redactional relationship between Isaiah 24-27 and the rest of the book by noting the number of citations or allusions to other passages in Isaiah. Sweeney's work not only identifies the Isaianic texts which appear in chapters 24-27, but also points out how they were understood by the writer or writers of Isaiah 24-27 and used in their specific contexts. The eight textual citations he deals with are Isaiah 24.13 and 17.6a, 24.16 and 21.2; 33.1, 25.4-5 and 4.5b-6; 32.1-2, 25.1 lb-12 and 2.9-17, 26.5 and 2.6-21, 26.7-18 and 13.8; 66.7-9, 27.2-6 and 5.1-7; 27.1, 12-13 and 11.10-16. From his examination of these textual citations or allusions Sweeney surmised the following points. First, the author(s) of Isaiah 24-27 composed these chapters with an awareness of the Isaianic tradition. Second, when the author(s) used these passages the means by which he applied them did not always correspond with their original context. Third, the author(s) "interprets and applies these texts according to a hermeneutical perspective which is consistent with the universal outlook of Isaiah 24-27, one that looks toward the universal or cosmic significance of God's punishment of the earth and his 98. Marvin Sweeney, "Textual Citations in Isaiah 24-27: Toward an Understanding of the Redactional Function of Chapters 24-27 in the Book of Isaiah," JBL 107 (1988): 39-52. 99. Ibid., 42. 36 restoration of Israel in Zion."100 Fourth, Isaiah 24-27 is more than just a redactional juxtaposition intended to fulfill and interpret the oracles against the nations in chapters 13-23. They also interact with and interpret other parts of the book as well. Sweeney concludes by pointing out that his work "provides the basis for future research concerning the redactional unity of the book of Isaiah and the function of chapters 24-27 within that unity."101 The method Sweeney uses in treating the textual citations or allusions existing between Isaiah 24-27 and other portions of Isaiah is similar to the method I use in noting intertextual links. Where Sweeney and I differ is who is responsible for Isaiah 24-27. He sees a redactor producing this work. I propose that one individual functioning as an author produced not only chapters 24-27 but also significant portions of Isaiah 13-23. Synopsis of Chapters Isaiah 24-27 consists of six parts: 24.1-16, 24.17-23, 25.1-12, 26.1-11, 26.12-21, 27.1-13. Each part is assigned to a chapter making up chapters two through seven. Via Structural Analysis I divide each part into strophes. A strophe consists of two or more stanzas on which the structure of each part is based. A stanza is a sequence of lines or clauses of the same type. The length of a stanza varies and length carries meaning. Each strophe is examined by noting its (1) structure based on sequential analysis, (2) literary 100. Ibid., 51. 101. Ibid., 52. 37 artistry, (3) translation,102 (4) intertextual relationship to the book of Isaiah and the larger Hebrew corpus, and (5) interpretation. The examination of the structure of each stanza is laid out in five columns. The first column is the verse number. The second column identifies each line in the stanza alphabetically beginning with "a" and following an ascending order - 24.1c indicates the third line in the first verse of Isaiah 24. The third column identifies the line in three ways. The first indicator designates whether the line is nominal (n) or verbal (v). If it is nominal, the next indicator tells if it is a nominal phrase (n-ph) or a nominal clause (n-cl). If it is verbal (v), the next indicator tells what kind of verb, be it Yiqtol (y) or Qatal (q). If the line is modal, it is marked such (m) after the verb type. For example "v-q/m" indicates that the line is verbal and the verb is Qatal and modal. The third indicator is separated from the first two indicators by a colon (:) and indicates the type of line. The possibilities are asyndetic (asyn), consecutive (cons), paratactic (para), disjunctive (disj), and conjunctive (conj). The fourth column is the word order within the line. The order of the Hebrew text is in English and moves from left to right. The last column is the Hebrew text of that particular line. With regard to the strophe's literary artistic elements, I note the appearance of literary aspects such as rhyme, alliteration, and assonance. Attention is paid to how these elements link lines to one another and in turn unite a stanza. Such a discussion presupposes that the poetry was read aloud or sung. Rhythm, cadence, and melody were essential to poetry. Another feature in this area is the interspersing of long lines in a stanza of short lines as well as different number and type of lines in stanzas and strophes. 102. My translation of BHS. 38 Chapter eight demonstrates how each part in Isaiah 24-27 can be read as a cohesive unit and how each part fits with the preceding and following sections. This takes the place of a summary at the end of each chapter (chapters 2-7). Chapter nine looks at how Isaiah 24-27 fits within its larger context, Isaiah 13-23 and the possibility that the writer of chapters 24-27 may also have been responsible for parts of Isaiah 13-23. A summary of the findings will comprise the final chapter. CHAPTER TWO PART ONE: ISAIAH 24.1-16 Strophe One, 2 Stanzas: 24.1-2 and 24.3 Sequential Analysis 24.1-•3 10 + 3 1 a n-cl: asyn Cj-NS-NP{ptc-do} pxn p02 mm nan b n-cl: disj NP{ptc-do} np^iin c v-y: cons wSVB-DO mab mm T VT JT " I d v-y: cons wSVB-DO T iv : I \ • •• : 2 e v-y: cons wSVB-PP-PP lnss bin mm I " - T T 3 a v-y: asyn INF-VB-NS fnxn piaan ipiaan b v-y: disj wINF-SVB naan i mm A • j • : c v-q: conj Cj-NS-VB-DO :mn -mmnx-an mm ^ Stanza One (24.1-2): 10 lines This stanza consists of two nominal clauses (la-b) followed by three verbal Yiqtol consecutive clauses (lc-2e) which mark the break. Lines la and lb describe the initial condition of the f]S and are parallel. The subject of line la (mm.) is elided in the next line and the object of the participle is repeated by means of the feminine singular object suffix at the end of the participle in line lb. The nominal sequence is interrupted with a shift to a series of verbal Yiqtol consecutive clauses. The last clause in this sequence (2e) is continued by five nominal phrases (2f-j) which are also governed by the verb of line 2e (HYI). 39 40 Stanza Two (24.3a-c): 3 lines The stanza consists of two Yiqtol clauses (3a-b) and a subordinate conjunctive Qatal clause (3c). The Yiqtol sequence distinguishes it from the preceding stanza which ends with a nominal sequence and from the first stanza in the next strophe where clauses are Qatal asyndetic. The first line of this stanza (3a) is Yiqtol asyndetic and is followed by a Yiqtol disjunctive (3b) which is parallel to it. This parallelism is marked not only by the subject being in elision (flN) but also by the same word order - an infinitive absolute followed by a verb which shares the same root, and sound. With regard to the verbal Qatal conjunctive clause in line 3c, I believe its subordinate force is to be understood in two ways. First, it is subordinate to the previous two lines (3a-b). Secondly, it is subordinate to the entire strophe and marks a summary of the strophe. Literary Artistry One of the key literary features in this stanza is the relation between lines lb-2e. Lines 1 c-d have the same word order (wSVB-DO) and feminine suffixes qualifying the direct objects (rpDlp"\ rP3S). Through rhyme the suffixes not only link the two lines, but they also tie the lines to the preceding nominal clause (lb), in that all three lines end with rd the 3 feminine suffix HT (r?j?ViD). The antecedent of this suffix is the direct object (again last in the line) of line la (|HNn). While these two lines belong with line 2e, they also are distinct from it because of these similarities. The three verbal Yiqtol consecutive clauses form a transition from the land to its inhabitants. Line lc moves from a generic picture of the r"]N (lines a-b) to its surface (note the personification, literally "face"). 41 Line Id continues the use of the feminine suffix, referring to the land, but introduces another aspect of the f)X, its inhabitants. In line 2e and following these dwellers are further identified by encompassing a plethora of individuals who will end up on the same playing field. This equalizing is revealed in lines 2f-j, by means of a series of nominal asyndetic phrases with the repetition of the preposition 3. Lines 2e-j also belong together in that the prepositions of comparison introduced in the verbal clause of line 2e are continued in the next five nominal phrases. Another literary feature is anaphora in lines 2f-j by means of the preposition 3. Also, within these lines is alliteration in that the initial word of each clause is immediately followed by a word also starting with 3. Within each of the first two lines of the second stanza the writer uses assonance and alliteration. Both lines begin with an infinitive and are followed by a verb of the same root. Also, both verbal roots are similar in sound. Such technique serves to emphasize the condition of the land. Two stylistic features of the writer found in this strophe as well as other strophes in Isaiah 24-27 are (1) repetition and (2) accumulation of modifiers and descriptive elements. For example, the writer tends to repeat the same root (i?i?3, TT3 in lines 3a-b, *1T?, in line 3c) or similar sounding words (j?pi3, line la / nj7Vi3, line lb) and syllables (the final syllable in the last words of lines lb-d PIj?-, 17-, H- / the repeating of 3 in lines 2f- j). We see an example of where the writer accumulates modifiers in lines 2e-f. 42 Translation 1 a Behold, Yahweh is desolating the land, b and laying it waste, c and he is distorting its surface, d and he is scattering its inhabitants, 2 e and the outcome is the same for the people, as the priest, f for the slave, as his master(s) g for the slave girl, as her mistress h for the buyer, as the seller i for the lender, as the borrower j for the moneylender, as the one who lends on usury to him. 3 a The land is completely desolated b and it is completely plundered C for Yahweh spoke his word. How to understand f "IK is significant to one's insight regarding Isaiah 24-27. The predominant translation offered by translators and scholars is "earth." This idea is preferred by those who understand this section, as well as significant portions of Isaiah 24-27, as apocalyptic. Yahweh's actions will be against all nations in the entire world. Another option is limited to the narrower sense of "land;" precisely the territory occupied 103. Walter Brueggemann, Isaiah 1-39 (WestBC ; Louisville, KY: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1998), 190. Brevard S. Childs, Isaiah (OTL; Louisville, KY: Westminster/John Knox Press, 2001), 178. "There is an obvious element of ambiguity between 'land' and 'earth', suggesting that the eschatological prophecy here may have been developed out of such earlier passages as 6.11 foretelling the destruction of the land of Israel. There is no doubt, however, that the whole world is intended to be the subject of the threat expressed here." Ronald E. Clements, Isaiah 1-39 (NCBC; London: Marshall, Morgan & Scott, 1980), 200-201. 43 by Israel and Judah. Throughout Isaiah 24-27 there are passages where f "IX does refer to the world or earth but which are not apocalyptic or even universalizing. Rather, they situate Judah and Jerusalem in, or at the center of, a community of nations. The two Qal participles in la and lb (j?j?3 and pVn) are synonyms. The fundamental meaning is that of emptiness and when referring to land they carry the sense of laying waste, devastating, or ravaging. Intertextuality Verses similar in nature to 24.1-3 are found in Nahum 2. This chapter illustrates in the form of a ballad105 the natural phenomena which accompany Yahweh's judgment against Nineveh. In Nahum 2.2/1 (Heb. verse 2) the force coming upon Nineveh is described as "one who scatters" (fSO). Because Yahweh is the one attacking Nineveh (Nahum 1.2, 14), we may assume the one "scattering" (Nahum 2.2/1) is also Yahweh. In the next verse (Nahum 2.3/2) the focus shifts from Nineveh to Jacob. Yahweh is to restore Jacob from the devastation brought on by the devastators (note the repetition of the root j?j?3, D",pj3la DlpjjO "3), who "destroyed their vine branches."106 Isaiah 24.1a (i?j?i3) and 24.3a (note the repetition of the root |?j?3, pi2n p^T] ) both use the same root (i?i?2) as found in Nahum 2.3/2. Yahweh is the one who is devastating the land. He is also the one who is scattering (PpH) its inhabitants (Isaiah 24.Id). One would be 104. John D.W. Watts, Isaiah J-33, 316-22. 105. Brian Peckham, History and Prophecy: The Development of Late Judean Literary Traditions (ABRL; New York: Doubleday, 1993), 396. 106. In Isaiah 24.7f the imagery of the vine and its depletion is also mentioned. 44 justified in concluding that the one who is going to restore Jacob is also the one who brought about their devastation. In Nahum 2.11/10 we read of the "desertion and looting of the city (Nineveh) and the terror that overtook the garrison." The city is described as empty (nj7l3), desolated (r?jTO?p), and laid waste (H^DD). Again, Isaiah 24.1 uses these words and draws on this imagery in describing Yahweh's actions against the land. In line lb Yahweh is laying waste (njjyni) the land. Lastly, in Nahum 2.10/9 the call to plunder (TT3) Nineveh, finds a parallel in Isaiah 24.3 where it states that the land is plundered. The writer of Isaiah 24.1-3 uses the imagery of Nahum 2 in describing what Yahweh is doing to the land. Secondly, in using this imagery the reader is to notice the connection between the land of Isaiah 24.1 and the city Nineveh. Another pericope containing similar themes and wording to Isaiah 24.1-3 is Hosea 4. The line 24.2e, ]niD3 D172 rprn, begins a series of comparisons in lines 2f-j. The exact phrase is found at the beginning of Hosea 4.9, ]H33 Dl?5 ITCH* The writer of Isaiah 24.2 appears to have copied this clause and then added to it related pairs in keeping with his style of repetition of similar syllables and the accumulation of lists. Hosea 4.9 also shares a common theme with 24.1-3 in that it is "part of a larger oracle of indictment in the typical rib or disputation style (4.1-10)."108 Another parallel between Hosea 4 and Isaiah 24 is the manner in which the recipients of Yahweh's judgment are mentioned. In Isaiah 24.Id they are the iTSU?"'' with the feminine singular suffix referring back to the 107. Peckham, History and Prophecy, 400. 108. J. Todd Hibbard, Intertextuality in Isaiah 24-27, 42. 45 fixn of line la. The recipients in Hosea 4.1-10 are first described in verse 1 as VmftP '33 and in the next clause pKH 'SUfi'-DS. The "sons of Israel" are the •• T : • •• : ' v T T •• : "inhabitants of the earth." This opens the possibility that the writer of Isaiah 24-27 either is speaking of Israel or including a portion of Israel when he speaks of the inhabitants of the land. Interpretation The two primary participants in this strophe are Yahweh and the inhabitants of the land. Yahweh brings about judgment against the land and upon its inhabitants. The passage is vague. The means of judgment, the identity of the land, and the human recipients are left undefined. The intentionally vague language makes it difficult to identify a specific land, nation, or time period. In the first four lines the object of Yahweh's judgment switches from the land in general (la-b) to its surface (lc) and finally to those who dwell upon it (Id). This is the first of many connections that are made between the land and the land dwellers. The interconnection between these two moves in both directions. What happens to the one affects the other and visa versa. The outcome of Yahweh's deed is equality among the land dwellers.109 All end up in the same state. This is made explicit by the alliteration of 3 attached to the beginning of the nouns in verse 2 (2e-j). "The twelve uses of 3 attached to nouns forms a remarkable alliteration, in which an initial rhyme occurs at the beginning of words. It conveys the meaning that no exception or privilege in social status and relationships is taken into consideration: no people will escape from the judgment and fate 109. The inhabitants are defined in verse 2 by grouping them into two groups, those ranking lower in socio-economic status versus those on the higher end. 46 ... The repetition of the same form with 3 specifically refers to social distinction and inequality. The natural arrangement into six pairs slightly mitigates the harsh effect, before moving to verse 3 which depicts harsh results."110 The verbs used to depict Yahweh's actions in verse 3 picture a hostile force attacking its enemy. The land is emptied out and plundered. The verb TT3 (3b) refers to a "destructive force, namely a marauding army taking booty." Also, the verb "to scatter" (pS, Id) is used to portray captives being taken into exile.113 Other possible imagery being depicted is that of the land enduring natural disaster in the form of either an earthquake or a drought.114 By the end of the strophe the land is utterly ruined and emptied of its inhabitants. Because of the ambiguity of the language, the land and its inhabitants have been identified with three different locations and groups. First, they are limited to the land of Judah where Judah dwelt. Secondly, they refer to those foreign occupied regions. Thirdly, they refer to a combination of the first two. In the oracles against the nations, 110. R. Itoh, "Literary and Linguistic Approach to Isaiah 24-27" (Ph.D. diss., Trinity International University, 1995), 80-81. 111. Should the "scattering" of the land's inhabitants be taken literally? If so, how does this fit with line 6g where they are said to be burned leaving only a few (line 6h)? I believe the language chosen is to bring back memories of prior events as well as holy writings in the minds and ears of the listener. Therefore, the language should not be understood as painting the details but rather the broad strokes of the actual actions. 112. Redditt, Isaiah 24-27,321. 113. "The motif that the inhabitants of a country are scattered is a traditional element in these types of depictions of disaster (Gen. 11.8f; Lev 26.33; Deut 4.27; 28.64; Jer 9.15; 30.11; Ps 44.12, etc.)." Wildberger, Isaiah 13-27, 475. "Here the whole of creation is made as vulnerable, exposed, and displaced as were the exiles in Jerusalem." Brueggemann, Isaiah 7-39, 190. 114. Redditt, Isaiah 24-27, 321. Clements, Isaiah 1-39, 201. Brueggemann, Isaiah 1-39, 191. 47 Isaiah 13-23, the subject of the text switches back and forth between foreigners and the people of Yahweh. Here, the writer appears to be intentionally keeping his audience in the dark regarding the identity of the land and the land dwellers. Strophe Two, 2 Stanzas: 24.4 and 24.5-6 Sequential Analysis 24.4-6 5 + 8 4 a v-q: asyn SVB 5 a v-q: disj wNS-VB-PP rrnur nnn ns^n pxm T A V I - J- \ T : T I V / T T : b v-q: conj Cj-SVB-DO Yhin nams c v-q: asyn SVB-DO _< : T i • d v-q: asyn SVB-DO I : JT 6 e v-q: conj Cj-NS-VB-DO tabiu nna nen f v-q: cons wVB-NS{ptc-pp} px nSpx n^K ]b-by g v-q: conj Cj-VB-NS px ^2V] \in }b-bv h v-q: para wVB-NS nrro «Ji3K nx©3i Stanza One (24.4a-e): 5 lines In this stanza the sequence of lines begins with a verbal asyndetic line but it is Qatal rather than Yiqtol as in strophe one, stanza two (24.3). All five lines within the stanza are of the same type and mark a sequential flow. The punctuation is marked by waw at the beginning of line 5a in the next stanza (a verbal disjunctive clause). These five lines are closely linked by means of repetition of the verbal roots and similarities in sound. 48 Stanza Two (24.5a-6h): 8 lines This sequence of lines is made up of a series of eight verbal Qatal lines. It consists of a disjunctive line (5a) and three subordinate sequences ('D, 5b-d; ]?~Vi7, 6e-f; !5- O?, 5b) and continues with two coordinate (parallel) asyndetic Qatal lines (5c-d). The second subordinate sequence (6e-f) begins with a conjunctive Qatal line ()3~VS7, 6e) and continues with a consecutive Qatal (that is wayyiqtol) line (6f). The third subordinate sequence (6g-h) begins with a conjunctive line 0?_!?1?, 6g) and continues with a paratactic Qatal line (6h). Only twice in Isaiah 24 does a stanza begin with a disjunctive line. Here it is explanatory in nature. It clarifies why the land is in the condition that it is; why it suffers under Yahweh's judgment. The land has been defiled by the land dwellers. Again notice the intimate connection between the land and those who dwell upon it. Till this point the focus of Yahweh's action has primarily been upon the land. Here the focus shifts to the land dwellers. They are the ones responsible for defiling the land. That is why they have incurred guilt (24.6f) and only a few remain (24.6h). The subordinate lines (24.5b-d) inform the reader as to what actions by the land dwellers brought about this defilement. 24.6e describes the resulting judgment; a curse is devouring the land. Once the land is in a state of defilement, it is under Yahweh's curse. Line 24.6g is subordinate to 6f and explains the outcome for the land dwellers who have incurred guilt. They have been burned. The two subordinate lines in 24.6e and 6g are linked through the imagery of fire. A curse devours (VDK) the land and the inhabitants are burned (rnn). 49 Literary Artistry The first strophe of this stanza is tightly bound through various literary features. The first obvious literary feature that catches one's ears would be the reoccurring H1?. sound in the first four lines (lines 4a-d). Secondly, the first five lines are linked through the repetition of verbs (nVDJ in lines 4b and 4d as well as TlVlftX in lines 4c and 4d). Thirdly, the subject of the first and third lines is not stated until the second and fourth lines respectively. This phenomenon, of the subject not appearing until the following line, is also found in other parts of chapters 24-27. Lastly, there is similarity in sound between the noun *?5? and the verbs VDX and ^33. Literary artistry is evident in the use of rhyme and repetition. The asyndetic clauses in 5c-d are coordinate (parallel) to the conjunctive ('S) clause in line 5b. Each of the verbs in these lines has the third masculine plural suffix, the 1 sound. Also the objects of these three verbs syllabically follow a medium, short, and then long cadence. ]3-,757 begins lines 6e and 6g. Both of these lines also end with the same noun, f*)X. Translation 4 a It dries up; b the land crumbles away. C It withers away; d the earth crumbles away. e The heights of the people of the land wither away. 50 5 a Now the land has been defiled by its inhabitants, b because they have transgressed laws, c they have overstepped a statute d they have broken the everlasting covenant. 6 e As a result a curse devours the land f and the inhabitants on it incur guilt. g As a result the inhabitants of the land have been burned h and a few men have been left over. Intertextuality A possible source from which the author drew to depict the condition of the land in this strophe is Hosea 4. Beginning with Hosea 2.4/2 God speaks of a yi against the land (note the repetition of the root 3*1, !Q'H CDDX2 1T1), which is portrayed as an unfaithful wife. Israel, depicted as a harlot, is mentioned earlier in 1.2. jzflns mrr-izn nkin yim nby b'WT nm ^Ttj? "]b ujirrbx rvin] -IOK*I :mrp nnKO pixn nam nans IT : \ •• ~: - I- I v T T v : - In Hosea 4.1 the writer once again points out the existence of a y~\, but here it is between Yahweh and the land dwellers, pxn "OtfT-ni? nirrb yi "'S. Note the connection between the land and those who dwell upon her. This judgment is due to specific ! , offenses: swearing, lying, murder, stealing, adultery, and violence (•U?33 cp*]? D'/P"]1 lane ^xai aaai nsni ©n21 n'pK, verse 2). In contrast the language in Isaiah 24.5 is vague in defining the offenses. Hosea's idea is taken up in Jeremiah 3.1-5 where taking back an unfaithful wife "would defile the land" (note especially verses 1-2 below). 51 , -iriK-tf i6 nrvm inxra rbbm °™ The result of the land dwellers' actions is stated in Hosea 4.3, nil attrr^S bbttKI r-ifcn baxn p_,?J7. This is similar to the idea of Yahweh T J" T -:••.: I VT T J- •:: v I J" - abandoning the land in Hosea 2.3/5, 9/11.115 These same verbs appear in Isaiah 24.4. What Yahweh did to Israel and her land in Hosea, becomes the basis for describing what Yahweh is doing to the land and its inhabitants in Isaiah 24. Interpretation The first stanza of this strophe discusses two subjects, the land (f]X, ^afl: 4a, d) and a specific place within the land ("pxrrDl? Di"lD: 4e). In the first strophe (24.1-3) the noun f]X appears twice (la, 3a). In the first stanza of this strophe (24.4) it also appears twice (4b, e). In line 4b it is parallel to Vari (4b and 4d) which refers to an inhabited area. The noun Dilip has three possible meanings: (1) literally of height, elevation, (2) height as symbolic of positive notions such as glory and exaltation, (3) and lastly height as symbolic of negative attributes such as arrogance and pride. If taken symbolically in the negative sense the translation of line 4e would be, "The exalted among the people of the land wither away." The line, therefore, would be speaking of the pride of a group of people. This is an affront to God who alone dwells on "high" (33.5, D™ pfej p rnVr 2m) and is the only true "exalted one" 115. In the second clause of Hosea 2.11 the word for new wine (tP'iTri) also appears in Isaiah 24.7. 52 (57.15, tfinjjn ai-ia iac Bfiij?i v-w ]r>B xfeai D-J im ro'^tatix). Therefore, God acts out against prideful humans who desire to be equal to him. This is seen in passages such as Jeremiah 51.53 where Babylon exceeds her human limits. n-ti; nina -isan "^I a^a&n hn nbrrrs AT ••. j : \— : / • : . - T - .. T •wos ana ^asto1? buaa rftrx a^atin ^aaba max nnxi - - _ A • : • j • T \" F : ~ /- • v v: iv • J- T I : T : i * T : < T T : :iiss TISTS "tirta-ina atfxi I I T /••;:-: \- - : /•• - : 217 Tiaa'br nbux AT •• T:JT - \v v: v If the noun is taken literally, it refers to a geographical high spot. A literal reading of line 4e would result in the following translation, "The high place of the people of the land withers away." Such a high place was an ideal location for a city and its temple in order to provide safety from enemies. I prefer the latter as the primary reading because of the predominant imagery of "land" in this section. However, I do leave room for a secondary symbolic meaning expressing the idea of pride. A case in point would be Zion which is located on a high point and inhabited by rulers who exalt themselves. The land's new state is the result of or the outcome of Yahweh's actions in verse 1. What was passively expressed in verse 3 is now actively articulated (4a-d). The condition of the land is described in physical/earthly terms as well as psychological/human terms.116 The land is personified. Such personification of the land 116. "K.M. Hayes is correct in pointing out that some of the roots involved in our metaphorical statement have a double meaning (overlapping isotopes) which has found its way in to the dictionaries (i.e. it has been lexicalised): the physical/earthly (e.g. 'to dry up') and psychological/human 'to mourn' (ritually as well as interiorly)." Doyle, Apocalypse of Isaiah, 165-66. 53 links it with those who occupy it. "7 When Yahweh judges the land dwellers, the land is IIS affected and visa versa. Three lines within the second stanza (24.5-6) continue to make the reader aware of the link between the land and the land dwellers: Line 5a: n^^ nnn nann "pxm T A v : - j - \ T : T I v/ T T : Line 6f: m "Olir "raOX'l AT •• : J \ : : \i- Line6h: "II7T0 GftaN -)Ktf31 We discover that the reason the land suffers is because it is defiled. This defilement is due to those who occupy it (lines 5b-d). The land dwellers have transgressed laws, overstepped a statute, and broken the everlasting covenant. The three terms "laws, statute, and everlasting covenant," if applied to Yahweh's people, speak of Israel119 violating the covenant they made with Yahweh at Sinai.120 If the generic sense of "land dwellers" is maintained, it would be speaking of stipulations 117. cf. 13.11. "... for God, earth is mortal - for God, humans are earthly, both earth and its inhabitants are mutually destructive when their relationship with God is severed." Doyle, Apocalypse ofIsaiah, 170. 118. The first stanza of the first strophe (24.1-2) is structured in the same manner as 24.4. The first four lines speak of the land and then shift to those who inhabit it. Also, a specific group is identified and treated. 119. "If the covenant in question is actually the Sinaitic covenant, as we have argued, then the people, who have violated it with such disastrous results, are not to be equated with mankind in general but recognized as a more particular group, the covenant people." March, "A Study of Two Prophetic Compositions," 34. 120. Scholars who consider the "everlasting covenant" to be the Sinaitic covenant include: Clements, Isaiah 1-39, 201; Lewis, "A Rhetorical Critical Analysis," 57 and March, "A Study of Two Prophetic Compositions,"30-31. A larger portion look to Genesis 9 and the covenant between YHWH and Noah: Brueggemann, Isaiah 1-39, 192; Childs, Isaiah, 179; Kaiser (Clements, Isaiah 1-39, 201); J.N. Oswalt, The Book of Isaiah, Chapters 13-39 (NICOT; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1986), 446; Seitz (Childs, Isaiah, 179); Sweeney, Isaiah 1-39, 332. 54 required of all. One example of this is the Noahic covenant. This covenant was with all of humanity. One scholar who holds this view is Itoh, "The parallelism between pTi and DVil? n,13 in the same verse gives a helpful indication that the general sense of law is concerned here, instead of particular laws instituted for the nation of Israel. Assuming that DViS7 IVp sets the context for Isaiah 24:5, the term is applied to all of humankind on the earth who have broken laws." In my opinion, the writer is keeping with his style by allowing for both understandings to exist at this point. Lines 6e and 6g-h are subordinate clauses which spell out the consequences of violating the "eternal covenant" (6d) and "incurring guilt" (6f). The term "curse" (nVx, 6e) recalls the blessings and curses affiliated with a covenant. If the stanza is speaking of Yahweh's people, than what happens to the land and its inhabitants is the unfolding of the curses as specified in the Deuteronomic covenant.122 The curse manifests itself in natural disasters, such as drought and earthquake, and invading forces. This explains the choice of words by the writer; verbs which depict both types of calamity. If the context is speaking of a covenant between Yahweh and all "land dwellers," then what is taking place is the result of unspecified covenantal curses. In the last line of the second stanza (6h) we hear of a group who was left over, a remnant. If the "land" is limited to a region, then the identity of this group would be those who survived and were dispersed (verse Id) outside of the land. Another option 121. Itoh, "Isaiah 24-27," 86. 122. "In verse 6, a curse is devouring the land. Deuteronomy 28 describes in vivid detail the consequences for failure to keep the covenant: a curse TlbX which will consume VSN (28.21) the inhabitants of the land. This all-encompassing curse would bring drought (28.22), the destruction of the cities by invading armies (28.52), the occupation of the land by foreign powers (28.51), and the exile of the inhabitants (28.41)." Lewis, "A Rhetorical Critical Analysis," 57. 55 would be that the majority of those in the land were killed by fire (6g) and the "few" remaining are those who continued to reside within the land. I believe the remnant includes those dispersed as well as those who remained within the land. Strophe Three, 2 Stanzas: 24.7-8 and 24.9 Sequential Analysis 24.7-9 6 + 2 7 a v-q: asyn VB-NS ttfiTn Sax b v-q: asyn VB-NS I VAT T : : •-. c v-q: asyn VB-NS 8 d v-q: asyn VB-NS D^sn toitott ratf • ••- J : - T e v-q: asyn VB-NS nybv ]ixtf bin f v-q: asyn VB-NS nias toito r\2ti 9 a v-y: asyn PP-SVB-DO I AT : • J \• - b v-y: asyn VB-NS-IO{do/ptc} Stanza One f24.7a-8f): 6 lines This stanza is similar to the first stanza of the second strophe in that it consists only of Qatal asyndetic clauses. However, it differs in that each line contains its own subject. Another link between these two stanzas is the shared verbal roots ^DK (24.4a & 24.7a) and VttN (24.4C, e & 24.7b). Punctuation is marked by the clauses of the second stanza (9a-b) and their shift in verb form (Qatal to Yiqtol). The first two lines of the stanza share the same clause type and verbal forms as the next four. However, instead of speaking of humans, they speak of that which humans partake, "new wine"; the produce of the "vine." The next four lines (7c-8f) form an a1 b' / a2 b2 pattern. Clauses 24.8d and 8f share the same verbal root and subject. The difference between these two lines lies in the 56 musical instruments described in the construct chain. Clauses 24.7c and 8e speak of the same subject, "the joyful of heart" and "the arrogant," whose actions described in the verbs counter this, "they groan" and "stop" being merry. Stanza Two (24.9a-b): 2 lines This stanza is simple in that it pivots on the first clause. This clause not only punctuates the ending of the previous stanza but also marks the beginning of this one. It is also tied to the first stanza in that the indefinite subject (3 pi. masc) of the first line and the subject of the masculine plural participle in the second line both find their antecedents in 24.7c and 8e. Literary Artistry The first stanza consists of six lines. As mentioned above the first two lines' subjects share a common element, the vine and its produce. Both verbs also are repeated from the previous strophe. It is also interesting to note that each line consists of eight consonants making them the same length. The next four lines as mentioned earlier ii 9 9 follow an a b / a b pattern. Another feature following this pattern is the number of consonants per line: 13-11-13-11. Finally, the sound of the consonant U? in these four lines also follows the pattern: line 7c: one ti? line 8d: three IP line 8e: one ID line 8f: three V The two middle lines (lines 8d-e) are brought together by each clause ending with the suffix W- . 57 The first line in the second stanza (9a) relies upon lines 7c and 8e for its subject, again emphasizing the link of these two lines. The first two words in the last line in verse 9 share similar vowel sounds and end with the 1 sound. Perhaps this adds to the irony of the sweet wine tasting bitter. Also, both this line and the previous line contain the verbal root nnu> emphasizing the pitiful condition of those drinking. Translation 7 a The new wine dries up; b the vine withers away. C All the glad of heart groan; 8 d the joyful noise of tambourines ceases. e The merry uproar of the jubilant stops; f the joyful noise of the lyre ceases. 9 a Without music they are drinking wine. b The sweet wine tastes bitter for those who are drinking it. Intertextuality "The prophecy of Joel is an allegory on the Babylonian invasion and capture of Jerusalem."123 The invading force is likened to locust which consumes the produce of the land (Joel 1.4-5, 7, 9), such as grain and new wine, which was to be offered to Yahweh in the temple. The response to this disaster by the land owners is twofold. First, the religious leaders (priests and ministers) mourn (^3?) and lament (1.13) their loss. 123. Peckham, History and Prophecy, 657. 58 Secondly, the workers of the land and the land itself wail and mourn (VDN, 1.13). Just as in Isaiah 24.7-9, so here, we see the link between the land and those who dwell upon it. The imagery and use of words124 within Joel 1.10-13 parallel those found within Isaiah 24.7-9, possibly forging a link not only between the two passages but also the events themselves (the demise of Judah). Other than in Isaiah 13.3 ('•niM *r>bx), the adjectival form ofT'V? (8e) within the book of Isaiah is used to describe a city. In Isaiah 22.2 it speaks of a "jubilant city" (rtV2in Tl?) and a boisterous town (nr'pl? !T"lp) in the oracle concerning the valley of vision (22.1). In Isaiah 23.7 the city of Tyre is referred to as "jubilant" (nr,i?$? UDb riKtn). Lastly, Isaiah 32.13 tells of thorns and briars taking the place of joyful houses and a "jubilant city." nbyn -rati rip ,a» n^x by - AV " c \ • T 1.1/ • - J- : - < IT - - \T :l* T J" T T - • < This picture of a jubilant city is also found in Zephaniah 2.15, where it speaks of judgment against the city Nineveh. 124. Joel 1.10 The field is ruined rnto Tltf The land mourns naiX !"P2X AT T ™: \T : T l For the grain is ruined ]n "RC "3< The new wine dries up OiTH ETSin Fresh oil wastes away :"|^li5', ^P** Joel 1.12 The vine dries up n©"Qin |E>an And the fig tree wastes away 7\bbftVi. rUXrirn For, rejoicing dries up from the :B1K ^.2-p ]itpto tfraf'T-'S sons of men 59 Til? 'oaxi "OK prints Vraxn nvhb ration nr^yn n^n nxt A J • : - : \ • -; T T : • T : i T ~ '•' T. V JV ~ T • - T <• T :tr srr P'-ia1 rrbv -niy Sb rrnb Vain n^rab nrrn TX - I T - /• T I \ : • T v T j" < T - i- I •• : T - : JT : T I •• The writer speaks of Nineveh in terms that "might just as well apply to Jerusalem and in effect display the day of Yahweh as the end of the known urban civilization." It is important to note that the noun "desolation" (rttiV?) in Zeph. 2.15 also appears in Isaiah 24.12f where "desolation is left" (rPKtil natf T»a 1X03), providing an indirect link between the "arrogant ones" and the city of 24.10. This use of T'Vs? to describe a city and its appearance in 24.8 serves to connect the jubilant with the city of void in 24.10 and by means of this city with the "heights" of 24.4 where the city of void is located. Interpretation In interpreting 24.7-8, the structure of the pericope, can provide insight into the purpose and meaning of the text. As mentioned in the above analysis, the lines within this stanza are alike - Qatal asyndetic. Therefore, to further divide the stanza one must look for other indicators within the text. One possibility is linking 24.7a-c as a unit and then lines 24.8d-f.126 The first linkage is made by alliteration. Alliteration is based upon the repetition of "X," found at the beginning of the three verbs VDN, btiX, and m_K.127 The 125. Peckham, History and Prophecy, 431. 126. Lewis, "A Rhetorical Critical Analysis," 59-60. 127. Lewis points out that the alliterative pattern contained within these three parallel expressions is present despite the slightly obscured fact that it appears in the Niphal stem, beginning with a 3, rather than the K. Such a pattern may be observed through sight, but I question whether it would have been as effective through sound alone. Ibid., 59. 60 second linkage is made by the parallel verbs emphasizing the cessation of an activity (ro^ and Vin) as well as similar word order. A second possibility, which I prefer, brings only the first two lines (7a-b) together, leaving the remaining four (7c-8f). My reasoning is based on the premise that these four lines follow an a1 b1 / a2 b2 pattern. The glad of heart (7c) are the jubilant ones (8e) and lines 8d and 8f speak of the instruments of joy which no longer sound. The pivot point is line 7c. The reason for the emotive actions of these individuals and the cessation of music is because of what has taken place in lines 7a-b. What happens to the land in 24.4 happens here to the vine and its produce. Once again one is made aware of the tight connection between the land and those who dwell upon it.129 Who then are the "glad of heart" and "jubilant?" The plural noun D'rV? (8e) describes an emotion of joy which finds expression in shouting and singing. Such noise was often present during festive celebrations, even in a cultic setting. The cessation of noise is due to Yahweh's judgment which affects their wine and the vines which produce it. But their drinking does not cease. Rather their sweet wine now tastes bitter to them (24.9). "The term D'T^N occurs in Isaiah 5.14; 22.2; 23.7, 12; 32.13 and elsewhere, where 128. If Lewis' argument for an alliterative pattern in the first three lines holds, then line 7c may be linked with lines 7a-b through alliteration and the following lines through parallelism. 129. In 24.4 we also find this shift from the land (mainland) to a particular group who dwells upon it. Also the actions of these individuals are the same as the vine in 24.7b. 130. "New wine was technically the unfermented juice from newly crushed grapes. It sometimes parallels 'wine'. Here, however, it is paralleled with 'vine' and this suggests that it may be referring to the grapes themselves. Thus the vines and grapes together have a sad and withered look about them." Oswalt, Book of Isaiah, 447. 61 it describes those who rejoice in a celebration associated with cultic worship. The 'strong drink' of line 9b is also associated with worship in Isaiah 5.11; 28.17; Micah 2.11 and elsewhere. Taken together, these verses then describe a scene in which the songs of joyful worship (perhaps worship which had degenerated into debauchery) are replaced by bitter lamentation.131 The "glad of heart" and the "jubilant" are those who were accustom to worshipping with joy, but no longer. They emphasize a particular characteristic of the "land dwellers." Doyle proposes a metaphorical reading as an alternative for interpreting this strophe. Yahweh is wine/joy/cosmos; wine being a symbol of God's abundance and generosity. By mentioning the demise of these objects, the writer is expressing the fact that Yahweh is no longer present. Metaphorical terms are used because "such a statement would have been almost unthinkable in literal terms."132 Strophe Four, 2 Stanzas: 24.10-12 and 24.13 Sequential Analysis 24.10-13 7 + 5 10 a v-q: asyn VB-NS inrrnnp rnatfa _, b v-q: asyn VB-NS :xiap rpa ?3 nao 11 c n-cl: asyn NS-PP-NP{pp} nimna v*n-hy nms A i- I -i— - /T T : d v-q: asyn VB-NS nnafcrba nans* e v-q: asyn VB-NS T : • T T : IT I V IT T / : \T T 12 f v-q: asyn VB-PP-NS rpKtfi nau? T»a HXU}] \T • : AT ~ \• T /- : • g v-y: asyn NS-VB 131. Lewis, "A Rhetorical Critical Analysis," 62. 132. Doyle, Apocalypse of Isaiah, 176-7. 62 13 a v-y: conj Cj-Adv-SVB-NP{pp-pp} pxn anpa rrrr nb ^ - b n-ph: asyn NP{pp-pp} I Y\T T v l/v : vv : • / J c n-ph: asyn NP{pp-pp} d n-ph: asyn NP{pp-pp} e v-q/m: conj Adv-VB-NS :TX3 nSs-DK Stanza One (24.10a-12e): 7 lines This is the third time in this section where all the main clauses within a stanza are Qatal asyndetic. The one exception is line 24. lie, which is nominal. I interpret this clause as creating a transition between 24.10a-b and 1 ld-e, even though it does not indicate punctuation. The line (lie) belongs with verse 10 in that it mentions the "market places," a part of the city, just like the houses. It also connects with the last two lines in verse 11 in that the "outcry concerning wine" is directly linked with "joy" as seen in the previous stanza (24.7-9). The stanza is punctuated with the shift in verbal form at line 24.12g (Qatal > Yiqtol), yet the clause type remains the same (asyndetic). Stanza Two (24.13a-e): 5 lines The second stanza is similar to strophe one, stanza one. Line 24.13a, like 24. Id, is governed by the verb TfT\ with a series of prepositional phrases as their nominal predicates. The end of the stanza is evident by the shift from the verbal clause (line 13 a) to a nominal sequence (lines 13b-d). Literary Artistry The six verbal Qatal asyndetic clauses follow an a1-a2 / b'-b2 / a -a pattern. The first and last coupling of clauses share not only similar subjects in the first (10a: iTHj?, 12f: Tl?) and last lines (10b: rVa, 12g: W') - both the house and the gate being part of 63 the city - but also the same verbal stems: nifal in the first lines (10a: niautt, 12f: INtfft) and pual in the last (10b: "IJO, 1 lg: D^). The middle coupling (lines 1 ld-e) speaks of the demise of joy within the land by using the same imagery and words that occur in 24.7c and 7d. This is also another possible link between the land (24.1 ld-e) and land dwellers (24.7c and 7e). Two combinations of prepositional phrases are in verse 13. The first two (13a-b) remind the reader again of the bond between the land and those who dwell within it. The second set of prepositional phrases (13c-d) compares the destruction of the "city of void" to the period following the harvest of either grapes or olives. The trees were shaken or beaten to gather those remaining. Similarly, after grapes were picked a process of gleaning, involving some form of violence to the vine, took place. Translation 10 a The city of void is destroyed, b every house is shut up, so that it might not be entered, 11 C an outcry of lament for the wine in the market place, d all joy is exchanged, e the gladness of the land goes into exile, 12 f there remains in the city destruction and desolation, g the gate is smashed. 133. "*11?t27" (gate) should certainly be treated as a collective, even though it is true that some smaller cities would have had only one gate through which people entered." Wildberger, Isaiah 13-27, 488. 64 13 a So indeed it has become on the earth, b among the peoples of the earth, C as what has fallen down from an olive tree, d as at a a time of gleaning, e when the harvest might come to an end. Intertextuality This is the only place in the Old Testament where a city is described as ITIT). The majority of the other occurrences of IH'fi are used to describe a desert wasteland. For example, in Deuteronomy 32.10a it is synonymous to "I2"7!p. ]n& b'r inrni "lain pxa 'inxsa": In Isaiah 45.18 the earth as created by God is the opposite of in'fi. It was made to be inhabited. 1 m:r rati ? PJK-Q inir*6 niito wn ntoin fixn i^ a^nbxn A TT : VJV T \T T : / T : i J T : I -.*T T •• • •;: T Another common use of this noun is to point out moral or spiritual emptiness or confusion.134 However, in Isaiah 24.10 in'fi is derived ultimately from Genesis 1 as it was interpreted by Jeremiah in 4.23-27. According to Genesis 1.2 when God begins to create the world it is described as in'31. inn. Jeremiah 4 calls upon this pre-creation language and imagery. The citizens of Judah and in particular Jerusalem (4.5, 6, 11, 16) are warned of a coming judgment due to their wickedness and apostasy (4.1-3, 14). At the beginning of verse 19 the writer 134. 1 Sam. 12.21; Isaiah 41.29; 44.9; 45.19; 59.4. 65 i or describes what is transpiring through the eyes of the city Jerusalem. By the end of verse 27 what the land of Judah and the city of Jerusalem have undergone is portrayed as the pre-creation state of Genesis 1.2, a reversal of creation. The writer of Isaiah 24 borrows from Jeremiah 4 to describe the chaotic condition of the land and the city. Note the comparison of selected portions linking these three passages together (Genesis 1, Jeremiah 4, and Isaiah 24.10-13). Genesis 1.2 inii \nh nrvn v-ixm T /T : T I YT T : •inn y&bs ^tfm Jeremiah 4.7 natib ^S")K Dlto'p Jeremiah 4.23 irni inrrnam v-wn-nK 'Trio AT \ •• • : I YT T V • • T Jeremiah 4.25136 ma D^©'n pnir^Di cnxn rx nam nrr*o ITT . v- T - J, T; A T T T I J" \" • ; - • T Isaiah 24.10 intvmp matfa A - :|- \ T : : • Isaiah 24.12 natf TU3 nxtfa Jeremiah 4.7 and Isaiah 24.12 both speak of destruction (TltiWi) and Isaiah 24.10 and Jeremiah 4.23 both tell of void f/in'fi) being the byproduct of Yahweh's judgment. After comparing the words shared by these two pericopes as well as noting their similar contexts, it becomes apparent that the phrase in Isaiah 24.10 is meant to serve as an allusion to Jeremiah 4 and in particular verses 23-27. One may also find references to Jeremiah 4.23-27 in other portions of Isaiah 24- 27. A few examples of such references follow. Destruction not only impacts the land, it also affects the cosmos. Jeremiah 4.23 :D~iiK rxi nrratarrbxi inni inrrnam y-ixrrnx VTPSO IT I /•• : • v- T - v : AT \ •• • : I YT T v • T Jeremiah 4.28 bvtm tra^'n mpi fixn bnxn nxrbi; 135. Jerusalem is speaking in the firs-AT t• perso• \-Tn - singula/ :IT : r \voice YT T . J- v: v 136. Humanity is not created until Genesis 1.27. Isaiah 24.23 nann nrchai naa'pn Ynam AT - r VT T T : - T : IT : In both settings parts of the earth quake (IP'SH) and become like the wilderness ("la*]!?), while the majority of the inhabitants of the land are removed. Jeremiah 4.24 D^i?n nan'! Q'Hnn ^cran Jeremiah 4.26 -)3""tpn ^anan narn Tv*a Jeremiah 4.25 Dixn VX nam TT'XI A T T T I J" V • : • " T Isaiah 24.18 f"lK 'HOia ItfSJTl Isaiah 27.10 121133 aryai n^oa nia nna n-nsa T» "o AT : - - \ T •.-: v : u ••. : •; T T T T : < • Isaiah 24.6 T2TB tfiax 1N031 pK 'OSr }-in p"1?!? One example of shared imagery and language outside of Jeremiah 4.23-27 is the imag a pregnant woman in labor. Jeremiah 4.31 nTaaaa nis watf n'rina bip^a T-:-: TT • : - T T : I Isaiah 26.17 Tn^an AV T a pmn 'rnn m^b anpn n-in iaa The ideas spoken of in Isaiah 24.10-12 are also found earlier in Isaiah. For example, in Isaiah 5.9 it tells of the houses of the unjust becoming desolate, without occupants. In 6.11, Isaiah asks how long he must proclaim the message he has been given and the answer is until a time of desolation. nixas mn; "owa :atfr pNia caiei D*6ia rn; imb b,:n QTia KVDK TIX Tia-ir -laxi rxa b">nai arar rxa any ixttrnx "ncx ny nax'iDnx l J" •- • T " 1 J" '• "T T * V ~: J- V - TT :naatzj nxffi'n nanxm IT T : /•/ T • \T T -: T : Lastly, in 13.9 the day of Yahweh turns the land into "desolation." nx pm man "nox xa rnn,-ar' nan I AT I j -: - \ T : v : / • T : ~ T T : <•• • :naaa TB^ mxam nadb Vnxn mto1? T iv • / • : - T \ -.- T - : T - : I v T T < T Similar language to that used in Isaiah 24.1 Oa is found in Isaiah 34.11. Chapter 34 begins by calling all nations to hear of God's wrath toward them. This wrath is demonstrated by Yahweh placing them under the ban and giving them over for slaughter (34.2). The results of this judgment are spelled out in the verses that follow. The land, which was once inhabited primarily by the nations, is to be occupied by animals. To describe the condition of the land, the writer has Yahweh taking up tools of measurement that are far from typical. He uses a string of in'fl (24.10) and a stone of 'in 3. Such imagery stresses the emptiness of the land. There is not much left to measure. With regard to the breaking down of the city and the smashing of the city gates (24.12), in Ezekiel 26.2 we read of Tyre gloating because "Jerusalem is broken (rn3W'3), Jerusalem the gateway (nV[|) to the nations." The city of void is being broken (rnsttfr, 24.10) and by the end of verse 12 we hear that the gates (157$) are swinging loose. Such similarity should open up at least the possibility that the writer of Isaiah 24.10-12 wanted the reader to make this connection and entertain the possibility that the city of chaos was similar in nature to the city of Jerusalem described by Ezekiel. Isaiah 24.1 lc-d depicts the destruction of the city as having consequences upon the economic structure. The image of streets or market places (lie) and the exchange of goods (1 id) is used to show that the daily routine has been disrupted and joy has been traded for mourning. This depiction is similar to that found in Zephaniah 1.11. :=IOD ib^rbs TI-DJ wis osrbs nana "•s tfroan "a^r •h^n I v IT •- / • : T \ : • I : j- T T : - < - A- : - - J- : \ - •• 137. cf. Isaiah 24.2, lines h-j: the buyer and the seller, the lender and the borrower. 68 There also, one reads of lamenting merchants in the commercial district. Another similarity between Isaiah 24 and Zephaniah is 1.13 where newly constructed homes are left uninhabited (Isaiah 24.10b) and the produce from the vineyards is not drunk (Isaiah 24.7). ntmvib arpmi notfn1? b'rn rrm AT T \V •• T J • : • T IT •• v \ : • / : • T : j : T: •• •• J : • T The images found within Isaiah 24.13 correspond to those found in Isaiah 17.6. Isaiah 17.1 identifies the pericope as an oracle concerning Damascus. Verse 3 informs us that despite the downfall of this city and the cities of Aroer, a remnant remained. A shift is than made from Damascus to Ephraim, the Northern Kingdom, then to Israel. The remnant of Damascus is compared to the "glory of the sons of Israel" which we discover in verse 4 is not much. For this glory is laid low or made thin. Israel's diminishment in verse 6 is compared to that which is left over after the gleaning of olives. "In 17.6 the apparent reference is to how far the glory of Jacob would fall; what was left would be like the last few olives left after harvesters had thoroughly gone over the tree."138 This same idea and wording is found in 24.13. Childs points out that Sweeney is convinced that when the writer of 24.13 borrowed this imagery of judgment it was transformed from focusing exclusively on Israel to including all the nations.13 But if one is open to the possibility that this is a direct reference to 17.6, then one may conclude that such a reference was intended to help one think of the possibility that the land, the city and its inhabitants could be Judah, Jerusalem, and the Israelites. Note Doyle's comment, 138. Donald C. Polaski, Authorizing An End: The Isaiah Apocalypse and Intertextuality, (Biblnt 50; Boston: Brill, 2001), 85. 139. Childs, Isaiah, 179-80. 69 The quotation of Isa 17.6 ... in v. 13b might be intended to broaden our perspective and focuses our attention on the ultimately universal reduction of human persons within the inhabited world. Other would argue, however, that reference to Isa 17.6 and the parallel statement pXH mp3 // D'Otfn "pro might represent the idea that 'Jerusalem was the centre of the world, the 'navel' of the earth' and that we have an indication here that the text is dealing primarily with Jerusalem and Judah.1 Interpretation The events of Isaiah 24.10-13 occur within a city. The lament described in verses 7-9 takes place in the marketplace or temple within the city (lie).141 What do we know of this city? First, it is described as a city of void, inn. The various meanings of the noun inn tell us that the city is empty,142 similar in appearance to a desert wasteland, and in a state of chaos.144 Second, the city is left ruined and desolated. The majority of the residents have been taken off into exile (lie). 140. Doyle, Apocalypse of Isaiah, 180. 141. Isaiah 24.11 is further connected to verses 7-9 by repeating the following words: p (v.9a), nfttiW (v.7c), and finfrO (v.8d). 142. Not only does the noun imply this idea, but also line 10b states that "every house is shut up", which may indicate that the homes have been deserted. W. Rudolph, Jesaja 24-27 (BWANT IV, 10; Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer, 1933), 31. Cf. Isaiah 5.9; 6.11. This line however, may also be interpreted as houses whose entrances have been blocked by rubble or a few homes whose remaining occupants have shut themselves in. Oswalt, Book of Isaiah, 449. 143. Cf. Deut. 32.10, Job 6.18; 12.24, Psa 107.40. Clements, Isaiah 1-39, 203. Wildberger, Isaiah 13-27, 486. 144. Wildberger observes that the idea of chaos is the opposite of the orderly cosmos of creation in Genesis. By means of the creative work of Yahweh, the chaos was shaped to form a structured worldwide order; when the world would come to an end, then this order would sink back down into the amorphous, gloomy situation in which it existed before God intervened to separate it and arrange it. A inrrrYHj? (nothing city) would thus have to be a city that had just experienced the reintroduction of the primordial 70 The city is described in a manner similar to the land in 24.1-6. It is destroyed and left desolate. Desolation is the result of "gladness" going into exile much like the land's inhabitants having been scattered with only a few left remaining in the land. The connection we saw between the land and its inhabitants now includes a city. If one sees the land primarily as a place where foreigners reside, the city would be a foreign capital or predominant city in the land. This is similar to the manner in which Isaiah 13-23 mentions predominant cities in the oracles. If one sees the land as the region where Yahweh's people dwell, it would make the city Jerusalem. Polaski states that Isaiah 24.13 "seems to break the flow of what precedes it, especially if one decides that the foregoing material centers on the destroyed city."145 The strophe, however, implicitly describes movement. It begins with a house, moves out onto the street or market place, through the gates into exile, and rests finally in the land among the nations. The last stanza, 24.13, describes the void created but differently. In 24.10-12 its only remnant is destruction; in verse 13 nothing is left but slim pickings. Finally verse 13 brings together the three main subjects in 24.10-12: the land, the land dwellers, and the city. What befalls one falls upon all. By the end of verse 13 the picture is clear. Yahweh is visiting the land and bringing with him his judgment. This judgment is described by means of various images (drought, earthquake). The land is chaos." Wildberger, Isaiah 13-27, 486. E. Kissane, Book of Isaiah, 281. A chaotic city according to March may also be a city that is morally bankrupt. March, "A Study of Two Prophetic Compositions," 42. 145. Polaski, "Destruction, Construction, Argumentation: A Rhetorical Reading of Isaiah 24-27," in Vision and Persuasion: Rhetorical Dimensions of Apocalyptic Discourse (ed. Greg Carey and L. G. Bloomquist; St. Louis: Chalice Press, 1999), 84. 71 devastated. A city is destroyed and abandoned. The inhabitants are banished, leaving only a remnant. Strophe Five, 2 Stanzas: 24.14-15 and 24.16 Sequential Analysis 24.14-16 5 + 8 14 a v-y: asyn NS-VB-DO rb\p IN&P nnn \T I / : • T •/•• b v-y: asyn SVB A T c v-q: asyn PP-SVB-PP 15 d v-m: conj Cj-PP-SVB-DO AT : J : - \ • ••. T I /•• e n-ph: asyn PP-DO-DO t^x-ifer ^riha, mrr nti o»n ™xa i" T : • /•• •:: \T : /•• T ~ j" • : 16 a v-q: asyn PP-DO-SVB ttyatf rnar parr ^iap b n-ph: asyn DO c v-q: cons wSVB V- T d n-ph: asyn NS-NP{pp} / • ' T e n-ph: asyn NS-NP{pp} \ • "IT f n-ph: asyn NS-NP{pp} 9 v-q: asyn NS-VB naa nnaa T T J • : h v-q: disj wN-NS-VB :naa D*Ha1a 1321 Stanza One (24.14a-15e): 5 lines The stanza opens with two coordinate Yiqtol asyndetic lines and punctuation is evident by the change to Qatal in 24.14c, even though the line type remains the same. Lines 14a and 14b share the same unidentified subject "they." Lines 15d-e are subordinate to the preceding lines. The directional prepositions (•''"lKa, D-Tf "Na) in lines 15d-e stand in parallel to D-V? found in 14c. Also, the prepositional phrase WT] "K^ is in elision in line 15f. Another link between these lines is the imperative verb in 15d which is to be understood in line 15e. All of this serves to tie these two lines (15d-e) together. 72 Stanza Two (24.16a-h): 8 lines Verse 16 begins with a verbal Qatal asyndetic clause and is continued by a Qatal consecutive clause in 16c. Line 16a announces that songs were heard coming from the edges of the land. Line 16b informs the reader of the content of these songs, "Glory belongs to the righteous One." The prophet responds to what he hears in the direct speech in lines 16d-h, which serve as the direct object of "ION. The end of the stanza is not punctuated, but the next stanza (24.17-18) is a Yiqtol sequence with a juxtaposed nominal clause marking the break. Literary Artistry The first three lines of the first stanza fit together. The first line (line 14a) introduces the subject of this trio, TlftT}. It appears first in this line and is assumed in the next two lines. The verbs all end with the third common plural verbal suffix. Also, the first line (14a) and the last (14c) both end with the DT sound, providing an inclusio for these three lines. The last two lines of the stanza (lines 15d-e) are subordinate to the lines preceding them. Both lines (after the conjunction in line 15d) begin with a directional preposition (2) and end with the name of Yahweh. In line 15e Vxitp'' 'rfts stands in apposition to HTTP to end the line, just as the conjunction f3-(?S? is at the beginning of 15d to start the line. The directional indicators in lines 15d-e are continued at the beginning of the next stanza with the prepositional phrase f"ixn ^Sfp. In line 16b the vowelling of the noun ,D^ prepares the reader for the rapid reverberation of the "». sound in lines 16d-f. Lewis adds, "A certain rhyme scheme appears in the cry of lamentation in verse 16d-e ... The 73 word "HN is an onomatopoetic (The formation or use of words such as buzz or murmur that imitate the sounds associated with the objects or actions they refer to.) expression which creates the sound of a moaning cry. The absence of the makkeph in this expression, when it was present in the preceding ,t7~''T~l, allows for the expression to be lengthened for emphasis."146 This quick repetition of sound is continued in the last two lines of the stanza (16g-h) with the six various vowellings of the root 111. The centerpiece of these two lines is the noun and waw conjunction TJQ^, which gives pause to the twofold sound of the phrase 1*712 W'lX'l.141 Lewis points out the stylistic element of sonority which draws attention to the poetic quality of the text. "The second stylistic element in which the sonorous quality contributes to the poetry is a seemingly intentional repetition of closing sounds at the end of each line of the hymn. The pattern is an alternation of the letters D or •, with the divine name mi"P. The pattern is as follows: verse 14a DVlj?; 14b mTV'; 14c U^; 15a nnxn; I5bmrr; i5cDsn; I5dmn\"148 Repetition of roots, words and sounds is characteristic of this writer's style. This has been seen throughout this scene (24.1-16). For example, in lines 24.15d-e nTTP. is repeated, each line in 24.16d-f ends with the ^V, and 24.2f-j where each line begins with 3. It also occurs frequently in the following segments. 146. Lewis, A Rhetorical Critical Analysis, 74. 147. "The strophe continues with a construction of five words which are all drawn from the same root. Rankin cited this verse, and the similar verse in Isaiah 21.2, as examples of emphasis through assonance (Resemblance of sound, especially of the vowel sounds in words). The five-fold repetition of the root *TJQ in this construction adds intense force to this cry of anger, pain, and despair." Ibid., 74-75. 148. Ibid., 72. 74 Translation 14 a They lifted their voice, b they rejoiced, C unto the majesty of Yahweh they have shouted from the west. 15 d Therefore, among the easterners give glory to Yahweh, e along the coastlands of the sea, give glory to the name of Yahweh, the God of Israel. 16 a From four corners of the earth we heard songs, b "Honor to the Righteous One." C But I said, d "I am wasting away,149 e I am wasting away, f Woe is me. g The faithless ones have acted unfaithfully; h and with unfaithfulness, the faithless ones have acted unfaithfully." Intertextuality The actions of the unidentified subjects in verse 14 are expressed in three verbal synonyms - XfP3 (14a), ]¥} (14b), bTt'S (14c). Two of these verbs are found in the thanksgiving hymn of Isaiah 12. Contextually this chapter is set NTVn OT'O (12.1, 4) and 149. "'fl has not been definitely defined. It is taken here from the root iTH (BDB p.931) meaning 'leanness, wasting'. The LXX Km epouoiv Ouai 'and they will say, Alas' seems to have passed over the expression altogether. 2 to liuorrpioi; |_iou e|aoi (Eus.) 'my secret to myself; 20 xo fiua-rnpioi' ^ou e\ioi (Syh.) (Syh.) mysterium meum mihi Jerome and the Vg. Secretum meum 'my secret' all seem to have followed the Aramaic TT 'secret'. However, the following 'IX 'woe' points to the meaning offered by BDB expressing the wasting away of the prophet." Lewis, A Rhetorical Critical Analysis, 72. 75 is addressed to Zion (12.6). This is the day in which YHWH turns favorably toward Israel and restores them. Isaiah 12.4 is an exhortation to praise Yahweh. line 4a XVin Di>3 DrnaKI line 4b nin,L? Hin T I- < line 4c iatia wip line4d vfb'bs cram iinin AT i • -: \ - - IT / • line4e •'S ^iTStn Twice in the verse a reference is made to Yahweh's name (4c and 4e). In line 4e they are to remember his name because iad 22t03. A similar form of exaltation is sung in 24.14- 15 by the nations of 24.13a-b. In 12.5 a call goes forth to sing to Yahweh because he has done excellent things (n&W nijq »3 m/?* nis>T) in all the earth QHNrr^03). Isaiah 24.16a uses the same wording, 1317a© nha? f "1XH ^JDE. Finally, chapter 12 ends with a call to lift one's voice (Vns) and shout for joy (fli) in verse 6. Such a call to praise in Isaiah 12 seems genuine and is a proper reply toward Yahweh. A similar call to praise is found in Isaiah 42.10-12. The call to sing unto Yahweh is to come from "the end of the earth," "the sea," and "the coastlands" (42.10). All these locations are also mentioned in some way in 24.14-16. pxri nspa in^nn min -pd Vnrrb rvtf IJUEO rhar rixn span I "AT T j" I: • \ T " : TT j* TI- ' : - T < • : I v T T I ~ : • (42.10) (24.16) D^K ix'bpi b»n niy rnrr DJZ? ajn ^xa (42.10) " ' ' (24T5) In 42.11 the inhabitants of Sela are told to "cry aloud" ft 3*1) and from the tops of the mountains they are to "shout for joy" (fflJS). Again the picture is one of restoration and the injunction to praise appears sincere and genuine. vbb -,2V] \n* «T nbip iNtzr nan (42.11) (24.14) 76 A call to glorify Yahweh is found in 42.12 as well as in 24.15. rrr a^xa in^nni -tins mrrb i^tzr a»n ,SK3 mn1 1133 anxn i * - /--T \ T • : AT \ T i - / • T T ~ J ' * * : AT:J:~ \ • \ T (42.12) (24.15) Lastly, the directions mentioned in 24.15, the east (in the lights, D'HXa) and the west (on the coastlands of the sea, DTI ^K?)150 are also found in Psalm 113.3 where from the "rising of the sun (east) to its setting (west)" Yahweh's name is to be praised. Another passage within Isaiah parallel to 24.14-16 is 21.2. Here we find an oracle regarding the wilderness of the sea, or the sea country. Wildberger points out that "the prophet's rnTfi (vision) is experienced as ntf?j? (harsh), because he has been forced to observe that 'with cunning the cunning one acts' ... this is a bitterly evil time."151 It appears the writer of 24.16 has this reference in mind. For rather than just using the formula "ttiH Tjpian once; he wants to do 21.2 one better and thus writes HJG D'H^iS "tt?,l- "One cannot conceive of, and plumb the depths of, how horrible this event really is."152 Interpretation This strophe marks an abrupt transition from the preceding strophes in two ways. First, the subject changes from that of a city to an unspecified "they." Secondly, the 150. "Deriving "in the east" from D'HKD is less obvious, but seems the best interpretation of this difficult term. The root is TIN, "to be light," to shine," and in this form seems to mean "region of light," hence east." At any rate, the aim seems to be to indicate that praise is to be raised throughout the land, a point further emphasized by the inclusion of the "coastlands," or "the islands of the sea." Thus there should be no attempt to define a particular geographical location on the basis of these allusions." March, 47. 151. Wildberger, Isaiah 13-27, 499. 152. Ibid. 77 mood of the text moves from gloom (an absence of joy) to that of praise. How can such a shift be explained? The first task in understanding this shift in 24.14-16 is to identify the participants. The participants are (1) "they," (2) the one who gives the command in v.l5d, (3) those to whom the command is given, and lastly (4) Yahweh who is the recipient of the praise. The closest antecedent, which agrees in number and gender to the third person plural pronoun in lines 14a-c, is Wlp^n in verse 13b. According to v.l4a-c these "people" or nations of the land do three things which are similar in nature: they lift their voice, they cry aloud, and they shout. We know these three actions are done by the same group for the three lines (14a-c) are parallel to one another in that the pronoun in the first line stands in elision in the next two lines. In secondary literature various theories have been set forth to explain who "they" are in 14a-c. First, there are those who believe the pronoun is referring to Israel, either those in captivity (the diaspora) or those who remained in the land of Judah during the exile (a remnant).154 Scholars such as Sweeney155 hold that "they" represent the 153. Wildberger, Isaiah 13-27, 495. Johnson , From Chaos to Restoration, 36ff. Brueggemann, Isaiah 1-39, 193. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1-39, 354-55. 154. J. A. Motyer, The Prophecy of Isaiah (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1993), 202. Kissane, Book of Isaiah, 281. Otto Kaiser, Isaiah 13-39: A Commentary (trans. R.A. Wilson; OTL; Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1974), 188. Redditt, Isaiah 24-27, 328ff. 155. Sweeney, Isaiah 1-39, 329. See also Peter Miscall, Isaiah: Readings (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1993), 66: "I read this section in ch. 24 as a prayer of the remnant, but the remnant of both Israel and of the nations, that is, all who are left after the destruction of the city of chaos." 78 collective inhabitants of the earth. Lastly, some see this as a psychological ploy156 or the identity of the subject is not essential to understanding the text.157 The praise is addressed "unto the majesty of Yahweh" (HTTP fiXS3, 14c). The noun fiN 1 appears eleven times in the book of Isaiah. In chapter 2 and here (2.10, 19,21; 24.14) it is one of Yahweh's qualities. In two passages (4.2; 60.15) Yahweh enables His people to possess this attribute. In the five remaining texts (13.11, 19; 14.11; 16.6; 23.9) it is translated "pride" and is a negative attribute possessed by humans. Yahweh alone is |1SJ and therefore, will act against those who claim what he alone truly possesses. This is similar to the secondary meaning of DilD in 24.4e. Lastly, according to line 13c the praise comes from a westward direction.158 Verse 15 contains a command. Who is giving this command? Who is calling those in the east to "give glory to Yahweh?" One possibility is that it is the writer, who according to Motyer is caught up in the excitement of what he is hearing and wants world-wide praise to begin.159 Another option would be that those who are rejoicing in the west, "the sea," are calling upon two other unidentified groups ("the east" and 156. O. Ploger, Theology and Eschatology (trans. S. Rudman; Richmond: John Knox Press, 1968), 58. 157. Oswalt, Book of Isaiah, 450. Clements, Isaiah 1-39, 203. Watts, Isaiah 1- 33, 325. 158. "There is a possibility, however, that the end of v. 14 is not an indication of direction at all, but is an allusion to the miracle at the Red Sea." Joseph Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1-39 (AB 19; Doubleday: New York, 2000), 354. 159. Motyer, Prophecy of Isaiah, 203. 79 "islands of the sea"160) to join in. This ambiguity sets one up for what is right around the corner (line 16c). The two subjects in the next strophe (24.16) are identified by pronouns. The first subject (identified in 16a by means of a first person plural pronoun) hears a song coming from the four corners of the earth, the contents of which are found in line 16b. The second subject (identified in 16c by means of the first person singular pronoun) is the "city of void" in line 24.10a; either Jerusalem or a foreign capital. Verses 14-15 contain the voice of the "peoples" of the earth in 24.13, and now it is time for the "city" of 24.10 to speak. The "city of void" and those with her hear the praise ("songs")161 in stereo; coming from what appears to be every region of the earth.162 The gist of the praise is "glory/honor belongs to the Righteous <9rce."163 But instead of joining in, they respond with dismay. This is not yet the time to be offering up praise, "but I said ..." 160. "The speakers are identified with the 'islands of the sea' in v.15. Babylonian maps of the world often identify the outermost regions of the empire as nagu, which are portrayed as islands." Sweeney, Isaiah 1-39, 329. 161. "Most surprisingly, the Gk translates the word as tepata (signs, wonders). On the basis of Syriac dmyr, meaning 'surprising, wonderful', G.R. Driver was convinced that he had sufficient grounds to postulate the existence of a Hebrew word rnT&T, meaning 'strange things', which also would make better sense in Ps. 119.54. One would have to admit that this interpretation would provide a good parallel to 'DS (majesty), which follows it, but "'I'X (majesty) is not used in parallel with mfrT (song of joy); instead, it is a quote from the song of praise." Wildberger, Isaiah 13-27, 493. 162. "13D is usually plural and in this passage is to be understood as referring to the entirety of the land. Songs have been raised from every corner of the country." March, "A Study of Two Prophetic Compositions," 51. 163. Discussion surrounds the identity of j?'"^. The prominent view is that it is an adjective being used substantively of YHWH. However, this has been called into question because p^'l'S is never used of YHWH as an epithet (Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1-39, 353.d. Kaiser, Isaiah 13-39, 188. Oswalt, Book of Isaiah, 451.). Also, the word appears in 26.2 and 26.7 as a designation for the "redeemed community" (Redditt, Isaiah 24-27, 80 If the view that p^lX1? ^ (line 16b) is the content of what is heard in line 16a, then "ID'Xl164 (16c) marks a contrast between those singing the praise in 16b and the city's reaction. Further evidence to support this, is the play on sound between ,D¥ (16b) and '"H (16d-e). While one group is singing of glory and honor, the city and the unidentified "we" with her are speaking of leanness and wasting away.165 The forcefulness of the city's reaction is also portrayed by the short, rhythmic repetition (,'V_,'0 ',X?~',\'} ,V~"''iN) not only describing her state of being, but also the reason for this state (v.l6g-h). The cause of the city's state of mind is found in 24.16g-h. The five-fold repetition of the verb 1X3 emphasizes the severity of the situation. The ones who bring on such dismay for the city are described two times by the Qal participle •,7}2 (16g-h). The meaning of the root 1X2 is to act or deal treacherously, deceitfully, in the marriage 22). Hence the view that p^l'S is a reference to a group of Jews. March (63) espouses the idea that, "this is the reaction of the people who, after offering the prescribed petition to Yahweh, mourning as the situation seemed to require, now raise their voices with the confident declaration that honor is to be the final outcome for the righteous, the pious, the people of God. There may be a paronomasia in the prophet's use of this term, a play between honor for the Righteous One, which ought to be the song of the people, and the actual cry that honor is to come to the 'righteous people'." But on the other side, Wildberger (498) points out that, "it is certainly possible, within the confines of the OT, that p'Hlsn (the righteous one) can be used as a term for God. And on the other hand there is no place in the OT where Israel or even the 'true Israel' is addressed in an abbreviated way as p'T^H (the righteous one)." I believe that the content of the songs is expressed in the clause "glory belongs to the Righteous One" and as an epithet for YHWH ties in well with what is expressed in 24.14-15. 164. "^l?!^ (we hear ...) is responded to by "Ifo'NT. (but I say ...), which is considered as part of the prophet's rhetorical strategy to cause a shock by contrast and reversal in the minds of the audience." Itoh, "Isaiah 24-27," 97-98. 165. "The following expression p',l'Sl7 "OS also forms a remarkable contrast to ,,x7~',ll. The rare form of Tl a derivative either of 111 or fin, in this case should be • T • T T T • T y intended as a play on words. While '"H may not be understood as an antonym to "OX in the precise sense, it conveys the overall tone of disgrace, failure and misery. Ibid, 98-99. 81 relation, in matters of property or right, in covenants, in words and in general conduct. In texts such as Jer. 3.8; 9.2, Hos. 6.7 and Mai. 2.10-11, the context as well as specific mentioning of a covenant confirms this meaning. Such imagery calls the reader back to Isaiah 24.5 where one of the reasons stated for the judgment is that the inhabitants of the land have "broken the everlasting covenant, D^iy JT""Q Visit." This connection links these two groups together. Therefore, those who act "unfaithfully" are those who violate the "eternal covenant."166 The "city of void's" consternation is due to her realization that the conditions described in 24.4-6 and 24.16g-h (a languishing world, a remnant, the presence of treachery) still exist and must be dealt with. The praise which is heard in verses 14-15 is appropriate but the timing is not. It is premature. 166. Other options for whom QHJD refers to are: the wicked of all nations (Clements, Isaiah 1-39, 204) and all of humanity (Itoh, "Isaiah 24-27," 99-100). CHAPTER THREE PART TWO: Isaiah 24.17-23 Strophe One, 2 Stanzas: 24.17-18 and 24.19-20 Sequential Analysis 24.17-20 5 + 8 17 a n-ph: asyn NS-wNS-wNS-NP{pp}-V 1 V IT T /•• I \V T AT T ~ \- T -/- 18 b v-y: cons SVB-NS{ptc-pp}-VB-PP nnarrbis; b& inan blpp can c v-y: disj NS{ptc-pp}-VB-PP nsa 13^ nnsn ^ina n^ium AT - \" T • - - - t J • V IT I d v-q: conj Cj-NS-VB inns: bi-iaa nian*p;3 e v-q: cons wVB-NS :f"lN "HOiip TO^TI 19 a v-q: asyn INF-VB-NS THKH rmihnnnin I VAT T \T -: : i • T / b v-q: asyn INF-VB-NS px Yniiann "rta c v-q: asyn INF-VB-NS I v IT \T : : i- / 20 d v-y: asyn INF-VB-NS-PP e v-y: cons wSVB-PP na^as nni:nm _ AT : \ T : : i • : f v-y: cons wVB-PP-NS ni^'s Yr'iw 1331 T : • T v T <~ T : g v-y: cons wSVB nbaai h v-y: cons wSVB-INF \T : T : Stanza One (24.17-18): 5 lines This sequence consists of a nominal clause followed by four verbal clauses. Punctuation is marked by the switch from verbal Yiqtol in its stanza (18b-c) to Qatal in the next stanza (19.a-c). The Yiqtol clauses are modified by a subordinate sequence consisting of a conjunctive Qatal clause C3, 18d) and a consecutive Qatal clause (18e). Stanza Two (24.19-20): 8 lines This stanza, consisting of eight lines, is marked by punctuation in a twofold fashion. First, punctuation is marked by the shift of verb type (Qatal in lines 19a-c to Yiqtol in lines 20d-h) and secondly, the change in clause type (asyndetic in lines 19a-20d 82 83 to consecutive in lines 20e-h). While line 20d marks a change in verb type it still belongs to the preceding clauses in that it follows the same word order. Where with line 20e the Yiqtol from line 20d is continued, it is closer syntactically with the lines which follow it. This phenomenon, of one line marking punctuation yet still belonging to the preceding clauses, appears more often at the end of a stanza or strophe rather than in the midst of it. Literary Artistry The nominal clause which begins the first stanza contains key words which link this line to those following. The clause is tightly knit together by the repetition of the letters !7D in the first three words. The three nominal subjects introduced in 24.17a become the objects of the verbs in lines 18b-c. Once again the letters HS are also repeated at the end of each of these lines tying them back with line 17a. Lewis notes this phenomenon and points out its presence in Jeremiah 48.43-44. "The appearance of an almost identical formula in Jeremiah 48.43 with reference to Moab suggests that this may have been a standard poetic formula for cursing which could be used and adapted according to the particular situation."167 Finally, in line 18d the two consonants S and ft are found in the subordinate clause (inriD3). Repetition of roots, words, syllables and sounds is typical not only in this strophe but is also seen throughout Isaiah 24-27 and within passages in Isaiah 13-23 that might be attributed to the same writer. Lines 18b and 18c are closely linked to each other. The parallelism between these two lines is seen in their similar word order, both subjects being participles, and the 167. Lewis, A Rhetorical Critical Analysis, 74. 84 similar sound with the prepositions (both began with the preposition ]p). The lines elaborate on line 17a by further describing the status of the land dweller. Such parallelism emphasizes their sequential relationship. The last two lines (18d-e) are introduced by the particle'S. Itoh argues that '3 serves to introduce the cause of the events described in the preceding verses,168 while Lewis stresses its transitory as well as concluding features. Both lines however, pick up on the spatial ideas of the previous lines (the lowest point being the "pit" and the highest point the surface of the ground or perhaps even the sky) and expand them to the furthest limits (18e: "the windows from on high," 18f: "the foundations of the land"). Lewis also notes that "a rhythmic and rhyming effect is created by the two verbs in 18e-f, both with third person plural suffixes, set in chiastic construction so that one verb immediately follows the other: •HP'STI mnD3."170 The first three lines in the next stanza stand in parallel by means of word order, clause type, alliteration of the verbs beginning with nil, repetition of each verbal root and the final word in each line being fix. The fourth line is tied to the preceding lines in that it follows the same word order and continues the imagery of the verbs. But it also introduces the upcoming lines in that the clause ends with a comparative prepositional phrase. This preposition is continued in the very next clause and is also located at the end of it. Line 20e also takes the reader back to the first three clauses with the hithpael verbal 168. Itoh, "Isaiah 24-27," 96. 169. Lewis, A Rhetorical Critical Analysis, 84. 170. Ibid. 85 form. But it also is in sequential relationship with the next line, which may explain the source of its "swaying back and forth." Of the six words in lines 20e-g five of them end with H T , creating a rhyming pattern among the three lines. The final two lines bring the stanza to a close by stating the ultimate demise of the land; it will fall and not rise. Translation 17 a Terror and a pit and a bird-trap will be for you, inhabitant of the land, 18 b and it will be, the one who will flee from the sound of terror will fall into the pit, C then he who will climb up from the midst of the pit will be caught in the bird-trap, d for the windows from on high are open, e and the foundations of the earth are shaken. 19 a The land is broken up into pieces, b the land is split open, c the land is violently shaken. 20 d The land staggers as a drunkard, e and it sways back and forth as a hut, f and its transgressions weigh heavily upon it, g and it falls, h and it will never rise again. 86 Intertexuality The proverb in Isaiah 24.17-18 resembles Jeremiah 48.43-44. In a side by side comparison the similarities will be noted via the bold font and significant differences via a larger font. Jeremiah 48.43-44 Isaiah 24.17-18a rmrr-DKa axirc nrav vbs nai nnai -ins :yian nu?v whs nai nnai ina IT \T /'- I 7V T AT T -\- T ~ _ l V IT T /•• I W T AT T ~\- T ~ l~ nn&n-^K b& "inBH "osa pfn] (D^n) nnan-^K b& inan bijpn ofn naa -D'T nnsrnn Vrbrm nan "ID1?'1 nnsn "ninra Yi'riyni AT _ \~ T " - - — 1 • IT : AT - \" T * - - — I J * "•* IT I fix "Hoia T2JU-IBI inns] biiaa ninnx^n I VIT •• : / \ -: : -i- T : • T • < •-. ~: i • In Jeremiah the pericope stands in the midst of a section dealing with Moab. Moab's futility in trying to escape Yahweh's "year of punishment" is described by stating the barriers which will stand in their way - terror, a pit and a snare. While the barriers are not the same, the futility of trying to escape Yahweh's judgment is also mentioned in Amos 5.19. Here the obstructions are a lion, bear and snake. The Israelites longed for Yahweh's Day of Judgment (Amos 5.18) for they saw it playing out to their advantage. The prophet bursts their bubble by telling them it would be a time of "darkness and not light" (5.18). Within Amos 3.5 one also finds words which appear in Isaiah 24.17-18. rb "px dpiQi rb "px tfj?1»} fnxn nwbv niaa ^snn -\*dr vh liD^i na-iKrna nsrnbirn _ i : • / v T : T T~:JT I • - v :i—: Genesis 7.11 describes the flooding of the earth using terminology also found in Isaiah 24.18. One may conclude that the author of Isaiah 24.17-18 knowingly drew upon Genesis' language in order to compare the two destructions. Also, the surprise factor of the two destructions for the majority of earth's population is evident. The remnant is those who know of its coming and yet survive. 87 Genesis 7.1 lba nil") Dinn nri7Q_t?3 Wp33 T - j : : : - IT I: : • Isaiah 24.18e :pK "HOi!? WT] Genesis 7.1 lbp FtnS3 O'TCtfn nriKl i IT : • • \- T ~ /••.-:- Isaiah 24.18d Tthaa Diisa nimX"^ T : • T • <••.-: i • Lastly, Isaiah 24.17-20 concludes by claiming that the earth falls and will never rise again (24.20g-h, :mp B]''0hT6l n^aai). Amos 5.2a uses the same imagery but is speaking of Israel (SjSn&T n^D3 Dip ^pirr*6 nbaa). The writer of Isaiah 24-27 pulls on language and imagery from other passages which speak of various types of destruction: (1) Moab, (2) Israel, and (3) the entire earth. Interpretation Unlike Isaiah 24.7-13 where we read of an urban setting, this strophe is set in the countryside. A land dweller attempts to flee. One may assume the reason for the flight is the attack upon the city and the land. This flight is similar to the picture of scattering found in 24.Id. Waiting the one fleeing are terror ODS),171 a pit (nil?),172 and a bird-trap (ns). The repetition of similar sounds with these nouns creates a cadence which depicts the effort of the one fleeing - a state of panic, hurry, and stumbling. 171. In Isaiah 2 "fear" and "terror" are linked with Yahweh and his coming judgments: 2.10a -Hrr inB ^BO "13573 ]aS9m "VISn X12;2.19ba- Tinrai Vnrr ins "osa nay ni^nraai D"HS rrVitfna ^amhxa;2.2lba- j—:•• T : •"•<- •* : • ATT \ • : • • *•. JT:- T : Vnrr ins ••fan Q^on ^soyi onsn niipaa xia'piaixa "nnni. 172. A hole dug by hunters to serve as a trap. 173. Probably a type of net used by a fowler, which claps together when sprung. Wildberger, Isaiah 13-27, 500. 88 As mentioned above the author draws on Jeremiah 48.44 where the same language is used to describe the demise of Moab. The implications of this will be unfolded when I deal with Isaiah 25.10 where Moab's fall is mentioned (the only foreign country mentioned by name in Isaiah 24-27). Isaiah 24.18 expounds on verse 17 by putting the land-dweller into motion. He is fleeing from the sound of terror but to no avail. There is no escape. One misfortune leads to another. The futility of the effort is accentuated in lines 18c-d by not only parallel word order but also assonance used in the prepositional phrases indicating 174 movement. Line 18d introduces the cosmic dimension.175 The outpouring of water from heaven can be understood as a pronouncement of blessing.176 The drought previously spoken of in the chapter is coming to its end with the pouring out of rain upon the land. However, the water that pours forth is a deluge "releasing the ocean above the firmament, and causing widespread destruction upon the land."177 Its counterpart is depicted in the 174. 18c: nnsn-^K ....insn Vij?o I8d: n?5 nnsn ^ino 175. "The use of the particle ,D connects the strophe to the passage immediately preceding, but it also acts as a device of transition and conclusion." Lewis, A Rhetorical Critical Analysis, 84. 176. "To one familiar with the traditions of Canaan this (windows from on high are opened ...) has the sound of a blessing. Indeed, the term ITDIX designates the windows in Baal's temple which most probably are related to Baal's rain-producing duties." March, "A Study of Two Prophetic Compositions," 66. 177. Lewis, A Rhetorical Critical Analysis, 88-89. 89 next line (18e)178 where the foundations of the land are shaken. In Psalms 18.15 and 24.1-2 the foundation of the earth is said to float upon a body of water. nra ^ax IXTI mrr ^rniyan ban nrioira \b^ AT : J I : J T-: - • /" •• v : T *i- nxta fixn mrrb AT : I VJT T T ~ *• :m "osn bin IT •• : J : •• •• :n:i:i:r niSnrbn T iv : : T : ~ : By mentioning the two poles, the heavens above and the foundations of the land beneath, the encompassing nature of the judgment is brought out.179 The plight of the land dweller is further exasperated in that the entire cosmos is depicted as inhibiting his flight. The second stanza shifts the focus from the land-dweller back to the land, again showing the interconnectedness between the two. This reminds the reader of 24.1-3. The imagery of verse 19 depicts the earth as a house engulfed by a flood as well as suffering the effects of an earthquake.180 Verse 20 portrays the earth as intoxicated. The scarcity of wine in 24.7 is now countered with an abundance (tying in to the idea of flood imagery from lines 18d-e) which results in the land staggering like a drunk. The verbs in the last 178. Note the flip-flop in word order in lines 18e-f as well as the parallel sounds between the two verbs as one leads into the other. 179. "Here, the use of 'height' for heaven suggests that the poet's primary purpose is not to predict another flood, but in conjunction with 'foundation' (underneath), to talk about destruction of normalcy both above and below, that is, on every side." Oswalt, Book of Isaiah, 453. "The two nouns Dllfc and pN are antithetic, contrasting the "heights" with the "land," as in 24.4. A similar construction appears in 24.21, with DTlfc in kontrastparallele to HOIK." Lewis, A Rhetorical Critical Analysis, 86. 180. Kissane, Book of Isaiah, 283. 90 four lines of verse 20 (20e-h) convey the downward spiral of the land by comparing it to 101 a hut weighted down or blown about. The word for "hut," nil'?;? (20e) appears only one other time within the book of Isaiah, Isaiah 1.8, nU7j7ip5 H^VD?. In that context Jerusalem is compared to an abandoned hut. By recalling that particular wording and imagery here, the writer is identifying the land with the city (24.10a) and the inhabitants of the land. The cause of this judgment is reminiscent of 24.5-6 in that it is attributed to the sins of the land dwellers (20f). As the land dwellers go, so goes the land. In this strophe Yahweh is not mentioned. Judgment is depicted as the result of natural causes. But the next strophe reminds us that Yahweh is still very much the active agent. Strophe Two, 2 Stanzas: 24.21-22(a) and 24.22(a)-23 Sequential Analysis 24.21--23 5 + 5 21 a v-y: cons wSVB-PP j - T T : b v-y: asyn VB-NS-PP-PP nVnaa DlnapT NI^I: mrr ij?a? c n-ph: para wPP-PP IT T -: T - \T T -: T /•• : - - : 22a d v-y: cons wSVB nfabv TON napK ^DDKI _, e v-y: cons wSVB-PP "iapn ?» naoi 181. "In verse 20a the earth is compared to a drunken man who walks unsteadily, weaving back and forth. The oscillating stagger of the inebriate calls to mind a shack being buffeted by blasts of wind, so that it appears to sway back and forth. The violent shaking of the earth is compared to such a hut." Redditt, "Isaiah 24-27," 336. 91 v-y: disj wPP-SVB ll" T ' \ ' T / v-y: cons wVB-NS TT : - T : IT : v-y: cons wVB-NS - AT " I \T v-q: conj Cj-VB-NS-PP-wPP • - T J • 1 • <~ : T : JT : 1 ~ T r n-ph: para wNS{pp}-NP i T \TI- : •;•: : Stanza One (24.21-22a): 5 lines This sequence consists of an introductory HTH (Yiqtol consecutive) line followed by three more Yiqtol lines. This consecutive series is punctuated by the change to a disjunctive line at the beginning of the next stanza (22(3a). Stanza Two (24.22b-23): 5 lines Punctuation is marked by tense change from Yiqtol to Qatal. Literary Artistry The temporal setting of the first stanza is established by line 21a. The activities that will occur during this period are described by the main three clauses. Lines 22ad and 22ae tell of the sequential events following Yahweh's visit. Line 21c stands in coordinate relationship with line 21b, with the elision of the main verb and subject. In addition, both lines follow a parallel pattern following the verb - prepositional phrase beginning with by, followed by a second prepositional phrase pointing out location. Both lines end with the repetition of the final two nouns (Di"lip - article than preposition, and I"!EnKn - article than preposition). Finally, the first (21a) and last line (23e) are relatively short in length and follow the same word order (wSVB-PP). The middle three lines [21b- 23ad] are longer and of the same length. 92 The last two lines, 22ocd-e, of the stanza are coupled together through a variety of ways. First, both verbs are Pual and third common plural providing similar vocalic sounds. Secondly, there is the alliteration of the consonant D in each line. In line 22ad there is also alliteration of X in the first three words. Finally, lines 22ad-e both end with synonyms introduced by prepositions describing the location where the gathering takes place. Once again we can see the writer's tendency to repeat words, roots and sounds. This is important in that this particular tendency is found elsewhere in Isaiah 13-23. Stanza two also begins with a temporal statement in relation to the previous stanza. Stanza one line 21a introduces "that day." Line 22pa speaks of events that will occur "for many days" after "that day." Lines 23b-c mention heavenly bodies, the moon and sun, as well as similar conditions which will befall both of them. Their shared status also is emphasized by each word of both lines ending with the vocalic 71 T sound. The second stanza refers back to the immediately preceding stanza by means of the 3 person plural subject in line 220a, which speaks of the "host," "kings" and "punishment" (21b-c; 22pa,d). Also, the contrast between the highest reaches (moon, sun) and the land (Mount Zion, Jerusalem) is continued from verse 21b-c (heights, ground) and verse 18e-f (windows, foundation). 93 Translation 21 a Then it will be on that day, b Yahweh will punish the host of the heights on high, C and the kings of the earth upon the earth. 22a d And they will be gathered together, prisoners in a Sheol, f and they will be shut up in a dungeon. 22b a For many days they will be punished. 23 b And the moon will be ashamed, C and the sun will feel shame, d for Yahweh of Hosts has become king on Mount Zion and in Jerusalem, e and glory before his elders. Intertexuality The gathering of the "kings of the earth" (21c) into a Sheol ("well" or "pit") reminds one of what awaited the King of Babylon in Isaiah 14. Because of his desire to "ascend to the high places of the clouds" (31? ^ftftjl'by nbl?N) and make himself like "the Most High" (:]rbi:b na^K) he is thrust down into a pit. In 14.15 the "pit" ("112) is identified as Sheol. His arrival is greeted with great fanfare from the other "kings of the nations" (14.9). The idea of human pride driving humans to strive and become like God is not only the reason for the King of Babylon's fall but also symbolically is used to show that those who dwell on high (Isaiah 24.4e, the "heights of the people of the earth") wither away. 94 Isaiah 13 also speaks of Yahweh visiting (*7(?S) the King of Babylon in a negative manner. This occurs on the "day of Yahweh" (HTTP. UV, 13.6) and the visit affects the land (13.9), its inhabitants (13.7-8), and the heavenly bodies (13.10). Another prophetic passage which speaks of Yahweh's judgment disturbing the heavens is Zechariah 14.6-7. The chapter begins with the temporal phrase "on that day" (nirpb Ka_DV n3n, 14.la). Yahweh comes to fight against the nations "on a day of battle" (:T")p DV2, 14.3b). Yahweh's presence alters the geography of the earth (14.4-5) as well as the cosmos. See verses 6-7 below. :[]ij Our strophe ends (24.23d-e) with Yahweh reigning on Zion and his glory being manifested before his elders. This image recalls the account found in Exodus 24.1, 9-11 where the seventy elders ascend the mountain of God with Moses. It is there they "see" , God (^AK"lto' Ylbx nx 1XT1), a special privilege not afforded the common Israelite. The people could only see God's glory from a distance by means of fire (Exodus 24.16-17). By drawing from language of Israel at Mount Sinai the writer emphasizes the unique role Israel will once again play. Interpretation Wildberger believed that this section was added at a later date. The primary reason is how the text describes the coming disaster. While Wildberger does not tag it as "apocalyptic," he holds that what later developed into apocalyptic thinking is here in 95 embryonic form. The mention of "the host of high" as well as the cosmic imagery has led other scholars to agree with Wildberger and even go further and label these verses as proto-apocalyptic and even apocalyptic.183 Another possibility however, is to see 24.21- 23 as belonging to the previous verses (24.17-20), yet emphasizing a different aspect of Yahweh's judgment. The first strophe focuses upon the land dwellers as a whole while this strophe focuses upon those in positions of power. The phrase "on that day" (line 21a) is the first explicit literary reference to a particular point of time in Isaiah 24. This is the first use of the temporal phrase JOhn DT2; though it will appear six more times.184 The actor in the first stanza (24.21-22a) is Yahweh. Other than 24.1, lines a-d, this is the only place in the first two sections where Yahweh is depicted as actively doing something. In 24.1 Yahweh takes action against the land (T"1K) where here his actions are upon particular individuals. Again one sees a connection between the land and the inhabitants; Yahweh acts out against each of them. Yahweh's action is described by the verb *7|?S. The basic meaning of this verbal stem is to exercise supervision over a subordinate, either in the form of inspecting or taking action to cause a substantial change in the circumstances of the subordinate. The various uses of this stem in Isaiah 13-23 primarily describe Yahweh acting in a negative 182. Wildberger, Isaiah 13-27, 509, 513. 183. For example, see Blekinsopp, Isaiah 1-39, 356; Brueggemann, Isaiah 1-39, 195. 184. 25.9; 26.1; 27.1, 2, 12, 13. 96 i or manner against his enemies. The picture is Yahweh discerning the situation and then administering the appropriate action. In this strophe the specific action Yahweh carries out results in an ingathering and imprisonment in a Sheol (line 22ad-f). The recipients of Yahweh's judgment are the DilfcD BilfrH JOS and nK>*7Kn-^y HDlXn 'DVD- Identifying the "kings" as leaders of various nations is widely accepted. Consensus breaks down when identifying the "host of the height." Various options are offered: (1) angelic beings, (2) stars, or (3) pagan deities.187 While the identity may vary, there seems to be agreement that the "host of the height" and the "kings of the land" emphasize two distinct groups: the "host" which controls the affairs of the heavens188 and the kings, who rule upon the earth. But both equally oppose God and his reign.189 I offer an alternative interpretation for consideration. The primary reference to the "host of the height" is to non-human entities, the heavenly bodies. Secondarily in a symbolic sense, it is a synonym for the "kings of the land." By describing them as such, 185. 13.11 - the world C?ir\; 23.17 - Tyre; 26.14 - the dead, shades; 26.21 - the land dwellers; 27.1 - Leviathan; 29.6 - enemies, ruthless ones. 186. *li3 - compare with Isaiah 14.5. 187. For a review of these various options see Clements, Isaiah 1-39,205-6 or Wildberger, Isaiah 13-27, 506-7. 188. Di"lE> is understood as a synonym for "the heavens." 189. "It would seem that this refers to a battle in the heavens that would parallel that on earth; indeed, the heavenly battle is mentioned first, meaning that the battle with the kings takes place on the HETTX (earth) describes earthly events that correspond to the heavenly struggle, the stage on which the decisive battle would actually be fought." Wildberger, Isaiah 13-27, 506. 97 the author is emphasizing the ambition of the "kings." They desire to be as God and the heavenly beings and reign in his stead. I offer the following points as support for this suggestion. First, lines 21b-c are in parallel relationship. The subject and verb from line "b" is in elision in line "c" serving to link the two lines together. Also, the appearance of the preposition ^V in both lines indicates that the "host" and the "kings" are both recipients of Yahweh's judgment. Second, the "kings of the land" are not identified. Any king, foreign or Israelite, who opposes God, could be included. One way in which human rulers might oppose God is to endeavor to be equal to God or set oneself up in place of God.190 Thirdly, there is a connection between the "elevated among the people of the land" (24.4) and the "host of high on high" (24.21). In 24.4, Dilfr appears to be a characteristic of a particular place and those who dwell there. In 24.18, 21, it is also a location. Yahweh is known to dwell in two locations, (1) "on high" in heaven and (2) in the temple in Jerusalem which is situated on a high hill. A crisis arises when humans endeavor to be like Yahweh and lift themselves beyond their proper place in relation to Yahweh. In Isaiah 24 we have a three tiered universe: heaven (Dilip - N^S), earm (I"J'?7$ ~ Wlbt?), and Sheol (Tin - both X3X and W&Q). In lines 23d-e God is referred to as niiOV HTTP and Y?D. Also, I'D is replaced by a mountain (in) and glory (1123). The text describes a new heaven and earth and identifies its cosmos with Zion and Jerusalem. Yahweh becomes the sun and moon. The previous paragraph where I proposed an 190. See notes on Isaiah 24.4 (page 12f, footnote #16) where I make the argument that DilE) can be understood not only literally as a location but also symbolically referring to a sense of pride and arrogance. 98 alternative interpretation nuances this by showing how dominion works in this new setting. In lines 23b-c we read of the effects Yahweh's day has upon the niD^D and naiTJ. These two entities are mentioned in Isaiah 30.26, a passage that concerns Zion and Jerusalem and its rejection of idols (such as the sun tttott?',moo n JTT and stars niNIrt?)- The reason the nouns Tlld^'i] and nann are used here, versus the more popular terms that appear in 30.26, is to avoid using the standard words for sun and moon which were objects of worship. nrbnn lixs 'nin^mix rrm T_I- J : TT : • The second stanza (24.22b-23) depicts a temporal continuation of the first, "for many days" (Q'W 2'"l£>). The exact duration of time does not appear to be as significant as linking this stanza with the preceding one (24.21-22a), especially the beginning of each.192 I view this strophe as one event. The first stanza emphasizes what the outcome of Yahweh's judgment will be and that it includes a cosmic dimension - the moon and the sun. Also, the author replaces the "host on high" with Yahweh by attributing to him the name "Yahweh of Hosts" in 24.23d. The second stanza focuses upon the reign of Yahweh and the effects this will have upon the cosmos as well as the rulers of the land. With the "kings of the land" no longer in power, Yahweh will reign 191. Some scholars see this as a two different events with an undetermined gap of time. 143. -tipEr mh7] QT3 Vrrn (24.21a-b) rips? a^r znai (24.22pa) 99 from Mount Zion, Jerusalem. As mentioned before, it is possible that the "kings of the land" also may refer to the Davidic line thus negating the possibility of a future Davidic ruler. There will be no need for such a person. Yahweh will be king. When Yahweh reigns from Mount Zion his "glory" will be profuse. Those who relish in it are the "elders" who stand before Yahweh.194 This is possibly another reason why the moon and the sun feel shame.195 193. "The TOD ensures the holiness of this holy location, indicates the presence of the holiness of the holy God, and makes it possible to carry out all the actions connected with worship, which then guarantees the holiness and the salvation of the people of YHWH ... one can draw the conclusion that the presence of Yahweh on Zion would mean that unhindered cultic activity could be reinstituted on the mount of God, that is, on Zion, once the restoration had occurred." Wildberger, Isaiah 13-27, 512. 194. The language here appears to be an allusion to the elders appearing before God on the mount in Exodus 24.9ff. Itoh provides the following possibilities in identifying these elders: (1) the elders of Israel: the covenant meal between Yahweh and the seventy elders is the central focus of interpretation [Johnson]. (2) either the redeemed saints or the sacred spirits forming the council of God, to which Yahweh makes known His will concerning the world [Watts, Willis]. (3) representatives of all the peoples/nations on the earth [supported by Itoh]. '"PJpT should signify the head of earthly beings or creatures in contrast to Ttilbn (the moon) and Tiffin (the sun) representing the heavenly beings." Itoh, "Isaiah 24-27," 107-9. 195. They will be "dimmed in comparison with the brilliance of the glory of Jahweh. According to 60.19f, Jahweh Himself will take the place of sun and moon. There is probably also a suggestion of the overthrow of the paganism which looked upon the sun and moon as the supreme gods. The pagan empire and its gods will be succeeded by a new world-empire with Sion as the centre and Jahweh Himself as king." Kissane, Book of Isaiah, 284. See also Watts, Isaiah 1-33, 330; Kaiser, Isaiah 13-39, 195; Doyle, Apocalypse of Isaiah, 202; March, "A Study of Two Prophetic Compositions," 206. CHAPTER FOUR PART THREE: ISAIAH 25.1-12 Strophe One, 2 Stanzas: 25.1 and 25.2-3 Sequential Analysis 6 + 6 n-ph: asyn VB-NS-NP nrix ^ribx nirr v-y: asyn SVB/DO ^jaai-ix v-y: asyn SVB-DO ^\m rrrix v-q: conj Cj-VB-DO xbs rpfem •'a YAY T \ • T / ' n-ph: asyn DO pinna nter n-ph: asyn DO-DO .••jafc rniax s v-q: conj SVB-PP-PP bib T»a nato s T - • - T : <- J * n-ph: asyn PP-PP nbsab n-nsa mp AT " - : \T : IT :r n-ph: asyn PP-PP Ti;a bnr ]ia-ix v-y: asyn PP-SVB IV T • \T /! _i v-y: conj Cj-VB/DO-NS T1TD1? filar ]3 7I? ,, v-y: asyn NS-VB/DO :^Kn 7 n^iy a;ia rnp Stanza One (25.1): 7 lines This sequence consists of an introductory nominal line followed by two verbal Yiqtol lines. Punctuation is marked by the switch from verbal Yiqtol to Qatal in line 2a of the next stanza. The nominal line which begins this stanza sets forth a statement of affirmation. A nominal clause at the beginning of a stanza is also found in 24.1a-b and 24.17a. The remainder of the stanza is to be understood through this nominal clause's statement. The second and third lines are parallel to one another through synonymous verbs, word order, 100 101 and the repetition of the pronominal suffix which concludes each clause. Also, these two lines are tied to the first line in that the first common singular pronominal suffix becomes the subject. The last three clauses are parallel in that the verb in line Id is elided in the next two lines. Stanza Two (25.2-3): 6 lines This sequence follows the pattern set out in the first stanza line Id. The wonders mentioned in line Id are now described in this stanza. The stanza begins with a verbal asyndetic Qatal clause and punctuation is marked by the switch to a verbal Yiqtol clause (line 2d). Line 2d not only marks discontinuity with the previous clauses, it also concludes the main thrust of this stanza by stating the finality of the reversal. The subject of the verb (HI3) is a collective singular in that it picks up the subject from each of the preceding three lines (city, fortified city, and citadel). Literary Artistry The opening stanza of this strophe begins with the alliteration of the letter X (la- c). In fact, four out of the seven words in the first three lines begin with this letter. The strong "a" sound is found at the end of lines a-c (HIV, *[£>&-, W&). Such artistry creates a triad. The next three lines are also a triad. The verb n&W (line "d") is in elision in the next two lines. The last line of 25.1 (line 25f) qualifies the two lines preceding it by means of assonance. Lewis in citing Saydon states that the construction |D'X nTl&X is "an example of the creation of assonance (resemblance of sound, especially of the vowel 196. In line lb the suffix functions as the direct object, in line lc it is attributive to the direct object. Note both lines then end with the same sound. 102 sounds in words) in a word pair built from the same root, and used to express 1 Q7 emphasis." This last triad finds a mirror image in the first three lines of the next stanza. Both triads begin with "'3, the verbs are in elision, and the last line of each, while part of the triad, is not as closely linked as the first two lines are to each other. The first three lines of the second stanza are closely knit together through the elision of the verb Wp, parallel word order, and the use of synonyms. Another feature linking these three clauses together is the elision of the prepositions "[?? and b from the first line (line 2a) in lines 2b-c. from a city into a heap from a fortified city into a ruin into of citadel for foreigners from a city Also, in the second line the repetition of the "a" vowel sound at the end of each word reinforces this shift from the city being in one state and becoming something else. With each line the strength of the city is amplified: a city to a fortified city; a citadel198 found within the fortified city. Line 2c seems to switch the imagery from transformation to that of absence. However, the reappearance of the preposition |0 reminds the reader of line 2a, and unites the three lines into one common portrait of destruction. The fourth line breaks the pattern and "gives force to the entire construction."199 The last two lines of the stanza are subordinate not only to this stanza, but also the first. The second line (line 3f) reverses the expected word order of verb-subject causing the subjects to be juxtaposed; the strong people are the ruthless nations. Itoh points out 197. Lewis, A Rhetorical Critical Analysis, 110. 198. Word is used to describe a fortified dwelling which was usually a part of the royal complex within the city. 199. Lewis, A Rhetorical Critical Analysis, 103. 103 that one reason for this juxtaposition is the author's attempt to "include Q,V''"1? ^V^ (various foreign nations) into rYHj? by placing JYHi? side by side with Ty~Dy." Also, the use of rr*1j? with humans, "nations of ruthlessness," emphasizes that the city is not only a structure but also a reference to those who dwell within the city or rely upon it. Another subtlety is the assonance in Tr~D27, and the alliteration in D',0,'"IS? D'iJl, and between ^1?3* and ^Xl". Translation 1 a Yahweh, you are my God; b I exalt you; C I praise your name. d Indeed you have performed a wonder, e plans from long ago, f dependable, faithful. 2 a You have changed it from a city into a heap, b from a fortified city into a ruin, C into a citadel for foreigners from a city, d for forever it will not be rebuilt. 3 e Therefore, a fierce people will glorify you; f a city of ruthless nations will fear you. Intertexuality The second stanza recalls the imagery and language of Isaiah 24.10-12; 22.1-3; 17.1. The pictures there are similar to those found here. An unidentified city (rTHj?) is in 200. Itoh, "Isaiah 24-27," 121. 104 ruins.201 For example, Isaiah 22.2 is addressed to rppin T17 and TfV'bs nnp. An even closer parallel is Isaiah 17.1, an oracle concerning Damascus, :n)?sn "VSa nrpni T»a noia ptoai nan ptoai Ktea. Damascus was the capital city of Syria and by employing similar language the writer apparently is making a connection between the ancient city Damascus and the city of 25.2 and 24.10-12.202 The language used to describe what the city becomes (Vj and n"?5a) draws upon such texts as 2 Kings 19.25, an oracle attributed to Isaiah, where God tells Hezekiah of what he did to Assyria.203 , , 1 nn"!S i'! anp ^ub '•rrtb? nnx pinna ? nyatf-K'pn :nin^a cny a^a a^a nwnb •'nni n^n^nn nnu - i •-. : / • T v • • i • - v : - • : T •• ~: -IT 2 Kgs 19:25 is Yahweh's reply to the boasting of Sennacherib (19:23-24, king of Assyria) who claims to have destroyed nations and their lands and now threatens Jerusalem. The reply is -just as in Isaiah 25:1-3 -that it is Yahweh who is doing it, and that it was determined long ago, and that it just happens to be that Sennacherib is the good-for-nothing chosen to do the job. These words are drawn on to show what becomes of cities when Yahweh brings judgment upon them, be it a city belonging to Israel or those of foreigners, in the past, present or future. 201. Both 24.10-12 and 22. Iff use both HTp and Ti? in describing the city, just like 25.2a-b. 202. For the connection between 25.2 and 24.10-12 see the "Interpretive" section. The link with 22. Iff will be made when sufficient evidence exists to identify the city or cities of Isaiah 24-27. 203. The same language appears in Jeremiah 9.11 (B^ab pbttJTTTlK Tinai) with regard to Jerusalem and 51.37 (B^ab ban 'nrrni) with regard to Babylon. Cf. Isaiah 23.13 (nbaab nato) where the same verb WiD is employed as in 25.2a. 105 "Assyrians" is an important word for the writer of Isaiah 24-27 and in other passages which might be attributed to this person. For instance, in Isaiah 23.13 Assyria's devastating actions against the Chaldeans are described. D"sb rno1 -ntfK A" • : J TT : \ ~ -.nbsitib nam rnniaa-iK ITISJ [viina] (rrnn) wpn L J v IT - - : \T T TV : : - : T - T • : ' L • •• And in Isaiah 30.31 Assyria is on the receiving end of devastating action by the hand of Yahweh, :n:r B3JS'3 1TOK HIT HIIT t?ipp-,'S. The reason for this emphasis upon Assyria will become evident further along when I set forth the possibility that the writer of Isaiah 24-27 intentionally identifies himself with the prophet Isaiah even to the point of placing himself in the same place in time. Interpretation The strophe is a song addressed to Yahweh. The song begins with an affirmation, "Yahweh, you are my God." This proclamation causes the singer to exalt and praise Yahweh. In line Id a'S clause states what it is that elicits this affirmation and the resulting praise. Yahweh has performed a "wonder" (K^S). This is further qualified as "counsel (HX5?) from long ago" (le).205 In the second stanza (25.2) the singer tells us of this wonder. 204. "Concerning JIT (praise), cf. 12.1; of course, in that passage the verb means 'thank', but here, with the object UW (name), it means 'praise', and the meaning frequently comes quite close to what one might translate as 'confess'. All these ideas are interrelated here; the confession is not simply a recitation of statements of faith, but is praise and thanksgiving." Wildberger, Isaiah 13-27, 518-19. 156. Redditt (Isaiah 24-27, 346-47) understands lines d-f as three affirmations about Yahweh: (1) he has performed an awe inspiring deed, (2) he has given reliable counsel, (3) he has acted with fidelity. 106 Yahweh has transformed a city into a heap. The city's strength is emphasized in line 2b. It is a "fortified city." The adjective rni¥3 attributes an inaccessible quality to the city; a city which has been fortified against potential hostile actions. Such cities were usually the largest and important inhabited cites (cf. 2 Kings 17.9). It now lies in rain (nVsip). Foreigners made it into a citadel (2c). The city will never be rebuilt (2d). The last two lines (3e-f) reiterate who is singing and why this hymn of praise is being sung to Yahweh. The singer is identified as belonging to a "fierce people" (TIT017) and a "city of ruthless nations" (WT^ D";ia rv"!p). Why the praise? Yahweh has wreaked havoc upon this "fortified city" and banished its inhabitants.206 In the first two parts (24.1-16; 17-23) there were two instances where groups opposed one another. The first was in 24.14-16 where one group sang praises to Yahweh and a first person singular voice instead spoke of severe circumstances still existing; not a time for praise. The similarities between these verses and 25.1-3 are quite apparent. The second instance appeared in 24.21-23 where one group (the kings and the host) winds up in prison and Yahweh's elders on Mount Zion. Now, in Isaiah 25 we have one group rejoicing over the fall of another group's city and the displacement of their citizens. Early on in Isaiah 24 we heard of only the inhabitants of the land. Progressively two distinct groups have begun to form. Does this song consist of genuine praise or is it a taunt of some sort? Can we identify this city and who rejoices at its demise? By answering the latter we will have answered the former. 206. The presence of foreigners in 25.2b implies the absence of the majority of native citizens. 107 With regard to the identity of the city in Isaiah 25.2 I propose that it is the same city as the one mentioned in Isaiah 24.10, the city of void. Both are the recipients of devastating destruction from the hand of Yahweh. Secondly, the city is described as "fortified" (TI23, 2b). This adjective appears four other times in Isaiah and two of those times it is speaking of Jerusalem. For example, the adjective appears in Isaiah 2.15 as an attribute of a wall (HIIS!? ilfoift). Isaiah 2 is a word concerning Judah and Jerusalem which is for the "last days" (verse 2). The section continues with a list of objects and individuals (introduced by the preposition Vtt) who will be the recipients of Yahweh's actions. Among these are every "high tower" (n'3J ^"Jli?) and fortified wall (nilSS ilipin). In Isaiah 36.1 King Sennacherib of Assyria goes up against all the fortified cities of Judah (nil^an ITTliT niJ'bs). The other two occurrences are not as specific. Isaiah 27.10 mentions a "fortified city" (iTTO3 TJ?) which is left isolated like the wilderness. This will be discussed when I come to that part. Isaiah 37.26 is part of a text addressed to King Hezekiah as a response to his prayer concerning King Sennacherib. They are words of encouragement. The words of verse 26 are similar to those in 36.1. The context informs us that the "fortified cities" in verse 26 are in countries other than Judah. rvrm:n mp •,a,a Tvfor nniK bin-iab ni?a©-Kibn _ - T A • : - • vlw •• / - • T JT I Ti- T : < T i : :ni"isa n*n» crsu D^a nixranb ••nrn rrnxnn nnu _ i •-. : / • T \ • ' / * - v : - : • : T " : JT - While these last two uses of the adjective "1^2 do not identify the city of 25.2 for us, they do reveal that within Isaiah it is used of cities within Judah and foreign lands. Another clue to aid in identifying the "fortified city" is the noun xVs (wonder), which is used to describe what Yahweh did to this city. The root X"7D appears six times in 108 the book of Isaiah (9.5; 25.1; 28.29; 29.14). In the first three occurrences it is found in close proximity with the root 7T2$, where Yahweh's council is described as a "wonder." In Isaiah 29.14 we find an account which seems to have bearing on understanding in relation to 25.1. Isaiah 29 begins with an allegory (verses 1-8) concerning Ariel, the city of • 707 * David. In 29.1 the yearly sacrifices are described. In verses 2-3 Yahweh lays siege to the city of David which ends up becoming an ariel (an altar hearth). The meaning of ariel is then explained by describing it as ghostly voices ascending out of the ground. Isaiah 29.9-14 is a parable. In verses 9-10 the prophets, seers, and the people in general are viewed as stupid. They are drunk and staggering out of stupidity, not wine. Because of their condition, Isaiah's vision will be to them as a "sealed book that cannot be read and as an open book that cannot be understood."209 Due to their inability to comprehend this vision, Yahweh will perform wonders (N^3) that will ruin their customary wisdom. Note the threefold repetition of the root N^S in 29.14. KVDT xVsn nTrpDitfrnnN VsnV npv ^n i?"? This "wonder" is an act against Ariel, the city of David; Jerusalem. This is an act which Yahweh planned from long ago. It would appear that the writer may have had Isaiah 29 and possibly Jerusalem in mind when writing Isaiah 25.1-3 and speaking of a "city." From the above argument there is no definitive answer to the identity of the "fortified city." It could be a prominent city in a foreign land. However, the evidence 207. Peckham, History and Prophecy, 147. 208. Ibid. 209. Ibid. 109 does lean more in the favor of identifying the city as Jerusalem within the land of Judah. Does this conclusion give us insight into our original question regarding the genuineness of the praise expressed in 25.1? If it is a foreign city, then more than likely it is a song of thanksgiving spoken by an unidentified faithful Hebrew and consists of authentic words of praise. However, if the city is Jerusalem, than it would be a song sung by those who oppose Yahweh and his people; namely, the fierce and ruthless ones (cf. 24.16g-h) of 25.3. This would make the song a taunt. It is as if they were saying, Yahweh is acting more like our god than your God. The singer is a foreigner who sees Yahweh as being on his side and giving his people victory; therefore, they mock Israel by offering up praise unto Yahweh. The writer keeps one guessing but is providing further clarity as he develops his argument in Isaiah 24-27. Strophe Two, 2 Stanzas: 24.4-5aa and 25.4b/3-5 Sequential Analysis 25.4-5 6 + 3 4 a v-q: asyn Cj-SVB-NP-PP bib Tiura rrms •/T - / T T ' T I • b n-ph: asyn NP-PP-PP A - - I \ : v T / T c n-ph: asyn NP-PP DTTO nona d n-ph: asyn NP-PP 2"?na bx e n: conj Cj-NS-NP{pp} 5(aa) f n: asyn NP{pp} ^sa anna 5(apb) a v-y: asyn DO-SVB 5 b v-y: asyn DO-PP T J" : c v-y: asyn NS-VB 110 Stanza One (25.4-5aa): 6 lines Similar to the second stanza of the first strophe (24.2-3), this stanza begins with the conjunction ,3. The first clause, being verbal Qatal conjunctive, is followed by five nominal lines. Such a switch marks punctuation. The final two nominal lines (lines e-f), however, are subordinate to the preceding clauses in that they inform the reader as to why Yahweh has become a source of safety for his people. Stanza Two (25.5a[3b): 3 lines This short stanza consists of two asyndetic Yiqtol lines, interrupted by a nominal line which is subordinate to the first. Punctuation is marked by the change of clause type to consecutive at the beginning of the next strophe. Literary Artistry From an artistic view it works well to look at the first six lines in a 2+2+2 pattern. The first line of the stanza begins with ,3 and it appears again in line "e" creating a contrast between Yahweh and the "ruthless ones." The first word after'S in line "a" is a verb consisting of three syllables. The last two words (united by a maqeph so pronounced as one) also have three syllables. Lewis writes, "The expression ^""I^D is metrical compensation for the rVT? of the previous line."210 In between these two words are four words following an a'-b'-a^b2 pattern, Vlb Ti2?D, which ends line "a" and I'TDK'? Tii70, which begins line "b". Such a pattern not only ties the lines together, but also emphasizes the oneness of the V? and fi^K. 210. Lewis, A Rhetorical Critical Analysis, 104. Ill The next two lines (c-d) have the same word order, same number of words, and in both lines the second word begins with fr.211 Another predominant sound within these two lines is the vowel "e" (three times in each line). Also, these two lines form a bridge between lines a-b and line e-f. For example, the nouns ftOft'Dan d bs both serve as "places of safety," reminding the reader of Yahweh as TiVD in lines a-b. What they provide protection from, D*lj? and Tift, are both picked up in lines e-f. Lastly, the final two clauses are knitted together by means ofana'-b^-a2 structure: Line"e": TP D1T3 (b1) WT1V nn ^ (a1) Line "f': 0*HT "pXtf (a2) ffe 3"lft3 (b2) Both "b" phrases begin with the preposition 3 and both "a" phrases end with the masculine plural ending W. -. By ending one line and beginning the next in the same manner, the writer encourages the reader to recall lines a-b which do the same thing. The literary linkage of these six lines into three groups of two provides overall unity, transition, and contrast within the stanza. Dividing the lines as I have in this stanza, I have put myself at odds with the Masoretic text.212 However, this division places the order of words in a similar fashion as that found in the first stanza lines a-b and e-f. The verb in line "a" begins the line and in line "b" ends the line. This juxtaposes the subject in the first line with the object of the second. This replication of pattern artistically links the stanza with the one preceding it. 211. Of the eleven words in the first four clauses (lines a-d) five of them begin with D. 212. The Masoretic text places the verb V^DPl with the first half of the verse. Note the atnah under the verb. 112 Two other links between this stanza and 25.1-3 are found in the first line. The noun TiJ?a shares the same root as the adjective TS? in 25.3 line "e." The similar sounds set up a contrast between "a people of strength" and God becoming a "stronghold" for the "poor." The second link is found in the similarity between the sound of the first line (25.4a) and the first line of the second stanza of the first strophe (25.2a). Despite the fact that the "city" had become a "heap" Yahweh promises to become a "stronghold" for the "poor. Lastly, the words the writer uses to describe those hostile to Yahweh and his people in the last four lines of this eight line strophe are based on a combination of three Hebrew letters: D, "I, and T. The spirit or breath of the ruthless ones is likened to a storm (•IT). The heat is compared to the noise of foreigners (D"HT). And lastly, the song (TOT) of the ruthless was subdued. Translation 4 a Indeed, you have been a refuge for the weak, b a refuge for the poor in his distress, C a shelter from the rain, d a shade from the heat, e for the wind of the ruthless is like a rain-storm against SL wall, 5(aaa) f like heat on dry ground. 5(a(3b) a The noise of foreigners you subdued, b the heat, with the shade of a cloud, C the song of the ruthless subsided. 113 Intertexuality Once again the writer pulls from the language and imagery of Isaiah 17. Within Isaiah 17 there is a threefold use of the phrase "on that day" - 17.4, 7, 9. Each of these pericopes speaks of judgment against Israel and perhaps even Judah in 17.9-14. It is in verse nine and following that we find these similarities. What Israel had done to the Hivites and Amorites is now returned upon them. Just as they destroyed their "cities of strength" (fay a) so Israel's cities, and perhaps even Judah's, are forsaken. Verse 10 tells us why this happened, the people had forgotten the God who saved them and was their "rock of strength" Htya). Refuge is to be found in God not human built cities. Placing trust in such "strongholds," proves unfruitful. And when God judges a nation, it is upon these structures he often acts to demonstrate their weakness and his strength (see 23.4, 11, 14). TiS?a also appears in 32.2-3. God acted against Judah because of their continual reliance upon others, in this case Egypt, rather than in him.213 With regard to Yahweh being a nona "shelter" for his people, this idea is found in Isaiah 4.5-6. During a time of restoration for Israel, God's glory becomes, "a booth for shade (?¥) from the heat (Tl'n) and a shelter (nona) from the storm (tnT)." Isaiah 4.2-3 speaks of a "remnant of Israel" that is left in Zion (ffaUp INttftn). Another link between these two sections is the apparent pun between ffalSS in 25.5(aaa)f and fiTS in 4.5. It is on behalf of these pious ones that Yahweh provides protection. It appears our writer has Isaiah 4 in mind when penning these words. Also, the idea of a remnant is found earlier in 24.6 0?TO #138 IXIjfr, cf. 24.13). The imagery of God being a relief from intense 213. 30.2: nins Tirna rab and ansa ban nior6; : - J T : T • TI : • /•• : \ : - 30.3 nvhb nins riua n^b rrm 114 natural elements is also found in Isaiah 32.2. The king and prince who reign are as a "covering from the storm (D"]T)" and the "shade (^S) of a massive cleft in a weary land." Humankind faces various threats either through nature, which God uses as a means of judgment, or other nations, which also may be God's chosen instrument. Those who rely upon human built "strongholds," be they Israelites or foreigners, will be dismayed. God alone is their "stronghold." And at times to make humans aware of this, God destroys their fortresses leaving them vulnerable with the hope they would return to him. Finally, the practice of combining "foreigners" and the "ruthless," is also found in Isaiah 29.5: "But the multitude (fifrn) of your enemies (IT) will become like fine dust, and the multitude (]i&n) of the ruthless ones (WWIV) like the chaff which blows away." Interpretation While the first three verses of this chapter discussed the fall of a "fortified city," this strophe changes the focus to that of restoration and hope. The first two lines state that Yahweh has become a refuge or stronghold (T15?ip) for the weak and poor. TiJ?E> defines a place of safety or protection. Such a place may be found in nature or the product of human ingenuity. Figuratively, the word is used of human beings. For example in Isaiah 30.2-3 Egypt is viewed as a stronghold, a means of protection. ibxo *6 "si nnxa n-nb h^bfi ATT j v• • - : - • j v T - : tansp bsa nipr6i nins ri^nn riin rran*? nsns rara npb rrrn mmb^b nnsa-bsa rnonm IT ' : • • \- : • - : / T v : 115 Figuratively it is also used of God as in our text. The challenge, however, is for God's people to not forget this (Isaiah 17.10, rnrjT vb rpya "nsi •^©, Tlbx nn?tf ">3). Who are the weak (Vl) and the poor fli'DS?)? In the socio-economic scale they are at the bottom. They lack material wealth and social strength. Prov. 10.15 :atfn D^I nrra i-Ti; imp -ptf» "tin IT J • \~ • A •: J- :!• • T \ I J Amos 2.7 "ffip nyrs ^TTI D^"! tixna y-ijHsirbi; D^axftn They require protection by society as expressed in Deut. 15.1-4 and in particular verse 4. •ppx yp-rrrr vb r? osx :nn©ii? njpro ^"pi f n'bx mn1 nox p«a rnrr ^pin*: ^n.3-,3 Within Isaiah, passages such as 14.30 and 26.6 mentions that the poor and needy will one day find their fortune reversed. Isaiah 14.30 raa-p naa'? nnvaxi D^I ntoa isni trirr ^rnxtfi ^«htf aina "Tiam Isaiah 26.6 bn n300-in VAT T\V : : * ID^I 72172 yy bn The means of protection provided by Yahweh on Mount Zion in Isaiah 4.2-6 is similar to that mentioned in 25.4. Also, the protection offered in 4.2 is for the "escaped remnant of Israel" ("^"liy''. ny*??1?) and in 4.3 "the ones left in Jerusalem" (DVufiTS "lrrinni). If the writer of Isaiah 24-27 had Isaiah 4 in mind, or possibly even the author of the chapter, than those who fall under Yahweh's protection in that setting, the remnant of Israel, would also be the "weak" and "poor" mentioned here (Isaiah 4:5-6 below).214 214. Both Wildberger and Sweeney believe the weak and poor are Israel. Wildberger, Isaiah 13-27, 520. Sweeney, Isaiah 1-39, 335. 116 rb*b brai1 pi; nKipirbjn ]iBs—in liD^-bs 'bv rrirr mi* ninb m nail i&n - T : AT T RTT T v TI: - - : 1 • - I : T - T : JTT \T T v / •• v: IT T : :nsn ifas-bs-bv ••a IT ••. \ T T _ / * a"inn Djir-b^b rrnn nso) nappi onrp -nnpp'pi npnp'pi The weak and poor in 25.4 were those left in the city mentioned in Isaiah 24.10-12 and 25.2. They are the opposite of the TSTDJ7 and D'X'H? in the previous strophe (25.3e-f). By identifying the weak and poor as the remnant from Israel it would add credence to the argument that the "city of void" and the "fortified city" are both pre-fall Jerusalem. The end of line 4b states that Yahweh provided relief for the weak and poor during their time of "distress." This relief comes in the form of shelter (npftp) and shade (Vs) from a storm (D1T) and heat (3"]'!"!), the source of their distress. I agree with Redditt in seeing these two natural phenomena as metaphors for human oppressors. The oppressors are the ruthless nations (lines 3e-f), the ruthless of line 4e and the foreigners of line 5a.215 In the final two lines (4e-f) the metaphor continues but is now compared to its human counterpart. The storm, which shakes the walls of the city, is likened to the wind of the ruthless ones. Another translation for fill is "spirit" or "breath." By using ITH the writer not only continues the imagery of a storm (wind), but also depicts the threatening character of the ruthless (their spirit or breath). Itoh points out that "with one exception (Jer.20.11), the word is used for opposing powers or nations to Yahweh or his person in 215. Redditt, Isaiah 24-27, 347. Itoh, "Isaiah 24-27," 120. 117 the metaphorical and symbolical sense."216 The parching heat on dry ground 7 is symbolic of the noise coming forth from hostile forces (foreigners) as indicated by verse 5. In 25.5 one reads of a reversal of fortune. First, the noise of foreigners is subdued (line 5a). In line 5c the song218 of the ruthless is silenced. The song which is silenced is found in 25.1a-c. Therefore, the fierce people of 25.3a-b are the same as the foreigners and ruthless ones in 25.5a, 5c. The second act of reversal is found in line 5b. The heat is subdued by a dark cloud which provides shade. The depiction within this strophe is that of hostile forces oppressing Yahweh's followers and Yahweh responding by providing relief on their behalf. Strophe Three, 2 Stanzas: 25.6-7 and 25.8 Sequential Analysis 25. 6^8 6 + 4 6 a v-y: cons WVB-NS-PP-PP mn "ina hwrrbsb nixa:* nvr "ntom - v - JT T • IT T : T : T : T T : b n-ph: asyn N-N D'!™ nn^p n^attf nntin c n-ph: asyn N-N cD^pprn onatf rrnaa b^ntf 11 • IT •-. : \ • T : • T J ••. : • T : 7 d v-y: cons svB-pp-DO{Ptc} a^maa n-fn nna r^ai e n-ph: asyn DO{ptc-} A • - IT T - \ - f n-ph: para wDO{ptc-pp} m^zrrbs-bv roioan rooam 216. Itoh, "Isaiah 24-27," 120. 217. Hayes and Irvine revocalize fTS to read Zion. But allow for the possibility that as it reads it is a pun on Zion. I would agree with the latter view. 218. The noise or song is "about the fuming of infuriated tyrants ... It seems that a reference to the 'noise' of a massive army is intended in the present passage." Wildberger, Isaiah 13-27, 521. 118 8 a v-q: asyn SVB-DO-PP mh man u^a b v-y:cons wVB-NS-DO-PP D^S^S ^BO 71VK1 mH1 ^iK Hn^l ' A* T T J- - \T : ' V : ST _: T T c v-y: disj DO-SVB-PP H^O""7? ^Q T^1 ^ n£1CH d v-q:conj Cj-NS-VB H^T !T}!T T3 Stanza One (25.6-7): 6 lines Stanza one consists of six lines with two main lines (lines 6a, 7a: verbal, Yiqtol, consecutive) which divide the stanza in half. Each main lines is followed by two coordinate clauses (lines 6b-c; 7e-f). Punctuation is marked by the first line of verse eight with a switch in tense (Qatal) and clause type (asyndetic). This line not only marks an end to the previous stanza, but is also the first line of the next stanza. Stanza Two (25.8): 4 lines The verbal Qatal asyndetic clause which begins this stanza is followed by a Yiqtol consecutive clause. This switch marks discontinuity and punctuates the stanza. The third line is coordinate with the second. The final line is subordinate not only to the lines which precede it in this stanza but also the entire strophe and possibly even the preceding strophe. Literary Artistry The first stanza of this strophe (25.6-7) consists of two main lines: lines 6a and 7d. These two lines are very similar. First, both clauses are verbal Yiqtol consecutives and the subject of the first is in elision within the second (Yahweh of Hosts). Secondly, both contain the prepositional phrase TlfTl "lira. With regard to the intervening subordinate clauses (lines 6b-c; 7e-f), each of these doublets is linked to the other through repetition, alliteration and assonance. Note the following outline for the first doublet: 119 Line 6b: Dn&^'c nn^a U^72pb nr)tttoa Line 6c: &i?$lK>d D'HOU?'0 ^X}^ S,3 The first line consists of two construct chains. The absolute is the same, but there are different genitives. The sound of each genitive is almost identical (other than one consonant). In the second line there are also two construct chains. But here, the genitives of the preceding clauses become the absolutes of their respective clauses. The genitives in these construct chains are pual plural masculine participles and also share similar sounds. Such repetition of sound and words closely knit each line and the two lines together. Note the following outline for the second doublet: Line7d Dit?n~,'3£pa... Line 7e D^rn^-Vl?0 UlVn3 . — T T — — Line 7f D^rnVa-b'S?0 HD1D3nb nDSQmb (do) .-T T - T ; - T„__.\/ The first line begins by picking up the direct object of the previous line (7d), last word of the line. Both lines (7e-f) are similar in that the nouns and participle at the beginning of each line have an article. Also, both lines end with the same prepositional phrases. In line 7f the first two words share a similar sound with only slight variations. Again, such correspondences serve to link the two lines together. The second stanza breaks away from triplets (lines 6a-c and lines 7d-f). The reader has to wait until the second line to discover the subject of the first line. Also, the last two words of line 8a show alliteration with the "a" sound. The second and third lines share a coordinate relationship with each other in three ways. First, the disjunctive follows after the consecutive clause. Secondly, the subject is elided in line 8c. Lastly, 120 each of these lines ends with the same preposition. The only difference being the object of the preposition.219 The Revised Standard Version takes Isaiah 25.6-12 as prose. However, I would argue that these verses are poetry, just like the verses preceding them. There is however, a definite change in style. For example, in these verses one will find longer lines and compound clauses. March supports the poetic nature of these verses for the following reasons. The poetic quality of this piece (25.6-10) resembles, in some ways, that of 24.12-23. Rudolph and Lindblom are quite correct in denying Hylmo's charge that the piece is prose. There is a definite rhythm and parallelism that certainly is best understood in terms of poetry ... The use of alliteration and assonance and the selection of language enforce the view that this unit is poetic.220 Translation a Yahweh of Hosts has been preparing for all people on this mountain b a rich banquet, a banquet of well aged wine, C rich, flavored with marrow, aged wine refined. d And he has been swallowing up on this mountain the semblance of a pall, e the pall over all people, f and the blanket woven over all the nations. a He swallowed death for all time, b and Lord Yahweh wiped away tears from every face, C and the scorn on his people he removed from over all the land, d for YHWH spoke this word. 219. Perhaps there is even a link here between the two lines in that often the surface of the land (f"|Kn) is spoken of with W*1B. This also, may be another link between the land dwellers and the land. 220. March, 105-6. 121 Intertextuality Clements believes the writer of Isaiah 25 may have drawn upon Exodus 24.9- 991 11 when he wrote of a banquet upon a mountain (line 6a). In Exodus the elders of Israel eat a communion meal in the presence of God on Mount Sinai. If Clements' intertextual link is correct, this would identify the mountain of 25.6a, 7d with a place where Yahweh dwells and meets with his people. Exodus 24's influence can also be seen in Isaiah 4.5.222 Another influence underlying Isaiah 25.6a may be found in the instructions to hold a feast at the place Yahweh chooses for Israel once they enter the promise land. While this idea and the meal of Exodus 24 were most likely recalled when this text was read, the festival at the time of the coronation of a king fits the context (24.21-23) best. For example, the Ugaritic Baal texts speak of banquets "following the victory and accession to the throne of Marduk and Baal, respectively."223 March points out that such festivals were also a time for deciding the fates particularly of the divine king's enemies. An element of violence often accompanies the motif of the meal." This thought is also found in Jeremiah 51.39 in an oracle against Babylon. «tfn tibw ]vnb b^nstim afpntfa-nx rvtix nanai^p1 *6i a^srnatf :rnrr DM 221. Clements, Isaiah 1-39, 209. 222. See section on Intertexuality for Isaiah 25.4. 223. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1-39, 358. 224. March, "A Study of Two Prophetic Compositions," 108. Finally, the imagery of a plentiful feast stands in contrast to the dearth of wine and joy described in 24.17-23 and counters the deluded feasting in Jerusalem (5.11-23; 22.13) and Babylon (21.5).225 Line 8a states that Yahweh "swallowed death." By looking at the idea of death in other places in Isaiah and relevant passages in other portions of the Old Testament, we will gain a better understanding what the author might have meant. There are three texts within Isaiah 13-35 which speak of "death" in an anthropomorphic way (28.15, 18; 38.18). Isaiah 28 tells of Israel's leaders being able to make a covenant with death and a pact with Sheol. Lies are Israel's refuge and falsehood their shelter. nrn irtor ^ixc-Qin DIOTIK Vina ^rns nrnrax n laxia*: »6 pairj pa»r3:M"irj03 ^io [Bid] (B,tf) tinnoa ~\0y\ laorra an laato n tax "[i^a lo1 ^n nirr "'nx 'IOK ns p*p r^rr *6 ppxan loia iwa Vnp? raa "pa px Because of this, their shelter will be swept away (28.17b). natD©1 o^a -inoi an nona l-na nu^i i : • • \- :•/" : TT J- : - TT Death is described as a building which will eventually be replaced by a building built on faith (28.16). In Isaiah 4.5-6 this new building is a "canopy" (HST!) and "pavilion" (!"D0). A similar idea is also found in Hosea 13.14 where death and Sheol possess the ability to bargain with God. 225. Miscall, Isaiah, 68. "It is also possible to associate these metaphors of feasting with those of 24.7, 9 and 11 (tflTPl, 1^). Whereas in 24.7-12 the festal items (wine and musical instruments) are used to convey ironically a negative and bitter character of human living and its world, here, the poet combining nPlUfo, describes a completely positive and delightfully vivid picture of festivity that is full of life, taste and epicurean contentment." Itoh, "Isaiah 24-27," 126. n}?xaK niaa DISK ^ixti TO :Ti?a "^no, ana bix© '^aop TIN ma Tim TIN IT •- •• I-T • - \ : I : T IIT <• •:: v T I VT : • v: In Numbers 16.30, 33 Sheol has the ability to open its mouth and swallow nbktf D^n rrn ntib ncx-bs-nxi bnfc ni^ni VPSTIK nmxn nnsErt. This T A : \- - / :T: V T JV -; T v : T A connection between the coronation feast (25.6) and the swallowing of death (25.8) is found in the Ugaritic Baal Cycle where Baal becomes king, has a feast, and then overcomes death (a personification of Death). A similar idea can be found in Exodus. In chapters 1-15 Yahweh acquires a people and becomes their king. He brings them out into the wilderness where he has his palace/temple on a mountain. Exodus 15.16 summarizes this nicely. mrr rbss ^rpfflb psa ^n'pm -ins '"iosbrn iaxan :TT laais -aix STIPE 1 i VT / : \T -: TI: • Later in Exodus 15.22 (cf. Numbers 25) the wilderness is described as a place of Death for the people are afraid of dying of thirst and hunger. They would much rather have preferred to die in Egypt. Note Exodus 16.3. ansa f~ixa nirp-Ta wrna ^nya bk-w' ^a an^K Tia*n into'? cr6 i3^?Ka "ifoan TO-'1?? unatfa n-fn -iznarr^K \:m Dnxyirps :ama urn ^nprrba-nx iran1? IT T T W ~ /T IT - T V V - T : Finally they arrive at the mountain of God (Exodus 19), receive the law of life, see God (Exodus 24) and feast with him and then defeat death (their enemies) and in the end become a nation with God as their king. 124 Interpretation This strophe uses the symbolism of a coronation feast to tell of Yahweh's removal of the world's oppressive powers, in particular Assyria and Babylon. The setting is a mountain. Which mountain does the writer have in mind? One will remember Mount Zion mentioned in Isaiah 24.23, where Yahweh is said to reign and his glory shines forth. The writer has the same mountain in mind. The choice of this setting for the banquet is tied to the Canaanite idea of a cosmic mountain. The high god El holds a banquet on the divine mountain. For Israel, this mountain is Zion, Jerusalem.226 It is here Yahweh reigns as king (24.23) and holds his feast. The picture of a mountain also stands in contrast to "the heap of stones" into which the city of 25.2 was transformed. When does this banquet take place? With the connections made above with Isaiah 24.21-23, it would seem that the banquet is prepared at the same time, or shortly after, Yahweh establishes himself as king. Who is the main actor? In the first stanza there are only two verbs (6a, 7d) and Yahweh is the given subject of the first and implied subject of the second. In the second stanza verbs are in each line. Yahweh is the stated subject of the final verb, "Yahweh has spoken." The first verb (J?V3, 8a) is identical to the verb found in line 7d. There the implied subject is Yahweh. So it is safe to assume that Yahweh is the subject in line 8a and all the remaining verbs in the strophe. What is Yahweh doing in the first stanza (25.6-7)? He prepares a banquet (25.6), and swallows a pall (Oftrpag, 25.7d-e) and a web (HDDan, 25.If). The idea of Yahweh 226. W.L. Holladay, Isaiah: Scroll of a Prophetic Heritage (New York: Pilgrim, 1978), 199-200. 125 swallowing elicits thoughts of eating, which fits well within the context of a festive banquet. I will look at the basic meaning of each item swallowed and examine how they are further qualified by the immediate text, and then see if there are other uses in Isaiah or other Old Testament passages which might shed more light on the meaning of Yahweh's action. The first item Yahweh ingests comes from the root 01*7. The verb means to wrap closely, tightly, enwrap, or envelop. The adjective builds on the verbal idea and means an envelope or covering. The root idea can be traced back to the Arabic lata meaning "to paint over, conceal" or possibly the Akkadian root latu meaning "to encompass" with the basic idea of covering or concealing. What Yahweh swallows is either a "mask" or some type of covering. Preceding Dl*? in the construct chain is the construct form of the noun H39. With this qualification the outer part of the "mask" or "covering" is emphasized. In line 7f we are informed that this "pall" is over "all people."227 When we move outside the immediate context, we are offered no help. This root does not occur again within Isaiah or any of the other prophetic books. A significant number of commentators understand D17 to mean a "shroud" or "veil"229 which one would wear over the head as a sign of mourning. One dissenting view is that of Kissane who believes the "veil" symbolizes the revelation of Yahweh to 227. I will discuss my understanding of "all people" when I look at the object of YHWH's actions. 228. Brueggemann, Isaiah 1-39, 199. ChMs, Isaiah, 184-85. Oswalt, Book of Isaiah, 464. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1-39, 359. 229. Clements, Isaiah 1-39, 209. Wildberger, Isaiah 13-27, 532. 126 the Gentiles. The meaning most appropriate to this context is the idea of the pall as a covering placed over the dead. Metaphorically this would represent the oppressive force of ruthless nations and the manner in which they treated others. The second item Yahweh swallows, rDDfr, is found in line 7f. The root of this word is 103, which has two meanings: (1) to pour out, or (2) to weave, braid. The noun is used either of a libation/offering, a metal image, with emphasis on the object having been created by being poured out, or something which has been woven (either a covering or a web). Five times this noun occurs within the book of Isaiah. Four of those are within chapters 13 through 35. Two of the five uses refer to a metal image used as an idol (30.22; 42.17). The other two occurrences, 28.20 and 30.1 refer to an object which has been woven. While 28.20 should be understood literally, in 30.1 the verb and noun are used in a metaphorical sense. noora ibibi ""in *6i nay nitoub mrr-oKa bmto n^a "nrrrm vbt \T •• - I / : • : • • j : T •• < -: - T : \ : • : i < • T J A • j : :nxcsn_i7j: nxtsn niso wish IT - ~ \T - / : I -•/- : Isaiah 25.7f is a nominal clause qualifying I"D0fo. The passive qal participle, HDIDSn states that this covering covers "all the nations." The context supports the idea that this is some type of blanket or sheet which is similar in nature to the pall and would have been placed over the dead. Yahweh's swallowing of a pall and blanket is symbolic of Yahweh removing some type of state of being or force causing oppression upon all people and nations. The decisive powers over Yahweh's people, his agents of judgment at times, were Assyria and Babylon. At the beginning of the section of oracles against the nations (Isaiah 13-23) 230. Kissane, Book of Isaiah, 285. 127 an oracle concerning Babylon is found in chapters 13-14. In Isaiah 14.4 the king of Babylon is addressed with taunting words. Note especially verse 9 where the "leaders of the earth" and "all the kings of the nations" are mentioned in association with the king of Babylon. •?|xi2 nxnpb ^b nn-j nnna bixtf According to 14.5 and 14.15-20 the ruler of Babylon is no longer a viable threat to the nations. This is similar to the idea we find in 25.7e-f where the pall and blanket covering all people and nations is removed, death is devoured (8a), and mourning ceases (8b). The pall and blanket are symbolic of oppressive forces and in particular the king and nation of Babylon which Yahweh swallows up. In Isaiah 24 the writer spoke of inhabitants, people, and kings of the earth. In 25.1-5 we heard of foreigners (TIT) and ruthless nations (WWIV QTU). Now, 25.6-8 tells of "all people" (EP&yrrto), "all nations" (D'iarr'JO), and "all faces" (d'39-^3). Motyer believes that the writer stresses the universality of Yahweh's actions with such language TO 1 - "peoples" = ethnic groups, "nations" = political entities, and "faces" = individuals. Polaski points out that the scope is still cosmic, but now the province is "of various peoples, instead of the undifferentiated 'inhabitants of the earth' seen earlier."232 From the beginning of this chapter, the writer has become increasingly transparent in identifying who it is he is speaking about. 231. Motyer, Prophecy of Isaiah, 209. 232. Polaski, Authorizing an End, 164. In the first line of the second stanza (8a) we are told Yahweh swallows a third item, "death" (DTD). As mentioned earlier233 there is good evidence to understand "death" here metaphorically. Blenkinsopp points out that the mythological undertow of the language of death supports the idea that death is a metaphor encompassing far more than just a punctual event. Rather, it is "a force of disorder, negativity, and aridity, morally and physically, in connection with which the actual dying of the individual is episodic and incidental."234 Death, like the pall and blanket, is the ultimate consequences of the force of oppressive powers which has rested upon all peoples and nations. March captures some of this imagery in his statement that "this passage is best understood as declaring a promise of the end of war and its carnage, a transferal of a mythological theme into the realm of the historical."235 The lines following 24.8a describe two further actions taken by Yahweh. He wipes away the tears from all faces and removes the reproach of his people from over the land. The lines are universal in scope but addressing Yahweh's people in particular. As Hibbared says, "Israel still occupies pride of place, as evidenced through God's removal of its former disgrace."236 In Isaiah 30.19 and 65.19 we read of the idea of Yahweh putting an end to weeping (nfift in line 25 and HDS in these two passages). 233. See section above on intertextuality. 234. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1-39, 359. 235. March, "A Study of Two Prophetic Compositions," 109-10. 236. Hibbard, Intertextuality, 93. nborva a©1 ma cr^ •AT T i • \- •• I / • : •/- :^as7 irwptf:? ^pin Snp'p ^:rr pan rrsnrrN'p isa ••asa ^totoi pJptfTra ••n'pai :nput bipi -oa bip nil; na yrasr-x'bi IITT : 1/ : \ • : 1/ T /- T • i : One may cry or weep (!"D2) for various reasons or circumstances: (1) a sign of joy, (2) during times of distress, (3) on account of death, (4) in association with pleading or complaints, (5) a weeping of repentance. March is with the majority in his position that in this context the basis for tears is mourning due to oppression and death.237 The removal of Assyria or Babylon as an oppressive force would bring an end to mourning and tears. What about the reproach of the land? HSin means "reproach" with the specific connotation of casting blame or scorn upon someone or in this case an object. In speaking of Yahweh's people turning to Egypt during a time of crisis (30.5) the writer of Isaiah states that such actions will end up being Israel's "shame" (fiUfa) and "reproach" (n9"in). Also, in Isaiah 4.1 "reproach" is a condition one finds oneself in, in this case barrenness. Why is "reproach" upon "Yahweh's people" in this particular case? Clements states it is due to the suffering the Jews experienced in their exile and dispersion. This made them "an object of contempt and ridicule in the eyes of the nations of the world." Yahweh not only removes their reason for weeping but also the contempt which resided upon them and their land. The contempt expressed by others (25.1-3) no longer exists. Note again how the condition and actions of Yahweh's people 237. March, "A Study of Two Prophetic Compositions," 111. 238. Clements, Isaiah 1-39, 209. 130 is directly linked with the land. As it goes with Yahweh's people so it goes with the land 239 Strophe Four, 2 Stanzas: 25.9 and 25.10-12 Sequential Analysis 25.9-12 5 + 9 9 a v-q: para SVB-PP xinn ova naxi j - - T : b v-q: asyn Interj-NP-NS+SVB-PP 10 a v-y: conj Cj-VB-NS-PP n-Tn nna mrr-T mama AV - JTT \T ; / T i' b v-y: cons wVB-NS-PP •pnnn axia tfiiai T : - T Stanza One (25.9): 5 lines Verse nine starts with a paratactic Qatal clause (9a) which introduces an indirect speech, the contents of which are in lines 9b-e. Punctuation is marked at the beginning of the next stanza (25.10-12) by changing to a Yiqtol sequence. 239. See Isaiah 24.5-6. 131 Stanza Two (25.11-12): 9 lines This stanza begins with a conjunctive Yiqtol clause (10a), continues with Yiqtol consecutives (lOg, 1 la-c) and ends with a shift in tense from Yiqtol to Qatal (line 12d). Following the punctuating clause are two coordinate Qatal asyndetic clauses. Literary Artistry Lines 9b-d are connected through the repetition of the suffix 13. This creates a rhyming pattern of every other word ending with this sound. The exception is line 9d where two words are between, HTTP HT. The reason for this exception may be the a'-b1- a2-b2 pattern making up lines 9b-e. i -y Lines a and a (9b-c) share the same verb and end with prepositional phrases. In 1 9 19 a "this one" is "our god," where in a "this one" is "Yahweh." Lines b and b are both modal and share the same root i7U?\ The rhyming of 13 ends with line 9d. But a new rhyme begins in the next line (9e) with the repetition of the terminal suffix H T and initial 3 in the first two words. This may be to emphasize the call to rejoice and be glad. Lines 1 ld-fin the second stanza end with a prepositional phrase. The repetitive action of swimming may be stressed by aligning the qal participle of TiT}p (lie) with the qal infinitive of the same root at the end of line lie. Alliteration ties lines 12g and 12h together. The final verb of line 12g (WpTl) and the verb beginning line 12h (Vw'n) both begin with the consonantal sound ~0T\, emphasizing the action of bringing an object down. Also, V'SUfil begins the clauses of lines 1 If and 12h. By not including an object with V'S^n the understood object comes from line 1 If. This places the verb Tiljip of line 12g in between. This opens the possibility that the object of line 1 If, "pride," is synonyms 132 with the "walls" of line 12g. Pride does not only reside within one's character, but also in that which is produced by one's hands and creates a sense of artificial security from threats. Translation 9 a And it was said on that day, b "Behold this is our God, we eagerly waited for him, C so that he might deliver us; d this is Yahweh, we eagerly waited for him. e let us rejoice and be glad in his deliverance." 10 a For the hand of YHWH rested on this mountain, b but Moab was pressed down under it, C as a heap of straw is trampled down in the city of Madmen. 11 d Now he spread out his hands in the midst of it, e just as a swimmer might spread out his hands in order to swim, f and he humiliated his arrogance with the deceitfulness of his hand. 12 g And the high points of the fortification of your walls he laid low; h brought low; i thrown to the ground into the very dust. Intertextuality Jeremiah 14.22 is a possible reference to Isaiah 25.9. Note the similar theme in verse 22b. v r- T v T \ - T u - i • IT YI- : The context (Jeremiah 14.19-22) includes a confession similar to that found in Isaiah 25.8. Such an allusion opens the door to the possibility that "I an ni!T "'S (25.8) is referring to Jeremiah 14.22. The mention of Moab in Isaiah 25.10 provides a direct link to the oracle against Moab found in Isaiah 15 and 16. Various explanations have been given to account for why Moab is mentioned here by name. I believe by first examining lines 1 lf-12i and how it describes the downfall of human pride, we can return to Isaiah 15 and 16 and see how this same idea is also captured there. This may provide insight to explain why Moab is mentioned at this point in Isaiah 24-27. Line 1 If describes Yahweh's actions against Moab. Moab's arrogance (mjSJ) along with its deceitfulness is brought low or humiliated 0?DU?'). Early in the book of Isaiah (2.9ff) one reads of "man being humbled" (VStt?: 2.9), in 2.11 the "eyes of the haughty (mrQJ) man will be brought low (VSU?)," in 2.12 the ones brought low ("?DU0 are the proud (HNJ), the lofty (D1"l), and everyone who is lifted up (XtR), and lastly in 2.17 the "lofty men" (D1"l) will be brought low (V?^-). By being proud and lifting oneself up, humanity oversteps its boundaries. Yahweh alone is to be exalted or set on high (3-J&: 2.11) and his presence reveals his majesty or exaltedness (pNJ: 2.11). This same idea is found in Isaiah 13 in an oracle against Babylon. The setting is described in 13.9 as the "day of Yahweh." On this day Yahweh "makes the land a desolation" (ntptib f 1KPI mto4?) and "exterminates her sinners" (TOSH Tfifl rPNBni). In 13.1 la Yahweh further describes his actions, D3i» D^tfT^jn nin h2F\~bv TriPEM. 7 _ AT : \ • T : - : T T •• •• - < - :l- T Isaiah 13.11b is reminiscent of Isaiah 2.9-12 and 25.11. 134 Isaiah 25.1 If Isaiah 13.11b ITT / :T \' T-:r • : • : I J : * ~ : • : 'rscx240 wwiy rnxa.i In the oracle against Moab the writer states in 16.6 that one of the reasons Moab has to flee from her land and those who are laying it waste, is her pride. A : j" \T I : :/- T :na p_*6 irran iaixai imxa _ - IT- I /•• \ T : v : v : s T : Jeremiah 48 also contains words concerning Moab. In verse 29 the author uses words very similar to those found in Isaiah 16.6. ika nxa 3Klo~iiKa vunv A : JV \T I : :/- T nub mi irnxai iaixai ima t • / •-.: \ T -: - : v : s : T Isaiah 25 line 12g is a disjunctive clause which provides illumination to the preceding line. The pride of Moab is based on the fortification (*TC3&) which their hands had built. Their arrogance and exaltation is due to the walls of their stronghold pafPT?) which surround them. The term ajtPi? is used to designate the largest and most important sites. These cities were important strategically since they were almost impregnable. But their fortification is brought down unto the ground and pulverized into dust. I believe the writer mentions Moab here for two reasons. First, it makes a distinction among those who partake of Yahweh's banquet on his mountain. In 25.6-7 it states that the banquet is for all people. This strophe then divides these people by mentioning Moab and what fate befalls her. This is also seen by mentioning the Moabite city, Madmen (line lOh). In Jeremiah 48.2b Madmen is threatened with grim destruction. :n"in ifcpi ^nnx •rp'hn ^crra'Da 240. Cf. 25.3-5 135 A city with a similar name is mentioned in Isaiah 10.31 (rlfJJn ET^an "QttT H3?3"I?3 11113) - one of the last villages on the outskirts of Jerusalem when Sennacherib invaded and threatened the city. Also, by naming this town (Madmen) it links well with the lists of towns found in Isaiah 15, 16. The collocation of Moab and Jerusalem may be due to Isaiah 16:1-5 where Moab finds refuge in Jerusalem: here in 25:10-12 Moab loses refugee status and is excluded from the celebrations. Secondly, Moab is representative of all nations or cities which are arrogant and proud. As seen above, the desire to exalt oneself, be it a nation, city or individual, is a temptation that is difficult to resist. But by doing this, humans set themselves up in a place that is only intended for Yahweh. He alone is to be exalted. Therefore, Yahweh humbles (or brings low) those with such ambitions. The great reversal takes place. I consider it best, then, to see Moab not only in a literal sense, but also as a type of any nation which possesses such traits. Interpretation Isaiah 25.9 is a psalm of thanksgiving. By asking the following questions one can gain a better understanding of this passage: Who is speaking? What is the cause for these words of praise? When are they uttered? Where does this take place? How does the psalm fit with those texts which surround it? Who is speaking? From line 9b we find out that the subject is an anonymous group of people, for throughout the psalm the first person plural pronoun appears. The closest antecedent is iSV in 25.8c. Wildberger rightly surmises that those speaking are from Israel because they address Yahweh as "our God."241 Yet only a few verses earlier 241. Wildberger, Isaiah 13-27, 538. 136 (25.1a) Yahweh had been proclaimed God by a taunting foreigner. Secondly, the praise for Yahweh is based on the fact that the faithful are waiting for Yahweh to deliver them and believe this waiting will not be in vain. Because Yahweh had delivered them in the past, they could speak of a future deliverance as if it had already transpired. By discovering what Yahweh would deliver them from we will learn the motivation behind these words of praise. Part of Israel waited with a sense of confidence that Yahweh would eventually deliver them. In Isaiah 30 the writer speaks of the futility of Israel in seeking protection and refuge from the power of Egypt rather than in Yahweh (verse 7). But instead of finding solace in Egypt they ended up alone (vv.16-17). However, according to verse eighteen it was not too late for them. DDprn'p OIT ]2b) n52?ni? 'rnrr nsrr ]bb) :Vp "Sirr^s nti« njrr oatfp vtbfrps It is during the times when God exercises his judgment upon the land that his people are called upon to wait with expectancy for his favor (8.17; 26.8; 33.2). Such times of judgment were found in Yahweh's activity recorded in Isaiah 24. But in Isaiah 25 the faithful believe judgment will once again give way to liberation. One specific example of Yahweh's deliverance on his people's behalf is found in 25.8c, f-i.Krrbs bun hw iny nanm. When was this psalm sung? The answer resides in the first line of the stanza (25.9a), wnn QT2 naNl. The phrase Xinn ni»n appears in 24.21a introducing the demise of the host on high and the kings of the earth; a picture of judgment. By repeating this phrase the writer of 25.9-10a links these two pericopes. Yahweh's day brings about different outcomes for different groups. Those among Yahweh's people, who are on the 137 receiving line of judgment, wait with hope for this day, for on this day Yahweh will turn toward them with favor. Verses 6-8 are proof of this. The time of the banquet also results in the removal of oppressive powers, namely Babylon. We may conclude that this psalm was sung at a time when deliverance from oppression was eagerly hoped for, much like it was in the past. How do these verses fit in with the remainder of the strophe? The imagery of line 10b consists of an object being thrown down and trampled upon. The location is a threshing floor. But instead of grain being the object it is the nation Moab. The prepositional phrase TAWl in line 10b may be understood in two ways: (1) "under him" which would imply that while Yahweh's hand rested upon the mountain, his feet are trampling Moab, (2) "in its place" which would imply that Moab remained in her region and it is there she receives her thrashing.242 The former understanding is preferred in that it captures the idea of the ingathering of nations. In the next line (10c) the writer focuses in upon one city within Moab whose fate will be similar to that of a pile of straw being trampled, perhaps even in a manure pit, the city of Madmen.243 The residents of Madmen are being drowned in this pit and all their efforts to free themselves are to no avail. 242. Motyer, Prophecy of Isaiah, 211. cf. Amos 2.13. 243. The choice of the word (rUD^O) opens the possibility for a play on words. Not only is a city being referred to, but also the image of a manure pile would come to mind. It is interesting to note that the focus narrows in on one particular city. This is similar to what one finds in Isaiah 13-23. 138 The word n^aiO could be a play on the Moabite stronghold Dimon (]fc*7).244 Interpreting this noun as the city, Madmen, is not without its challenges. In Isaiah 10.31 we hear of the same city, "Madmenah (niDlD) has fled." The difficulty, however, is that a city called "Madmenah" is usually not identified within the land of Moab. However, in Jeremiah 48.2 the writer places Madmen flD7£) within Moab. Easton's Bible Dictionary points out that some have interpreted this verse to mean "that Moab will be trodden down by Jehovah as 'teben' broken straw is trodden to fragments on the threshing-floors of Madmenah."245 Such an interpretation allows for the noun to be understood as a city but does not require it to be located in Moab. Other than the earlier reference to Isaiah 10.31, one wonders why the writer would have chosen to emphasize this location for Moab's thrashing.246 The verbs in the last four lines of this strophe (1 lf-12i) all express the sense of an object or person in a high or lofty position being brought down. 7 The object of these verbs is given in the first two lines but is missing and must be implied in the last two. In the first line (1 If) the object is arrogance (H1KJ) and is qualified by the singular pronominal suffix "his," whose antecedent is Moab. In the second line (12g) the object is 244. Lewis, A Rhetorical Critical Analysis, 121. 245. Easton 's Bible Dictionary [dictionary on-line]; available from http: //www.eastons-bible-dictionary.com; Internet. 246. The Revised Standard Version suggests, implicitly, that Third Isaiah chooses this place for the sake of a pun on JD'I (dung). So as fSHD = a pile of straw, so ]i?7D = a pile of crap. "Moab shall be trodden down in his place, as straw is trodden down in a dung-pit." 247. 5D3, *7D^', ITTO?, ^7S0. All verbs occur in the Hifil and the first three begin with the \D sound. 139 a fortification or stronghold. This object is modified by the construct chain ^pn'foin 2Wft. By allowing these two lines to stand adjacent to one another the writer makes a link between Moab's pride and her fortification. The verb in line 25.1 If (Vs#) in the Hiphil literally means to bring low or to overthrow. In the figurative sense, which fits here, it means to humiliate a person or object. Moab's arrogance along with her deceptions is humiliated.248 In the next line (12g) the literal meaning of VSU? is carried over and reiterated with the verb nntP. By doing this the writer reveals to the reader the source of Moab's pride ~ its fortification, city, and high walls. "Whatever specific situation is actually behind this, the fall of Moabite walls was enough to prove ... that Moab and its pride had come to an end."249 Oswalt points out the shift from the third person singular pronoun in line 1 If to the second person singular pronoun in line 12g. The purpose of this pronominal change is to "shift the focus from Moab back to a more generalized picture to the universal city which Moab had particularized for a moment (25.2; 26.5; 27.10)."250 The last two lines (12h-i) intensify this picture by repeating the verb from line 1 If 0??$), with both of its meanings, and adding the idea in the last line of the complete demise of this fall. Not only are the pride and walls thrown down to the ground, they are crushed into dust. 248. The reader is supposed to catch the reappearance of VT here and its initial appearance in line 1 lb. His arrogance and deception of hand also end up being useless. 249. Wildberger, Isaiah 13-27, 540. 250. Oswalt, Book of Isaiah, 457. 140 An apparent odd reference to Moab makes sense, if one allows the appearance of Moab to not only be understood literally,251 but also figuratively. Moab becomes a symbol of any rulers or nations who reject the rule of Yahweh due to their arrogance and pride.252 The position of Moab and any other nation, symbolized by a city, is reversed. They no longer are among the heights. They are knocked down unto the ground. This idea is not new to the reader, if she recalls Isaiah 24.21, where the heights and lowliness of Yahweh's enemies are mentioned; their final demise being a pit. 251. This view is supported by commentators such as Clements, Isaiahl-39, 209- 10; Wildberger, Isaiah 13-27, 541; and Watts, Isaiah 1-33, 335. 252. Childs, Isaiah, 185. Other scholars holding this position are Miscall, Isaiah, 68; and Itoh, "Isaiah 24-27," 129 as well as others. 253. Also, 24.18 -"The windows from on high ... the foundations of the ground," 24.20 - "it was falling, and it was no longer rising." CHAPTER FIVE PART FOUR: ISAIAH 26.1-11 Strophe One, 2 Stanzas: 26.1 and 26.2-3 Sequential Analysis 3 + 5 v-y: asyn PP-VB-NS-PP rrnrr P£? mn"TiSri IOT mrvn DT? AT : n-ph: asyn NS-NP{PP} T T J • v-y: asyn DO-SVB-DO-wDO 1" T / \ ' T /T : v-m: asyn SVB-DO onutf inns A- T : \ : • v-m: para wVB-NS p^T^ Kin 1 \ • - / T : n-cl: asyn NS{pct-do} fc^ON "intD n-cl:: asyn DO{ptc}-SVB-N-N AT J T \ * 1 T VJ" n-cl: conj Cj-PP-ADV{ptc} i T \ 1 : / • Stanza One (26.1): 3 lines This sequence begins with a line (la) introducing a song. The contents of that song begin in the next line and continue till the end of verse 6. Punctuation in this stanza is marked by the switch of moods. The first line of the next stanza (2a) is modal versus the indicative in all three of these lines (la-c). Stanza Two (26.2-3): 5 lines The sequence consists of modal clauses (2a-b) and nominal modifiers (2c-3e). There is an imperative main clause (2a) and a paratactic modal (purpose or result) clause (2b), two parallel nominal clauses (2c, 3d) and a concluding subordinate nominal clause (3e). The second nominal clause (3d) is complex, containing a nominal subject, and an embedded virtual (ellipses of the conjunction) subordinate clause. 141 Literary Artistry The first stanza (26.1) consists of three lines. Each line is cleverly crafted. The first line begins and terminates with a prepositional phrase beginning with the inseparable preposition D. The verb and subject of the lines share the same root (TIP') creating assonance between the two parts of speech. Such repetition emphasizes the importance of the song in a temporal sense "on that day" as well as geographically "in the land of Judah." The second line is the shortest of the three and is nominal. The reader can see alliteration with the repetition of the initial consonant 2? in the first two words. The last line continues the use of alliteration with the object and verb beginning with IP\ and the last two objects beginning with n. In the next stanza (26.2-3) the first three lines are audibly linked together by the long "i" sound in the last syllable of the last word of each line. Also, in the second line the subject and verb are joined through repetition of the long "o" sound, 'fa X'DV In line 3d both the subject and verb share the final two consonants in their roots (*1U), and $ is repeated. Also, the vowel pattern of the Qal participle in line 3d OpOO) appears again in the Qal participle of the next line (ITIttD). In the concluding subordinate clause (3e) DO-D-D forms an alliterative pattern. Lastly, the four attributes attributed to the nation which is mentioned, emphasize the loyalty and commitment they have toward Yahweh (pns, Q^ag, *p»p, moa). 143 Translation 1 a On that day this song will be sung in the land of Judah, b "A city of strength is ours, C help he set up, walls and a rampart. 2 a "Open the gates, b so that a righteous nation might enter, C keeping the faith, 3 d firm minded when you keep in perfect peace, e because it trusts in you." Intertextuality The wording of 26.2-3 reminds many scholars254 of the processional language that is found in psalms such as Psalm 15.1,2 and 24.3-4, 7 (see below). •^brixa -m^a rrirr I AYT: T : JT • T ;\ pix S»sn a^n "^in IT:- V V: /•• : rnrp""ira nbir-,p IT : • : J~ : • \ : qjpto Tins wtoni^ Dirtfx"} D'HBtf wto ninsn iba Kirn VJV T : However, the language and imagery of a return from exile as found in Isaiah 60.11 and 62.10 are more in line with what is being said here. The gates are to remain open in order to receive the gifts from the nations and the righteous who are returning. 254. Clements, Isaiah 1-39, 212; Lewis, A Rhetorical Critical Analysis, 132; March, "A Study of Two Prophetic Compositions," 132-4; Oswalt, Book of Isaiah, All. naB"1 vb n^Si aav TOD T-i»tf innsi A"T • J T :\-T n •/• T t-s-T : : • ta^arta arrabrai a^ia STI V?K ^,nnL? r : \v •• : - • J- I • - •• < • T : os?n TIT ^2 anrtfa Vny ran _ AT T I "j v \ ~ • T : : • < : • ^ayrr^ 03 innn p«» ^[?p n'pppn 1% 1% Another possible understanding of the "gates" being opened (2a) is that they refer to the gates of the temple. Polaski develops this idea but does not exclude the possibility that they also refer to the city's gates. Because of (1) the contrast between the two cities, the strong city vs. the lofty city, (2) the addition of the word Vn, which is used of a little wall or an outer fortification, and (3) the role cities have played not only in Isaiah 24-27, but also in Isaiah 13-26,1 prefer to identify these as city gates. Isaiah 26.2b is a subordinate clause telling why the gates are to be opened, "so that a righteous nation might enter." In lines 26.2b-e four qualities are attributed to this nation: righteous (j^TO), faithful Cp&X), firm-minded OpDO IIT), and trusting (nt?3). Two of these qualities are mentioned in Isaiah 1.21. naraxa rrnp naitb nmn nr^x AT T •;: v \T :l- T : JT : T T tBTimra nnm na vb^ pis akm TIK^O 1 • : - : n - : VT I / • T I •?•-• T : • J * ~: •• : Jerusalem at one time possessed these attributes, but now her inhabitants are acting as harlots and murderers. According to Isaiah 1.26, once Jerusalem is purged of her impurities (1.25) and Yahweh returns their judges and advisors, she will be called a "city of righteousness" flnsrj T?) and "city of faithfulness" (7\lVpw TT^j?). In Isaiah 26.2, 3 the people themselves possess these traits because they have learned them from experiencing Yahweh's judgment. There is no need for the offices mentioned in 1.26 to exist. Finally, Isaiah 33.5 describes God as filling Zion "with justice and righteousness." The reason for this, "Yahweh is exalted" and "He dwells on high." AT \ v t - T , : JT : • IIT T : \T : - 1 J- • These other passages make it clear that the reason Israel may be called a "righteous nation" (26.2b) is because of Yahweh, his actions, and their willingness to learn from him. Interpretation This strophe marks the beginning of a joyful song. The song will be sung in the "land of Judah" "on that day" (la). This is the second time a specific reference is made to this region (cf. 24.23d). Here one will find the "city of strength." We heard of songs previously in Isaiah 24-27 (24.8-9; 24.15; 25.5). In 24.8-9 joyful music ceases because of judgment upon the land. Now we hear of singing in a land. Where before lack of a song, together with the absence of wine and festivities, signified alienation of Yahweh from the proud, this strophe constitutes a reversal of that alienation: Yahweh will return. A similar picture is in the oracle against Tyre (23.15b- 16). After seventy years Tyre will be restored and singing will resume. :rmtn n-pste nib mm m© o^jntf rpn IT - \ - • : JV : • T T < • II"- nnstfa nair my ^b -nan Tip AT T : • JT \ • - / v • / • I: The song in this strophe purposely stands in contrast to the one sung by the ruthless in 25.5. In their song (25.1-4) the ruthless sang of a "fortified city" (rniXD IT")!?, 25.2b) which was transformed into a heap. The protection once offered by the city no longer existed, in that foreigners occupied it. According to 26.1-3, on that day, Yahweh will bring about a reversal. He will offer shelter and protection. When this takes place singing by the ruthless ceases. In its stead singing will come forth from the righteous, faithful, and determined (2b-d). They sing of a "strong city" which Yahweh sustains and of "peace" that he maintains (26.1-6). 26.1b: 13V-TS? TJ> 25.2a, c: Tift) (2x) 25.3e: TJTQJ7 T — 25.4a-b: T1J7& (2x) 26.1c: 71VW\ 25.9a: UJT^I 25.9b: 1nsW»a The city of strength (line lb) will be the ultimate form of "refuge" mentioned in 25.4. "The righteous nation" mentioned in 26.2b is made up of the poor and weak of 25.4a-b. What they are waiting for in 25.9 (line 9c, ^yffiT), they believe they will one day be able to sing about (line 26.1c, nsriW''.) and it is intricately tied to this "city of strength." As Polaski points out this city also stands in direct contrast to the Moabite fortification in 25.10-12. Where the identity of the city is concerned various options have been posited. The alternatives run from Jerusalem to an unidentifiable city.256 From the evidence gleaned from the text to this point, and in particular the reference to Judah in line la, it appears the writer has in mind a literal city, namely a restored Jerusalem. I offered the idea that in 25.2a it was Jerusalem which became a heap; a fortified city which lay in ruin (line 25.2b). "On that day" they will sing of a restored Jerusalem becoming their refuge and shelter. The city's strength will lie in its walls and fortifications. They will be their "salvation" and "victory." An example of this "victory" is described in 25.9-12. This, however, should not negate the importance of Yahweh. For Yahweh is the one who will bring this about and will inhabit the city. 255. Polaski, Authorizing an End, 222. 257. Wildberger, Isaiah 13-27, 545. 147 Another connection with chapter 25 is the "walls" mentioned in 26.1c. The "walls" are to one day become a help (ns?ltf?''.) for the righteous nation, unlike the walls of Moab (25.12d) which were brought down. The stoutness of a wall as a means of protection is displayed in 25.4e, where it serves as protection from the "wind of the ruthless." Isaiah 60.18 explicitly links together the idea of "salvation" and "walls" where it states that the wall is to be called "salvation" and the gates "praise," n'pnn T?-^1 T^in n»ltf; nK")j?l. The opposite idea is found in Isaiah 30.13-14 where Isaiah speaks of a bulging wall which eventually is breached. nrainn nun] bai V-IBS n-fn li&n hsb rrrr }bb JT : w : • " I -JV : v - IJT V V T This was the fate of Jerusalem because she refused to learn the lesson Yahweh endeavored to teach her through his prophet. The open posture of the city (line 2a) emphasizes a sense of freedom from any possible threat. At one time, the gates of the city were "smashed," "lyCTl?^ (24.12g). Now, a righteous nation anticipates the time when the walls will not only be rebuilt, but the gates will stand open, ready for the city once again to be occupied. The peace which is spoken of in line 3d comes from and is sustained by Yahweh. He will keep those who are steadfast of mind in "bountiful peace." Isaiah 27.5 is a call for the people to seek refuge and peace in Yahweh, r^Titosr Qibti f? Di^© HtoiT "'•Tiyaa pJJT iX. When one seeks protection in Yahweh alone, peace is the resulting by product. 148 Isaiah 32.9-20 also speaks of this peaceful state. In verses 9-11 complacent women (nilTO'a) hear of a time when they will mourn due to devastation coming upon their land and cities (verses 13-14). This state, however, only lasts until the spirit from on high is poured forth (verse 15). When this occurs a reversal of fortune takes place, :ntfrr -IJT^ fra-ani] (bnis'i) hhisb '-Q-ia rrrn (verse 15). This new state is described not only as a change in agriculture but also the presence of righteousness (nj?lS, verse 16). Peace is a byproduct of this righteousness (verse 17). Dibc npisn ntuya rrm - AT I\T T : - /•" ~: VTT : •.nbiyiv rani ap.cn njHsn n-pin Strophe Two, 2 Stanzas: 26.4-5a and 26.5b-6 Sequential Analysis 26.4-6 4 + 6 4 a v-m: asyn VB-DO{pp}-PP isms* mrra inaa - A- - -: \T i / : • b n-ph: conj Cj-DO{pp} ta^isms rrirr rra ^ 5a c v-q: conj Cj-SVB-DO i • T \ T : JT : •rno '•3^ ntfn ""s d n-ph: asyn DO{ptc} naato mp AT T : • \T :l* 5P a v-y: asyn SVB/DO T c v-y: asyn SVB/DO-PP ITT ~ T\V • - 6 d v-y: asyn SVB/DO-NS bn naoa-in VAT TW : : • e n-ph: asyn NS f n-ph: asyn NS :D^l "BUS Stanza One (25.4-5a): 4 lines A modal asyndetic clause opens this stanza. The next three lines modify two aspects of this lead line. Line 4b modifies the recipient of the one they are called to trust in, Yahweh. The next two lines (line 5ccc-d) tell why they are to trust in Yahweh. 149 Punctuation is marked by the first clause of the next stanza which switches back to the indicative mood. Stanza Two (25.5|3-6): 6 lines This stanza is the last of this strophe as well as the end of the song begun in verse one. Punctuation is marked by the shift from a series of verbal asyndetic lines (26.50a- 6d) to a sequence of nominal asyndetic lines. Literary Artistry The first two lines of this stanza link this stophe with the last stanza of the previous strophe in three ways. First, the root of the last word of the previous stanza (line 3e, ni33) is the first word of the next stanza. Secondly, both stanzas begin with imperatives and share similar sounds (inns, line 2a and IfipS, line 4a) through pointing as well as consonants. Thirdly, line 4a ends with two words very similar in sound 0$TV?5?) and the following lines (4b, 5ac) begin with ,3. The last two lines of the previous stanza follow a similar pattern: line 3d ends with UibV? Oi^P', and the next line (3e) is also a ^ clause, ^3 'S. The last line of the stanza (5ocd) has two words which rhyme with one another, both ending with the suffix n T . Line 5ad is parallel to 5ac and informs the reader of the fact that Di")D is a word for "city" (iTHi?, cf. 24.4). Each clause in the second stanza either expands upon or elaborates on the preceding clause. Note how this is developed: nsiny nam*1 ITT - T\V * - 150 The first two lines share the same verb form, but in the second clause we are told how low the object is being brought down unto the ground. The third clause elaborates on the first two in that we now learn it is brought down unto the dust itself. Note the progression in both the verbs and prepositional phrases. bn naorann VAT T w : : • :o,i7-[ ••nija In the last three lines we learn what happens to this object once it is in the dust; it is trampled on by feet. The next two lines explain whose feet do the trampling. It is the feet of the poor and the weak. With regard to sonority, the first four lines rhyme in that the verbs of each line end with the terminal suffix IT3 / Ti _. The fourth and fifth lines are linked by the repetition of the noun *?JT (last in line 6d and first in line 6e). Finally, lines 6e and 6f both begin with words which share the same final sound ('J, and end with words which terminate in a long "i" sound. Translation 4 a "Trust in Yahweh forever, b even in Yah Yahweh, eternal rock, 5a c for he humbled the inhabitants on high, d in the exalted city." 5P a "He brings it low, b brings it to the ground, C strikes it down into the dust, 6 d a foot tramples it, e the feet of the afflicted, f the steps of the weak." 151 Intertextuality Isaiah 26.4b calls Yahweh a DVi'p'iy "IIS and a rniT PP. The Hebrews adopted the noun "IIS as a title for Yahweh as well as for other gods they worshipped. In Deuteronomy Yahweh is a "rock" among other "rocks" or gods. Deut. 32.4a C22WD •PDTT'W '•S i^US OTan H^H AT : • \T T : T /• T: T J• T Deut. 32.30-31 mm IDT Q^iai nbx inx TIT HD^K AT T : J'T •%- : I v v T v 1 < :• T tDT'aon mm ansa DIIS-O KVDK I T ' : • \T I- T T : J T DTK in.ISp *6 \3 Deut. 32.37 iETfbtf ^ -10X1 - A- v: J- \ T : :"ia Ton lis I /T T \ Isaiah 44.8 emphasizes that Yahweh is the only God. There is no other "rock." •n» DFI«I ••niam jnyatfn ran *6n irnrr^Ki nnarrbx :,n»T,_I?a lis rxi •Hi?L?:ira nv?x tfrt • : i TT - \ I /•- : ~T : - • - v: <*•-: Isaiah 17.10 mentions that in time past the nation had forgotten Yahweh their rock. Such forgetfulness ends up in idolatry. n"DT tib "$212 nisi ibw ^ribti. rinitf *s : : ATT J *••••-. T / : I •• : • J- •:: : - - T <* nasntri it rnfcn o^nr? rsjpa ^ari ^-by A sarcastic writer might use "rock" to emphasize that other gods are false in that they are only statutes hewn from stone. For example, in Jeremiah 121m. Yahweh says they are a nation, pari"!^] earn1?!) m pxbl nnx 'OK fbb nnnk. Here the wood and stone are alive, having presence. In the Baal epic, Baal is distinguished by his understanding of the word of the wood, and the whisper of the stone. In Habakkuk 2.11 a stone cries out from a wall and a beam from the ceiling responds. These ideas made wood and stone suitable for statutes of gods and people. Jeremiah 2.27 is an example of where the writer mimics this point and makes fun of it. According to Isaiah 26.4 Yahweh is neither like such objects nor gods and therefore, can be trusted. Interpretation The strophe begins with a call to trust in Yahweh and then tells why one should. A similar structure is found in Isaiah 25.1, 2 where an unknown speaker praises Yahweh and then tells why he is worthy of praise. The call to trust in Yahweh also echoes Isaiah 12.2 where God is called salvation (n^W'1'.) and one who can be trusted. insK x'bi nanx Timer bx nin AT : v J : \- : v v• T : s" :nin©,i? ^-TT'i rrirr rr* rnran vs;-^ - IT i • v • • :i T : JT T : • : < • T i • Via the passage in 12.2 the writer of Isaiah 26.4 may be recalling Yahweh's deliverance of Israel from Egypt as expressed in the song of Moses in Exodus 15.2, nyyfrb ^m rr rnan ny. AT i • v • • :i- T T ; • : < • T Yahweh in 26.4b is called an "eternal rock." This designation is appropriate here in that the term "IIS is often a liturgical title found in songs and hymns. One such example is Psalm 18.3/2. ia~npnx ni3v ^x "pbapi ^rrnspi ^bp rnrr :"oatop "i^'ni?.] ^ The Psalmist, a Davidic king, asserts that Yahweh is his protector and deliverer. Within this Psalm many of the words from Isaiah 26 appear affirming that Yahweh may be trusted. Another reason to trust in Yahweh is that he has humbled the inhabitants on high with their lofty city (lines 5occ-d). The words used in verse 26.5 are similar to those referring to Moab and its demise in 25.12: 153 The Lofty City Moab 26.5ccc to bring down rW 25.12d VDW 26.50a to bring low pX VDtf 25.12e mtf 26.50c to strike IDS? 3M 25.12f IDS? pX 3MU The writer draws a comparison between these two entities. The fate of the "lofty city" is similar to that of Moab. In Isaiah 24.4 the "exalted among the people of the land" are mentioned, as well as "the host of the heights on high" in 24.21b. Like here, it speaks of their fall. This group stands in direct contrast to the "righteous nation" referred to in 26.2. Yahweh will grant peace to the righteous that trust in him yet throw down the exalted. Lines 5occ-d, "for he humbled the inhabitants on high, a lofty city," continues a feature we saw earlier in Isaiah 24-25, linking the human inhabitants of either the land or a city with the physical entity itself. In the first two chapters of Isaiah 24-27 we read of a "city" described in various ways. In Isaiah 24.10 a "city of void" becomes barren. A "fortified city" in 25.2 undergoes a great reversal and is demolished. In the land of Judah a "city of strength" is promised to the faithful and righteous of Isaiah 26.1. And finally in this passage, an "inaccessible city" with its inhabitants, is brought down (26.5). It appears that the cities spoken of in 24.10, 25.2, and 26.5 all suffer the same fate. The writer is speaking of the old proud Jerusalem and those who resided complacently within her walls. The city which is different is the "city of strength" (26.1). Therefore, we can surmise that the "inaccessible city" of 26.4-5 is Jerusalem prior to its fall just as it is in 24.10 and 25.2. Another interesting note with regard to this "inaccessible city" is how the verbal root 1X& and the cognate noun SliPi? are used in the book of Isaiah. Their usage picks up on two aspects, (1) the pride or haughtiness of an individual or God, and (2) the height 154 of an object making it inaccessible. Note the following examples. In parentheses are favorite words of the author of Isaiah 24-27 which appear outside of those chapters leaving one to wonder if the same writer may be responsible for these other texts. Pride or Haughtiness 2.11 "The haughty eyes of people shall be brought low (VSC", 25.11,12; 26.5), and the pride of everyone shall be humbled (W0, 25.12; 26.5); and the LORD alone will be exalted (31fP) in that day." 2.17 "The haughtiness of people shall be humbled (fiW, 25.12; 26.5), and the pride of everyone shall be brought low 0??^', 25.11,12; 26.5); and the LORD alone will be exalted (mfo) on that day." 12.4 "And you will say in that day: Give thanks to the LORD, call on his name; make known his deeds among the nations; proclaim that his name is exalted (mfr)." 33.5 "The LORD is exalted pJlfo), he dwells on high (Oi"10); he filled Zion 01s?, 24.23) with justice (USUft), 26.8, 9) and righteousness." Height 25.12 "The high (D*iP!?, 33.16) fortifications of his walls will be brought down (fTW), laid low (VDtiO, cast 0^3, 26.5) to the ground, even to the dust (IDS?, 26.5, 19)." 30.13 "Therefore this iniquity shall become for you like a break in a high (!"D3lfp3) wall (nain, 26.1), bulging out, and about to collapse, whose crash comes suddenly, in an instant." 33.16 He will dwell on the heights (tm», 24.4, 18, 21; 26.5), his refuge will be the impregnable (3Xfi?fi) rock; his bread will be given him, his water will be sure. Yahweh alone is to be exalted. However, some humans aspire to rise to that same level, but to no avail. They are eventually brought down. The same is true of those objects which humans take pride in. Be it cities or walls, these objects initially provide a sense of security for them. But this ends up being useless. Yahweh's hand falls upon these individuals as well as the work of their hands. When finally lying flat on their backs, they come to their senses. Yahweh responds by promising the faithful and righteous a truly reliable fortification, a "city of strength," an "impregnable rock." 155 If the "inaccessible city" of 26.5 is Jerusalem, than who are the afflicted and weak who trample upon it (lines 6e-f)? In 25.4 Yahweh becomes a refuge for the weak as well as the poor (}i,2X). From these two verses we learn that this group, the V7, ''IS, and IV^X, are those who endured oppression, were eventually delivered by Yahweh, and hoped their fortune would be reversed. This longing for a reversal of fortune, for the day when they might do the trampling, is captured also in Isaiah 51.21-23. mi? nxt x3-'j?ntf pb AT " -: v IT • : • I •/•• T IS :1 TP *6i rnatfi Tinpb run iai; :TT Yrfrxi rrirr T3ix "inx-nsnbjnnn ois-nx msa • : h- T /•• • - j -T I • - -• T : I -j- -: - r AT ••_;-- j •.• I \--T • nil; nninob •,Erpirr*6 ^nan ois n»ij?-nx n"ii»3i Titf ^vizib nax~i©x Taia-Tn Yrnafen - - TA -:-; j • : I \-« : - : / : T v ~: ) • 7 : T • : : wiiub •pnrn rjja y-ijo ^torn The cup of wrath which had brought about affliction (W) would now be drink by their tormentors. Rulers and nations, who had overstepped their God-given boundaries with their proud desires, oppressed the meek, rn'DVTl. ">1W$ (v. 23). How they treated the meek will be the manner Yahweh will deal with them. Within Isaiah 1-23 this particular class in society, the afflicted and weak, are mentioned only twice. The first is found in Isaiah 10.2. 721; «3j? oatfn bhb) D^bi yna nianb :vr D^irv-nxi n^Sd nftabx nrnb - IT \ * : v : T T : T : < : • In this woe indictment the reason for the punishment of Israel is their failure to give this group their legal rights. In the oracle of 14.28-32 the Philistines are told not to rejoice over the misfortunes of the poor within Israel nor take advantage of those afflicted, "]b3 Vra^D '•nat'rrbK (14.29). Why? Yahweh is going to bring about a reversal of fortune. First, Yahweh is caring for the needy, 1S3T UQlb EnrnKI Q^l nisa \VY] (14.30a). Secondly, he is punishing Philistia, the oppressor, tf'nrr ^rnKtfl ^tiiti 3812 "nnni (14.30b). Finally, Yahweh is establishing Zion and the poor so they might seek refuge within it, :1a» «J» Iprr PIIH ^»S "IB": YnrP p (14.32b). Once we look beyond these chapters we find a plethora of texts within Isaiah which speak of this group being restored and blessed by Yahweh. Here are just a few examples.257 41.17 "The afflicted 035?) and needy are seeking water, but there is none, and their tongue is parched with thirst; I, the LORD, will answer them myself, as the God of Israel I will not forsake them." 49.13 "Shout for joy, O heavens! And rejoice, O earth! Break forth into joyful shouting, O mountains! For the LORD has comforted His people and will have compassion on his afflicted 035?)." 54.11 "O afflicted one 03?), storm-tossed, and not comforted, behold, I will set your stones in antimony, and your foundations I will lay in sapphires." 58.7 "Is it not to divide your bread with the hungry and bring the homeless poor 035?) into the house; when you see the naked, to cover him; and not to hide yourself from your own flesh." It is interesting to note that the Hebrew noun ">!$ not only describes those who are poor and afflicted, but also the humble. These individuals stand in direct contrast to those who are considered or think of themselves as high and lifted up.258 Lastly, this group suffers not only from foreign oppression, for example when Jerusalem was destroyed, but also under the heavy arm of those within their own nation. Isaiah 3.14-15 speaks of Yahweh entering into judgment against the elders (|j?T) and rulers (1U?) of his people because they plunder the poor 0357), just as we saw in 10.1 -3. So who are the 257. The other appearances of fys in Isaiah are: 3.14, 15; 10.2, 30; 14.32; 51.21; 66.2. 258. cf. Isaiah 5.14-15: pn_ibnb rra rrasi ndja: vbix© nirmn pb IA •:• T \ • / T-: T T : - : T < • : • I •• T :na rbtfi nmm miram pmn TTI 157 poor and the weak? They are those who endure oppression from foreign nations as well as from the proud and affluent within their own community. What are they doing trampling upon the arrogant city? The writer is using this imagery to bring to mind the reversal of fortune that Yahweh brings about not only upon foreign tormentors but also upon those within Israel who neglect to deal justly with the poor and weak as expressed in the Deuteronomic law (Deut. 15.11; 24.12, 14, 15). Strophe Three, 2 Stanzas: 26.7 and 26.8-9 Sequential Analysis 26.7-9 2 + 6 7 a n-ph: asyn NS-IO-NP b v-y: asyn DO-DO-SVB ,.. - . | \ • - /- : - T T 8 a v-q: asyn Cj-N-N-SVB/DO w b n-ph: asyn NS{pp-pp}-NP :tfarniKn ^}b\ yfctib 9 c v-q: asyn NS-VB/DO-PP T :- - 1 • •• <•:- ,, d v-y: asyn Cj-NS-PP-VB/DO ^"inm a"!p3 "Tn-v^K e n-cl: conj Cj-NS-NP f~)kb y'toatfa ntfK? ^ f v-q: asyn DO-VB-NS rban ^ur iiaS pis Stanza One (26.7): 2 lines This short two line stanza consists of a nominal and verbal clause. Punctuation is marked by a switch of tense from Yiqtol (7b) to Qatal. The verbal Qatal clause is the first line in the next stanza (8a). Stanza Two (26.8-9): 6 lines This stanza consists of six lines. The stanza begins with two sequential Qatal asyndetic lines (8a, 9c) with a nominal clause sandwiched in between (8b). Punctuation occurs with the shift in tense to Yiqtol (9d). The last two lines (9e-f) are subordinate. 158 Literary Artistry This strophe is a tightly bound unit. The lines within each stanza are tied to one another in a variety of ways as well as being linked to the lines in the other stanza. The first line of the first stanza (7a) ends with a noun whose root, *ltt7'», appears at the beginning of the next line. This construction serves to emphasize the condition of the path. Also, by placing these two words after "righteous," the writer is hinting at the character of the righteous. The second word in line 7b is the construct noun ^Pp, a synonym to rn'X in line 7a, and is also followed by the attributive i^TS. The second stanza begins with the particle, IX (8a), and then repeats ITj'X from line 7a. The subject of the first plural verb is an unidentified group of individuals, whereas the subject in line 7b was a second person singular. No previous antecedent appeared there either. The second person singular subject of line 7b is identified only in the second stanza with the vocative Yahweh and the second singular masculine pronominal suffix referring to him. The suffixes continue into line 8b, tying it back to the previous clause. Other than the noun HTTP, four words ending with the suffix *| are strung together. In line 8b the two prepositions and their objects are similar in sound connecting the idea of Yahweh's name and his memory. The noun tt?D3end s the clause and is then repeated at the beginning of the next clause (9c). When placed next to each other as in the text, 'tP'DJ WS3, the repetition of sound closely binds the ideas found in these two clauses (lines 8b-9c). *]£ starts the next clause just as it did in line 8a. Lines 9c-d consists of six words, excluding the particle. Half of these end with the long "i" sound 159 259 C>.) while the other half end with the "a" sound (T). In fact, in line 9c there is a quick succession of the long "i" sound in the first two words. Notice, also, the similarity in word order and sounds shared by these parts of speech: prepositional phrase (D) - verb (% X) - nominal subject ('.) verb (j[, X) - prepositional phrase (2) - nominal subject (^.) Lastly, the subjects and verbs in these two lines are synonyms. Line 9e begins with a conjunctive clause and tells why it is Yahweh is longed for. The writer ties this clause as well as line 9f to the entire strophe by repeating two key words which are found in the first line of each stanza - ^'UStifi? (line 8a) and pHS (line 7a). The second stanza ends with line 9f and the quick repetition of the vowel ".." in the last two words. Such staccato sound with these particular nouns may be to remind the reader of the beginning of chapter 24 where b'IFi appears for the first time. Translation 7 a "The path for the righteous is straight, b straight the track of the righteous you level. 8 a "Indeed, on the path of your judgments, Yahweh, we waited for you, b because your name and remembrance is the desire of a soul 9 C 'my soul desired you at night, d indeed, my spirit within me kept searching for you' e for as your judgments were on the land, f so the inhabitants of the world learned what is right." 259. For the two verbs it is the suffix *|. 160 Intertextuality Other passages such as Isaiah 33.15 and Isaiah 59.1-8 deal with nj772, D'Httf'D and the image of walking straight on a level path (26.7a). For example, in Isaiah 33.7-9 the writer describes the demise of humanity and the natural order when the fear of Yahweh is absent. This demise is depicted in verse 8 as IT1S "OJJ J"Q0 ni'bpp TOI2J3.I n contrast are those in 33.15a who are described as D""HZT, E "1311 niplS lbr\. Similar wording and imagery is found in Isaiah 59, a liturgy of confession and forgiveness. The writer describes the plight of the sinners in 59.8: AT : : - : \T : • I /•• : TT J T \ \K V :Qibc i7T vh na TR bs ahb wpi: brnriTro IT \ -T / T I J" < v T j I: • •.•"••: Those spoken of and the path they travel in these two passages stand in contrast to what we find in 26.7 where a straight and level path is occupied by the righteous. The leveling of hills and valleys for the return of Israel is described in Isaiah 40.3-4. TJT ^"n is? "i:naa snip bip I- •• \T • : T T-: T : - iSstlT HU331 "IPI'^SI Kfcr KT^S AT : • \T : • : /- T : •• T • v T rnupab D^omm -noraS bpun mm IT I: • \ • T : T : I T iv The clearing of obstacles from a path and the straightening ("UP"') of a highway for Yahweh marks the necessary preparations for the return of his people. This metaphor can also be found in Wisdom literature such as Psalm l.l260 and Proverbs 5.21; 15.19.261 260. o^en Tp-ni DTtrh nsra \bn vib im tf'Kn-ntfinaiJ *6 • T - \ I -j v : / • T : v- -: - I "- T / <:•—. • T "i: - AT T / tatf *6 Q^V atfircai IT T J • " /- : 261. Proverbs 5.21 - tO^SO rrfrajja-^a'! BfrpD-n mm VPS n?3 ,3. Proverbs 15.19-:nbbo o1-ra•, rnfci Pin nstoas bay -n~n. IT •-. : J • T : - \ : I -AT - J--. : - " T \ I -J V 161 The imagery of traveling upon a path is used as a metaphor for one's direction or manner in which he or she conducts their life. The waiting and yearning expressed for Yahweh in Isaiah 26.8a-9d occurs while they are on the path of Yahweh's judgment. According to lines 9e-f, it was while Yahweh's judgment was on the land, or path, "the inhabitants of the land learned justice." The purpose of the judgments is not only to punish, but also to bring about righteousness. This same idea is expressed in Isaiah 30.18-22. Verses 18-22, however, speak of "a glorious new era in Zion when those who had been purified by punishment would live under the direct hegemony of Yahweh."262 Isaiah 30.18,21 nanm1? DTT pbi nhmb Vnrp nam "phi AV : v i - : \ T lr-T : v : - -: i- T : Wildberger makes the point that the righteousness the people learn is "exactly what is meant in 24.5 ("The earth is also polluted by its inhabitants, for they transgressed laws, violated statutes, broke the everlasting covenant.") when that passage refers to the eternal covenant."263 Interpretation "The next thirteen verses (7-19) speak to God instead of about him."264 So begins this stanza whose primary actors are (1) the righteous, (2) Yahweh - addressed in the 262. Peckham, History and Prophecy, 157-8. 263. Wildberger, Isaiah 13-27, 561. 264. Redditt, "Isaiah 24-27," 196. 162 second person masculine singular pronoun "you," (3) an unidentified group - first person common plural pronoun "we," (4) the inhabitants of the land, and (5) the speaker. It is unlikely the writer, who makes himself out to be the prophet Isaiah, is speaking for he does not intrude nor identify himself as the speaker throughout Isaiah 24- 27. More than likely the speaker belongs to the righteous (7a-b); the "we" of line 8a. The words spoken appear in the form of a communal lament. They grieve the fact that Yahweh has not been present. Itoh points out that the lament personalizes "the collective and general sense of Yahweh's people."265 Isaiah 26.7 is transitional. While 26.1-6 was a song of victory (26.1-6) verse 7 introduces a cry of distress.266 The first stanza (26.7) describes the path of the righteous. The image of a road being walked upon recalls the imagery of the feet of the poor and needy in 26.6.267 The road for the righteous is level and straight. Yahweh has prepared the way for their return. One means Yahweh uses in preparing this path is his judgment. The phrase "the path of your judgments" (?pBSraa rnK) in line 8a is linked with the verb "to wait" (mj?) as an adverbial accusative, "as your judgments unfold, we wait for you." The phrase may also be taken as a locative, "on the path of your judgments." Both ideas are appropriate, especially given the adverbial sense found in 26.9e. The righteous have been the recipient of Yahweh's judgments, have learned from these (26.9f), and continue to wait 265. Itoh, "Isaiah 24-27," 142. 266. Redditt, Isaiah 24-27, 196. 267. Oswalt, Book of Isaiah, 477'. 163 for Yahweh (26.8b, 9c-d) with the hope that the judgments have served their purpose in making them righteous and just. They also wait for Yahweh to act against the foreign oppressors (Isaiah 13-23). This ultimate restoration establishes "a just, law-abiding, order on earth."268 The image of a path or way (^1*7) in this context carries a dual meaning. First, in the ears of the listener "the way" is a picture of individuals making their way to the "strong city" whose gates stand wide open to receive them (26.2). Yahweh, the one they have been called to trust in and have waited for, has made good on his promises. The second meaning is expressed by the metaphorical sense found in the noun ^T|. This usage expresses the idea of how one leads his or her life; the tenor of their being. Actually, both meanings are intertwined. The person who leads a straight life will be on a straight path leading to the strong city which will provide them security. Who are the righteous? The closest antecedent would be the afflicted and weak in 26.6. In accordance with our earlier discussion, the afflicted and weak are to be identified with the "righteous nation" of verse 2. Therefore, we would be safe in identifying the "righteous" as a remnant who have been faithful in waiting for Yahweh to provide them deliverance and restoration. The travels of the righteous are plainly contrasted with the ones fleeing in Isaiah 24.17-18. According to 24.16b the ones fleeing are the "unfaithful." Rather than waiting for the judgments of Yahweh in a posture of patience and hope, they flee. But their way is anything but straight and level. Human devices as well as the very forces of nature slow down their flight. 268. Clements, Isaiah 1-39, 214. 164 In the second stanza (26.8-9) Yahweh (as "you") and his judgment are mentioned five times, once in each line, except for the last (9f). The loyalty of the righteous is emphasized. The recompense for their perseverance and longing for Yahweh is that they learn what Yahweh intended, that they might do what is right (26.9e-f). Yahweh's judgments on "the land" (HX) are intended for those who dwell in the world ("PDH "OW"') in order to turn them around. The inhabitants of the V^A are those who dwell upon the whole world. The argument is that the righteous wait for Yahweh in his judgment (26.8a), in his judgment on the land (26.9e). From this judgment the inhabitants of the world learn justice (26.9f). So by inference, on the path of judgment (1VI\ and D,"1U?',D) the righteous learn justice and righteousness. Isaiah 26.9e-f modifies 8a-b, "we waited for you and from your judgments learned justice and became a just nation." Strophe Four, 2 Stanzas: 26.10 and 26.11 Sequential Analysis 26.10-11 4 + 4 10 a v-q: asyn (VB-NS) b v-q: asyn (SVB-DO) pi? "N3i?"i?3 c v-y:asyn (PP-SVB) d v-y:disj (wSVB-DO) bw ninbi pxa 11 a v-q: asyn (N-VB-NS) b v-y: asyn (SVB) TT nai mrr c v-y: asyn (DO-SVB-SVB) \ 1 :T T/T VT : d v-y: asyn (Adv-NS-DO-VB/DO) oirrttup \tiyi TTIT Stanza One (26.10): 4 lines The four lines of this stanza are in pairs. The first line (10a) is asyndetic Yiqtol. The verb is initial and therefore modal, and in the context is a verbal unmarked 165 subordinate clause. The second line (10b), asyndetic Qatal, is its apodosis. Punctuation takes place with the change of tense to Yiqtol in the final two lines. The third line (10c) is asyndetic and the last line (line lOd) is disjunctive. Stanza Two (26.11): 4 lines Punctuation is indicated by the change from Qatal (1 la) to Yiqtol (1 lb-d). There is also the same number of lines as in the first stanza. The stanza begins with a Qatal clause (11a) and ends in a modal sequence (1 lb-d). Line 1 lb is subjunctive; the next line (1 lc) is compound and optative. The final line in the modal sequence (1 Id) is jussive. Lines 1 lb-c are modal because they are verbal initial and lines 1 Id is modal because it is part of the sequence of clauses. Literary Artistry The first stanza is one of contrasts. The second and fourth lines begin with a negative particle, "does not learn," and "does not see." While the third clause does not have a negative particle, the verbal idea (Vl_S?) is opposed to both plX in the preceding lines and HTTP 1TIKJ in the following lines. Also, the given subject in line 10a, VUH, is the implied subject in the next three lines. The wicked person is treated with compassion but acts in an opposing manner. Finally, the wicked person stands in contrast to the inhabitants of the land in the previous stanza (line 9f) who do learn righteousness. The first line (11a) of the next stanza consists of three bi-consonantal words, each ending with the "a" sound. Line lib repeats the negative particle found in lines 10b, d and mimics the letters found inmn\ The third clause repeats the verb from line lib and 166 is followed by another verb which also begins with an "e" class vowel and ends with the long "u" sound. The stanza ends by picking up again the 2n masculine singular suffix, 1 from the first line and ending with a final "mem" just like the previous clause. Translation 10 a "If the wicked is shown compassion, b he does not learn to do what is right, C in a land of honesty he acts unjustly, d and he does not see the majesty of Yahweh. 11 a "Yahweh, your hand is lifted high, b they cannot see, C may they see the zeal for the people and may they be ashamed, d indeed, let the fire intended for your enemies consume them." Intertextuality If the wicked were shown compassion by Yahweh, their response would be threefold: (1) he would not learn righteousness, (2) he would act unjustly, and (3) he would not see the majesty of Yahweh. The second response is startling in that this action takes place "in a land of nift'S}" (26.10c). n'D3 in a literal sense refers to that which lies straight ahead, or in front. Figuratively, it speaks of that which is straightforward or honest. For example, Isaiah 30.9-10 tells of a rebellious people who refuse to listen to Yahweh's instructions and say to the prophets, ninb} ^b'lTnri Vib. The word n'D3 describes what the people do not want to hear, that which is straight or true. In 30.11 the seers and prophets are urged to turn from the way — ^*n, and to stray from the path — 167 rn'N (cf. 26.7-9). The root rD3 appears later in Isaiah 59.14 as the last in a list of positive attributes which are disregarded -justice, righteousness, truth, and uprightness (n'D3). Lastly, n'D3 appears in Amos 3.10. rnrp-DK3 nnbrnitai? iJJT'Ni'pi iDiTniarcnxn -itti onn onsixn Because of their inability to do what is right, Yahweh announces that an enemy will surround the land of Samaria and pull down their strength as well as plunder their citadels (Amos 3.11). A dual meaning appears to be intended in verse 11. The "strength" which is brought down appears to be their fortification, perhaps even more specifically their walls. That which is plundered is not only their wealth, leaving their city barren, but also the purging of the city of that which is wrong. For violence and destruction was stored up within the city rather than "straightness." In these three references the noun n'D3 is a characteristic disregarded like that stated in Isaiah 26.10c. The final response of the wicked is that they do not see the "majesty of Yahweh." Unlike the wicked, the voice of Isaiah 12 sings to Yahweh because he has seen the "majestic" things Yahweh has done. nw mxa ^ prim I-IET AT T \ •• / • T : J : - tf-ixrrbsn nxr [nsrna] (nirpp) The "majesty of Yahweh" (26.10) stands in contrast with the "crown of majesty" worn by the drunkards of Ephraim in Isaiah 28.1a. irnxan ras bna "psi ansx "nisti nixa rntay ""in Isaiah 28.3 states that their crowns will be stepped upon, tDnax "HiStf mxa may mon-in O^aia. The imagery and verb (DO!) used is also • IT : v / •• - \ •• -.TV -: T :A- TI- • \- : - : o J \ - T / similar to what happens to the lofty city of 26.4-6. 168 Yahweh's zeal (nXJj?, lie), an attribute of his character, causes him to act. In Isaiah 26.11 the righteous wish the wicked might see Yahweh's zeal and as a result feel shame. In this particular setting how is this zeal manifested? The answer would appear to be found in 26.4-6, Yahweh's action against the lofty city. Yahweh's zeal, acting in a restorative sense, is found earlier in Isaiah 9.1-7. The coming restoration is described as seeing a great light (9.2), the breaking of a yoke of oppression (9.4), and the birth of a child who will sit on David's throne (9.7). The end of verse 7 tells how this will be accomplished, :nxrnton nixny rnrr nX3[?. Another passage expressing restoration via Yahweh's zeal is Isaiah 37.32. TFS int2 ncs^si rrHxtf xan b^'rra ^ I A - j- •• \T " : • " : J - T i - < - :nxrnton nixns rnrr nwp Fire as an agent of Yahweh's judgment is found not only here (26.1 Id), but also in passages such as Isaiah 1.7, 24-27; 5.24; 9.18-19; 10.17; 66.15, 24. Isaiah 30.30 mentions Yahweh's anger descending as a consuming fire. njpslK m nr6i *]x ^ina nx-p l,iiri-iT nmi i^ip Tirrnx njrr jpptfrn :*rn pxi a nn fs; This is reminiscent of passages in Deuteronomy 4.24 and 9.3 where Yahweh is pictured as a consuming fire. Deut. 4.24 :X3£> bx X1H nJ?3X ©X f;¥?X HIIT "^ Deut. 9.3 rfox ex V]ab -ofcrrxin T : i J" I VT : <•• T i Finally, Zephaniah 1.18 contains much of the imagery and language found within this strophe. tfixap bxai rrirr n-oi? bra n^sn1? Swx'1? nanr-aa osos-Da - T :!• •• : T : J - : v : T • - : J- I T T : T : - pxrr^s baxn I "AT T T \" T -• :fixn *2&-bs nx ntbir nbnarix n^s^s I VIT T \" : T /" V _:i- T T : ' I ~ of the land being burnt (Tin). From this one can easily make the association between what fire had done and what they desired it to do again. Interpretation While Isaiah 26.7-9 described the qualities of a righteous individual, verse 10 describes the wicked in the form of a lament spoken by the righteous. These verses allow the reader to learn about both groups by not only what is said, but also by inferring that what is true of one is not true of the other. For example, in line 9d the righteous one continually searches for Yahweh. By inference, one may conclude that the wicked does not desire Yahweh and avoids him. What do we know about the wicked person? First, he is shown compassion or favor (10a). The verb (fill) carries the idea of showing sympathy or pity toward another. The word may also be used to describe the action of a person, who having the needed resources or abilities, responds to the need of another. In the other five places where the verb occurs within Isaiah, they speak of Yahweh having compassion toward his faithful (30.18; 30.19 [2x]; 33.2). Oswalt is convinced that the person in line 26.9f is the same person as in lines 26. lOa-b. The difference is that in one circumstance they learn righteousness, where in the other they do not. "It is the circumstances which have changed, not the people."269 This however, seems to deemphasize the dissimilarity that the writer wants to make. While a remnant will respond favorably toward Yahweh's act 269. Oswalt, The Book of Isaiah, 479. of judgment, an act of compassion leading to repentance, the majority will not learn from Yahweh's actions. The second trait of the wicked person is found in lines lOc-d. These two lines are based on the same argument as found in lines lOa-b. The wicked is given a favorable opportunity. He dwells in a land of honesty and the majesty of Yahweh is present. However, again, he is not able to take advantage of the situation - he acts unjustly and is unable to see Yahweh's majesty. Where is this "land of honesty?" Is it essential for understanding the text that it be a literal location? In the various places where the noun 0'D3 appears, the moral or ethical aspect of the word is primary. Here this is also true. In 26.7 it was the path or road that was straight and level. Now it is the entire land which possesses this trait. While the figurative meaning is primary, we would be remiss in not looking at the possibility of identifying this land with the "land of Judah" mentioned in 26.1. But rather than taking advantage of this opportunity, the wicked person acts "unjustly" (Vl_»). The other attribute of "the wicked one" we hear of is his inability to see the majesty (rVlNJ) of Yahweh. As mentioned above, Yahweh's zeal is demonstrated in his acts of judgment which eventually may bring about restoration. "The term mXJ is derived from the root HJO which means 'to rise up/be exalted'. In its nominal form the term has to do with 'majesty and pride' and when used of Yahweh signifies his 'gracious acts of salvation, deliverance and preservation'." In the second stanza (26.11) Yahweh continues to be addressed and the wicked person now is identified as belonging to a larger group - the unidentified third person 270. Doyle, Apocalypse of Isaiah, 292-93. 171 plural pronoun. The first two lines (26.1 la-b) follow the same pattern as that found in lines lOa-b. An action by Yahweh, the lifting up of his hand, produces a reaction - they (the wicked) do not see. The lifting up of Yahweh's hand indicates his readiness to act with power. This action can be in the form of punishment or compassion. In the strophe these two seem interlinked. Therefore, line 11a seems to encapsulate all of the activity of Yahweh spoken of throughout 26.1-11. The word for "see" (HITI) in line 1 lb is different from that found in line lOd (HKI). nTTT possesses various connotations: (1) to perceive via intelligence or experience, (2) to see as a Seer in an ecstatic state, a vision, (3) to see with one's eye. More than likely these two verbs are synonyms, but one may wish to leave open the door to the possibility that by using nTTT the writer may be referring to the work of a prophet (Isaiah 1.1; 2.1; 13.1; 30.10). The stanza ends with two modal clauses. The final line (line lid) calls upon Yahweh to consume his enemies with fire. Wildberger points out that a common feature in a song of lament was a prayer that their enemies would be obliterated.271 Who are Yahweh's enemies? They are the wicked and the inhabitants of the lofty city (26.5ad-e). By the end of the section (26.1-11) the reader is aware that "on that day" in the land of Judah two distinct groups will exist - the righteous and the wicked. "Whereas the wicked are headed to a fire of nullification, the righteous are destined for Yahweh's shalom (v.3). The contrast is total and uncompromising."27 271. Wildberger, Isaiah 13-27, 562. 272. Brueggemann, Isaiah 1-39, 206. 172 Isaiah 26.10-11 as a whole is another part of the individual lament that begins with the expression of trust in 26.9c-d: 26.10 is the "complaint" part; 26.11 is the "petition" part. The content of the complaint in 26.10 is expressed by the just nation as defined in 26.7-9 (also called a lament). The tf\2T! (10a) is the opposite of the jTHX (26.7a). The wicked one resides in the land (10c), a land of honesty (10c). Unlike the people in the world (VDfi) who learn justice (26.9f), he does not learn justice (10b) even though the whole land learns rrin'D}. He continues to do evil (10c). Although he is shown compassion (10a) he does not perceive the sovereignty of God (his majesty, prominence in power, authority, etc.). The lament found in 26.11 is also by the just nation as defined in 26.7-9. Yahweh's arm is raised, but they cannot see (1 la-b). This action is the equivalent of God's preeminence (here in power). The petition proper is in 26.1 lc, "make them see your zeal for the people and be ashamed," i.e. the manner by which God punished them and made them righteous, and be ashamed that they remain V01 not i?,'7?. The second half of the petition is in 26.1 Id, "be to them like an enemy and be a devouring fire," i.e. manifest one of your attributes against your enemy. CHAPTER SIX PART FIVE: ISAIAH 26.12-21 Strophe One, 2 Stanzas: 26.12 and 26.13-14 Sequential Analysis 26.12-14 2 + 7 12 a v-y: asyn N-SVB-DO-IO vb niSc nBtt?n rnm AT \ T / : • T : b v-q: conj DO-SVB-IO 13 a v-q: asyn N-VB/DO-NS-PP ^rtot cnix u^sn irn'^x mrr 1 AV T i \ • -: / T : •••.•: JT : b v-q: asyn PP-PP-SVB-DO :*|»tf T3T3 ,?I2"ini7 14 c v-y: asyn NS{ptc}-VB d v-y: asyn NS-VB U--.T ~ \ • T : e v-q: conj Cj-SVB-wSVB/DO OTatfrn Vnps 15.7 f v-q: cons wSVB-DO-PP Stanza One (26.12): 2 lines The first stanza in this strophe consists of only two lines. Punctuation is marked by the move from Yiqtol to Qatal. The second line (12b) is introduced by the demonstrative particle'S. Stanza Two (26.13-14): 6 lines The stanza begins with a series of asyndetic clauses. Punctuation is manifested with a tense shift from Qatal to Yiqtol at line 14c. The last two lines (14e-f) are subordinate and Qatal. 173 174 Literary Artistry This strophe consists of two stanzas with two lines in the first and six in the second. The first stanza begins with the divine name HTTP. (12a). Both lines end with the same preposition 13b. The 13 suffix in the second line (12b) qualifies the direct object. This reiterates the notion that "all our works" are "for us." Couched between these two words is the verb fibljS. The two-fold repetition of the "a" sound in the verb and its appearance with the preposition stresses the point that Yahweh is the active one. Lastly, this same type of repetition is found at the end of the first line (12a), 13b OlbU?. If you were to bring these four words together, it would create another clause which captures the essence of the stanza, 13b flbl7S, 13b Dlbltf. 7 T '. — T y T T The 13 suffix is repeated twice in the first line of the next stanza (13a). Such repetition forms a contrast between the activity of Yahweh in the first stanza and reality in the next. Like the first stanza, both the first (13a) and second (13b) lines end with the same suffix. Here it is ^ . Also, like the second line in the first stanza, two words before the same suffix appears, *|5, placing a verb in between. Lastly, the construction Q,3'1H: 13lbi?2 IS'H'bK contrasts the two nouns with the verb in between. Lines 14c-d stand in a sequential relationship to each other. The word order is identical. The subjects are both masculine plural and end with W. . Both clauses have a negative particle and the verbs being in the final position end with the same sound 1. 175 Translation 12 a Yahweh, you are establishing peace for us, b indeed, even everything accomplished for us, you have done for us. 13 a Yahweh, our God, lords besides you ruled over us, b Your name alone we remembered: 14 c the dead have not come back to life, d the Rephaim have not risen up, e for, you visited and annihilated them, f and you caused all memory of them to be wiped out. Intertextuality The first line (12a) links back to 26.3d (DiS© ID^tf"li!Jn ^20 "fip by repeating the noun •iVti?. This reference reminds the reader of the promise and source of peace, Yahweh. Another occurrence of Di*7U7 in Isaiah 24-27 is found in 27.5 CjrntolP tfbti ^ DiS© ntolP) where Yahweh calls upon the vineyard, in a metaphorical sense, to make peace with him. A connection between Isaiah 26.12 and the beginning of the same chapter is the reminder that Yahweh's actions are on behalf of his people (13^ in 26.12 and 26.1b). In 26.1b the strong city with its walls and rampart is for the inhabitants of Judah. In 26.12b the people admit that all they have comes from Yahweh. The confession to have been "7V3 with other masters (li*TX) set forth in line 26.13a can be understood in two ways - (1) they have been ruled over (VJ72) by masters or (2) they have been married (7373) to other lords. The second interpretation is what the writer has in mind. One may commit adultery by worshipping other lords. For example, in Hosea 2.5 Yahweh calls the people's "mother," his wife, a harlot. •rrhn ntfan am nrm ^ AT T I T \ ' T ' T IIT < • ••irai ^pnb ^ni ^nxp nnx nf&K rnnx r? Hosea 1.2 informs us that Yahweh's wife is the land. ycim mm"Qi n^nn -*•* : \T : v /- • : cHw •nfci baw nm ty-np ^b yinrrbx mm -ia«n :mm nnxn rnxn nam nins IT \ ••-: - i" I VT T v: • Later in Hosea 5.13 Yahweh links these acts of harlotry with worship of other gods. i'-itp-nK n-nrri v^rrnx irnax XTI 1 nitn osa nnr-xbi en ? K'S-6 ,L??T N& Kirn Isaiah 62.4 and 54.5-6 tells of a time when Israel's harlotry is no more and Yahweh is called the land's "maker" and "husband" (7S?2). nantf ii» nax1"^ lis-«6i rniTi) lib lb ,"iax,ri6 T T : /"T •• I •• : - : T -: IT •• T •• i nbwa "^.IN^ nirsan KTJP? "^ "? 1 ^yan ^S-IKI ^ja Vnm fan" ? iao nixaa mm Ttbi; i^ua ^ A : \ T : /T : I • - I • - -: < • mm ixip mi naism miry nraxms - AT IJT TI: \ - / -: - VT -; ST • : i- :T^'bK -]»K 0K»n r? DnilH ntiKI Isaiah 26.14c-d speak of the dead and the Rephaim as one and the same group. Trr-^? Q^nQ "the dead have not come back to life" irajT'ba •1KD"1 "the Rephaim have not risen up" 177 Outside of Isaiah 24-27, yet still within the relevant sections of Isaiah, Rephaim (D'XD']) appears in 17.5 where it is a valley or lowland. •liaj^ n^a© iinn nbp "cap ^bKS rrrn ^KEn pay? D^atf Bj^as rrrn This fertile vale is located southwest of Jerusalem on the border between Judah and Benjamin. In Isaiah 14.9 Rephaim is used of the dead. The king of Babylon dies. His arrival in Sheol creates a disturbance. The Rephaim awake and rise from their thrones along with the shades, that is, all the chieftains of the world and all the kings of the nations. ^Kia nx-jp1? j\b nrn nnria bix© wi: •o'pa b'2 nniNpaa h^n pN •ninirSs b^xai ^b -nto The language and imagery found in Isaiah 26.14c-d is also found in the writing of Hosea where the people of Israel are seen to undergo the experience of death and revival. In Hosea 2.4-5(2-3) the land worships Baal and suffers death.273 rrefw vb "•saxi "Titix vb Wrna "tan baaxa ia*n :r™ "paa rrBiDis;;i rrasa 'jriruT -iprn rn'pin ova miasm naiu naB^Bx-ia - A T : IT • \ : T - : • : T \—. TJV • : - I v :xaaa rrnam ma fixa nntfi naiaa rnnatoi - ITT- T \ - • -: T • I VJV : T • - : T : • - T J • : " : This section begins with Yahweh calling upon the children to speak out against their mother in hopes that they might turn her back from her adulterous ways. If she will not respond, then Yahweh will act against her. Yahweh's actions are twofold. First, he threatens to shame her by revealing her nakedness. Secondly, he gives her an indirect death sentence by likening her future to that of a drought stricken land. Death was customary punishment required by law for such an offense (Gen. 38.24; Lev. 21.9; Deut. 273. See also Hosea 2.11(9), 14(12). 178 22.23 - fire or stoning). "Hosea employs this imagery to demonstrate that the arable land inhabited by Israel owes its fertility only to its intimate relationship with Yahweh. Should it marry another god, the land will become a desert... Thus Hosea uses the Canaanite myth to attack the Canaanite faith in Baal." In Hosea 2.18(16) Yahweh is proactive in that he speaks of a day when, *bs2 T1I7 ^X'-iprrx'pi *&V> ^Ipn. This will be possible because he will have taken the name of Baal out of her mouth and Baal will not be remembered again by name.275 A few verses later, Hosea 2.25(23) the land is restored to life, as pictured in the language of Yahweh sowing her to himself. Her state of barrenness is reversed. nam «VnK ^narrn f-ixa ^ rrnmn - TAT ••. j v \ • : - r : I VT T • T <• : : frpx "ia*o mm nropar %,,airK?i? irnaKi Hosea 6.1-3 is a psalm of petition calling Israel to return to Yahweh for he has "QB and Y_ them. Yet their hope is that he will "heal" (ND1) and "bandage" (#3$) them (verse 1). Verse 2 further expands this hope in Yahweh. cra»a HTP • AT • \— : :vyeb rrrni wapi ^btfii brn Here the imagery of healing and restoration of life is used. The time frame, "after two days ... the third day," mentioned in this verse can also be found in various myths. "For Byblos, Lucian attests to the myth of Adonis' resurrection; on the day after sacrifices 274. Hans Walter Wolff, Hosea (Hermeneia; Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1974), 34. 275. Hosea 2.19(17) 179 were made in his behalf, it is reported that he came to life again." Within the cult of Tammuz Inanna's time in the underworld is for three days and three nights. 77 Israel believes Yahweh will restore them by quenching the land (2.4-5) by means of rain and showers (6.3). :fiK mr tfipte wb btfb Ki:n "The similes of the breaking of dawn, of the seasonal return of the first autumn showers (Otffa), and of the late spring rains (unpVD) reveal nature-mythical thinking influenced by the Canaanite religion." 78 But this natural expectation does not happen for verses 4-5 describe their fidelity to God as fleeting as a morning cloud or the dew. The idea of Yahweh "visiting" (Ti?S, 26.14e) a particular group was found earlier in Isaiah 24.21-22 and reoccurs in 27.1a. DVias ai-inn xn^-by mm -i'p& whn nra mm AT- \ T - /T : - VT : Is : • - J - T T : :rra-tKmL?i; nn-mn •obrrbin IT T -:_ T - \T T-: T /•• : - - : -lapa-br Tiapi nin-by TON naox IDOKI Ir-T • \• T / " nbtiam nm?n iznnn'mm ip& xinn oi*a _ JT : - : TIT- : : T: u : • - J- The recipients of Yahweh's visitation in Isaiah 24 are the host of heaven and the kings of the earth. The punishment consists of being confined in a dungeon-like pit. Lastly, in 26.14f the writer states that Yahweh caused all memory of the dead and the Rephaim to cease. This is the opposite of verse 13b where the name of Yahweh alone is remembered, *patf T3T3 ^"Q1?, and 26.8b, tfarrnxn T%&\ W1?- 276. Wolff, Hosea, 117. 277. Ibid. 278. Ibid., 119 180 A similar theme is found in Isaiah 26.19-21 but with a different outcome. The reference to the dead in verses 19-21 stands in contrast to Baals and Adonis in verse 13. While the dead of verses 19-21 will rise again, Baal and Adonis will remain dead, will not rise again, and are forgotten. Also, Yahweh provides peace because he is remembered. See the next section (Interpretation) for further development of verse 13. Interpretation The first stanza (26.12) describes a state of shalom for the righteous. This peace is the result of Yahweh's actions, past and present. The parallel word order of lines 12a-b emphasizes this. vb DiSttJ (do) nsujn (vb) nirr v/ AT \TV/ /:- T: :vb n^us (vb) irtora-^s (do) nrs v y v IT T :/- T \- -; - TI ' i- •/ • Such a picture is reminiscent of a moment in the preceding song (26.1) where in the land of Judah a righteous nation, which is kept in perfect peace because it trusts in Yahweh (26.3-:niQ2 ^n r3 Di^2J IDi^nsri yto is;), looks forward to dwelling in a strong city. The granting of peace to Israel stands in contrast to the way the "wicked" (line 10a), and Yahweh's enemies (line lid) are treated by the end of that lament (26.10- 11). Yahweh (the addressee) and his actions on behalf of the righteous continue to be emphasized by the repetition of the second singular pronoun "you" in the next stanza (26.13-14); a total of six times. Verse 12 is an expression of confidence in Yahweh. The people confess that Yahweh not only established peace for them (12a), but was also responsible C?VB) for all their works OirtyXft-"??, 12b). The verb VVS, according to Wildberger, "is used almost 181 solely in exilic-postexilic texts and in elevated poetic speech" and is used of Yahweh when he "intervenes in history or when it refers to the way he interposes in the life of an individual."279 These works are twofold in nature. First, there is the acquiring of j?7S by the righteous as a result of Yahweh's judgment (26.9), and secondly, the devouring of their enemies (26.11). Wildberger points out that these acts may also include some of Yahweh's accomplishments in the international sphere as depicted in Isaiah 13-23. Verse 12 also anticipates the actions of Yahweh in 26.14e-f. Israel's compromising action with other partners and rulers, described in the first line of the next stanza (13a), in response is startling, "Yahweh, our God, lords besides you have ruled over us." The wording in Hebrew marks a contrast between Yahweh and these lords- ^n'Sx ^ "lords have ruled over us." The second and third words in this clause both possess the first common pronominal suffix 13, 131^172 irn^X, emphasizing the torn loyalty between (1) Israel - Yahweh, and (2) Israel - other 'lords'. Isaiah 63.19 captures this idea of being ruled by lords other than Yahweh. ambi; "TO© x-pn6 na nbe?r*6 bbiua i3"n AY •• -: \ I : • / TI: • i T T : j- T I T r- :^t3 onn T3Ba rrrv b'tttf nsnp-w1? IT /• T I VVT ' T : ~T ' - T T : < _fT Some scholars have identified these 'lords' (26.13a) as foreign hostile powers who ruled over Israel during various eras. For example, Rudolph sees it 279. Wildberger, Isaiah 13-27, 563. 280. Ibid. fitting the period of the judges. Hibbard allows for the text to be referring to "all periods of Israel's history, including that of the author."282 Perhaps the writer might have not only had foreign nations in mind but also another entity. The writer is also speaking of foreign gods. This would have reminded his readers of the myths surrounding the god Baal and how he rose from the underworld (death). Israel would have hoped that Baal, metaphorically, could have restored them to their previous state. Such imagery is used by Hosea in rebuking the northern kingdom, Samaria, for following after other gods. These passages from Hosea underlie Isaiah 24.12-14. It is to this possibility we now turn our attention. Baal was the high god of Canaan. The cult of Baal celebrated annually his death and return from the netherworld as part of a Canaanite fertility ritual. As the rain god, Baal, through his death and return to life, typified the agricultural cycle of "the rain descending upon the earth, producing the crops, which are eventually harvested, and announcing the return of the rains."283 This cycle parallels the life of Baal. Baal, following the harvest, is called to the underworld by the god Mot. Baal must oblige and descends into the jaws of Mot. For a period of time, corresponding to the lapse of time between the harvest and the spring rains, Mot has custody of Baal. Baal's sister, Anat, searches for and finds Baal in the underworld. In an encounter with Mot she gets the 281. Rudolph, Jesaja 24-27, 47'. 282. Hibbard, Intertextuality, 143. 283. T. Worden, "The Literary Influence of the Ugaritic Fertility Myth on the Old Testament," VT3.X (1953): 287. 183 better of him and rips him to pieces with a sharp knife.284 She then "scatters his members 'with a winnowing fan', burning him 'in a fire', grinding him 'in a mill', and 'over the fields strewing his remains'."285 Baal's ascension with Anat from the underworld marks the coming of spring and the agricultural cycle begins once again. Other Ancient Near Eastern religions possessed similar myths. The Sumerians wrote of their god Dumuzi, the Akkadians - Tammuz, and the Phoenicians - Adonis. Let us look more closely at the god Adonis. Adon is a Semitic word and generally denotes the owner or master of a servant or slave. In the simple non-suffixed form or when pointed 'adoni or 'adona(y), for the first common singular suffix, or with other pronominal suffixes, 'adon usually refers to men. The name ]i*1Nt also appears in personal names. For example, the book of Joshua tells of a Jebusite king Adonizedek (plipnN) whom the Hebrews confronted at the time of the conquest (10.1,3). When "plX appears with a first common plural pronominal O^X) it can be a reference to Yahweh. The myth of Adonis is best known in its Greek form, even though it originated in Phoenicia.286 Adonis was a young god whose youth and virility symbolized the principle of growth and vitality. According to the myth, every year Adonis died, being killed while 284. Ibid. 285. Article "Baal" created on 03 March 1997; last modified on 11 January 2004 (Revision 2). 1186 words. © MCMXCV - MMVI Encyclopedia Mythica™. All rights reserved. 286. For earlier sources which mention the Adonis myth see Giovanni Casadio, "The failing male god: emasculation, death and other accidents in the ancient Mediterranean world," Numen 50.3 (2003), 248-54. 184 hunting a wild boar. The earth marked his absence by its cold and lifeless form. Aphrodite seeks out Adonis in the underworld. Aphrodite receives a message beckoning her back from the underworld, one would assume accompanied by Adonis which restores life to the earth. Within Isaiah there are passages referring to the rites of Adonis. Isaiah 1.27-31 speaks of sacred trees and gardens. The picture is that of a seed which once planted germinates quickly into a plant. The plant, however, was allowed to die. arnnn -rax n^xa itf:r ^ inrnna -rax niaa.na rianrn "phy rnaa nbxs vnn ^ i TAV T VJV \T •• : : i • J • :nj? px a^a-rax naarn The trees and garden are "embodiments and symbols of growth, power, and self- generated vitality - they will shrivel, dry up, and fail."287 These verses are a lesson in life and death and are parallel to practices surrounding the rituals linked to Adonis. In the ancient Greek festival for Adonis young women would plant such gardens. "These were baskets or pots filled with earth, in which wheat, barley, lettuces, fennel, and various kinds of flowers were sown and tended for eight days, chiefly or exclusively by women. Fostered by the sun's heat, the plants shot up rapidly, but having no root they withered as rapidly away, and at the end of eight days were carried out with the images of the TOO dead Adonis, and flung with them into the sea or into springs." The next passage, Isaiah 17.10-11, speaks of the planting of "pleasant plants" and their eventual demise. These ephemeral plants stand in contrast to Yahweh, "the Rock." 287. Brueggemann, Isaiah 1-39, 23. 288. James Frazer, The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion: A New Abridgement from the Second and Third Editions [book on-line] (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1998, accessed 5 November 2006); available from http://www.bartleby.eom/l 96; Internet. 185 n~DT v& ITHQ im "ibw TI^K rinitf ^ : :ATT J l"\ T / :_ I •• : • J- v: : - - T <• ^ainrn it rnfen o^psa ^pa ^pn ^"br "•nnpri *^I?-}T -ipsa} '•afcaton ^?pa ora :tfiaK nxrn njpna D^a TXJP ~ia Also, the noun ]pl?a_ is an epithet of Adonis. Wildberger suggests that |Di73 was frequently used to refer to the vegetation god, Adonis. He translates Caps?? ^pa as "little gardens for the lovely ones." These are "little Adonis gardens."289 Two other passages with similar language are Isaiah 65.3-4 and 66.17. In 65.3 we read of sacrifices being offered in gardens (niaaa cnat). This act is in the midst of a "veritable catalogue of sins consisting of seven participles: walking in evil ways, provoking me continually, sacrificing in gardens, burning incense on tiles, sitting in tombs, spending the night in secret places, and eating swine's flesh ... These forbidden practices often reflect illicit cultic rules known from Ugarit, Babylon, and elsewhere."290 Isaiah 66.17 speaks of similar matters. "^a \nrtK] finx) im niaa.rrbx nnnapni D^Eftpnan - IT : ••. : \-.. T / T : These texts just examined support the idea that the writer knew rites of Adonis and he was also probably familiar with the myth regarding this deity. The Phoenician deity Adonis was identified with the Akkadian deity Tammuz, who is the same deity as the Sumerian god Dumuzi. In Ezekiel 8.14 we read of Tammuz. naisarrbk im rnrr-rva 10 Vinsr^is: ,,nk «a»i :npnrrnx niaap nincr nrttian b©_narn 289. Wildberger, Isaiah 13-27, 160, 182. 290. Childs, Isaiah, 535. In the myth about Dumuzi/Tammuz it is his wife Inanna (Ishtar in the Akkadian texts) who descends into the netherworld. While there she is confined to the underworld by her sister Ereshkigal and the Anunnaki. Inanna's servant calls on the other gods to assist and only Enki/Ea responds. Eventually Inanna is restored to life on the condition that she finds a substitute. The substitute ends up being her husband Dumuzi, who must spend part of the year in the underworld. Dumuzi/Tammuz is the god of the vegetation cycle and his absence corresponds with the changing of the seasons as the abundance of the earth diminishes in his absence. The myths surrounding Baal or Adonis are similar and share common elements. Both deities spend some time in the underworld and during their absence the land suffers. In some manner they return to power and with that the earth once again flourishes. The writer of Isaiah 26.12-14 not only draws upon these ancient myths, he also appears to have Hosea in mind when he describes how the people once chose to allow "lords" other than Yahweh "rule" over them. Now this is no longer the case. They no longer have any memory of these gods. In fact, they describe them as Israel was described in Hosea 6. These lords are called "the dead, the Rephaim." They will not come back to life nor rise up (Isaiah 24.14). The writer provides a subtle allusion to Hosea 6.1 by calling these gods "Rephaim." One of Israel's wishes in Hosea 6 is that Yahweh will "heal" them. The root of this verb is XS~I, the same root for the noun T T ' Rephaim. Just as the wishes of those in the Northern Kingdom went unmet, so any possibility of these gods rising up, as Adonis did, to heal them or restore their lives is negated. The reason for this is that Yahweh DTpttJril FHj?S (verse 14e). 187 Yet despite the reign of other "lords" in the past they now claim to only venerate Yahweh's name. Hibbard points out that 26.13b echoes the general point of 26.8 where the righteous' continual trust is noted. Verses 13-14 build on Isaiah 26.12 in that they explain how Yahweh established peace and accomplished everything for them. Yahweh passed judgment upon Israel and this in turn caused them to turn back toward him. Yahweh in turn acted on their behalf, freeing them from their oppressors as well as their worship of false gods via idols. Their hope that other gods would restore them to life is dismissed because those gods themselves could not rise from the underworld. Strophe Two, 2 Stanzas: 26.15-16 and 26.17-18 Sequential Analysis 26.15-18 7 + 9 1 15 a v-q: asyn SVB-IO-N rrirr ^\b rao b v-q: asyn SVB-IO T - T :<- T c v-q: asyn SVB \ - T : /- T d v-q: asyn SVB-DO T M : • 16 e v-q: asyn N-PP-SVB/DO *pij?a is? mrr f v-q: asyn SVB-DO g n-ph: asyn NS-NP{pp} 291. Hibbard, Intertextuality, 143. 188 17 a v-y: asyn adv-NS-VB-DO{inf} m^S anpn nnn las v v T J • I: - T T < : b v-y: asyn SVB c v-y: asyn SVB-PP rrbzirn pym d v-q: asyn adv-SVB-PP-N :mrr T3BB irn p IT : I \VT • /• T Iv 18 e v-q: asyn SVB inn f v-q: asyn SVB J ' T g v-q: asyn adv-SVB-DO nn injr ins h v-y: asyn DO-SVB-N nx ntora-ba nint^ i v-y: cons wNeg-VB-NS Stanza One (26.15-16): 7 lines This stanza consists of seven clauses all of which are asyndetic. The final line is nominal but is tied back to the preceding clause through the suffix. Punctuation is indicated by the switch of tense to Yiqtol with the first clause in the next stanza. Stanza Two (26.17-18): 9 lines The first eight clauses of the nine in this stanza are all asyndetic. The last clause breaks the pattern by beginning with waw. The first three clauses (17a-c) are virtual (unmarked) subordinate Yiqtol clauses. The main clauses are Qatal asyndetic (17d-18g) and are punctuated by a change to Yiqtol asyndetic (18h) and consecutive (18i). Literary Artistry The first four lines (15a-d) of the first stanza all begin with Qatal verbs and are second person masculine singular with the suffix Fl-. In the first line (15a) the subject (you, singular) is identified as Yahweh. The next line (15b) is identical to the first other than Yahweh not being mentioned again. Just as the first two lines begin with the same vowel sound "a," the next two lines also share the same initial vowel, "i." Line 16e also 189 begins with Yahweh. As in the previous lines Yahweh is being addressed, but now the subject is "they." The final line of the stanza (line 16g) ends with the same word as that found in the final line (14f) of the preceding strophe (26.12-14), i^. The seven lines in the first stanza follow a particular cadence. The first four lines (15a-d) are long - short - shorter - long, and the next three lines (16e-g) follow a similar pattern. Even in the next stanza the first three lines of the subordinate clause (17a-c) have a comparable cadence (long - very short - longer) as do the last four lines (17d-18g) of the main clause (long - short - short - long). The two lines punctuating the stanza (18h-i) are long. The nine lines in stanza two are divided into three literary units (17a-c, 17d-18g, 18h-i). The first three lines of verse 17 (a-c) belong together, just as the next four lines (17d-g). The first line begins with the particle 103, which is followed by the subject, then the verb. The next two lines are of the same type, verbal Yiqtol asyndetic. The subject is understood from the first line, rnn. Line 17d begins with the adverbial particle |3. With this clause there is a shift in the person of the subject (second person singular to first person plural). Like lines 17b-c, the next two lines (18e-f) are succinct and expand on lines 17d. Line 18g starts in the same manner as lines 17a and also repeats the verbal root (TV') from the same line. The subject, this time however, is the community, not the pregnant woman. In stanza one vocative "Yahweh" is at the end of the first line (15a) in the opening group of four lines (15a-d), and at the beginning of the first line in the closing group of three lines (16e-g). In stanza two 1fr3 opens the three lines of the subordinate sequence (17a-c), and closes the comparison in the last four Qatal clauses (17d-18g). The first consonants of the first seven lines (17a-18g) in the second stanza create the following pattern: Section One Section Two line 17a- 3 line 17d - 3 line 17b - ft line 18e - H line 17c- n line 18f- n line 18g- 3 The last word of section one, iT^DJrj?., is the longest (5 syllables) within section one and is dominated by the "a" sound. Such sonority may prepare the reader for the transition to the next section where a new subject is introduced and is compared to the subject of the first section. The second section ties the last three lines ((18e-g) together with the verbal pronominal suffix 13. YHWH in the vocative appears at the end of line 17d and is the antecedent of the object of the preposition which precedes it. The object of the preposition ^ , shares a similar sound with the suffix of the transitional word in line 17c, IT.. . Line 18g brings together elements from both sections. The particle 1D3 and the verbal root I1?'' are from section one. The subject of the line, 1st singular plural, is from the second section. The product of the birthing process, ITU, is unexpected and would be in stark contrast to what the pregnant woman in section one would bring forth. The next two lines (18h-i) are coupled together through the negative particle b? and the synonyms at the end of each line pX and blPi. 191 Translation 15 a You are adding to the nation, Yahweh, b You are adding to the nation, c You are glorifying yourself, d You are increasing all the borders of the land. 16 e Yahweh, in distress they seek you, f since an incantation fails, g since your discipline is upon them. 17 a As when a pregnant woman is at the point of giving birth, b she goes into labor, c she cries out in her labor pains, d so we are before you, Yahweh: 18 e we are pregnant, f we are in labor, g when we give birth, wind, h victory in the land we did not achieve, i and the inhabitants of the world did not fall. Intertextuality The short clause of 26.15c, n^apa, recalls Exodus 14 verse 4 (nSnaa rrnSKl) and verse 17 (i'rrrbipai Vlinsa rnaaxi) where Yahweh acquires glory for himself by defeating the Egyptians at the Sea. Yahweh's judgment brings about the distress we read about in 16e, ^HpS "IBS. We find a similar idea in Hosea 5.15. Beginning with verse 11 the writer describes "the military situation in which Israel should have repented instead of entering into an alliance 192 with Assyria." The situation is created in order that "in their distress" (IS) they might seek Yahweh. •^a itfpai irao^-rax is ,,raip?r'?K VQ^K i,bx ATT j I: • \ : : v iv ~: /- • I : v T T »<— :"onntf: njib -iaa Isaiah 3.3 speaks of professional enchanters, Ufll'? |123. This is comparable to 16.f where "incantations fail." Also, in Jeremiah 8.17 the word Wfft is associated with snake- 7 - T charming. tfnjp nnb-pK -rax n^aa b-ram D?a n|rara ••ian "••s tnin^DK] DDnx i:ra:n Interpretation This strophe contains elements of a lament. It begins with praise to God (26.15) and proceeds to tell of the situation that led to the lament, to "seeking (*7j?9, 16e) you": distress ("12, 16e), no recourse to magic Qfinb pijps, 16f), and discipline (IDIO, 16g). The first four lines (15a-d) of the first stanza (26.15-16) address Yahweh. Yahweh's actions are emphasized. This is similar to the way both stanzas in the previous strophe also began (26.12a, 13a). Yahweh is "adding to the nation" (26.15a). Another viable translation is "you are continuing to do for the nation," with reference to 26.12b Oli'p n*7J7a 13",toI7Q~t73), to which the end of the second stanza (18h-i) also refers; Yahweh's actions of the past are an indicator of present and future possibilities, namely returning them to their land, expanding their boundaries, and defeating their enemy. This is a significant act and is so indicated with the exact wording, minus the subject standing 292. Peckham, History and Prophecy, 191. 193 in elision, in the next line (15b). Such action by Yahweh results in his being glorified (15c). In the next line (15d) the writer once again links those who dwell in the land (the nation) with the land itself, "You are extending all the boundaries of the land." Yahweh is adding to and expanding the boundaries of the nation. If "nation" is understood as Judah and Israel, then the people would be thrilled with the possibility they might once again have an area of land as large as that possessed by King David.293 However, if this is the case, the euphoria is quickly checked by a picture of distress and discipline described in lines 16e-g. But what if the "nation" is understood differently? What if it consists only of the righteous, a remnant? Polaski points out that, "The use of the verb IC with the object 'U almost always connotes the gathering of nations for either judgment or blessing; a meaning which corresponds well both to the gathering of nations for Yahweh's imperial fete in 25.6-8 and to the pilgrimage motif in which the righteous nation appears in 26.2."294 Yahweh's act of judgment is what divides people. Those who respond positively to the discipline brought upon them, learn from the resulting distress, and seek out Yahweh, are the ones who will be a part of Yahweh's plan of expansion. They are the p*HS"',i:i mentioned in Isaiah 26.2. The others are the wicked who do not learn righteousness and act unjustly (26.10). The first two lines of verse 15 and verse 12 possess the prepositionx?. In verse 15 'laV is repeated twice, with the twofold repetition of the initial V. At the end of verse 12, 293. Kaiser, Isaiah 13-39, 213-14; Wildberger, Isaiah 13-27, 565. 294. Polaski, Authorizing an End, 225. 194 we have the same phenomenon but with the word 13^.295 By writing in such a way the writer intends one, through assonance, to identify the "us" of verse 12 with the "nation" of verse 15. The "nation" is the "righteous" of verse 7 and the "inhabitants of the land" in verse 9 of the same chapter (cf. 26.2). The good news of restoration (26.12-14) precedes literarily Yahweh's act of judgment. You hear the one before the other. The motif of expansion is a reversal of Isaiah 24. No longer will there only be "a few left over" (24.6h). The condition of distress mentioned in 26.16e is brought about by Yahweh's judgment and is described as the distress a woman feels during labor (26.17a-c). Out of this distress the nation seeks out or visits Yahweh (26.16e). A similar longing was seen in 26.8-9 when the righteous found themselves on a path of discipline. While upon this way, they not only wait for, but eagerly seek out Yahweh. Comparable language is found in 25.4 where the "needy" look to Yahweh as a refuge during a time of distress (IS), •fr"-lS? ]^2Vib TiBO brf? TIM rP'jrPS. The purpose of Yahweh's visitation upon Israel, therefore, is not only to judge them for their missteps but also provoke them to call out or seek him. This purpose is expressed in Isaiah 30.20. ynb aw is nnb "OIK osb irui - I -AT -j- \T :•/:• VT -: sv T I T: ^nirrnK nixh fry rni f-n?2 lii; ^"x'pn Yahweh is the one who gives his people "bread of distress" (1?). Such a time is described as Yahweh not being able to be seen. But this is to change, "your eyes will behold your teacher," if they return to Yahweh. 295. Itoh, "Isaiah 24-27," 147. 195 The reason for their distress is stated in line 26.16g, "Your discipline, upon them." As just mentioned, Isaiah 26.7-11 also describes individuals being under Yahweh's discipline while they are on a path of judgment and judgment being "on the land" (v. 9); judgment equaling Yahweh's discipline. The reason the nation falls under Yahweh's chastisement was given in verse 13, line a. There we read of Israel confessing to having abandoned Yahweh and marrying (V2?2) other gods. Wildberger explains that "Israel understands that its trouble (IS) was Yahweh's "101ft (chastisement); however, this "I01D (chastisement) placed the people into the type of terribly oppressive situation in which an enemy showed them no mercy whatsoever."29 A comparable idea is found in Isaiah 53.5. Isaiah 53.5 tells of a suffering servant being the recipient of such "discipline" but this was to be for Israel's well-being. Also, Hosea 5.1 tells of judgment (ttSCfe)) that is applied to Israel (BSEJDn D?b "'3), a synonym to this judgment in Hosea 5.2 is "1D1D (nhzb -ID1» "Wl). The initial response to this distress is to turn to foreign gods in hopes that they will rise up (see lines 14c-d) and come to their aid. This idea is found in line 16f, tfjn'p ]lpS. This line (16f) is translated by the majority of translators, "to whisper a prayer." Another possibility, which fits closely with the preceding context, is the idea of uttering an incantation. "The author intended the idea of prayer, magic, whispering incantation, to be part of the scene here."297 Ifthisisthe case, then the people through magical means and formulas are striving to bring their gods (husbands), back to life. 296. Wildberger, Isaiah 13-27, 566. 297. Doyle, Apocalypse of Isaiah, 308. 196 Their effort is useless, for Yahweh has made certain these deities will never rise again. Realizing this, Israel sets out "to visit" Yahweh. Israel's futile attempts and inabilities are compared to a woman in labor (26.17- 18). "The difference between the two, however, is that there is 'birth' at the end to reward the woman for her pain; Israel's labor is wasted."298 Brueggemann adds, "Israel's pregnant anguish produces nothing."299 This becomes even more evident when Israel's inability to birth is compared to what Yahweh does in verse 15. "Isaiah 26.15 and 26.16- 18 are intimately related in that the author contrasts Yahweh's ability to increase the remnant of the nation and the land with the inability of the people themselves to do so."300 Finally, the incapability of the dead (D^riD) and the Rephaim (D^XD"}) to return to life parallels Israel's failure to bring forth 'new' life. Doyle draws a connection between this verse, with the idea of miscarriage, to verse 14 and Israel's liaisons with other gods, "In relation to its own context - the failed pregnancy metaphor - and to v. 14 (equivalent terms: dead/shades/corpses) where the dead were the ultimate outcome of futile liaisons with other 'gods', miscarried pregnancies, barren widow Israel is seen to be going it alone, bereft of her husband YHWH."301 I would agree with the purpose of the metaphor which Doyle points out, but would differ with regard to who is barren. It is the land, not Israel. 298. Redditt, Isaiah 24-27, 373. 299. Brueggemann, Isaiah 1-39, 207. 300. Itoh, 148. 301. Doyle, Apocalypse ofIsaiah, 150. In line 18g what the land does birth is mentioned - wind. Earlier I mentioned the possibility of line 16f of Isaiah 26 referring to incantations of some sort. While Wildberger does not make a connection between W'tf? and iTH, he does note the association between 'wind' and magical incantations in the Akkadian setting. Doyle develops this possible link. "One could almost translate vv. 16a-18a as: our incantations/sorceries turned out to be wind?"302 This would create a link between lines 16fandl8g. In 26.18h-i the writer states what it was that the land could not bring forth - when allied with "other gods," - victory and the demise of their enemies. Some scholars translate "733 in line 18i as "to be born." For example Itoh translates this clause "the inhabitants of the earth shall never fall (implying 'come alive' or 'be born')."303 I would agree with March and admit that such a translation is possible; however, it does not seem to have a great deal of support or seem necessary. Another possibility which fits within this context is the imagery of one dieing [sic] or falling 07D3) in battle. Israel when opposed by others is not able to find success in battle within the boundaries of their own land. They were ineffectual also in the wider world. The point seems to be that the enemies of Yahweh have not fully been overcome, have not fully submitted to him. To suggest that the mission of Israel was understood as bringing the inhabitants of the world to birth seems a little difficult to defend.304 302. Doyle, Apocalypse of Isaiah, 308. 303. Itoh, "Isaiah 24-27," 149. 304. March, "A Study of Two Prophetic Compositions," 163, footnote #1. 198 Strophe Three, 2 Stanzas: 26.19a and 26.19(3-21 Sequential Analysis 26.19-21 2 + 12 19a a v-y: asyn VB-NS{ptc} Tna TIT I v - J : i' b v-y: asyn NS-VB 19(3 a v-m: asyn SVB , b v-m: para wVB-NS 1DU »3Dt£j 13m 1 - T T J ' : : : c n-ph: conj Cj-NS-NP ^o nniK bv *? d v-y: disj wNS-DO-VB 20 e v-m: asyn VB-NS-VB-PP ^nin? xa '"•as ^b f v-m: para wSVB-DO-PP g v-m: asyn SVB-PP i?3TtDj?ap ••an h v-m: asyn PP-VB-NS :D»T Hair] pini?:)—ri? 21 i n-cl: conj Cj-NS-PTC-PP iaipap NIT Vnrr narra J n-cl: asyn INF-DO-PP i^i? pxrrattr "|iif IPs'? k v-y: cons wVB-NS-DO rraTnx pxn nn^ai T V T V I V T T Stanza One (26.19a): 2 lines This brief stanza consists of only two Yiqtol clauses in sequence. Word order is reversed between the two: line 19cca - verb, subject; line 19ab - subject, verb. Punctuation occurs with the shift in mode in the first line of the next stanza. Stanza Two (26.196-21); 12 lines This stanza consists of 12 clauses; the longest of the stanzas in part five. The first two lines are modal and the first line is dependent on the next for its subject. Lines 19pc- d are subordinate clauses, the first nominal conjunctive, the second disjunctive Yiqtol. The main clause modal sequence continues in 20e-g and is modified by a modal temporal clause (20h) and another subordinate sequence (21i-l) consisting of two nominal clauses 199 (21i-j) and two consecutive Yiqtol clauses (21k-l). The end of the modal sequence is not marked but the next stanza begins (27.1a) indicatively. Literary Artistry The first stanza share synonyms (rn& and n*?53) yet each is qualified by different pronouns. Word order is reversed allowing the affix of the verb (1, |1) to begin the first line yet end the last line. The first two lines of stanza two (19pa-b) begin with imperatives. The first is asyndetic, the second is paratactic. The commanding force of the verbs is reinforced with the quick succession of the 1 sound at the end of each verb. Line 190c stresses the life giving value of the dew by repeating *7t? in the same line and adding the second singular suffix to the second usage. A literary feature present within this stanza that is rare in this chapter is the alternating of asyndetic and paratactic clauses in the modal sequence (19pa, 19(3b,20e,20f,20g). Translation 19a a Your dead are alive, b my dead bodies have risen. 200 190 a Awake, b And rejoice, inhabitants of the dust, c for the dew of dawn is your dew, d and on the land of the Rephaim you make it fall 20 e Go, my people, enter into your bedrooms, f and close your doors behind you, g hide for a brief moment, h until indignation passes by. 21 i For behold Yahweh is coming forth from his place, j in order to call to impose the iniquity of the inhabitants of the land upon them, k so that the land reveal her blood, 1 and no longer covers her slain. Intertextuality The writer of Isaiah 24-27 knows the work of Hosea and further evidence of this fact is found within this strophe. For example, Hosea 13.12-14 picture Ephraim as a fetus who does not have enough common sense to cooperate with the birthing process which will free him from his bonds of "sin" and bring him forth into life. :inxtsn TOSS onax Tis? nns IT- \T : • T : I J ~: T A JI T \ T - i /•-:•.• This willing captivity is compared to being in the grasp of Sheol (ViXttO and death (T\1p). Perhaps a glimmer of hope is expressed by Yahweh in the two lines of 13.14b, :TUa '^no•, Dni bteti \2W TIN ma Tin •'rtX. Hosea 13.12-14 is not unlike IT •• *• /--T - - \ : I : T IIT < • v: VT I VT : • •:: 26.17c-18b where the normal process ends in passing just wind. Hosea seems to 201 recognize that there is a way out of death and Sheol (as 26.19a says) but God refuses to show compassion. Isaiah 26.19a-b supposes that the connection between 26.14 and Hosea is obvious, and alludes to the same facts (26.19a - 26.14a). But the difference is the pronominal suffixes - the dead don't live (14aa), but your (i.e. my peoples') dead do live. The Rephaim don't rise, but my corpses (i.e. the ones whom I have killed, or the land has killed, 21k-l) do rise. Comparisons are also seen between 26.19Pc-d and Hosea 6.3-5. Verse 3b compares the certainty of Yahweh's appearance to the "dawn," iXSift ]1D3 ~in©3, and the rain which waters the earth, "px nTP Cipbras "fib Dtfip K'i^l. Ephraim and Judah are just the opposite in their loyalty and are compared to the morning dew which quickly disappears, 1^71 DTBtfO ^tSpl -|£ih"'J3I?3 Miorn (4b). Finally, Yahweh's judgment upon them is mentioned in verse 5 and described as rising with the light, X^1 "liX ^pi22ippi. Hosea 6.5, when compared with Hosea 13.3a, may suggest that death is like morning dew that does not last (13.3a = 6.4). Lastly, 26.19 may also allude directly, and not just through Hosea, to the Baal epic. Baal dies, is killed by death and falls to the ground. El sees in a dream that it is raining and that the wadis run with honey and knows that Baal is alive, the Prince, the Lord of the earth, exists. The source of rejuvenation is described in Isaiah 26.190c as Vt?, dew. In Deuteronomy 33.28, where Moses speaks his final words of blessing upon the tribes of Israel, the optimum condition in which Israel could live is described. tfiTni \r\ fix'bx nj?ir "py inn rraa bx-\fr "p&l :bu ID-IIT •pntf-nx IT : -/- \T T I ~ 202 In this Utopia one of the blessings from Yahweh is the promise of reliable dew from heaven. On the other hand, when Israel demonstrates lack of loyalty toward Yahweh and his "house" the dew is withheld and a drought comes upon the land - similar to that pictured in Isaiah 24.4. This link between human rebellion toward God and natural disaster, especially the withholding of moisture is also found in Haggai 1.10-11. bap trpji? ^63 ob^bs }^bv IPTO*1 nabs rixm IT : /T : T I V\T T : inrrbm o-Hnrrbin rnxrrby mn inpKi "inssn_l?»i tftrnrr'wi IT T - - : -TV • : I VJT T - TI: V T T : • - - : J • - - : AT T -: T \ • /v -: •/- : tcsD WT-bz bui nanarr^m hmrrbvi _ _ •IT- -/•: T \- : T--: : TT IT - : Yahweh's impending indignation, coming from a distant location and striking out against his foes (26.20i), is found in Isaiah 13.5. Dentin rtxpt: pma pan o^xa • AT T _ J" h • I \T : V 1 -,7V '• V • T ifixrrbs bnnb irbrr ^bzi mrr I viT T T \" - : : - j- : T : The promise that this will only be for a short duration (26.20h) is mentioned in Isaiah 10.25. -ijjra aura Urns AT : - J- : \ ,L :Dn ?2n-bu •'SKI D»T nb^ _ IT • : - \ • - : T JT : Interpretation In this strophe the lament is continued. In a lament one can find salvation oracles as well as fairly abrupt shifts of mood as if an oracle had already happened. Here the announcement of the dead living and corpses rising, and the dew on their corpses seeping into the land of the Rephaim (26.19) is followed by the warning to hide before Yahweh's rage (26.20) which will slay the people of the land (26.211) and leave them (their corpses) 203 lying on the ground uncovered (26.2 lk-1). The lament is not in chronological order - the visitation and killing (26.20-21) precedes the rising, the killing precedes the corpses that rise. To identify the speaker and the participants in this strophe the following outline of the participants in this strophe will prove helpful. 19aa your (2ms) Spoken by Yahweh to the people 19ab my (lcs) 19pa you (2mpl) Addressed to the dead by Yahweh 19pb you (2mpl) 19pc your (2ms) Spoken by Yahweh to the people 19pd you (2ms) 20e you (2ms) Spoken by Yahweh to the people 20f you (2ms) 20g you (2ms) 20h it (3 ms) 21i he (3 ms) 21j the in,habitant 21k the land an explanation of verses 19-20 211 the land The plural "you" (lines 19pa-b, implied in the imperative verbs) are the dead ones, the corpses of 19aa. The singular "you / your" is identified as the people in 20e CBS?). The person speaking ("my," 19ab) is identified as Yahweh (21i). The lines of the first stanza (26.19a) are sequential and stand in parallel relationship - "your dead" are "my corpses" which are now "alive" or "risen." Who are the dead? In the following stanza, line 19pb, they are called "the inhabitants of the dust" and in line 19(3d, "the Rephaim," and in line 211 "her slain." Following the admonition to awaken (26.19pa) is the call to rejoice (26.19pb). This is reminiscent of the expression found in 24.14, "They raise their voices, they shout 204 for joy (U"1)." This same expression of joy is also found in 35.2, 6 where the impaired land and humans will be restored. r\b-]pii paii'pn tins }ii) n'ra *]« bani rnan rnB^ntfrn bra-on -nn ^rnbx -nn rrjrr-tinp WT njpri DJ?K litpb fini nsa V*o a^T T« :na-im D-^nai D1?: naian wpna-^ - IT T-: T \ • T : • T : • - < I: : • i • Those who are given this admonition are the "inhabitants of the dust" (26.19pb). While this exact wording is not found elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible, here it is parallel to the "dead" and "corpses" of 26.19a. Previously in Isaiah 24-27 those who were elevating themselves through human pride found themselves humbled unto the dust (25.12; 26.5). :-isy~ti7 Yixb mn ^atfn nran Train nato -isani ITT ~ \ -AT T - / • - v • : • c - I v J- : • ~ : • nnataa n,_ip nina •osr Vran ^ - AT T : • \T :r T J- : " mains? namr ?-ix_ny n'rsttr na'rsttr ITT - T\v •- I v v - T • : - T This creates a further contrast between those who oppose Yahweh and are brought down to the dust and those who ally themselves to Yahweh and will be raised up from the dust; a reversal of fortune. Isaiah 26.20 switches the thrust of the commands. The time of rejoicing is replaced with a warning for Yahweh's people to barricade themselves in the safety of their homes in order to avoid the approaching indignation from Yahweh. The first three commands (lines 20e-g), according to Motyer, are matched with the call to "open the gates" in 26.1, "Security in peace (1-4) is matched by security from wrath."305 Such language recalls the time when Israel was captive in Egypt and God through Moses instructed them to remain inside while judgment passed by (Exodus 12.22-23). Other 305. Motyer, Prophecy of Isaiah, 220. 205 similar events include the admonition for Noah and his family to enter the ark to be safe from the coming catastrophic flood (Genesis 7.1-16) as well as Ezekiel 9.4-6 at the time of the purging of the idolaters. Isaiah 26.21 is comparable to parts of Isaiah 24 in wording, imagery, and ideology. The first line in verse 21 (a) begins with the conjunction ''D which is followed by the words, l&lpjpa XS> HIIT, mn. The word order is nafi-NS-Ptc-PP. Isaiah 24.1 begins in the same manner except without the conjunction'S, flKH J7pl3 HTTP nan, nan- NS-Ptc-DO. In 24.1 the actions of Yahweh are directed toward the land as well as those who inhabit it. This idea is also expressed in 26.21. Yahweh's "visit" will be to the "inhabitants of the land" and the land (T"1K) itself will respond by revealing "her blood." This interconnectedness between land and its inhabitants is evident in 24.5, "The earth is also polluted by its inhabitants" (iTpUf'' Dfifi nD3.fi H^n). As the verse continues it describes specifically what brought about this pollution, "for they transgressed laws, violated statutes, broke the everlasting covenant." In 26.21 this is expressed in a single word, |il?. Yahweh is about to act. But just as in days gone by, before he moves into action, he sounds a warning. Those who listen will be preserved by finding shelter inside. Restoration is preceded by a period of revelation and calling into account both the land and its inhabitants. CHAPTER SEVEN PART SIX: ISAIAH 27.1-13 Strophe One, 2 Stanzas: 27.1 and 27.2-3 Sequential Analysis 5 + 6 1 v-y: asyn PP-VB-NS-PP irnn? "rnrp ipa mhn o^a n: asyn N-wN-wN npmm nSiiam n&pn h T-: -i; JT : - : T rr n: asyn DO{pp}-DO rna tin: \r\^b hv - • T JT T 1 T T : • <~: n: para DO{pp}-DO L 9lin'ppi? dm ]n;i ? hy) v-y: cons wSVB-DO-RC{do} :o a "idx ranrrnx nm IT - /:•—. 1 \ v /- T : n: asyn PP-NP ion •-)? xinn nra v-m: asyn SVB-PP IT n: asyn NS-NP{ptc} rnsa Vnrr ^N T : I T : < • ~: v-y: asyn PP-SVB/DO TUV : - \ • T : • v-y/m: conj Cj-SVB-PP rr^snpa? }s v-y: asyn N-wN-SVB/DO :n3"lliK DTI n^S T IVT: v \T T : /- Stanza One (27.1): 5 lines The first stanza in this strophe consists of five lines, two verbal (la, e) and three nominal (lb-d). Punctuation is marked by change in clause type, asyndetic to paratactic to consecutive. The second line (lb) is nominal and is the first of three nominal clauses which begin with a preposition. The third and fourth lines (c-d) are the object of the verb found in the first clause. The final line is a complex clause, beginning consecutively and concluding with a relative clause defining where the pari resides. Stanza Two (27.2-3): 6 lines The first line of the stanza is nominal. The stanza begins with a temporal phrase (Ninn DVa) which links it with the beginning of the preceding stanza. Punctuation is manifested by a switch in mood. The first verbal clause (line 2b) is modal asyndetic and 206 207 the next two verbal clauses (line 3b and d) are also asyndetic but indicative. The moods alternate throughout the stanza: modal (in a quotation, line 2b) - indicative (in a main clause, line 3d), modal (in a subordinate clause, line 3e) - indicative (in a main clause, line 3f). Literary Artistry The first line in the first stanza of this strophe introduces Yahweh's actions in a future time. The next three nominal clauses elaborate on this action. Lines lc-d both begin with the preposition *?J?. The last line (le) is in sequence with the first. Yahweh's chosen instrument for his action is a sword (line la). Three successive adjectives qualify what type of sword this is (line lb). Each adjective ends with the feminine singular nominal suffix - H . Line lc (FH2 ttjn] imb bv) tells who Yahweh's action is aimed toward. It is Leviathan, who is described by the appositional phrase, a fleeing serpent. The next line (Id) is parallel to line lc in that it is structurally identical Qirivj?!? $na ltC" '^D- Leviathan is now depicted as a writhing serpent. The final line of the stanza (line le) tells us that Leviathan, who dwells in the sea, will be killed. The three-fold use of qualifiers in describing the sword (all adjectives) is repeated to describe Leviathan (1) a fleeing serpent, (2) a writhing serpent, and (3) dwelling in the sea. Also, Yahweh's recipient of judgment is identified by three different names - Leviathan (line lc), a serpent (tt?na, line lc), and a dragon (^SPin, line lc). The first line of the second stanza (line 2a) begins in the same manner as that found in the first stanza (NlHIl DV2) except this time it is part of a nominal clause. Each following line (2b-3f) of this six line stanza ends with HT in some form, (Tib, ITV, H3-, PP-, 208 H3-). Such repetition in sound binds the stanza together. The second and third lines (2b, 3 c) not only end with the same sound, but play off each other by means of sound at the beginning of each line (line 2b 1W, line 3c ^S). Finally, the fourth and sixth lines both begin with the same consonant (*?) and end with first person singular verbs with a third feminine singular objective suffix, line 3d n3j?ip'X, line 3f nri£X. Translation 1 a On that day Yahweh will visit harm with his sword b fierce, and great and strong, c Leviathan, the fleeing serpent, d even Leviathan, the writhing serpent e and he will kill the dragon which is in the sea. 2 a On that day a delightful vineyard b - sing of it - 3 c I, Yahweh, its guard d regularly I will water it e lest someone might visit harm upon it f night and day I will guard it. Intertextuality The first line of the first stanza (27.1a) and second stanza (27.2a) begin with the temporal prepositional phrase (X1HH UV^) which also begins both stanzas (verses 12 and 13) in the sixth strophe (XITITI Di,3 rrrp.). Within Isaiah 209 24-27 this phrase is also found at the beginning of lines 24.21a (^TlTl Di,2 rrrp.), 25.9a (Xinn 01*3 nasi), and 26.1a (Xinn D1'3). Of the six passages in which Leviathan appears in the Old Testament (Job 3.8; 40.25, Ps. 74.14; 104.26, Isaiah 27.1 [2x]) the context of each passage comes in to play in determining how this entity is to be understood. At times it is a literal creature of the sea (Psalm 104.25-26, a whale or dolphin; Job 41.7-9, a crocodile) or a snake upon the earth (Job 3.8; cf. Numbers 22.5-6). At other times it is a mythical creature killed by a deity at the beginning of time, an idea to which I will return. In two passages Leviathan appears along with other beasts: tifrti "serpent" as in Isaiah 27.1 or "p^fi "large reptile" in Psalm 74.13-14. np TOa rmiD nnx AT j I : T : T :J~ While Isaiah 51.9 does not mention Leviathan by name, the verse seems to have this same creature in mind. The creature is called a "dragon" O'llFin) and "Rahab" p!Tl). D^bii; ni~n nip wp nw nirr IJIIT nr^n'p nw nw ryan nbbinra nrn rqxnan iorrnx xibn John Day argues that Rahab may simply be an alternative name for Leviathan. The fact that Rahab and 'the Ancient Serpent' are mentioned in parallel verses here in Job 26.12-13, and that Rahab is mentioned parallel to 'the Dragon' in Isaiah 51.9, suggests that Rahab may simply be an alternative name for Leviathan, who is likewise called 'the Ancient Serpent' and 'the Dragon' in Isaiah 27.1.306 306. John Day, God's conflict with the Dragon and the Sea (Mass.: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 431. 210 This mythic creature was "hewn in pieces" and "pierced" by Yahweh in "days of old." Such language implies the use of an instrument by Yahweh - a sword, like 27.1. The next verse (51.10) not only refers to the great miracle of the dividing of the waters during the exodus from Egypt, but also hints at the victory over the god of the sea at creation, "Was it not you who dried up the sea (D^), the waters of the great deep (n3T Qifiri 'ID); who made the depths of the sea (ti\ ,i?D5?'?) a pathway for the redeemed to cross over?" In Genesis 1.21 the D'P-iri are created by God, the first of his sea creatures. After looking at these two passages (Isaiah 27.1 and 51.9), we can surmise that Leviathan was viewed as a mythical creature that dwelt in the sea with whom Yahweh did battle. Another text speaking of Leviathan is found in the ancient city of Ugarit. Mot, the god of death, sends his messengers to threaten Baal. Baal is determined to overcome Death and resists dying. Death responds by reminding Baal that even though he has defeated the Sea, he must descend into the throat of Death, in the mire of the underworld, and Death will be nourished by Baal's sighs and groans. While Baal defeated the Sea, Death will swallow up Baal. "Just as you struck down Ltn, the fleeing serpent, as you prepared an end for the serpent which twisted itself, the ruler with seven heads thus you also will be stuck and will sink down." As Polaski points out, some scholars believe Baal's victory over Lotan is set at the time of creation; however, Polaski believes "there is little hard evidence for such a view." 307. Gen. 1.2, Dirtfl 'JT^ T\X$7\. 308. Wildberger, Isaiah 13-27, 579. CAT 1-5:1, 1-5. 309. Polaski, Authorizing an End, 286. 211 What is interesting from this passage is the characteristics attributed to Lotan - "the fleeing serpent," "the serpent which twisted itself," and "the ruler with seven heads." This threefold description is similar to the threefold description of Leviathan found in Isaiah 27.1. This would tend to discount the view that three different beasts are being spoken of in Isaiah. Also, given the possibility that Isaiah 51.9-10 does point to a confrontation at the beginning of the cosmos, such an idea might not be as improbable as Polaski argues. The writer of Isaiah 24-27 seems to be familiar with the story line of the Baal epic, as well as parts of the text itself. Note the comparison between Baal and Yahweh. As just mentioned, in the epic Baal defeats the Sea, becomes king of the gods, builds a palace, has a feast, then sets out to become king of the world. There is one problem. Death rules the world (i.e. people die) and Baal can become king only by overcoming Death. He can only do this by dying and coming back to life. The writer of Isaiah 24-27 mentions that Yahweh becomes king by defeating heaven and earth, and there is a feast afterwards (24.21-23). In 25.6-8 Yahweh swallows up death, just as Death swallowed Baal.310 Next, Yahweh goes out to war with the inhabitants of the land, but these he ends up killing. His corpses, however, will rise and live (26.19-21). So while Yahweh undoes Death, he is also the cause of Death. In this storyline Death has no power. Finally, Yahweh becomes king by defeating Sea (27.1). Baal not only fights Lotan, but Anat tells the messengers of Baal that she also fought the sea god Yam. Anat is Baal's sister, a perpetual adolescent, and everything he does she does first and even better. Baal defeats Sea (CAT 1.2: IV, 1-27). Anat defeats 310. Not the same word. 212 the inhabitants of the land (CAT 1.3: II, 1-40). Baal sends messengers to Anat (CAT 1.3: III, 1-31). When she sees them coming she is afraid that some enemy has arisen against Baal and threatens his kingship (CAT 1.3: III, 32-38) and recites the following. Did I not then crush Ym [= D1], the beloved of El? Did I not prepare an end for River, God of the deep? Did I not muzzle Tnn [= p3n], did I not bind him in cords ? Indeed, I shattered the writhing serpent [btn 'qltn], The ruler with the seven heads." The thrust of her words is what enemy could there be since I, Anat, defeated them all? But, in fact, Baal sent messengers to Anat to tell her to establish peace and love on the earth (CAT 1.3: IV, 7-10). The manner by which Lotan is identified in these Ugaritic texts supports the view found in Isaiah 27.1 and 51.9-10 that Leviathan is a mythic creature. Leviathan was "thought of not only in the sea, but particularly in the primeval sea beneath the earth. Thus he is clearly a being who threatens the earth and therefore to be annihilated if Til prosperity and peace are eventually to prevail upon earth." Before these texts from Ugarit were found, scholars believed the three-fold description of Leviathan represented three of Israel's enemies from time past; usually Egypt, Assyria or Babylon. After the texts were discovered other views began to prevail. March held that "the power symbolized by Leviathan and the dragon stand for all of TIT Yahweh's remaining enemies political and metaphysical." Clements sees in Leviathan an expression of the power of evil and oppression throughout the world. "By slaying it Yahweh removes the cause of social disorder and silences the voice of oppression and 311. Kaiser, Isaiah 13-39, 222. 312. March, "A Study of Two Prophetic Compositions," 182-83. 213 contempt which threatened the lives of Jews."313 Motyer's view is that the entities called 'the powers in the heavens' and 'the host of the height in the height' in Isaiah 24.21 are "here described mythologically as two Leviathans and the serpent." The case which seems to take into consideration both the Canaanite myth and the context of Isaiah 27.1 is that Leviathan was seen as a mythical creature slain in days of old. In Psalms 74 Yahweh's actions against Leviathan (v. 14) take place at the time of creation. Notes verses 15-16 below. imb ""Efta nxsn nnx I ATT : * J" T T : - *\ JT - brm TWO n»pa nnx -ATT IT:- T : I- T \ JT- :TPX ninna n©inn' nna 1 IT / ~: - T : - n - :tfatfi nisa nirsn nnx V IT T / T T • ~: II ~ The earth, at this time, is described as being in a state of chaos (inn). This state of in'n is linked to the beginning of creation in Isaiah 45.18. fixn i^ nrn'pxn am Dentin join mn^-iaK nb •'sniairj Kin ntoin - _ I \*:T T •• • v: T J • - T •• T : IT J • T : i J T : msr raih nxna inh-*6 A TT : vJV T \T T : / nii; pKi nini \ix In the next verse (45.19) the writer uses this language to describe a state of existence even after creation. wyb '•rnoK *b -jtin fix bipaa ^nan nnoa x'b ^itf j?n inn apsr :nnttra Tan pis nan Vnrr ^K Outside of Isaiah inn is used to describe the earth/land before creation in Genesis 1.2. •inn ys'by ^tfrn inirj inn nrvn p^ni :n^an ^s-bi; nanna D-'n'bx mm 313. Clements, Isaiah 1-39, 218. 314. Motyer, Prophecy of Isaiah, 221. The same idea is found in Jeremiah 4.23. AT \ " ' : I V T T V • " T IT I /•• : • \- T - v : Both Leviathan and a state of chaos upon the earth exist before Yahweh begins to create. In line 27.2a a new subject is introduced. The writer speaks of a "delightful vineyard." Isaiah 32.12 tells of "pleasant fields" (*7l?rr'HU7) and a "fruitful vine" (iT'H'S ]DJ). Amos 5.11 proclaims a warning to those who mistreat the poor while living extravagant lives; houses built of well-hewn stone and planting of "pleasant vineyards" (nniJ£03 liarHQ"!?). The use of 7tiTl to describe the "vineyard" stresses its productive nature. Yahweh will be the vineyard's caretaker (lines 3c and 3f, 1^3). Within part of the song found in Isaiah 26, line 3d states that Yahweh keeps the righteous in perfect peace. A few chapters later (31.5) Yahweh is portrayed as a bird hovering protectively over its nest. The nest is Jerusalem whom Yahweh "protects and delivers" (hifil of VS3). Yahweh's protective nature is also described in Isaiah 42.6 and 49.8 (^*1SX). The reason Yahweh will be so fervent in his care is the possibility of some type of threat, "lest someone might visit harm (TpE)) upon it (rpVtf)." There are parallels as well as differences between Isaiah 27.2-6 and Isaiah 5.1-7. By reading these two pericopes it is obvious that they share similar language. Lewis' comments typify the view of most scholars, This song of the vineyard was written as a response, a counter-balance, to the vineyard song of 5.1-7. The themes contained in this song seem at almost every point to reverse the picture presented earlier ... The purpose 215 of the song is to show that the judgment announced in chapter 5 has now passed, and that Yahweh will once again return to his people, and will restore to them their place within his care.315 How might this view affect one's reading of Isaiah 27.1 -6? The author of Isaiah 24-27 has Isaiah 5 in mind when writing 27.1-3. But the setting is different. The legal language is dismissed. The potential threat is vague and appears to come from within rather than outside the realm of God's people. The writer foresees a time when Yahweh's rage will be spent. National restoration will imply national reunification. This vineyard is a sign of a new age, a new beginning. In fact the actions of Yahweh in Isaiah 5.2a seem to be implied in 27.2-3. The undoing of the vineyard (5.5) is a thing of the past. Just as the decimation of the vineyard must precede the establishment of a new one; so Leviathan's demise, the end of chaos, must take place before Yahweh's new vineyard comes forth. A quick reading of Isaiah 5.1-7 and 27.1-3 reveals the similarities between these two pericopes. First, they both have the same subject manner - a vineyard. Secondly, both texts speak of singing about the vineyard (5.1; 27.2). Thirdly, both vineyards are cared for by Yahweh (5.2; 27.3). Fourthly, the two sections share similar predominant words capturing the theme of the passages. ana 5.1 5.3 rpna "prn •ra Knoatf 1 5.4 "•ib"!? ? iiy nituij'rrra , i 5.5 ana ? nw yx~im m ubm xrnirniK nnsn 5.7 bkiw rva Viiaas mrr ana ^ 27.2: :prjp_ia» nan ana xinn ara my Tfp 5.1: n*n rrrtf ^TTS KS rrTtix TT \ • /-• • • I ' T T<-T 27.2: :nb-i3u nan nna xinn Qifla 315. Lewis, A Rhetorical Critical Analysis, 159. ntJD nptf 5.6 T'anna rmx b^nyn bin 'T T /•:-•• v- -: -TV <- : 27.3 n:pm w But despite these similarities, there are also significant differences as Hibbard points out. ' Throughout Isaiah 27.2-3 Yahweh offers his continual care and protection to the vineyard. In Isaiah 5 Yahweh withdraws these and allows his estate to be ruined (5.5-6). In Isaiah 5 Yahweh pursues destruction, whereas in chapter 27 Yahweh is open to the possibility the vineyard might seek peace with him (27.5). Thorns (T??^) and briars (rptf?') are the product of Yahweh's decision to raze the vineyard within Isaiah 5.6, yet in chapter 27 there is no such connection. The vines in chapter 5 produce unusable fruit (5.2, 4). Isaiah 27.6 tells of the Jacob and Israel (the vineyard) taking root, blossoming, sprouting, and eventually filling the entire world with fruit. These two chapters with their similarities and differences have proffered a variety of understanding with regards to the relationship between the texts. One theory is that "Isaiah 27.2-6 reverses the thought of Isaiah 5.1 -7 in some way." Clements argues for such a picture of reversal. He sees the coming judgment threatened in the Isaiah 5 passage abrogated in Isaiah 27. The writer in the latter entertains the prospect that salvation and well-being may occur.318 Blenkinsopp sees a theological development occurring between the two chapters.319 Polaski offers the idea that "Isaiah 27 does more than simply reverse Isaiah 5, but implicit in the way Isaiah 27 states its case is the idea 316. Hibbard, Intertextuality, 379. 317. Ibid. 318. Clements, Isaiah 1-39, 219. 319. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1-39, 375. 217 that the threat in Isaiah 5 can once again be "activated" if the offer of peace in 27.6 is not accepted."320 Brian Peckham offers an alternative view.321 Rather than seeing Isaiah 5.1-7 coming from the hand of one individual, he proposes that verses 1 -2 and 4-5 came from Isaiah and verses 3 and 6-7 were the work of another writer. Isaiah's allegorical song is about a vineyard. The vineyard is the northern kingdom and the reason for their demise is their production of wild grapes. Amazingly, they do not comprehend the meaning of the song. They have drunk themselves into a stupor and are unable to comprehend what is going on around them (5.11-12, 18-19). The writer turns the episode into a formal indictment against Israel and Judah and calls upon the inhabitants of Jerusalem to be the juror, "And now, O inhabitants of Jerusalem and men of Judah, judge between Me and My vineyard" (5.3). The writer describes the wild grapes as lack of justice and righteousness (5.7). According to Peckham the author of Isaiah 27.2-6 had no part in the composing of 5.1-7. How does Peckham's view affect one's reading of Isaiah 27.1-6? The author does have Isaiah 5 in mind. But the setting is different. The legal language is dismissed. The potential threat is vague and appears to come from within rather than outside the realm of God's people. The writer foresees a time when Yahweh's rage will be spent. National restoration will imply national reunification. This vineyard is a sign of a new age, a new beginning. In fact the actions of Yahweh in Isaiah 5.2a seem to be implied in 27.2-3. The undoing of the vineyard (5.5) is a thing of the past. Just as the decimation of the 320. Hibbard, Intertextuality, 178. Polaski, Authorizing an End, 333-55. 321. Peckham, History and Prophecy, 144-45. 218 vineyard must precede the establishment of a new one; so Leviathan's demise, the end of chaos, must take place before Yahweh's new vineyard comes forth. Interpretation Yahweh's visitation of Leviathan is the subject of strophe one, stanza one. "On that day" one of Yahweh's tasks will be to "visit harm" upon and "kill" Leviathan, a mythical creature, with his sword. Yahweh's action, much like that at the beginning of creation, also marks the beginning of a new age. Because of the people's actions, as described in 24.5, the inhabitants of the land were sent into exile (24. Id) and the land returned to a state similar to that of primitive chaos (24.3a-b,19). Yahweh's actions against the people and the land also impacted one city in particular, Jerusalem, which is described as inTrrPIp, a city of void in 24.10. The people's lawlessness leads to their exile, a state described as in'fl. The land enters into the same state. If exile is linked with a state of void or chaos, then a return from exile would mark a new age or creation. For this to take place chaos would need to be abolished and Yahweh's order restored. Symbolically, this is depicted as Yahweh visiting Leviathan, a symbol of chaos, and slaying it. "The apocalyptic promise of the new age of divine rule is signaled by the slaying of the dragon."322 Israel's restoration may also be likened to a new exodus. Israel is delivered from a land of IH'n and returned to a land which is no longer inn. Deuteronomy 32.10-11 speaks of such a land and deliverance. 322. Childs, Isaiah, 197. 219 ]b©i b^ innai is-ta pxn in«sn^ :iri; iitf'Ks innr mim* Nnaaab'' i •• \ i • : : \v : • •• : J : : v : i : HU.T i^Tirbi; iip TIP ntfta 1 1 n :irnaK"b» inNts ^inrtip- VSJS t£ha i T : v - \- T • - IT • T T : < : • As Sweeney points out,323 such exodus language and imagery is also found in Isaiah 11.11-16. Verses 11-13 speak of a restored remnant from both Judah and Israel. Restoration also involves the removal of their enemies and Yahweh confronting the "Sea (U\) of Egypt." Yahweh will "wave his hand over the river with his scorching wind (iim 0^3)." Sweeney connects this language to that found in Isaiah 27.1. "Isaiah 27.1 and 27.2-13 relate to 11.10-16, which employs the same imagery, including the smiting of the Nile into seven streams and a reference to the seven-headed Leviathan, to describe the restoration of Israel to its land."325 Isaiah 27.1 introduces a new beginning. The exiled people and desolate land will undergo a reformation. Yahweh's action against Leviathan is the first step. The subject of the following stanza (27.2-3) is that of a vineyard which belongs to Yahweh. The three major products of the land are grain, oil, and wine. The growing of grapes was an important part of farming life in Canaan. The first line of the stanza (line 2a) states that "on that day" there will be a "vineyard." Within Isaiah 24-27 this is the first time D"|3 appears; though there have been references to wine, the produce of vineyards - 24.7, 9; 25.6. 323. Sweeney, Isaiah 1-39, 344. 324. We will see this imagery again in Isaiah 27.8d. 325. Sweeney, Isaiah 1-39, 344-45 220 The vineyard is "tan. The root idea of Tan expresses that which one finds desirable or pleasurable. The reason it will be a productive vineyard is because Yahweh will be its caretaker (27.3c); definitely something to sing about (27.3b, cf. 25.5c). Lines 3c and 3f state that Yahweh will be the vineyard's guard or keeper (Ti3). Yahweh will be diligent in this task for he will watch over it UV\ Tt^b. The reason Yahweh will be so fervent in his care is the possibility of some type of threat, "lest someone might visit harm ("7|?3) upon it (rpVy)." This wording is reminiscent of verse 1 where Yahweh visited (TJ7S) Leviathan (trH.V *??) with harmful intentions. Yahweh will now play the role of defender. The sword used for destruction (27.1) now is the instrument of protection. Lastly, Yahweh will be diligent in regularly watering (!"?£$) the vineyard. The task of hydrating the land is mentioned in Isaiah 58.11. After the people complain that their fasting is not appreciated, Yahweh sets forth what type of fast he desires - care of the needy (58.6-7, 10a). If the people respond favorably Yahweh commits to the following. jonnss ^n^a«i ^piK ^tfna rnn H^O- TP^I ''W Vtinsnsa sratorn '''Tan "mrr ^nai rva^a lawK1? -itfa era xsiaai nil pa Vrm - IT \ : - : /•/-: * ~ JT v T L : T • T : What is of particular interest with regard to these texts is the similarity in imagery with Isaiah 27.1-3. First, the land in which the people are dwelling is depicted as an arid region (niTOns, 58.11). Secondly, this arid region will become like an everlasting watered garden (ITn ]X3i) and a source or spring of water (W12 K^iDDl). This reversal of fortune for the land, from dryness and barrenness to abundance and moisture, is 221 prominent in Isaiah 27 (vv.4, 10 and vv.3, 6). The delightful setting of 27.2-3 is due to Yahweh caring for and watering the vineyard, much like what we find in Isaiah 58. From the above synopsis of 27.2-3 it would appear that the vineyard represents a restored time and place. No longer will the land be desolate and dry. Yahweh will bring about a reversal. The land will be protected and cared for by Yahweh. Such a state is one of order and harmony. From clues gained from other texts we must also be open to the possibility that such a state of being applies to those who will inhabit the land. As goes the land, so goes its inhabitants, and vice versa. How then might this idea fit with Isaiah 27.1? First, the two stanzas emphasize Yahweh's actions. In the first stanza Yahweh pays a visit to Leviathan and ends up killing it. In the second stanza Yahweh stands ready to protect the vineyard in case someone decides to visit and do it harm. Also, he is ready to guard and water it. All of these actions are for the benefit of his people. 27.1-3 also contrasts the states of being of the land and its inhabitants. Leviathan, as a symbol of a primordial chaotic state brought about by the exile, must be destroyed if the land is to be restored or recreated. Verses 2-3 present a picture of what this idealistic state might look like. Doyle and Kissane see a marital metaphor within verses 2-3. For Doyle, Yahweh is as a husband to his people as he is husband (in the agricultural sense) to the vine. Kissane notes that at the time of the exodus Israel becomes Yahweh's inheritance. The exile represents his abandonment and these verses speak of his intention to recover his 326. Doyle, Apocalypse of Isaiah, 349. 222 possession once more. Kissane points out that the same process is expressed by the figure of espousal, divorce and re-espousal in Isaiah 54.6f. 21 Strophe Two, 2 Stanzas: 27.4-5 and27.6 Sequential Analysis 27.4-6 7 + 3 4 a n: asyn NP-NS-PP "b VK nan A • 1 J" \T •' b v-y/m: asyn NS-VB-DO-DO-PP T T : • - . _ / • T • •• : • i • c v-y/m: asyn SVB-PP na nytoax d v-y/m: asyn SVB-Adv HIT narrsK 5 e v-y/m: conj Cj-SVB-PP vwaa PAT ix T : 1 j"-:- f v-y/m: asyn SVB-DO-PP b Why ntmr g v-y/m: asyn DO-SVB-PP 6 a v-y: asyn Adv{ptc}-VB-NS apir EW b^an b v-y: asyn VB-VB-NS A" T : • \~ T I / • T c v-y: cons wSVB-DO-IO inaian^amas i*6a} IT : \ : / : T Stanza One (27.4-5): 7 lines Seven lines make up this stanza. Except for the first, the lines are verbal, Yiqtol in tense and modal in mood. Line 4b introduces the modal mood of condition, "Should someone ... then I would ..." Line 5e begins with the conjunction IK, and sets forth the second alternative. The response to Yahweh by the people is essential. If they act in one way, then Yahweh would respond in a particular manner. Line 5e, however, sets out Yahweh's preference of response. Punctuation is marked by the return to the indicative mood in the first clause of the next stanza. 327. Kissane, Book of Isaiah, 300. 223 Stanza Two (27.6): 3 lines This short stanza consists of three verbal clauses. The first and second lines are Yiqtol. Line 6b is a compound clause. Punctuation is indicated by the final clause beginning with waw (Yiqtol consecutive). Literary Artistry The first line (4a) states that no rage belongs to Yahweh, ''b ],K HQn. The last two (5f-g) lines end with the same preposition and first personal pronominal suffix that end the first (,,7). This pronominal suffix is also found in line 4b ('MrP) and line 5e ('TWID3). Because rage cannot be found within Yahweh (4a), one is encouraged to make DiVu?' with him (5f-g). To emphasize the call to such action, the writer reverses the expected word order of verb - object as found in line 5f, W\b^U HiBir, to object - verb, ntmr mb©, in line 5g. Line 4b is intricately bound with the two lines following it. Yahweh's enemy is defined in line 4b. The first four words of the clause stress the long "i" sound in the last syllable, JVU? T!?U?' ,33rP",Z?. Yahweh's action in return is twofold (lines 4c-d). Both lines begin with N (same verb form) and end with 71. The two lines are short and succinct. The final three lines (5e-g) are joined together through the same subject, a third masculine singular noun. Finally, these two triplets (lines 4b-d and 5e-g) are linked together by the contrast between the object of the prepositional phrases found at the end 224 of each initial clause, nanVfoS (line 4b) and ,!r!H703 (line 5e). One is encouraged to find in Yahweh a shelter or protection rather than confronting him in battle. With regard to the length of the lines within this strophe, the longest is line 4b, which creates a sense of unbalance. The remainder of the lines in verse 4 are blunt and have a staccato sound. They rhyme with one another by the "ah" sound. The three lines in verse 5 are slightly longer and are linked to each other by the long "i" vowel, rhymes, and brute repetition. The second stanza of this strophe is the shortest one so far in this section. Both the first and second lines end with the subject of that particular clause, Jacob (line 6a) and Israel (line 6b). Both clauses use the same metaphor and are positive in their outlook. The last clause brings both subjects together in that their activity will bring about produce that will fill the entire earth. Translation 4 a Rage have I none, b should a thorny briar oppose me in battle, c I would march against it, d I would set it on fire, 5 e or it might grasp my protection, f it might make peace with me, g let it make peace with me. 6 a Jacob, in the days to come, will take root, b Israel will put forth blooms and buds, c And the surface of the ground will be filled with produce. 225 Intertextuality Isaiah 27.4c-d tell of Yahweh's actions against the briars which may counter him. Isaiah 9.17-18 contains similar speech in describing how Yahweh treats the wicked. bsKh rvtfi "rati n&Eh raxnmin-' s A" • \~T / • T T : ' - T < T-: T :\w niaa WSKITI -iirn "onoa nam I ITT /•• \ : - : i- - j- : i • : _._ •pa onua nixaa mrr masa l -AT J- : v \ T : /T v - : v : :"ibbrr x'7 TTTN^K Eh< rax rpbxia? bi?n vn The depiction of plenty in 27.6 may also be found in Isaiah 4.2. liisbi -<2%b nirr ras rrm xinn Di'a - AT: \ • T : "JV v : r J ~ Depicting Israel as healthy productive vegetation is also found in Hosea 14.5/6-8/9. I i T : - \T T T 1-- : i-]in rw? vri vrrtpa1; ^b; Miscall points out that plant imagery as a sign of restoration increases in frequency and "IOC detail from 32.16-20 and reaches an apex in Isaiah 60-62. Another intertextual link with 27.6a-b is Ezekiel 7.10 which it contradicts, nrrrn ma na«n ys rnssn ni«r nxn nan nisn nsn. All of Ezekiel 7 quotes other * IT- \ - T V - - I T < T • : - T : PT AT T J" • \ ~ /" • A prophets to refer to the coming day of disaster. There is only one other place where the verbs HX and ms occur together, Numbers 17.23 with regard to the blossoming of Aaron's staff. 328. Miscall, Isaiah, 72. 226 Interpretation Isaiah 24.4 begins with a declarative statement, "Rage have I none." The context is defined by the temporal phrase, "on that day" from verse 2. Yahweh acted upon his rage in Isaiah 26.20 and his people were warned to hide from it. Now Yahweh is in protective mode. The absence of rage is comparable to the promise of peace in 26.3d, "the firm minded you keep in perfect peace," and a time of peace that had existed before Israel had turned from Yahweh, "Yahweh, you were establishing peace for us" (26.12a). This declaration is followed by six lines (27.4b-5g) which according to Sweeney set forth "the alternatives open to the people in metaphorical language. If the people respond with hostility (v.4b-d) then Yahweh will likewise react with hostility. If the people will accept Yahweh's refuge (v.5e-g) then Yahweh will respond with peace."3 9 Those who oppose Yahweh are likened to thorny briars (rw T'ptp). Such individuals are contrasted with the productive vines of line 2a. The briars are called upon to make peace with Yahweh, a positive response to the peace he offers. The language in this stanza alludes to the possible threat pointed out in line 3e, which Yahweh will intently guard against. Also, the briars serve to remind one of a land or state of dryness and desolation resulting from opposing Yahweh. But just as certainly as Yahweh overthrew Leviathan (27.1), he will not allow such resistance. In lines 4c-d it states that Yahweh will "march against it" (Fi3 nS7ip?K) and "set it on fire" (narPXX). The objective suffix with both verbs is third feminine singular. In the next verse all three verbs possess a third masculine subject, which would agree with the briars in 4b or the 329. Sweeney, Isaiah 1-39, 347. 227 vineyard in line 2a. But who or what is the antecedent of the suffixes in lines 4c-d? I offer the suggestion that the feminine suffixes are looking forward and refer to the fortified city (ITIISa TS7, fern.) spoken of in line 10a. This gender connection, the city being described as forsaken and abandoned like a wilderness, and the briars in line 4b, tie these two strophes together. Yahweh will march against the city and consume it with fire. Therefore, these three lines (27.4b-d) stand as "a warning to the future community that Yahweh brooks no opposition even among his own people."330 Even though the verbs describing Yahweh's activity, S7&3 and IVIS, appear only here in the Hebrew scripture, they can be seen as offensive moves one might take when attacking a city. This is further supported by line 4b which states that such opposition would occur during a time of battle. If the language of lines 4b-d alludes to a city under attack, it would prepare one for what is to come in 27.10-11. The second alternative is for the people to lay hold of Yahweh's protection (Ti3?K>). This call is to be understood in relationship to what Yahweh has been for his people in the past. "You have been a refuge (T1J7ID) for the weak; a refuge (T157D) for the poor in his distress" (Isaiah 25.4a-b). By recalling Yahweh's past actions on behalf of previous generations, the writer lays a foundation to encourage trust within the present age. Yahweh's protection, already mentioned in lines 3c and 3f, is what will bring about peace. Brueggemann reaches back to 27.1 and points out that "peace is precisely the antithesis to the chaos the monster would cause." 330. Redditt, Isaiah 24-27, 381. 331. Brueggemann, Isaiah 1-39,213. 228 Isaiah 27.6 returns to the imagery of the vineyard and identifies the vines as Jacob and Israel reunited. Abiding in Yahweh's protection and care produces an abundance of produce. This stands in stark contrast to the barrenness and lack of output mentioned earlier in 24.7b, "the vine dries out." Isaiah 4.2 also mentions a similar picture. -nan'?! •as'? rnrr nraa ^rrrr *onn ova - AT: \ • : • T : -JV V :i • J ~ The phrase Wfyfil O'Nan in Isaiah 27.6a-b may be short hand for D^X-YL If so, it fits well with MTTH Dis3 in verse 2, and the whole stanza (27.6) is a continuation of 27.2- 3 just as the battle scene in 27.1 is continued by the battle scene in 27.4-5. Strophe Three, 2 Stanzas: 27.7-8 and 27.9 Sequential Analysis 4 + 4 v-q/m: asyn PP{n-ptc/do}-SVB/DO insn maa naaan v-q/m: conj Cj-PP{n-ptc/do}-SVB :nn vann anns'OK v-y: asyn INF/DO-IND/DO-SVB/DO naann nrntfa nxsxoa v-q: asyn SVB-PP-PP :D"HP era n^jpn inna nan i -IT / : \T IT - / : VTT v-y: conj Cj-PP-VB-NS apir-pi) -)S3i nSi3 p«p n-cl: para wNS-NP-{n-inf-do} inKtsn non "Hs^a nn A T - J • T \ • : T v : n-cl: asyn INF/NS-DO-PP ni223?3 V^aaxa nara ^ais-ba haitoa T ••. : v-y: asyn VB-NS-wNS to^am D"nttfK TOP^XS r T - : \ • •• ~: )/*-.T Stanza One (27.7-8): 4 lines This strophe consists of two stanzas containing the same number of lines. The lines in the first stanza are all verbal. The first two lines (7a-b) are subordinate (conjunctive, interrogative) and Qatal. The last two lines (8c-d) are asyndetic, the first (8c) Yiqtol indicative, and the second (8d) Qatal indicative. 229 Stanza Two (26.9): 4 lines The Yiqtol sequence, composed of conjunctive (9a) and asyndetic (9d) clauses, is modified by two nominal clauses (9b-c). The first (9b) is paratactic, and coordinate to the opening conjunctive clause (9a). The second (9c) is infinitival and subordinate to the last lines (9d). Literary Artistry The four lines making up the first stanza (lines 7a-8d) are divided into two sections. The first line (7a) begins with the interrogative pronoun 0- This line and the next (7b) both commence with a comparative prepositional phrase. The object of the preposition is in the construct state and the subsequent word is a participle with a third person masculine singular objective suffix. Finally, the lines end with a Qatal verb. Another trait linking these lines together is that every word of each line is derived from the same root - line 7a, fD3; line 7b, nn. The last two lines of the first stanza (lines 8c-d) are parallel. Word order, however, is inverted. The first line begins with two prepositional (2) phrases and the second ends with two prepositional (also 3) phrases. Not only are the final two lines tied together but each line is bound by repetition of sound. In the third line (9c) each word ends with the same sound, H T , and in the last line (9d) there is an alternation and meeting of sounds (a-a/u-o/a-a/o-a-i). The second stanza follows the preceding stanza's pattern with the first two lines working together and the last two bound together. The links between the first two lines are the following. First, both begin with the demonstrative pronoun HT. Secondly, the 230 words following the pronoun are similar in sound, 1SD''. (line 9a) and ,"I3~V3 (line 9b). Lastly, the attributive pronoun, inNttrt (line 9b) has as its antecedent, D'ptfT, in line 9a. The final two lines share similarities in the last half of each clause. Line 9c repeats the noun ,3DS in order to speak of the transformation. Line 9d repeats the final masculine plural ending D\ , in discussing the demolition of the Asherim and incense altars. These final two lines both address the means by which Jacob sinned. Translation 7 a Like the blow of the one striking him down, does he strike down? b Or like the slaughter of the one who slays him, is he being slain? 8 c By driving away, by sending her away, you have strived against her, d He has removed her by his severe wind on the day of an east wind. 9 a Therefore, in this way the iniquity of Jacob will be atoned for, b And this will be the full fruit of removing his sin, c When he will make all the stones of the altars as stones of pulverized lime, d When the Asherim and the incense altars are not standing. Intertextuality In line 7a the root of all three words is HD3. This root appears in Isaiah 10 within the context of the remnant of Israel and the house of Jacob no longer relying upon the one who struck them but rather Yahweh, irDQ-1?!? ]mrh nj^TPn nB^Sl. Isaiah 10.5-6 and 10.24 tells of Assyria being used by Yahweh as his instrument of wrath. ;2N oatf -ntfK ""in i • : - _ \ T T : / v ~ WSK Trim D»-l7S7i Hn^tfK *pn ^as AV~ -: \ • T : v /- - : v : - -: I-T < : :nisin -inns omn praTOL?i] (ia,,to,?i) ta tabi ^btf b'b^b L i v / : \T : • / :JX •:' - JT: TT < : • Ti»3 nor •'au x-rn-^K nixaa Vnrr ^IK -inx-PD pb-iwxa I \ • /•• v • - IT- - T : * : atarr p-*6 iaabi naT p-*6 rom A : - I j" \ T : v - : I j" : :D»Q *6 cia nnanbi iaaba Tatfr6 ^ IT: / \ - / • : - : T : - J • : - : • < Because of Assyria's stubborn resolve, Yahweh will in turn strike Assyria (10.25). •ima aua -rims AT : • J- : \ arrbarrbj; ^sxi DJJT n^si IT • : - - \ • - : T JT : Such imagery and language provides a link between Isaiah 10 and 27.7a-b. This linkage is further developed in Isaiah 37.36 where the angel of the Lord goes out and strikes (!"D3) the camp of the Assyrians. Finally Isaiah 30.31-32 describes Assyria's terror when Yahweh strikes with a rod. iim nrr mrr bipa-p :ns: csajsa nitiaai o-'sna rbv 'mrr' mr im rrioia rraa nara bs rrm - A - : \ - •-. : T T T : - < • T v ~: TT I J- - - ~: i < T T : :pa] (na)-Dnb3 nsian nianbaa^ L IT J x T ' ~ : • VT : /-::•: Polaski points out that the majority of uses of the verb "to strike" 0"D3) "focus either on slaughter in battle or plagues which come upon the disobedient."332 Deuteronomy 28.58-59 speaks of disobedience and the resulting consequences of violating Yahweh's covenant. 332. Polaski, Authorizing an End, 297. 232 nx-fn rninn naT^s-nx nitbyb -ifctin KVaxrrrn -1503 Q^insn :^nSx rnrr nx nm Vniarn "laaan Df'rrriK nxyb° ^inr nisra nxi ^nlpirnK rnrr Kjpsrn T /' T T: T The connection between being struck and violating the laws of Yahweh, the stipulations of the covenant, is also found in Isaiah 24.5-6. The basis for Yahweh's actions is a violation of his covenant by Israel and Assyria or any other entity which oversteps the stipulations of Yahweh. Similar ideas are found elsewhere in Isaiah. - - - : : -i •* -~ JT T ST j" : T : I - T T I " • T iv niacin mpa nmos arbna TIITI A vLv : \T " VT T : • s • : ~ :m£M IT' TiUl 33312K 2W~vh nKT-l»S IT : /T \ : JT T : Isaiah 5.25 insamj; yH~vb arm A" - - - \T IT T : :ra-n *6 nixais nirr-nio Isaiah 9.12/13 The verbal idea behind Y\n (27.7b) is to slaughter or kill. It is not used of the slaying of animals for sacrifice. Rather, it is used to depict the killing of humans and frequently of violent killing in war or times of conspiracy. Yahweh slays Leviathan in Isaiah 27.1. In Isaiah 26.21 Yahweh will punish the inhabitants of the earth and "the earth will reveal her bloodshed and will no longer cover those she slew (ITrnn)." Such behavior by Yahweh is also found in Isaiah 27.4 when the writer tells how Yahweh will respond against any threat to his vineyard. Isaiah 27.8c tells of Yahweh contending (3'H) with his people. He does this by banishing them (XOXO) and sending them away (phw). The latter verb is a Piel infinitive. 333. This is the opposite of the idea in line 4a, "rage have I none." 233 The same root in the same stem appears in Jeremiah 3.1 within the context of divorce proceedings between Yahweh and Israel, irutiXTlX ttTX nb& ]n. "Given the appearance in Isaiah 27.8 of ?fW, with its legal overtones, and a Piel form of Th\ti, with its connotation of divorce, it is certainly allowable to hear an echo of divorce proceedings in general and those between Yahweh and Israel in particular in the passage at hand.' Deuteronomy 24.1 clearly links sending one's wife away (Piel) and divorce and this Deuteronomic passage is taken up later in Jeremiah 3.6-10. _,, "ifn mis na Ksa s rrin irrNsan KVDK rrm T T J- : V T T Interpretation Up to this point in Isaiah 27 Yahweh has been the predominant actor. Yahweh is victorious over Leviathan. If needed, Yahweh will march against briars. It would be consistent with the preceding verses if Yahweh is the one with whom the one striking and slaughtering in 27.7a-b is being compared. However, from our earlier study in the intertextuality section we concluded that the writer had Assyria and in time Babylon in mind. Yahweh will not act against his own people in such a vicious manner. There is a difference between Yahweh and Assyria. Isaiah 27.8c-d informs us Yahweh's means of contending with his people is by sending them into exile. Polaski sets forth four reasons why the language of this stanza should be understood as referring to the exile.335 First, the verb tiip often appears in the context of 334. Polaski, Authorizing an End, 302. 335. Ibid., 299-300. 234 exile. The second reason is the reference to the east wind, which is often used as an instrument of Yahweh's anger. Third, the word H3& (27.7) occasionally describes the punishing effects of exile. For example, in Isaiah 14.5-6 the verb refers directly to the activity of Babylon. try©-] nan mrr -no mo irbz nsra rnaua b^rai; narc :^ton ^a ^Tia a^ia ^xa rnn Finally, Polaski points out that "death may represent exile in some texts, including texts concerning death and 'resurrection' such as Isaiah 25.7 and 26.19."336 Polaski prefers to see verse 8 as a prediction of a future event. However, according to line 8c, "driving away" and "sending away" is the method by which Yahweh contends p,"l) with Israel. The exile is how Yahweh strikes and slays his people in order to bring about restoration. Also, to use the imagery of an east wind to bring about the exile, recalls the scattering found in Isaiah 24.Id. In line 27.8c the subject switches to the second person singular, naa'Hri. The reason for this is that the line refers to Yahweh's divorce of his wife, either the city or the land. Another ambiguity within this first stanza (27.7-8) is the appearance of three masculine singular suffixes in verse 7a (Vv3"in ... ^nsn IHSI?) and three feminine suffixes in verse 8c (nsa'Hn nnbffiQ HXQXOa). To whom do these suffixes refer? The masculine v / TAV - : JT : ' : \T : - : suffixes refer to Jacob and Israel in lines 6a-b. The feminine suffixes refer back to Van in 336. Polaski, Authorizing an End, 299. 235 line 6c and its common parallel f*]K. Their presence may also be looking forward to the city (fern) mentioned in line 10a in the next strophe. In the second stanza (27.9) of this strophe the focus is upon preparing the land and the people for restoration. The question is how does this occur? The verse states it will occur "in this way," (HX'T?) yet does not elaborate on what "this" refers. Leene argues that the demonstrative pronoun refers to the conditionality of the statements which follow.337 On the other side, Blenkinsopp believes the phrase refers back to verse 8 and expresses the redemptive purpose of the exile.338 I agree with Blenkinsopp's position of the pronoun looking back to verse 8. The feminine demonstrative pronoun can refer to the striking (H3D) of line 8a as well as the divorce procedure in line 8c. The striking by Yahweh via Assyria or Babylon and the exile are the agents which will facilitate this atonement. The need for such atonement is expressed in 24.5 where the land is said to have been "defiled" (lin) by its inhabitants and 26.21 where Yahweh is coming forth to visit the iniquity of the inhabitants of the land. Again, note the interconnectedness of the land and those who dwell upon it. What about the masculine demonstrative pronoun in line 9b, i"tt? Following my line of reason, the pronoun would refer back to the slaughter (JIH) mentioned in line 7b. One of the effects of the exile will be the removal of all illegitimate cultic practices. This is not the first time Yahweh has expressed his disapproval of such activity. Isaiah 17.8 addresses this matter. 337. Hendrick Leene, "Isaiah 27.7-9 as a Bridge between Vineyard and City," in Studies in Isaiah 24-27 (ed. Henrik Jan Bowman, Harm van Grol et al.; Leiden: Brill, 2000), 204. 338. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1-39, 377. See also Kaiser, Isaiah 13-39, 226-28. 236 HKT x'b Vrwaax itos? -I&JKI i • T - T : \ • - -: T : The prescribed actions taken to rid the land of such practices are described in lines 27.9c-d. These actions are precisely those enjoined by the Deuteronomist in Deuteronomy 7.5. natfn nnaaai ttsfin nrrnnans ahb \vvn rra-DK-'a :tixa "psnton nrr'rpai ]iinan bnTjBKi Strophe Four, 2 Stanzas: 27.10 and 27.11 Sequential Analysis 6 + 5 n: conj Cj-NS-NP -na 'n-nsa -p» ^ T T T : < • J/ n-cl: asyn NS-NP{ptc} /T ••. : VT n-cl: para NS-NP{ptc} nairas sum AT : • - \TV: v v-y: asyn Adv-VB-NS •?w n»T otf v-y: disj w/Adv-SVB I \T /T : v-y: cons wSVB-DO T iv • : /T * : v-y: asyn INF-NS-VB nnatfn PITS? tira T:~T- T • 1: < . • n-cl: asyn NS-PTC-PTC-DO nnix ni-rxn nixa D^a AT J ' : - \ T • T n: conj Cj-NP-NS Kin nira D» vb rs -t v-y: conj Cj-VB/DO-NS{ptc/do into laranT-tf'p p ?i? v-y: disj wNS{ptc/do}-VB/DO :133!T *6 W] Stanza One (26.10): 6 lines Three nominal and three verbal clauses make up this stanza. Punctuation occurs when this switch from nominal to verbal clauses takes place. There is also a secondary marker within the verbal clauses with the switch from asyndetic (line 1 Od) to lines beginning with 1 (line lOe-f). 237 Stanza Two (26.11): 5 lines Isaiah 26.11 consists of five lines. The first line (1 la) is Yiqtol asyndetic and sets forth the main premise of the stanza, "Branches are broken off." The next two lines are nominal and explanatory in nature. The final two lines are also Yiqtol. Line lid begins with the conjunction 13-,7V and line 1 le is disjunctive and is parallel to the line preceding it. Punctuation is marked by the rPiTl in the first line (12a) in the next strophe. Literary Artistry Lines lOa-c are nominal. The fortified city of line 10a is described as being isolated (TJ2, 10a), a grazing place (ITU, 10b) and abandoned pn?Tl:,10c). The final two words of line 10a both begin with the consonant 3. Yet one would not expect these two words together. The fact that the fortified city is not isolated in a positive sense is made clear in the next two lines. Lines lOb-c both start with the consonant 3 and are followed by a singular qualifying word. The last word of line 10b is a participle as is the first word in line 10c. Also, the participles share similar ideas. The last two lines (lOe-f) are in elision with line lOd. The subject of line lOd, VlJ7, is also the subject of the following clauses. Both lines lOd and lOe begin with the adverb U1D and the verbs which follow start with the same sound T . The last word in the strophe rpDVO, is qualified by the third feminine singular suffix which refers back to T5? in line 10a. Repetition of sound in each line is one of the main literary features in the second stanza (26.11). The middle clause (lie) begins with the conjunction ''S and tells why the 238 metaphorical action in lines 1 la-b takes place and introduces why the resulting action of lines 1 ld-e occurred. Within this clause the two vowels of the last two words, X1H and Dira, are the dominant occurring vocalic sounds found in line 1 lb (Di-) and lines 1 ld-e (1). Of the four words in line 1 lb three of them contain the long holem ni- (nniX, fl'TKp, DiX|l). In lines 1 ld-e the dominant vocalic ending is 1 Q\TlpV, 13O0T., 133JT). It is interesting to note that this pattern of ending the majority of lines with the same sound is also present in line 11a with H T . Translation 10 a For like a fortified city, he is isolated, b a forsaken grazing place, c and abandoned as the wilderness, d where a calf grazes, e and there lies down, f and consumes its twigs. 11 a When its branches get brittle, they are broken off, b women come, light them on fire, c for this is not a people of understanding, d therefore, their maker did not have compassion upon them, e and the one who formed them did not show favor upon them. Intertextuality Isaiah 27.1 Od tells of a calf (%¥) grazing in a forsaken city. A calf in Leviticus is a sacrificial victim (9.2-3, 8). A similar picture is found in Isaiah 5.17 where lambs, also sacrificial animals, graze in pastures. 239 AT:T: \ • T : / T : nbrKr ana ••'no nirnm Polaski claims that "having the calf take up residence in the city could be a subtle comment as to the reasons for the city's demise." Half of the time when %$ appears in the Hebrew Bible it is associated with some type of deviant religious behavior.340 Also, in Zephaniah 2.5-6, 14 animals occupy destroyed cities. DTTD "na a»n ban ^ •'in - A • •• : J \T v/v •/•• : i tiKii ni-nai DT'-I nhs niD D;n bnn nrvm ilp-aa nxp-na •'iriirrrbs bmu nDinn rami ir'r rmnsDa P- - - IT - : - T * T-: An interesting connection between the city of Isaiah 27.10 and the city Jerusalem in Lamentations 1.1 is made by Polaski.34' Lamentations describes the city as a lonely (T72, cf. 27.10a) city that once "was full of people! She has become like a widow who was once great among the nations." The city is isolated as a result of the divorce and abandonment (exile). Reading forward in Isaiah we can find the same imagery in 32.14. D^iir-ti? ni-iina im rrn inai bz'v - T - T: < : TT|__T „ j :anii7 ninp onos fcriton The idea of Yahweh as "maker" (HfP V) and "former" (1?^ is found in Isaiah 27.1 ld-e. Isaiah 44.2 is an exhortation for Jacob and Israel to not be afraid because Yahweh has not only chosen them (v. 1), but he is also the one who made and formed them from the beginning. 339. Polaski, Authorizing an End, 312. 340. 1 Kings 12.28; Hosea 8.2; Exodus 32. 341. Polaski, Authorizing an End, 311. 240 ^p.Tir ]aap yps'n ^toi? mrr -inK-rra Yet the people's response is to take the wood used for common purposes, craft it into a god, and worship it, iDy~tap'l bps into!? (44.15). A few verses later it is said of these individuals, tnnab ^ntona •rpri? Vri*n» TO ^S irrr N'bl WT K'1? (44.18). Jeremiah J IT • \ • : - •• •.•••!•• : i" <- J- A- T J : \ :T V J 4.20 informs us that the land is devastated QHNrr^S n"H© "'S). In fact, the verse begins with the clause Xip3 ^jfcrbv "QEJ, which is the same root that appears in 27.1 la where it describes the limbs as being "broken off 03^')- Two verses later (Jer. 4.22) we discover the reason for this devastation is the people not knowing their God. ni?T vb n^n1^ unnb rran D^nn ITT / \ • •• : - T : T •• / • T -; How does this fortified city compare to those mentioned earlier within Isaiah 24- 26? The city of void (Isaiah 24.10-12) is comparable. It is a city filled with nothingness (in'n). Destruction (HSU?) and desolation (rPXti?) are all that remain within the broken gates. The joy of the land is going into exile (Tt%). Another comparable city is that found in Isaiah 25.2 which is described in line 2b as "a fortified (rniS3) city." The exact same adjective appears in 27.10. This city will be occupied by foreigners and become a heap (%). The next comparable city is found in Isaiah 26.1. It is a "city of strength" (line lb). The city is inhabited and a place where a "righteous nation" dwells and its inhabitants find peace (verses 2-3). This city is immediately contrasted with the "lofty city" of 26.5a. This city is "brought low into the ground," and "struck down into the dust" (26.5b). From this brief survey it would appear that all the cities are described in a 241 similar manner to the city of 27.10. This being the case, it would not be a stretch to identify the city as Jerusalem as it is in the other cases. Interpretation The six lines of the first stanza contain two subjects - a city and a calf which roams about the city. The once fortified city is now isolated 07?), forsaken (nVttft?), and abandoned pT$3). In this state the city is described as a grazing place (ITU) or an abode for flocks, as well as a wilderness ("I27Q). The city is distinctly different from the vineyard (27.3). Its twigs (line lOf) are consumed rather than productive. The fortified city is associated with the previous strophe in two ways. First, what is described in 27.7-8 is also portrayed in the first three lines of verse 10. The city has been struck down and left abandoned. An explicit connection between these two sections is found in the repetition of the verb nVu?. In verse 8, line 8c, Yahweh contends against "her," by sending her away (PinVufa). In verse 10, line 10b, the city is compared to a forsaken (nVufo) place. The second association is with the cultic items which are destroyed (9c-d). One would not be surprised to find these items within the walls of a city. Their presence contributes to the demise of the city and its inhabitants. In the first line (10a) of the first stanza the subject is feminine (T57) and is qualified by a feminine adjective (rn^?). One would assume the next two lines (lOb-c) further modify the city. But the noun and its participial modifier in line 10b (nVufo ITU) and the participle 03*$3) in line 10c are masculine. The subject of lines lOd-f is a calf (?W, masc). In the last line (lOf) the calf is said to consume "her" branches (rPDJND). 242 The suffix is feminine and the closest antecedent is the city in line 10a. This switch of gender serves to further emphasize the state of the fortified city as an isolated and forsaken place. The flow of the stanza is such - an isolated fortified city is compared to a forsaken and abandoned grazing place where a calf grazes, lies down, and eats the city's branches. In the first two lines (1 la-b) of the second stanza the subjects and suffixes are feminine, 7t T . In the remainder of the lines (1 lc-e) they are masculine. The switch in gender is reminiscent of verses 7-8. The words and suffixes in lines 1 lc-e which are masculine refer to Jacob (9a) and "the people" (lie), and those that are feminine (lines 1 la-b) refer to the city (10a). Jacob is compared to an isolated fortress, a forsaken pasture, and an abandoned wilderness. Lines lOd-f also references the city and further develops the pasture image. This solution also might help explain the reference to "people" and "him" in verse 11, since 27.1 la-b continues the pasture imagery. To show the extent of the fortified city's devastation the writer places a grazing (!7Sn) calf amongst its ruins. An interesting twist occurs by selecting this particular animal. The calf was a sacrificial animal. Where once illegitimate sacrifices occurred (27.9) a sacrificial beast will graze in peace. Doyle looks at the calf and its actions as a metaphor for idolatry and breaking of the covenant. He develops this idea further by comparing the city to marriage and the role of the women becomes similar to that of the 342. Doyle, Apocalypse of Isaiah, 358-59. 243 The second stanza (27.11) consists of five lines. The first two work together in expounding on the final lines of the previous stanza (27.1 Of). The branches, which are consumed by the calf, are once again the subject. This time, however, the women act upon the branches. Rather than being nourishment for animals, the branches are seen as dried out, brittle, and easily broken off. The women gather these and use them as fuel for their fire. Viewing the branches as dried up stands in contrast to the imagery of abundant moisture found in 27.2-3. The cause for such a state is given in 27.1 lc, the people lack understanding. The next two lines (27.1 ld-e) are parallel. The "maker" CinfP'2?) in line 1 Id is "the one who formed them" (i*!?'') in line He. Yahweh, as the understood subject, did not show compassion or favor upon this ignorant people. Yet these are two of Yahweh's essential character traits as stated in Exodus 34.6, "[13m mrn b^, r\W miT 'Vnp*l. In this strophe Jacob is isolated, the city is a pasture, and the vineyard is full of dead branches because Yahweh had no pity or compassion. Why? The people lack understanding (ni2"Q"Ql? vh, lie). One would assume that this lack of understanding was pretty basic for Yahweh to have reneged on two of his essential attributes. Strophe Five, 2 Stanzas: 27.12 and 27.13 Sequential Analysis 27.12-13 2 + 4 12 a v-y: cons wSVB-PP-VB-NS-PP-PP miT £33!T WH7] DPS !"Pm J - VT : s : - - J T T : ansa "jnns -iron rb'im • AT : * "J- - \TT V / * - 1 b v-y:disj NS-VB-PP-N ^K-I&P "^a "inK inx ? ipjp'pn •nxi 244 13 a v-y: cons wSVB-PP-SVB-PP '''^13 12i©3 *VpFP N1HH Dls3 I nTH - ' T JT : # I T ' - J ~ JT T : b v-y: cons wVB-NS{ptc}-PP TI&N flKS D"1"!^!? ^3"1 c n:Para NS{Ptc}-pp ansa ]HK3 DTnam d v-y: cons wSVB-PP-PP-PP rD^Ta VlpTl "1H3 mmS linFldm ' • IT T • v h - /- : VT - s -: - : • : Stanza One (26.12): 2 lines This two line stanza consists of two verbal Yiqtol clauses. Punctuation is indicated by the temporal formula milT} DT3 I ITrn in this and the next stanza. Stanza Two (26.13): 4 lines The four lines in this stanza are sequential with the action being carried forward by the three Yiqtol consecutive clauses. The one nominal clause is line 13c and it stands in elision with line 13b sharing its verb. Literary Artistry Both stanzas begin with the same temporal formula, "And it will happen on that day ..." In the first line of the first stanza the action is limited spatially by the two prepositions |D and "727 to the ideal boundaries of primordial Israel. In the second line the action is also limited as to how it will take place by the repetition of the numeral one, inx. This stanza is prose. The clauses are long, lack balance and cadence, but still have sonority. Note for example the repetition of H, the interspersing of b, tt, 3, "I in the first clause (12a), and repetition of similar sounds (QD-; *7D-) and words (inx) in the second (12b). One feature found in every line of the second stanza is a prepositional phase beginning with 3 at the end of each line. 245 Line 13a "bi*i3 "isitfa Line 13b -n&K pKa Line 13c onan THKS Line 13d • AT : • 1 VJV : • IT T v h - /- : The first phrase describes the instrument by which the action takes place, the blowing of a great horn. The remaining phrases are locations. The first two tell where the people's journey began while the last reveals where it ends and where they will reside. Such structure creates a contrast between the two locations. Those who make this journey are depicted by masculine plural participles, D'Haxn and D'rnsn. Finally, this strophe consists of long prosaic lines similar to those found earlier in 27.6c and 9c. Translation 12 a And it will happen on that day that Yahweh will beat the wheat from the River to the stream of Egypt, b and you will be gathered one by one, sons of Israel. 13 a And it will happen on that day that there will be blowing of a great horn, b and the ones who are perishing in the land of Assyria will come, c and the dispersed in the land of Egypt, d and they will bow down to YHWH on the holy mountain in Jerusalem. Intertextuality The scattering of the land's inhabitants in Isaiah 24.1 and the coming destruction in 24.10-13 as a time of gleaning, is analogous to that found in 27.12. Isaiah 11.11-16 shares many of the same themes with 27.12 and 27.13. 246 The common themes are the following. First, those who will return are but a portion of those dispersed. They are called "the remnant," ("ISC?', v.l 1, 16), the banished ones (rrn, v.12), and the dispersed (fD3, v.12). Secondly, a gathering of this remnant will take place (T5j?, v.12). Third, a sense of harmony and unity will exist among the two kingdoms (v. 13). Lastly, the locations from which they will return is Assyria and Egypt (27.13) and even the four corners of the earth (v.l 1,12). The verb DDJl in 27.12a is used of the process by which the grain, which is first cut down in the field, is beaten in order to separate the chaff from the wheat. This procedure of gathering and then beating out or separating is clearly depicted in Ruth 2.17. - •AT T ~ \ v T ]/••- : - i- : /T " : Isaiah 28.27 describes certain spices being 'beaten out' with a stick. :B3tfn ibm nap Ban1 naraa ^ - v IT - I / - : l\y V/T " •/:• - - s * The description of refugees' returning from Assyria and Egypt in 27.13 is reminiscent of the language found in 19.23-25. The nations Israel, Assyria, and Egypt are mentioned in both passages as well as the theme of worshipping Yahweh. -ro'x-xaIT i r\"}^KT bnsan n'pop rrnn Kinn Qrai^'xa nnspi onapa nitfirnK ansa nam Isaiah 35.8-10 also speaks of a "highway" (VlVoa) by which the D'VlNa (v.9) and iTirP. "TH (v. 10) will return. Joy and celebration will replace sighing and sorrow. Isaiah 25.6-8 is similar to 27.13 with its picture of people of all nations streaming to "this mountain." Finally Isaiah 66.18-20 speaks of a time of ingathering when all nations (D'/Urn^a) will be gathered on the holy mount, Jerusalem, where Yahweh's glory will be 247 manifested. The instruments of ingathering are the survivors from among the remnant (ww)>9 ana, v. 19). In Isaiah 24.23 the elders are the only ones to see Yahweh's glory on the Mount in Jerusalem, where here (27.13) the entire remnant is involved in bowing down to Yahweh. Interpretation Isaiah 27.12 consists of two lines. The first line (12a) begins with the temporal clause Kinn D"-^ rPJTl, reminiscent of 27.1, 2. Two verbs move the action forward in the - _ TT .? ? stanza. First, Yahweh will "beat out" the wheat (0?n). Secondly, he will gather (Oi?'?) the produce. The second verb (Up1?) emphasizes Yahweh's gathering. It is utilized as a synonym to D?n. One view of how these verbs work together is that the first verb emphasizes the threshing aspect while the second stresses the gathering process. Motyer points out that this verbiage "suits the one by one emphasis" and the picture is that of 'picking' (as in olives) or 'gathering'.343 In 27.6 the entire ground is ripe with produce. The two verbs together portray Yahweh as a harvester, who separates the righteous of the sons of Israel from the chaff and brings them to Jerusalem within his land (27.13d). Clements notes that the threshing not only brings about an ingathering but also a shaking out of the apostate Jews and the Gentiles from the land. While "nothing is said about the fate of the Gentiles, the implication is that they will be removed." Sweeney also 343. Motyer, Prophecy of Isaiah, 225. 344. Clements, Isaiah 1-39, 223. 248 emphasizes the gleaning facet: "The agricultural motif of gleaning is used to show that Yahweh will restore the exiled to Zion, insofar as gleaning removes the useless chaff to preserve grain. Thus to preserve the core, part of Israel was lost in the punishment."345 This preserving of the core or a purified remnant is also mentioned in Isaiah 4.2-3. TiiD'pi \2sb rnrr nax HYP Kinn avi ib -ia*r tfi-p n^-m nrram ii»ss ixosn rrm A VJT •• v IT - - T J • T - : \ • : JT : • - JTT : -ITT • \ • - - / r - T This regathering of Yahweh's remnant will occur in a land whose parameters are from the river (VTO) unto the river (*7)7l) of Egypt. The border between Palestine and Egypt is the Wadi el-'Amish, known in Assyria texts and in the Bible as the "nahal of Egypt." 4 In 1 Kings 5. la the River (Euphrates) is the northern border, nir&aarrSon ^tiia rrn nafrtfi ansa ^na im _ T : ~ T : •* _ l,, :pi"iB nna bian -inami? ansa inaa nxin "pxrrnx nria TO-IT'? IT: - : \ T - /TT - - . - . . j- : • I -.JT T V • - T I -: :~ : The last stanza of this strophe (27.13a-d) as well as Isaiah 24.27 begins like its counterpart in 27.12a with the temporal phrase MTITI D's3 nVTl. This phrase binds this stanza with the first stanza (12a) as well as the first strophe in Isaiah 27 (la). The ingathering will be marked by the sound of a shophar. The shophar was blown on different occasions - at a theophany of Yahweh (Exodus 19.16, 19; Isaiah 58.1), 345. Sweeney, Isaiah 1-39, 352. 346. Yohanan Aharoni, The Land of the Bible. A Historical Geography (trans. A.F. Rainey; Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1967), 58. See also Numbers 34.3-6, Joshua 15.1-4, Ezekiel 47.19; 48.28. 249 ceremonies or time of worship (the year of jubilee, Lev. 25.9; the new moon festival, Psalm 81.4), or at the time for battle (Jer. 4.5; Isaiah 18.3; Joshua 4.6). The last line (13d) indicates that it will be blown at a time of worship (HITI). The resulting blast will bring together the perishing (IDS) from the land of Assyria and those who were banished (fT73) to the land of Egypt. By referring to the lands of Assyria and Egypt in 27.13b-c the writer is representing "the far-reaching scope of Yahweh's control, from the northeastern to the southwestern extremities of the land."347 But at the end, everything ends up back in Jerusalem. United they will bow down to Yahweh on the holy mountain in Jerusalem. 347. Lewis, A Rhetorical Critical Analysis, 169. CHAPTER EIGHT THE UNITY OF ISAIAH 24-27 I offer the hypothesis that Isaiah 24-27 was written by one individual and is a cohesive unit. Support for this hypothesis is based on examining the structure and flow of the individual sections and then examining how each section fits together to form a cohesive text. If true, this hypothesis will create doubts regarding the position that Isaiah 24-27 originally consisted of independent texts knitted together by an editor. When one is looking for unity and coherence within Isaiah 24-27 what should one expect to find? First, one would expect to find a story line expressed in any or each or all parts. One needs to then discern whether the narrative flows or is staggered. Secondly, with regard to argument, one needs to discern whether there is a point being made in each part that contributes to the point of the entire pericope. Is the argument based on reasoning or an attempt to persuade? Third, one would expect the writing style from a single writer to be consistent. Some of these literary elements one would expect to find from a single pen are the following: (a) repetition of roots, words, and sounds, (b) same sources, (c) similar use of forms, (d) chronological order replaced by poetic and thematic order, (e) writer writes as if he is First Isaiah. The fourth basic item one should look for is the reappearance of topics. For example, Isaiah 24-27 is mostly about "the city" in its various times and aspects. The land and the theme of good and evil (in Judah, Jerusalem, and in the world) are other topics one will find in Isaiah 24-27. Also, one should note the common imagery used to depict how the land, the earth, and its inhabitants are impacted by the events recorded in these chapters. 250 251 Part One: Isaiah 24.1-16 First Strophe: 24.1-3 The first strophe (24.1-3) is a declaration telling of the results of Yahweh's actions upon the land and its inhabitants. The first stanza (24.1-2) states that the land is desolate, laid waste, and its surface distorted. The inhabitants are scattered and the social strata of society are in upheaval. The language is intentionally vague. The writer assumed the f]S would be understood by his audience as a reference to the earth, and the inhabitants of the f]H as foreign nations. The cities spoken of throughout Isaiah 24-27 remind one of the cities of the nations spoken of in the oracles (Isaiah 13-23). The writer also assumes they would be understood as alien cities. The writer uses this assumption to his advantage. When the writer leaves his language and imagery ambiguous, his audience would not be alarmed or offended. As his argument develops the words become more definite and it becomes apparent that the people of Yahweh are also the recipients of his warnings. Not only are there intimations that foreign cities are being spoken of, but there are also allusions which speak of pre-fall Jerusalem as a conquered city. But along with rebuke the writer also offers hope for a remnant that will remain faithful to Yahweh and a restored Jerusalem. The second stanza (24.3) speaks again of the effects of Yahweh's actions upon the land, which are similar to those described in 24.1, and ends with Yahweh declaring he is the one who brought this about. 252 Second Strophe: 24.4-6 The first stanza (24.4) describes the conditions of the land. It is parched and crumbles away. This is because of Yahweh's actions in 24.1. The language speaks of not only one regional area, Jerusalem, but also land in which different foreign nations dwell. The "heights" of the people which wither away are geographical high points in the land such as the hill upon which Jerusalem sat. For the writer Jerusalem is the epicenter from which Yahweh's actions ripple out. The "people" of the earth (Vpfl) are the "inhabitants" of 24. Id. The second stanza (24.5-6) gives the reason for Yahweh's actions: the inhabitants of the land have transgressed laws, overstepped a statute, and broken the covenant. Their actions have defiled the land. The land and its inhabitants are devoured by the covenant curse and only a few remain within the land. By the end of the first two strophes one has discovered the focus is upon the land 0"]K) and those who dwell upon it ptt^). The majority of the inhabitants of the land (Id, 5a) or people of the earth (4d) have either been killed (6g) or taken into captivity (Id), and only a few remain within the land (6h). The land is destroyed (la-c), left empty (3a- b), and suffers the effects of aridness (4a-d). As it goes for the land so it goes for its inhabitants and vice versa. Third Strophe: 24.7-9 Isaiah 24.7-9, the third strophe, focuses upon the vegetation of the land; in particular the vine and its produce. What happened to the land in 24.4 happens to the vine. It dries up. Here the inhabitants of the land are described as "glad of heart" 253 pV~,'rtt?iy~<73) and "jubilant" (D,T"''?J7). This is ironic in that there is no longer music or celebration. Festivities cease and the wine becomes bitter. Fourth Strophe: 24.10-13 The locale for the first stanza (24.10-12) is in a city. The writer describes the desperate conditions of the inrriTHi? which has been destroyed (10a) and left desolate (10b, 12f) much like the land in 24.1-6. Houses are empty for lack of inhabitants residing in the land. The lack of wine (24.7) being sold in the market (lie) produces emotional angst (cf. 7c, 8e). Joy and gladness (24.8) are taken away (1 ld-e) much like the scattering of the inhabitants in 24. Id. The devastation wrought from the curse (6e) leaves the city void. The second stanza (24.13) speaks again (cf. 24.4) of the T]X and its inhabitants. This time they are referred to as "peoples" (D^^n). Yahweh's punitive actions are described by the writer as affecting the land, the vine, and a city. The writer also tells of the effects upon the inhabitants of the land who are characterized as glad of heart and jubilant. The stanza ends by depicting the havoc wreaked upon the land and its inhabitants as similar to the end of the olive or wheat harvest where little is left for gleaning. Fifth Strophe: 24.14-16 The final strophe tells of the nations ("they," 14a-c) proclaiming praise unto Yahweh. The stereo affect is due to the various directions - west, east, and the coastlands - from which the sounds originate. The city ("I," 16c, cf. 24.10, 12) still lies 254 in a state of desolation and is appalled at such praise. The D"HJ'3, the inhabitants of the land, have acted in a treacherous and unfaithful manner leaving the city of void barren. Summary The writer of Isaiah 24-27 uses various themes and imagery to set forth his argument. The plot line does not develop in a chronological manner. Rather it switches from one theme to another. Another stylistic trait of the writer is to allow for the possibility of the text to be interpreted in more than one way. The language is initially broad. The f IK can be understood either as a specific region or all land inhabited by foreigners. The inhabitants of the f]K include those from various socio-economic levels. Even the reason why the devouring curse wreaks havoc on the land and the land dwellers is not clearly stated. In 24.5 we read that it is because laws, statutes, and an everlasting covenant were violated. But which laws or covenant the writer has in mind is not clearly stated. The first strophe (24.1-3) describes the effects of Yahweh's actions against the land and its inhabitants. The second strophe (24.4-6) uses the imagery of parchedness to portray the condition of the land and in particular the people who dwell on high. It also tells the reason this has taken place. The third strophe (24.7-9) continues the use of the imagery of parchedness and applies it to the vine and wine. The consequences of this are evident in the lack of music and celebration. The fourth strophe (24.10-13) picks up the idea of the dearth of joy and wine from the previous strophe. This strophe mirrors the first strophe. What happens to the land happens to the "city of void." At the end of the second strophe (6h) it states that only a few are left in the land. The second stanza of this 255 strophe (24.13) likens this paucity of people and the devastation to the time at the end of harvest. The lack of music in the second strophe is countered by the fifth strophe (24.14- 16). The first stanza depicts the people of the earth from verse 13 shouting praises to Yahweh. The first person singular of 16c reacts with horror for devastation still exists within the land and the city. This is the first time we see distinctive actions between two different groups among the inhabitants. The thrust of this section is negative. The only element of hope is the possibility of a few survivors remaining in the land (24.6h, 13). The focus is upon the land, its inhabitants, the vine with its wine, and a city. An Outline of Isaiah 24.1-16 24.1-3 A The land and its inhabitants 24.4-6 B Land and world 24.7-9 C The vine and its produce 24.10-13 A1 City of Irfn 24.14-16 B1 Land and nations Part Two: Isaiah 24.17-23 The primary focus of the first part was the land. This proves to be true with this section in the second stanza (24.19-20) of the first strophe (24.17-20). The section begins with speaking of "an inhabitant" (24.17-18) and then moves on and speaks of specific groups (24.21-23) - a "host" (dil&n X3S-^), kings (HDlKn 'pV©-^), and Yahweh's elders (vajTT). 256 First Strophe: 24.17-20 The first stanza (24.17-18) focuses upon the futility of flight. It is futile for any inhabitant to try and flee the coming destruction. There is nowhere to hide. This is stressed by the writer locating the land between two extremes, heaven and the underworld (18b, d-e). Both inhibit the progress of the one trying to flee (18d-e). The primary subject of the next stanza (24.19-20) is the land. In the first section (24.1-16) the writer switched back and forth between discussing the land and those who dwell upon it. He does the same in this strophe. He begins with an inhabitant (24.17-18) and then shifts the focus to the land (24.19-20). The writer pulls upon various images to illustrate the conditions of the land. First is that of an earthquake (19a-c). The picture of quaking land gives way to the image of a staggering drunk (20d). By mentioning drinking, which brings about this stupor, the writer draws a contrast between its abundance and scarcity (24.7) and its bitter taste (24.9b) mentioned in the first section. In line 20e the land is compared to a swaying hut experiencing blasts of wind. Finally, the picture in lines 20f-h is that of someone or something under a heavy burden. The writer identifies this burden as transgressions, which is reminiscent of the wording found in 24.4-5. The stanza ends by telling of the land's fall and a promise that it will never rise again. Second Strophe: 24.21-23 Isaiah 24.21-23 is marked temporally by the phrase "on that day." The strophe is about Yahweh visiting or punishing the heavenly bodies (the stars) and a particular 257 group, the kings. After this Yahweh becomes king. The strophe is positive in tone. It offers hope and encouragement to Yahweh's faithful, that is, the remnant in the land. Line 21b mentions Dina? DtlBn O-1??. In24.4e it spoke of fWn'Di? Wnn. Isaiah 24.4 emphasized a particular aspect of the land; verse 21 puts emphasis on the "host" and the heavens, the heavenly bodies. The next verse (22) speaks of the kings of the land. Yahweh gathers them together and they become prisoners in a sheol, the underworld (22ad), and are shut up in a dungeon (22ae). This outcome is similar to the language found in 18b-c where the one trying to flee falls into a pit. This is the first time a specific group, earthly royalty, from among the inhabitants is mentioned. In the next stanza we learn that Yahweh takes their place upon a throne. After a period of time the kings are brought to order (22pa). The final verse (23) returns to the regulating of the heavenly bodies (moon, sun) and closes with the reign of Yahweh as king in Jerusalem manifesting his glory to the elders of his people. The writer points out the difference between the kings of the land and King Yahweh and his elders. This is the first time a specific location is identified - Mount Zion and Jerusalem. Summary The second strophe ends far differently than how it or the previous part began. The tone of the last two lines (23d-e) is one of encouragement. A new era has arrived. Glory replaces grief. Yahweh will have dealt with all real and potential threats to well being. This part elaborates on the condition of the land and its inhabitants like the previous part. The elements that are new are the cosmic dimension (18d-e, 23b-c), the 258 coming "day" (21a), Yahweh's reign (23d), and the naming of a specific location (23d). The final strophe (24.21-23) is unique with its expression of hope of a glorious future. The writer appears to have been intentionally vague, other than line 23d, which would allow for one to hear and interpret the text in a variety of ways. More clarity and naming of specific people groups will appear in the next section. An Outline of Isaiah 24.17-23 24.17-20 A Inhabitants flee, the land staggers as a drunkard 24.21-23 B Yahweh's visit and reign Part Three: Isaiah 25.1-12 First Strophe: 25.1-3 Just as 24.17-18 focused upon one particular inhabitant in flight, so the first stanza (25.1) is riveted upon the utterance of one person. The stanza contains the words of a taunt (25.1-3) spoken by one who praises Yahweh for performing a wonder planned from long ago. Because of this wonder a "fierce people" (T1?"D17, 3e) will glorify Yahweh; a "city of ruthless nations" (S^IV D^ia rrnp, 3f) will fear him, and "foreigners" (D'HT, 2c) will acquire a citadel. The taunt itself is a tongue-in-cheek way of glorifying Yahweh at the expense of the city's inhabitants. The speaker belongs to those responsible for the city's demise. The wonder this individual praises is described in 25.2. He proclaims that a city has undergone metamorphoses and become a ruin. It becomes the dwelling of strangers never to be rebuilt. This devastating and permanent outcome is reminiscent of what happened to the land in 24.20g-h and the city of void with its desolation spoken of in 24.10-12. The praise is similar in nature to the shouts of the people of the nation in 24.14-15. While the language continues to be vague and no particular people group is clearly indicated, a contrast is drawn in this strophe between one group (consisting of a fierce people, the ruthless among the nations, and foreigners) and another (comprised of those who at one time had inhabited the city). It is no longer just "the inhabitants." Also, the demolished city (2a-c) is contrasted with a city filled with ruthless nations (3f). For the first time Yahweh's instruments of annihilation are mentioned. While the preceding strophe spoke of hope and promise (24.21-23), this strophe is more in line with the other strophes in the prior parts that paint a picture of destruction. Before the taunt one was to hear words of optimism. With regard to the identity of the city, one will quickly note similarities between this city and the one spoken of in 24.10-12. One would be justified in seeing the ones described as fierce and ruthless in 25.3 as the ones responsible for the annihilation of the city in chapter 24. It is too early to determine whether the city belongs to the people of Judah, Jerusalem, or a foreign city which was overthrown such as Babylon or Assyria. Second Strophe: 25.4-5 The text is a protest. It is unusual of Yahweh to favor the D'VI?, because he is usually on the side of the helpless. The text is reminiscent of a pious cliche found in the psalms. It is an attempt to counter the words of praise and actions attributed to Yahweh in the previous strophe. Yahweh is viewed as a deliverer and protector for the weak and 260 poor. The first stanza is packed with nouns which imply protection. Yahweh is a refuge (Ti2?!D), a shelter (notID), the shade (b'S). Yahweh offers protection from the D^"!!? who are described as ominous natural forces - rain (D")T), heat (TlTT), and wind (nn). At the end of the strophe the writer states that Yahweh silenced (25.5) the joyful praise of the foreigners and the song of the ruthless (25.1-3) by delivering the poor and needy from these threats. In Isaiah 24.20e the earth is compared to a hut (Hl^D) which sways back and forth like a drunk and ends up falling. The swaying may also have been caused by a strong wind pounding against this vulnerable structure. The opposite of this is Isaiah 25.4e where the wind blows with futility against a solid wall (Tj?, Yahweh's protection). The dry ground (fPS) caused by heat (4f) is akin to the parched land (24.4) and the dried out vines (24.7a-b). Yahweh offers shade as a shield. The writer's style of having oppressive powers proclaim praises to Yahweh and then to follow that with words where the oppressors are overthrown occurs not only in the first two strophes of this section, 25.1-3 vs. 25.4-5, but also in 24.14-16 vs. 24.17. Third Strophe: 25.6-8 In the third strophe (25.6-8) king Yahweh (24.23) prepares a feast for all people. This event symbolically represents Yahweh's coronation banquet and victory over all hostile and oppressive forces. This is another way of depicting what was described in 25.4-5 with the removal of the D'THS?- Yahweh removes the pall and blanket from over all people and nations as well as death for all time. Removing these from the peoples and nations equates to removing national forces which were oppressive in nature. This would 261 include the "fierce people" and "ruthless nations" in 25.3. One of the archetypes of global oppression was Babylon. Yahweh's reign, along with the elimination of Babylon and other tyrannical nations, results in the metaphorical demise of death and tears, and the removal of scorn foreigners had felt toward Yahweh's faithful. Such scorn was seen in the taunting song of 25.1-3. Fourth Strophe: 25.9-12 The last strophe of this part, Isaiah 25.9-12, is also set upon Mount Zion (10a). "On that day" (cf. 24.21a) the needy and poor will declare that their waiting and hope in Yahweh was not in vain. Yahweh's deliverance (9e) and the resting of his hand upon the mountain (10a) refer to his actions and what took place in 25.6-8. These words stand in contrast to the taunt of 25.1-3 and can be heard coming forth from the mouth of the poor and weak of 25.4-5. Moab is likened to oppressive national forces and in particular Babylon, an example of a pall over the nations (7d-e). The fate of Moab portrayed here is a type of Babylon's doom. The depiction of Moab's walls falling and being crushed into dust counters the mocking words spoken about the city in 25.2. A city is ruined. A ruthless people rejoice. This is not the outcome the poor and weak among the followers of Yahweh expected. They envision Yahweh being their shelter from such antagonistic forces. Their hopes are expressed through a grand banquet hosted by Yahweh upon this mountain, Mount Zion. Yahweh devours the oppressive forces of the land, Assyria and Babylon being its ultimate type. The section ends with those who have waited on Yahweh telling of how Yahweh trampled down Moab. The reversal of fortune motif captures the essence of their hope. 262 Summary The first part (24.1-16) of Isaiah 24-27 dealt with the devastation and results of Yahweh's actions upon the earth. It ends with the city of void (24.10) crying out because of despair. The second part (24.17-23) ends with a picture of Yahweh reigning as king from Jerusalem. The third part (25.1-12) begins with words of contempt spoken by foreigners (25.1-3) and is countered by Yahweh being proclaimed a refuge for the weak and poor (25.4-5). Imagery of a king's coronation and Moab's demise (25.6-8; 9-12) expresses Yahweh's reign and victory over oppressive nations. By the end of this third part the element of hope appears more often. An Outline of Isaiah 25.1-12 25.1-3 A A psalm, taunting the proud 25.4-5 B A psalm of deliverance and protection for the feeble 25.6-8 A1 A banquet for all people: the proud and feeble 25.9-12 B A declaration of deliverance by the feeble, the humbling of the proud Part Four: Isaiah 26.1-11 First Strophe: 26.1-3 The first two strophes (26.1-3; 4-6) are a song which will be sung in the land of Judah "on that day" (Xirin DV2). The last strophe of the preceding section (25.9-12) described some of the events that will take place "on that day" - salvation for the helpless (9c, e), the removal of Moab (10-12), swallowing of death (8a), the removal of the pall (7d-f), Yahweh becoming a refuge to the helpless (4.a-d), and praise of Yahweh (v.9; 263 even by the foreigners whom he chose). These events will allow those things described in this song to become a reality. In this strophe (26.1-3) the feeble remnant (V7, 25.4a) from the previous section is identified as a "righteous nation" (|?'>,72~,'to, 2b) who envision themselves occupying a "city of strength" (^"TV TJ?) in the land of Judah. This is due to (1) their faithfulness (pOS, 2c) and trust (nt?2, 3e) in Yahweh and (2) Yahweh delivering them, 25.9-12. This city will be the opposite of the city spoken of in 24.10-12 and 25.2-3. That city experienced the same devastation as the land in the first three parts. The writer links the destiny of these two entities together. By mentioning the "land of Judah" here the writer links this new city with the depiction of Yahweh reigning on Mount Zion, Jerusalem, in the land of Judah (24.23d). Those who will occupy this city are called a "righteous nation" an intentional contrast with the "city of ruthless nations" (D",1T'"11? D^a rv"lp) spoken of in 25.3f. Second Strophe: 26.4-6 A call to trust Yahweh (4a-b) begins the first stanza (26.4-5a). This call is grounded in the reality that the once lofty city (24.10-12; 25.2-3) and the inhabitants on high (24.4e; 25.3) were humbled by Yahweh. The writer reminds his readers that the exalted were trampled down. The feeble, the afflicted, and the humble tell of themselves treading upon the lofty city until only dust remained. The close connection between the city and the land is demonstrated when the one becomes a part of the other. Yahweh's past actions are the basis for confidence in the future. 264 Third Strophe: 26.7-9 The next strophe describes how it will come to be that some are classified as "righteous," while others "wicked (10a)." Such a moral demarcation did not occur within Isaiah 24-25. The closest examples of separating people into groups in relation to Yahweh was (1) 24.16, where the first singular person does not join in with the praise of verses 14-15, (2) 24.23, where the elders of Yahweh are recognized, and (3) 25.1-5, where the ruthless are distinguished from the poor. The writer describes the period of waiting which the feeble/righteous endured as nightfall upon a path. The darkness is equated to a time of waiting in hopes of the coming day and the judgment that comes with it. The time of judgment "upon the land" is the occasion for the inhabitants of the world C?2R) to learn what justice means. The place where justice and righteousness are to come forth is the land, i.e. the city. Fourth Strophe: 26.10-11 In Isaiah 26.10-11 the stubbornness of the wicked becomes the basis for the righteous to petition Yahweh to act in judgment against the wicked. The circumstances to promote a favorable response are provided. The wicked are shown compassion, find themselves in a land of honesty, and are even exposed to the majesty of Yahweh. The problem lies in the fact that the wicked do not get it when it comes to justice and righteousness, especially being in the land where they originated. The "exalted city" is no more because it neglected these attributes. A "strong city" in their midst where righteousness and faith were present (26.2) was not enough to sway them. Therefore, a 265 cry for the demise of Yahweh's enemies and the enemies of righteousness by fire goes forth. Summary In relation to the preceding parts, it is in this part that one hears of a "city" in a positive sense. The establishment of Yahweh as king (24.23) on Mount Zion is the place of this new metropolis. From this epicenter the "inhabitants of the world" may discover righteousness if they are open to its teaching. The focus has shifted from a pessimistic past to promising possibilities. An Outline of Isaiah 26.1-11 26.1 -3 A The righteous and their city of strength 26.4-6 B The wicked and their lofty city 26.7-9 A1 The righteous and the path of judgment 26.10-11 B1 The wicked and the path of judgment Part Five: Isaiah 26.12-21 First Strophe: 26.12-14 The first stanza begins by acknowledging that Yahweh is establishing peace. The previous section informs one that those speaking whom Yahweh provided peace for are the "righteous." Peace exists because of what Yahweh did for them in the past (12b) as well as the hope that one day he would reign from Mount Zion and secure for them a "strong city." 266 The second stanza (26.13-14) has the righteous recognize that others had lorded (D^IX 13^S?I1) over them. The righteous quickly follow this up with the proclamation that now they only recall Yahweh's name. They acknowledge that the reason they no longer remember these lords is because Yahweh annihilated them (CPriiD, D^XQl) and they have not returned to life. Second Strophe: 26.15-18 The second strophe is a prayer of trust similar to those found in psalms of lament. It is spoken by one who is part of the righteous "nation" (15a-b; 26.2b). The speaker acknowledges that Yahweh is the one who is saving them and that they are not able to do this for themselves. To trust him is their only option. Sections of the first four parts of Isaiah 24-26 had told of how Yahweh had granted them salvation in the land and had caused the earth dwellers to fall (18h-i). Any hope of increasing the size of their nation and land (15a-d), present or future, would only be in trusting Yahweh. Their ineffectual effort in accomplishing this for themselves is comparable to a woman who toils through labor to only give birth to wind (17a-18g). Their need to rely upon Yahweh also arises from being under his discipline and suffering distress. Their incantations prove useless (16e-g). Their effort to raise the dead through charms in order to aid them is of no use. This admonition to trust in Yahweh is similar to 26.4-6. Strophe Three: 26.19-21 For the writer the issue of life and death was taken seriously. The gods or "lords" who had ruled over Israel and whom Yahweh had annihilated did not return from death 267 (26.14c-d) as the myths surrounding Baal and Adonis had predicted. Only Yahweh possesses the power to give life. This is expressed by the first stanza (19a). Within the second stanza the righteous dead are referred to as the "1317 ^pCJ (line 19(3b). They are called to "awake." Just as the dew does not last on the land of the Rephaim, so death cannot hold sway over the righteous. This is not so for the |>~)Xrr2ttT; a phrase which appears throughout Isaiah 24-27 to refer to humanity in general. In line 21j the land dweller receives his just due for his iniquity. The land can no longer hide him. Yahweh is coming forth with indignation. Summary The first strophe of this fifth part confronts the idolatry of the past and the promise of peace. The next strophe speaks of Judah's inadequacies and Yahweh's ability to cause them to prosper. The final strophe returns to the idolaters by telling of how Yahweh will call them to account and emphasizes the promise of deliverance for the righteous. An Outline of Isaiah 26.12-21 26.12-14 A Promise of peace, idolatry confronted 26.15-18 B Promise of prosperity, Judah' s inadequacies 26.19-21 A Promise of deliverance, idolaters called to account 268 Part Six: Isaiah 27.1-13 First Strophe: 27.1-3 The first strophe of this final part, 27.1-3, returns to the generic destruction that was found at the beginning of Isaiah 24 (cf. 24.1-3). The writer pulls upon Canaanite mythology, Baal's victory over Leviathan, to describe the impending desolation of the land and the city. Yahweh plays the role of Baal and with his victory over Leviathan claims the right to water and tend the vineyard (2a). His victory also emphasizes the fact that if he is able to defeat Leviathan, he can defeat anyone. Next the restored land and community is equated to a delightful vineyard; imagery also related to Isaiah 24 (cf. 24.7- 9). A remnant will make up Yahweh's productive vineyard. Second Strophe: 27.4-6 Isaiah 27.4-6 is linked with the previous strophe as well as with verses 10-11. Yahweh as guardian in verse 3 tells of his actions against the briars who oppose him. The writer uses the briar to symbolize the fortified city in verses 10-11. Should this isolated and forsaken city oppose him he will act against it. In verse 5 the subject of the imperative verbs is masculine and references the vineyard in verse 2 which are identified in verse 6 as Jacob and Israel. Third Strophe: 27.7-9 The third strophe in Isaiah 27 (verses 7-9) focuses upon Jacob and Jerusalem. Yahweh settled his D,"l with Jacob by means of sending the people away into exile. Yahweh in the past has used other agents such as Assyria to bring this about. The 269 purpose of Yahweh's actions is to allow atonement for Jacob's iniquities and rid the land of idolatrous objects. A cleansed and restored land is one in which the people will worship only Yahweh (line 13d). The imagery of desolation introduced here (lines 8c-d) is further developed in the next strophe. As Isaiah 24-27 comes to a close, the writer employs fewer metaphors and insinuations to make certain his readers do not miss the point. He speaks more plainly in the third strophe. He explains how Yahweh will legally deal with them. He will send them away. They will go into exile. The purpose of his actions is to remove all semblances of cultic adoration. This is how their transgressions will be atoned for. From the writer's real situation, he believes a time would come when all foreign influences would be gone and only true worship would occur. Fourth Strophe: 27.10-11 A fortified yet desolate city is the subject of the fourth strophe, 27.10-11. The city is compared to a barren pasture and a parched vineyard. Parallels can be identified with the second strophe of this section, 27.4-6. In verse 4 briars are threatened with fire and in line 1 Id brittle branches are lighted up. The vineyard in verse 6 is the opposite of the picture found in lines 1 la-b. In the first the branches produce, in the latter they are brittle and easily broken. In the part treating Isaiah 24 I identified the city of verse 10 as Jerusalem. The writer treats Jerusalem in two ways depending upon his tenor. If he is criticizing the proud and self-exalting, especially among the rulers, he describes the city in negative terms - chaotic, fortified, and lofty. On the other hand, a faithful and trusting Jerusalem, 270 he calls "a city of strength." Again, I believe that the imagery of a city and land is also used metaphorically of the people. At the time of composition the city has not been rebuilt. They are still under foreign rule. The writer hopes for a remnant from all of Israel who will offer true worship to Yahweh and enjoy peace and protection when he rules from Zion. Fifth Strophe: 27.12-13 The final strophe of Isaiah 24-27 (27.12-13) ends on a high note. A great ingathering is anticipated. The righteous, who have learned from Yahweh's judgments, will come to Jerusalem from various locales and bow down and worship. The ideal will have become a reality. This strophe picks up two themes from the first (27.1-3) in this part. The first theme is a picture of a restored or idealistic state. In verse 2 it is a "delightful vineyard," in v. 12 it is wheat. The second theme is one of demise for one particular entity or group which results in an idealized state for another. In the first strophe it is the demise of Leviathan (v.l) while in the final strophe it is the beating out of the chaff from the wheat. An Outline of Isaiah 27.1-13 27.1-3 A Leviathan, the Vineyard 27.4-6 B Vineyard, thorns and thistles - the new Jacob (in the world) 27.7-9 C Jerusalem and Jacob 27.10-11 B1 Jacob alone - city an abandoned wife 27.12-13 A1 Egypt, Assyria, Israel, Jerusalem 271 Ways in which Isaiah 24-27 as a whole fit together Structurally Isaiah 24-27 is divided into 6 parts and consists of 23 strophes. The most strophes in a part are 5, and the least 2. There are 46 stanzas. Each strophe contains 2 stanzas. The shortest stanza contains 2 lines (24.9; 26.7, 12, 19a; 27.12) and the longest 13 lines (190-21). The majority of stanzas consist of either 5 or 6 lines; 19 out of 46 lines (41%). The 6 parts are arranged according to the following pattern. A 24.1-16 A1 27.1-13 B 24.17-23 B1 26.12-21 C 25.1-12 C1 26.1-11 The number of strophes per part and the structure of the strophes mirror the corresponding part. A 24.1-16 A1 27.1-13 5 strophes 5 strophes A-B-C-A'-B1 A-B-C-B'-A1 B 24.17-23 B1 26.12-21 2 strophes 3 strophes A-B A-B-A1 C 25.1-12 C1 26.1-11 4 strophes 4 strophes A-B-A'-B1 A-B-A'-B1 The parts are not a narrative unit, but a poetic, argumentative, rhetorical unit. 272 Stylistically If one individual is responsible for Isaiah 24-27, we would expect to find common literary features or a similar style throughout the four chapters. We find this to be true of these four chapters. I will note three of these literary features and give examples from each part of Isaiah 24-27. Other stylistic practices of this writer were discussed under the sub-heading "Literary Artistry" within each part. First is repetition. Repetition of sound is found either in the same line or from one line to the next. Part 1 24.1b-d rria mm T VT JT * I T iv : I \ • •- : repetition of sound from line to line Part 2 24.17a :rixn 2&T "vbs nai nnai ins \ V IT T /" I \V T AT T -\~ T -/- repetition of sound within the same line Part 4 26.10a-llb pis mb-bz I V V J- T bw ninro ]nxa :rnrr nixa nxT-,??i T-P nm mrr \ I :T T/T VT : repetition of sound every other line Part 5 26.18e-f inn J • T repetition of sound from line to line Part 6 27.7a insn iron roasn repetition of sound within the same line 273 Another form of repetition common to this writer is the duplication of a single root within the same line or from one line to another. The writer also tends to repeat two or more words in one line in the following line. Part 1 24.3a-b flNH pi3n I plSH ran inam repetition of root within the same line 24.16g-h nia D*H33 IT T \ • : v /:• repetition of root within the same line and of one line to another Part 2 24.19a-20d pan nui?'"inn Hlh 1 VAT T \T -: : i - T / f")k rnniann -rta :px ntpplann Bia -lis©? f"iN snan in: repetition of root within the same line and of one line to another Part 3 25.6b-c ana© nntfa o^atf nnraa roppra anatf DTIBB b'oatf 11 • IT •-. : \ • T : • T J ••. : • T : repetition of root within the same line Part 4 26.5(3a-b H^S©1 1 T repetition of root within the same line Part 5 26.15a-b rrirp ^12^ naO"1 T : - T :<- T \ - T :/- T repetition of parts of one line in another Part 6 27.1c-d rna tfm ^lm1? *?!? ~ • T JT T \ T T : • <": 27.5f-g lin'ppi? ©ra ]irT? ^1 A • \ T /v-:- repetition of parts of one line in another ••^"nt&ip nib© repetition of part of one line in another The second literary feature the writer uses consistently throughout Isaiah 24-27 is elision. The word in elision may either appear in the first line or not come into view until the second line. The latter often occurs with the subject. Part l 24.ia-d pan ptf)2 mrr nan maa mm T VT JT * : :mattr -ram T iv : I \ • - : word in elision = f "IX H Part 2 24.21b-22ae DViaa OVian N^rSu mm IPS'1 AT- \ T - /T : - '/T : Is : • rrrmKrrby n&-txn ^ba-Sm _ IT T ": T - \T T : T /•• : - - : "ris-1?!; mox naoK laoxi "Tapn-^s? riapi word w elision = mm (lines 21b-c) Part 3 words in25.4a- elisiond = DVlQn N21i and HQIXH ,37?2 (lines 22ad-e) _ VT -v / T T • T 7 I • \ T - /T : \T T : T /•• : ~ i^-"ian iraxS tiro A - - I \ : V T / T DTTO nonn word m elision = rPTI T • T Part 4 26.5|3a-6f na'rattr T nair-ij? nama^ ITT - T\V ' - bn naora-in VAT TW : : " wbi ••asja words in elision = ]*-)X""!17 (line 5pa) word in elision = naOKnFl (lines 6e-f) 1 1 Part 5 26.15a-d mim ^a ? nao - T : T :<- T ^h nao1' - \ T : /" T maaa T AT I - nd word m elision = mm (2 masc. sing, subject) Part 6 27.1a-d irina np1 "Ijps"' Klfin DV3 npmm nSiiam n&j?n IT T •: ~ i: JT : ~ : T IT rna ttjna ^JTIS Si: - - • T JT T I T T : • < : word in elision = mm "'p?'' (lines lc-d) Lastly, a stylistic tendency that is found throughout Isaiah 24-27 is alliteration. The writer frequently repeats the same sound or consonant at the beginning of words or lines. Part 1 24.2e-j p33 DJ73 mm J I " - T T Pirma? nnatf? npiras 'naip? Part 2 24.17a-b irixn 3OT T6l7 1121 nn21 ins I V IT T /" I \V T AT T ~\- T -/- nnam^K b& inert Sipra oan toter = D Part 3 25.6b-c Dnatf HD^Q D'Oatf nn©E •ppiD' Q anatf DTiaa D^aara /etfer = alternation between D arcJ $ 11 • IT ••. : \ • T : • T J •-. : • T : Part 4 26.1c bm niain rrttr Hintf"1 I" T / \• T /T I letters = & and n Part 5 26.17a-18i /mes 17a, 1 Id, 18g all begin with 3 (every third line) Part 6 27.7a-8c )7\27i insa nsasn ann rain annaroK naann nnS^a nxoxoa. - TAV • : JT : : \T : - : eac/z line contains a different type of alliteration with two or more consonants 276 Thematically and Through Imagery The author of Isaiah 24-27 wrote to inform his audience of a coming era. His main interest is in Jerusalem and a faithful remnant. He agreed with much of the prophet Isaiah's work which warned of the age introduced by the fall of Jerusalem. By referring to this event he hoped to convince his audience that just as Isaiah prophecies ended up proving to be correct so would his. He also felt scorn for those who had grown complacent in their worship of Yahweh and grew proud in their heritage and dwelling. To fulfill this purpose the writer drew upon a variety of images that I noted earlier in my treatment of the six parts of Isaiah 24-27. I present here some of the predominant themes which unite this pericope. The writer has a keen interest in the land (f")X). He begins by speaking of it existing in a disparaging state. It lies desolated having been plundered (24. lb, 3a-b). It experiences an earthquake (24.1c; 24.19), drought (24.4), and the effects of alcohol (24.20d-e). When the walls of the Moabites (25.12) are laid low and the exalted city is knocked down (26.5), it is the one who receives their pulverized remains. It endures such because it has been defiled by those who dwell upon it (24.5, 20f). It has endured Yahweh's judgment. As the mood of the chapters change from despair to hope, so the land's fortunes. In 26.15d hope is expressed that Yahweh will increase the borders. One of its mountains, Mount Zion, becomes the location for a restored Jerusalem where Yahweh will reign as king among his people (24.23d; 25.6-7; 27.13). Closely entwined with the fate of the land is the destiny of those who dwell upon it. What happens to one impacts the other. This theme is found throughout Isaiah 24-27. 277 Initially all people fall under the heading |"]K ,?l?r''. No distinction is made between the righteous and the wicked. As one progresses through the chapters a distinction gradually unfolds. The wicked are described as the "glad of heart" (3V~,nofP~,?3, 24.7c), the "jubilant" (d'T'Vy, 24.8e), the "unfaithful" (dHtfa, 24.16g-h), "the hosts of the heights" (Din^n »3V, 24.21b), "the kings of the earth" (n&lKrj >?/?&, 24.21c), "a fierce people" (T»_Dr, 25.3e), "ruthless nations" (D'Xny 0»X 25.3f, 4e, 5c), "inhabitants on high" (Diia ^*\ 26.5ac), "wicked" (SHCh, 26.10a), and "your enemies" (T1S, 26.1 Id). Those opposed to Yahweh are the proud (24.4e, 21b; 25.1 lc; 26.5 The righteous are called "weak" (V}, 25.4a), "poor" (fi^X, 25.4b), "a righteous nation" (TO-'iJl, 26.2b), "afflicted" 03V, 26.6e), and Yahweh's people 0&V, 26.20e). They wait patiently while under Yahweh's judgment hoping for vindication and eventual restoration (25.9; 26.8-9, 16, 20). They learn from their past errors and remove all forms of idolatry from their midst (26.12-13; 27.7). However, only a remnant ends up surviving (24.6h, 13). A third theme closely knit to the first two is the "city." I believe the writer uses this image in two ways. The primary use is a reference to Jerusalem. The pre-fall Jerusalem is mentioned in 24.10a On'rrnr)!?), 25.2 (771125 n^li?), 26.5ad (rnaip3 nn[?), and 24.10a (niisa TV). A restored Jerusalem is spoken of in 26.1b as a 1^~TJ7 TV in the "land of Judah." Its gates are open to receive a "righteous nation" (26.2b). 278 The secondary use the writer intends for "city" is a reference to influential foreign cities. The primary threat during the time of Isaiah the prophet was Assyria and in time it would became Babylon. After the exile the people of Israel found themselves under the power of the Persians. I suspect that as individuals heard these chapters they would have assumed the city spoken of belonged to one of these foreign nations. But as the text continued they would have begun to see the writer was referring primarily to Jerusalem. The writer starts out using vague and undefined language. He is slow to identify who or what in particular he is speaking about. This entices the listener. Especially if those listening believe foreigners are the recipients of his words. Once hooked, the writer reels them in and exposes them to the reality that they too may be his target. Another theme the writer employs is the "reversal of fortune." One will find an entity or group of individuals in a certain state of being and within a few lines their state is undone. For example, in 25.4 the weak and poor find shelter from the rain and shade from the heat. In 26.5-6 an exalted city is brought down (26.5pa-b) unto the ground and the afflicted and weak trample upon it. Lastly, a populated city becomes bereft of human beings and the grazing place of animals (24.3; 27.10). Last of all, the image of a vineyard and its produce is scattered throughout Isaiah 24-27. The abundance or lack of wine is the result of Yahweh's actions and the people respond accordingly. In 24.7ff the lack of drink brings an end to music, where as in 25.6 there is a banquet with aged wine. In 27.2-3 Yahweh is the keeper of a vineyard that is extremely productive (27.6), where in 27.10-11 the branches of the vine become brittle and are used for kindling. CHAPTER NINE ISAIAH 24-27 WITHIN THE LARGER CONTEXT OF ISAIAH 13-23 The purpose of this chapter is to demonstrate how Isaiah 24-27 works within the larger context of Isaiah 13-23 348 An Outline of Isaiah 13-23 Isaiah 13-14 13.1-22 Babylon 14.1-21 Babylon 14.22-27 Babylon, Assyria 14.28-32 Philistia B Isaiah 15-17 15.1-16.14 Moab/David 17.1-14 Damascus/Syria - Jacob Isaiah 18-20 18.1-7 World nations - east 19.1-20.6 Egypt - Isaiah A' Isaiah 21 21.1-7 Babylon B1 Isaiah 22 22.1-25 David C1 Isaiah 23 23.1-18 Tyre Isaiah 13 The primary focus of Isaiah 24-27 is the capital Jerusalem, the establishment of a faithful remnant free of foreign influence, and the true worship of Yahweh who will reign as king. Isaiah 13 has the same focus. Traditionally scholars have understood the main focus of Isaiah 13 is Babylon. The opening line claims such for itself, ^32 XtBB. Brueggemann states that it only makes 348. This outline is based on Peckham's work. Peckham, History and Prophecy, 136-37. 279 280 sense that Babylon begins these series of Oracles since Babylon was "the dominant superpower in the sixth century and surely the pivotal feature in the geopolitical landscape of the book of Isaiah." I suggest another possibility. The oracle is primarily focused on Jerusalem. The reason Babylon is initially addressed is because they are Yahweh's agent, much like Assyria, who will eventually assail Israel's land, capital, and civilians. By the end of the oracle, however, the tables have been reversed and Babylon will suffer that which it inflicted upon Jerusalem. The writer of Isaiah 24-27 writes from the perspective of the author of Isaiah 13, who one is to believe, is Isaiah the eighth century prophet. He writes of the past as if it has not yet taken place. This technique gives him credibility. He can predict the future. If he can foretell the siege and eventual fall of Jerusalem be it either to Assyria or Babylon, there is a good chance his words would find fulfillment again. He predicted Jerusalem's fall. Certainly his prophecy that only a purified remnant free of their contamination with foreign influence would reside in a restored Jerusalem must be true. Allusions to Jerusalem as the recipient of Yahweh's wrath in Isaiah 13 are found in the first two verses (13.2-3). nrb bip innn onxto nstirin by mrr-p Tins IKTI T ism , •sniiu T^J? s»6 nina TIKIP Da - - i • T : - \" • - • - : - < Trr j- The first allusion to Isaiah 24-27 is the "IH mentioned in verse 2 (Ojpxto YlSE?3~~in bs). Isaiah 24.23d locates Jerusalem on Mount Zion as the place where Yahweh becomes king. Isaiah 25.6-7, 10 tells of a feast which will occur n-fn "ina. Finally, in 349. Brueggemann, Isaiah 1-39, 115. Isaiah 30.17 one hears of a flag (fl'n) and standard (03) over a mountain top and hill (nJJDarrbl? DIISI "inn ttJXT1?!?).I n the opinion of Clements this verse is secondary and the phrase Drnnirnx IS? "would point to Jerusalem, rather than to Judah as a whole." 5 Also, the comparison with a "inn tfXTbj) "retains the military context, but suggests that somehow Jerusalem will be spared."351 The mountain of Isaiah 13 appears to be Mount Zion upon which Jerusalem sits. The second allusion is also found in 13.2 with the call to "raise a banner on a wind-swept mountain" (03-,IKto nSttfalD *7V) as a rallying point.352 Isaiah 5.26 and 30.17 have similar calls and speak of either Samaria or Jerusalem being threatened. f-ixn nspa *b pntii pirnra h^b orKtoi I 'AT T J" h ' \ I -IT : I T - ' <" T IT : :\tfar bp mnn nam (5.26) loan ntiran mua ^aa inx m»a ^asra inx HSK __ A-..T \T • -: 1 -—. - •/•• : - TV J : - •• : • T v I VJV tnynan-by 035"! inn raso-by pn? nrnnia-DK is? (30.17) The next allusion to Jerusalem and in particular the temple is found in 13.3. ^ippb "•rns ^K :VW T*?2 ^^ ^^ ,f"i*V!i? na In this verse a group of people, described by the three terms - ,^,l[??p,7, "HiSl, TflXJ TV?, receive their marching orders. Clements points out that while the enemy is not stated, the consecrated ones are Babylonian soldiers. In this context, according to Clements, "the redactor has linked these prophetic sayings with Yahweh's judgment of Judah by the 350. Clements, Isaiah 1-39, 249. 351. Ibid. 352. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1-39, 279. 282 hand of the Babylonians."353 Intertextual support of this idea can be found in Ezekiel 24.21. ^Iffi and *nixa, (Isaiah 13.3) are reminiscent of ttftjfl?an d fix* in Ezekiel 24.21 where the words are juxtaposed and refer to the temple in Jerusalem. 1 DDTJ? liKa ^BftpirriK bbnJ2 ^aan "mn -aix "HaK-ns bkitir imb ~\m v : ••. I J : T): • v <•• - : • : • : JT -; - T I •• T : • J" : J V: Dstfs? banan DS'TI; tana nbsr a-ina nnati; ip arrniaai ns^ai Yahweh is about to act against his ttftjpa. It is his sanctuary, yet the people perceive it with pride as their source of power (DiTIJ ]iK2). Such a view promotes complacency. There confidence is in a structure and as long as it is in their midst Yahweh alone is on their side despite their actions. What they forget is that Yahweh alone is lofty, splendid and proud; not a structure built by human hands. Yet, Jerusalem had become this for Israel. But as Zephaniah 3.11 points out, such perception and behavior Yahweh does not leave unchecked. •a nrtfa -HZJK "vfobv bsn ^©ian vb mfm Di»a :yig -ina "tiy nrqa1? ^oirrx'pi tjhixa ^rbv ^a"!j?a -rpx rips The writer of Isaiah 13 in verse 3 manages to chide his listeners by having God name his agents of destruction (Babylon) "my consecrated ones" (W'lffib), "my warriors" ("''1123.), and "the exultant ones of my splendor" CflTSJ T^), terms that Israel had used of themselves and their city. A fourth allusion to Jerusalem occurs when Yahweh tells his army, Babylon, to enter the city "doorways of the nobles" (D'O'Ha. 'W?) in 13.2. The writer is speaking tongue in cheek. Clements prefers the LXX for this verse which reads the Hebrew noun 'Oris as a verbal imperative meaning to 'open, unsheathe,' the Hebrew inns. This 353. Clements, Isaiah 1 -39, 133. produces the translation, "draw your swords, you nobles." The nobles in his opinion are Babylonian soldiers.354 If the Hebrew text is left to stand as it reads, the nobles are to be understood as Israel's smug religious and political rulers. Noble, yet fools. For example, Isaiah 32.5 notes that those who saw themselves as nobles p"H^) were really fools. A • T \ T T : v / • -rr • , Yahweh's remnant, however, are truly noble pHl) plan noble things (S?TVT niD 75)3 and by noble things (nta'7r!?») they stand (32.8). By reading Isaiah 13 and 24-27 one discovers that these two pericopes are interested in the same themes and imagery. I believe this is due to Isaiah 13 functioning as the preamble to the Oracles against the Nations and Isaiah 24-27 its conclusion. A theme shared between these two passages is the outcome of Yahweh's actions upon the land, its inhabitants, and the cosmos. In Isaiah 13 the repercussions of Babylon's visit are threefold. First, it leaves the land desolate, n&tP'V riNn UW*? (13.9).355 Wildberger notes that "it is stereotypical of ancient Near Eastern treaties that include threats of curses to say that the land would become a wasteland." This information further links this phrase with Isaiah 24. In verse 5 the inhabitants of the land are said to have "broken the everlasting covenant" (24.5d). In the next line we read that this results in a "curse devouring the land." Yahweh's wrath will bring about an earthquake which will shake the earth from its foundation, Tlftipfol? flXH tP'Snri 354. Clements, Isaiah 1-39, 133. 355. ntZV TM 1X2J3 (24.12) K / AT - \ • T /- : • 356. Wildberger, Isaiah 13-27, 25. 284 (13.13) . When Yahweh' s wrath turns against the Babylonians (13.17ff), it will also leave their land desolate. No longer occupied by humans, their country becomes an abode for various forms of wild life (13.21-22). A - w •- T / : T • • .IT : T : :Dtf_rijPT an^toi r\iw man btf ^Dtfi - IT I: : \ • • : T-:I- J : T : f - , .- , -^ ..T . ... v .. - 1 <- T A few verses later in verse 13 one reads that the heavens tremble (T'JIK D'&fP) along with the earth (n&ipp;? flSH Itfinm). Finally, and most importantly, are the repercussions of this day upon humanity. When the day hits, humanity's reaction is one of terror and panic (13.7-8). nrann D,T-,?3 ra-bv T AV : • • J-T T I \" •pi^rr rr6l»? "pifroo b^nm an"1? ^naai tarns n^nb "os inarp ^nin;bx #•« Such a response seems appropriate for the impending doom ends up leaving only a small number in its wake (13.12). rap ciax -pjpix :-paiN nnsp D-txi One group that is singled out among the inhabitants of Israel and Babylon are the proud. In 13.11 and 13.19 Yahweh singles out this faction, nail? DTtfr^jn ni?"i ^nrr^y Tnpai - AT : v- T : - : T T •• •• ~ < * :f~ T 357. px •noip im?i (24.18) 285 I J -^v : • T : ~ J • : v T < T : T : :rnosrnKi DIOTIN D^K roanas n^fo? The proud will experience a reversal of fortune. The imagery of a desolate land occupied by wild animals, laborious child-birth and the cosmos are also found in Isaiah 24-27. The purpose of Isaiah 13 is to depict the coming assault upon the land of Judah and its capital. The day of Yahweh will not be a day of deliverance, but rather a time to hold the wicked accountable for their sins. Initially Babylon is Yahweh's army, not his target. But by the end of the oracle the writer must also get rid of Babylon. For in his ideal world the foreign nations will either be eradicated or at the most play a subservient role to Yahweh and his people. Isaiah 14.22-27 Isaiah 14.4 introduces the section as words against the king of Babylon. Isaiah 14.22-23 point out that it is "Babylon and not the king alone" that is the object of Yahweh's actions. When Yahweh rises against Babylon, he will cut off from Babylon its name (Wf) and remnant ("IKI2?) and it will become a place of destruction (7 ftp). Similar language is found in Isaiah 25.13-14 which contains a confession by Israel that at one time they had allowed other D'i'TS to rule over f7J?2) them. When Yahweh visited them he caused all memory of them to be erased and only his name (QU7, 26.13b) was remembered. Babylon as one of these "lords" will not be remembered. Also, the language of a remnant (14.22) is reminiscent of the remnant that is said to have been left 358. Sweeney, Isaiah 1-39, 229. over in 24.26g-h and the chaff being removed only leaving the grain during a time of gleaning in Isaiah 24.13 and 27.12. While verses 1-23 of Isaiah 14 speak of Babylon, verses 24-25 shift the focus to Assyria. Yahweh has a plan (pST) against Assyria which will be carried out. In verse 26 this idea of a plan is mentioned again. The plan is against the entire earth. 1 "AT T T ~ \T : - IT " T 7 Isaiah 14 begins with Babylon (14.1-23), transitions to Assyria (14.24-25), and concludes with all nations (14.26-27). In his 1989 article, "Isaiah 14,22-27, A Central Passage Reconsidered," Clements argued that in these verses one can find "the marks of three major phases in the history of the tradition of Isaiah's prophecies: an anti-Assyrian redaction, an extension of this to include Babylon, and a subsequent apocalyptic redaction in which a universal frame of reference is introduced." But rather than the work of a redactor, perhaps one writer intentionally mentions both nations. These two powers are the central concern of the prophet Isaiah and his disciples with regard to foreigners. They are the principal agents which Yahweh uses to carry out his judgment upon the proud within the land of Israel and Judah as well as the capital of Jerusalem. They also function as a type of all foreign cities and nations who overstep Yahweh's foreordained operating boundaries. 359. Clements, Isaiah 1-39, 256. 287 Hibbard points out that the theme and vocabulary of Yahweh foreordaining events is not unique to Isaiah 14.360 Within Isaiah 13-27 two other passages contain the similar combination of vocabulary. First, in Isaiah 19.16-17 we are told that Yahweh foreordained a plan for Egypt. wpra onsn rrrr xinn n1»a :rbs T'an xirr-itfx rfixas mrr_T naian l,33a insn ~nm - - ITT I / • •- \ v -: T : JT : : •• : • - T J - T : nnx -par -rax 'bb Kan*? n^sa1? nmrr na~iK nn^nnns1 rJpK :vbv rur KimtfK niKas mrr ns» ^aa _ IT T I /•• \ v -: T : JT : ~ : •• : • Secondly, the words of praise found in Isaiah 25.1 speak of Yahweh performing a wonder, "plans from long ago" flax rmax PV"S n^ N^ C^? ^)' a Plan aEainst Israel. For Hibbard these five thematic occurrences serve a literary purpose. "Each of these texts arguably speaks about the international context in some way .... It appears then that the language about Yahweh's plan is specifically invoked in contexts that highlight Judah's activity in the larger sphere of international politics and military encounters. The interpretation of these events in the book of Isaiah accents Yahweh's control over other nations in order to bring about divine purposes for Judah." The essence of Yahweh's plans directed against Assyria (14.25) are similar to those directed against Moab in Isaiah 25.9-10. Yahweh's hand rests upon a mountain and Moab is trampled down QtiVl vs. Oto in 14.25) by him. Another parallel between 14.22- 27 and Isaiah 24-27 is the thought that Yahweh's activities are brought about by his outstretched hand: T\^r\ TH nKTl (14.26), rnoan "IT"] (14.27), 360. Hibbard, Intertextuality, 97. 361. Ibid., 98. 288 mn -ina rnrr-T rrarns (25.10), and ^-p nan mrr (26.11). Isaiah 14.28-32 Isaiah 14.28-32 is an oracle against the Philistines set during the reign of King Ahaz of Judah. By mentioning this king by name the writer sets the oracle during the time of Isaiah the prophet (6.1). The theme of the oracle is that the Philistines are "in for bigger trouble in the future than in the recent past."362 The counter theme is "that as Philistia is routed, so Judah will be safe" (14.30-32).363 The theme of "striking" is found in 14.29. While the blows the Philistines had received from Assyria had ceased, they were not to rejoice. More afflictions were on the way. r\bs ntf^a TWtarr1?!* rj3a BZIO 1303 ""S Scattered through Isaiah 1-23 one will find passages which depict Israel on the receiving end of such blows. One example is found in 1.5-6 where Yahweh strikes Israel. The hope is that their affliction will cause them to return to him. rnp iDnpin iiy isn na bs IT - \T - T : • T: T J T nns? nsai rrnam i?ss niha ia-px ©XT-tyi ^.'^P riatfa rraan *6i loan *6i Wr*6 I v IT - \T : \ / : T ••. J : Through the use of the same root (HD3) this theme of striking is captured in Isaiah 27.7. "Yahweh can and will heal Israel though it has been struck mightily by its oppressor. 362. Brueggemann, Isaiah 1-39, 136. 363. Ibid. 289 The statement that YHWH has struck the one who struck Israel may be intentionally cryptic so that it would cover both Babylon and Assyria."364 Another intertextual connection between Isaiah 14.28-32 and Isaiah 24-27 is the mentioning of the poor or needy. The Q^l and D^i'DX in 14.30 are depicted as a hungry and scared remnant (rPIXip'). But they too will not survive the next onslaught. AT : • -JV T \ • : v : .__,.. . T . onrr ^mxtfi "i^rra amn Tiam _ - i -: I \ : I •• : T T TIT < • •• : This group stands in contrast to Yahweh's people in verse 32. Yahweh has established Zion for the poor (^J?) of his people. "•iroKba rmr-nai :iau •<*& ion*' nm rt»sIQ 1 Vnrr ^ i - /•••-; \ v: V /T I • J- • T : < • The nouns *?1 (25.4; 26.6), 1T3X (25.4), and '33? (26.6) also appear in Isaiah 24-27 and like 14.32 they speak of the needy as belonging to Yahweh who will care and provide for them. In Yahweh they will find refuge and shelter. Isaiah 15.8-9 'lf.fi Isaiah 15 "sounds a lament over the people and territory of Moab." Wildberger divides the chapter into two sections: 15.1-4 and 15.5-8. The first section he sees as a unique type of lament song. "Information is provided about the downfall of just two, no doubt very important, Moabite cities, but the rest of the passages relate information about 364. Hibbard, Intertextuality, 203. 365. cf. 24.23 366. Brueggemann, Isaiah 1-39, 138. 290 the way the people in northern Moab carried out their morning rites."367 With regard to the second section Wildberger views it as a song which "describes the desolate situation south of the Arnon, where those who had been deeply shaken by the terrible news were trying to save themselves by making a desperate attempt to escape. The idea of a remnant fleeing from an invading force to no avail is similar to the theme of fleeing in Isaiah 24.17-18. Also, the writer of Isaiah 15.8-9 borrows from the language and imagery of 2 Kings 3 in describing the extent of the destruction. :2KiQ y©'1? nnri 2 Kings 3T.23 Lastly, the connection between the land and its inhabitants appears in 15.8-9. When the land is devastated (TT^, 15.1) and suffers or mourns the people also experience grief, y^" nxira KITO bin iSrbu (15.2) and :ixio biarnx npittn na^rns (15.8). v / o 7 . ... JT T . ,.. <_ . . - \ / AT J : v |\TT :- T 1/ • • • This theme is also found in Isaiah 24.4, 8. Isaiah 16.6-14 "This lament reiterates the loss, grief, and pathos of 15.1-9a, sounding many of the same themes."369 In the earlier lament against Moab there was no indictment. This lament begins with one (16.6). *ixa xa axiD-pxa ^ati IT- I /•• \ T : v : v : s T -: - 367. Wildberger, Isaiah 13-27, 126. 368. Ibid., 135. 369. Brueggemann, Isaiah 1-39, 143. 291 The indictment stems from Moab's pride. Four different words are used to capture this trait: fiXJ, SJ, !7TNJ, and HIDS?. Moab's arrogance is also mentioned in Jeremiah 48.29 and Zephaniah 2.9aa, 10. "fop nxa axla-pKa larnti nab Q-)i iniKai iaixai inna Jeremiah48.29 •?K"itjp Tibx nixas mn" 'nxa ••afe^n pb •• T_: • j- v: T : T : --. : • T - I J"T rnn»s ^a» "oai Yrnn nios axin-'s T ~: i- I ~ <•• : v : i ' < : • T I • •aixa nnn ar6 nxr AT I ~ J ~ \ V T :nixaa rnrr qySy ibia'.i isnn p Zephaniah 2.9aa, 10 Clements notes that it is "very distinctive of the prophecies against foreign nations that they frequently denounce the sin of pride as the fundamental motivation for prophecies of •270 doom." This theme has an intertextual tie with Isaiah 25.9-12 where we hear of Moab's arrogance (HT.KJ) being humiliated and his fortified walls being laid low. Isaiah 16.7-8 depicts Moab having suffered a reversal of fortune, a theme found throughout Isaiah 24-27. One source of Moab's wealth and pride was their abundant vineyards and the trade of wine. Now their fields and vines languish (v. 8). vshn b'na ^»a niiatp *|aa bbm yiatfn "rriaiti p n^rM nana wn waa ifxr-is _ AT : • JT \TT /•• : :•"' nar itftsa rrninbtf IT : n \ : • T v J-% : The demise of the vine and its produce are observed in Isaiah 24.7-9 and its exaggerated abundance with Yahweh as its caretaker is spoken of in Isaiah 27.1-6. The resulting effects are stated in 16.9-10. To describe these the writer draws on language of languish and grief; language which is also found in Isaiah 24.7-13. For 370. Clements, Isaiah 1-39, 155. 292 example, in 16.10 there is a cessation of gladness (TiWip) and joy (V?). In 24.11 gladness (TTnftp) grows dark and the earth's rejoicing (fPifPD) is removed. This is because of nteina v*n-bs nms. A i- I -, - /T T In Isaiah 16.14 Polaski notes the motif of the "dwindling of population." "Reduction of population to a remnant is a common fate for those nations under YHWH's judgment in Isaiah 13-23."371 Damascus in 17.3 is reduced to a state similar to fallen Samaria. DIN -ixtfi pmiD robnm D^DXD nxan natfai - AT : JT : I v\v - • /T T : - .-.._.,.. T . . <- . . . :nixna rnrr DK3 "Hrr ^xnto?",:ia "naps Babylon's offspring are cut down and the remnant slain (14.22, 30). niKas mn1 n«a nrr^s? "•napi trnnyoKa nsai pai -ttwft Dtf baa1? 'rrprn 133T ntsab a^araxa D,!ir[ ntoa wm AT : • -JV T \- : v : • - J •• : T : :a'"irp imxtfi itiiv ama Tiam i -: - I \ I -• : T T TIT <•-••: And in 17.6 the scarcity of those remaining in Israel is compared to the fruit left upon branches which are unreachable. TEN tzfrna ana-ia rrabta nw nv npas n'^iy ia~ixtfai 1_ A* T J : \- : :~ VT : *s~ : llv J : i < ~ : • : ibvnur Tibx mrp-nxa nna Vrsyoa rraran nuaix i- T : • /•• •;: \T : \ : T • i T v - : • T • " JT T : - The same imagery and wording appears in 24.13. 371. Polaski, Authorizing an End, 111. 293 Isaiah 17 Isaiah 17 begins as an oracle concerning Damascus, the capital of Syria. By the end of the chapter the reader will have heard about Israel (the northern kingdom), cities being turned into rubble and a harvest of destruction which leaves only a remnant. In the first strophe (17.1-6) the writer speaks of the Syro-Ephraimite war. This subject was broached in Isaiah 9.7-20. Initially the strophe focuses upon the ruination of the capital of Syria, Damascus. The first action against Damascus is that it Ti??2 -)D1?3 ptoDl HJin and it is to become a H^SQ (17.1). It is moving from one state to another. The formula to express this is the preposition |p with the object stating what it had been, here, a city, plus what it is about to become, a ruin. This same formula is found in Isaiah 25.2a-c. The preposition p with its object appears twice: bib TI7E npto (25.2a) and TI7Q D,-1T ]ip"lK (25.2c). A similar use of} p to show a change from an initial state or condition, implied as negative, to a positive one is observed in Isaiah 25.4c-d: 2lhn bs blTp npnp. Another tie between Isaiah 17.1 and 25.2 is the noun H^30 in 17b and the closely related nVjSp, which appears in 25.2 and 23.13. The capital city is described as a "ruined-heap," deserted pTJ?) and occupied only by animals (17.2). The "fortified city" of Isaiah 27.10 is also described as desolate ("ia"ia? 3T»]1). The cities of Aroer of Isaiah 17 and the "fortified city" of Isaiah 27 both end up becoming grazing land: rrrnn nmub, l7.2;:rrsyo rtei raT otfi bay HUT no, 27.10b. 7 7 T v : i • j- T-: - T r.' • : n ' : I \T : • n : vv /-.- : • JT Verse 3 of Isaiah 17 mentions three matters which also appear in Isaiah 24-27 - the verb rottl, remnant, and glory. First, a fortification ceases to exist ("lS2p n3©31). In 294 Isaiah 25.12a fortified walls are brought down (ntin fnfoin aafpa lippi) and in 24.8 instruments of joy cease to be played (D^Fl fefitoa rati, line d; "1133 fcfitonrat i line f). Secondly, the third clause of Isaiah 17.3 states that "the remnant of Aram (BIN: "INOI) will disappear and become "like the glory of the sons of Israel" (bx"jto,~',33 11333). Childs notes that the phrase ^X~ra,,~",33 "11333, "serves not only further to tie the destruction of the coalition together - it is a futile glory - but also provides a literary transition to the succeeding judgment against Jacob."372 Polaski refers to the remnant of Damascus becoming the same size as the destroyed capital of Israel, Samaria (^Kntoy",33 11333).373 This idea of a dwindling population is in Isaiah 24.6, njBTH ©13X -)Kd31 pX *2V] \in }2~bv. Isaiah 17.4-6 shifts to the "glory of Jacob," Samaria. The coming devastation will leave populations so scarce that they are likened to an emaciated person and a harvest with but few gleanings left over or a meager amount of olives left dangling out of reach. Verse 4 begins with the formula Kinn DT3 Vpni , which also appears in Isaiah 22.20; 23.15; 24.21; 27.12, 13.374 While the writer mentioned the "glory of Israel" in verse 3, here it is the 3[piT 1133 (see above for links with Isaiah 24-27). In Isaiah 27 "Jacob" is referred to in line 6a (3j?ir EhttT b.'KS.n) and in the next line (6b) "Israel" is mentioned (biOtzr msi fT). Within Isaiah 17.4 one also finds the reversal motif- v A- T : • \ -T I / • T-7 glory fades (VViT) and one who is overweight ()£>$&) becomes lean (fin). This reversal 372. Childs, Isaiah, 137. 373. Polaski, Authorizing an End, 111. 374. The prepositional phrase Kinn 3113 without rrni before it appears within Isaiah 13-17 in 19.16, 18, 19, 21, 23, 24; 20.6; 22.8, 12, 20,^5; 25.9; 26.1; 27.1, 2. 295 theme is also found in Isaiah 24-27. One example is 25.2a-b where a city becomes a heap (bib T»n) and a fortified city a ruin (rtbztlb rnixn rrnp). In 17.5-6 the language describes a time of harvest. The imagery emphasizes an ingathering which emphasizes the fact that only a remnant will remain. "Only a few 'out- of-reach' folk will be left in Israel as a remnant."375 Verse 5 creates the setting as a time of harvest and ingathering by means of two verbs ^OX - ni2j? TSj? *]bX3 irrn and Op*? - Qva© Ej?.7P3 H^OI- These same verbs appear later in Isaiah 24-27: ION in 24.22ad where the "kings of the earth" are gathered together in Sheol, and V\?? in 27.12b where the "sons of Isael" are gathered during a time of harvest (nbaffl'p rTJiT BSrr, 27.12a). Verse 6 changes the imagery from grain to fruit to emphasize the scarcity of those who remain. The verse begins by pointing out that a few will remain even after the time of gleaning. Isaiah 24.13c-e possesses "the same imagery of the striking of the olive tree and the gleanings that remain afterwards."376 17.6 rvf e]p» nbbiy taHKtfai 24.l3c-e TX2 nba-nx ribbius rrt npas i- T /T T \ •• : llv J : Another connection between Isaiah 17.6 and chapters 24-27 is the use of the noun rl,i7D. In verse 6 the scarcity of fruit remaining is depicted as consisting of only four or five pieces on the branches of a fruitful tree, nHEi !TDI?p2 nffittn ni72"1K. In 27.10 trees once part of the "fortified city" are portrayed as food for a calf, rrayp n"ppl fZlT • ©! b;s n^T Dtf. Finally, the strophe ends with the writer attributing the oracle to Yahweh, bai^r TI^K mrP_DX3 (see also 17.3). 375. Brueggemann, Isaiah 1-39, 148. 376. Hibbard, Intertextuality, 46. 296 The first stanza of the next strophe (17.7-8) begins with the temporal phrase, Sinn DT2. Commentators such as Clements and Childs see these verses as secondary because they speak of a time of restoration. But as we have seen in Isaiah 24- 27 a writer may frequently switch from a mood of despair to that of joy.379 The stanza is about gazing (175?$). In verse 7 we read that man will gaze and look (HNI) upon his Maker OntP'S?),380 that is, the Holy One of Israel, "on that day." And he will no longer be gazing upon the works of his hands, namely, the Asherim and sun-pillars. Isaiah 27.1 Id also speaks of humanity's maker, intbi? ISanT'N'1? ]2~by. Hibbard, however, points out the contextual difference between these two uses. "For Isaiah 17, the reference speaks of a future day in which one will abandon idolatry and pursue 'his maker', while Isaiah 27 speaks about one's maker withholding grace and mercy in a context that strongly suggests it is because idolatry has not been abjured." Another connection between Isaiah 17 and 27 is the fact that both speak of the n?T:p, WMIjn, and nntfX (17.8; 27.9). Both passages have no place for any form of idol worship for Yahweh is Israel's "Maker." 377. Clements, Isaiah 1-39, 159. 378. Childs, Isaiah, 137. 379. For example, Isaiah 27.1-6 is a picture of Yahweh caring for a vineyard. In verse 1 Off there is a fortified city Yahweh shows no compassion toward. 380. Note the writer's word play between ni?ip. and infP'27. 381. Hibbard, Intertextuality, 196. 297 Like verse 7, this next stanza (17.9) begins with the temporal phrase writ] DV2. Isaiah 17.9 addresses the motif of urban desolation. "Strong cities" (i-TI?p "HI?) will become like "wooded heights and a summit," which were abandoned (bx-jtlT "OS •'330 12W im Tpxrn lti"inn roVI?3). And finally, a picture of devastation (nDptt?) is noted. As noted earlier, the theme of urban desolation is found within Isaiah 24-27. In 27.10 a supposed "unassailable city" is isolated ("tin Vn^n "VI?, line 10a) and a "grazing place" forsaken (3T1731 n'ptfp nh, line 10b). In 25.4a Yahweh himself is said to have become a TiS?p for the weak and poor. While this noun does not appear in Isaiah 27.3, the same idea of Yahweh as a protective force against possible threats is expressed with regards to Yahweh and his vineyard. The third strophe (17.10-11) continues its denunciation of false worship by denouncing the cult of Adonis. The writer lets the people know that it is futile caring for gardens dedicated to Adonis, especially when "a day of disease and incurable pain" (U?'13S 3X3/1 n^TO 0V3) is fast approaching. The reason they have turned to other gods is stated in verse 10a. They had forgotten (rDU?) and no longer remembered (IDT) Yahweh. Israel's forgetfulness in the context of idolatry is also stated in Isaiah 26.13. While other "lords" ruled over them, they confessed that ^QttJ "V3T3 y|3~""n'?. In 17.10a Yahweh is identified as "the God of your salvation" (~]b& Vfbx) and "the rock of your refuge" (^•U?P "flSl). Isaiah 26.4 is a call for the people of Israel to trust in Yahweh, Yahweh, who is the tra^to ~ns. The imagery of vineyards is employed in Isaiah 24.7, 9, 11; 27.2-3, 6. The writer varies his use of this imagery. At times Israel can be fruitful and prolific while at other 298 times it produces bitter wine and is unproductive for want of moisture. Here the writer subtly implies that what one worships and cares for, a vineyard to Adonis, is what one becomes (metaphorically infertile). The last strophe in Isaiah 17 (17.12-14) serves as a reminder of how close Israel was, is, and still might be to being engulfed by their enemies. Their redeemer has been and will always be Yahweh. For the writer the hostile nations are foreign powers as well as the proud and exalted within their midst. Isaiah 19 Isaiah 19 is an oracle against Egypt consisting of six strophes. The first four (vv. 1-4, 5-10,11-12, 13-15) gravitate around the certainty of God's plan to act against Egypt and the futile attempts of Egypt's rulers and gods to stop it. The first verse (19.1b) of the first strophe begins with the stylistic feature i"I3n followed by HTTP, and a participle (here 2D'")). This feature is also found at the beginning of 24.1a, pj?ia niPP njin. Another intertextual link between this line (24.la) and Isaiah 19 is the appearance of the verb j?ga in 19.3,12"lpn bnsaTtn n^aai, to depict the fate of Egypt. The strophe continues by describing the reaction of Egypt's rulers and gods to Yahweh's advances. They tremble or stagger like drunkards before Yahweh. Their hearts melt with fear (19.1). onsa xtoa • AT : * \T "" ansa xm hp airbi; arh m'rr nin • - : • JT I- /T - •• T : rasa ansa tybx m) :1aipa 0a1 ansa aabi 299 As Polaski points out, later in the chapter (v. 14) "the image of drunkenness returns; YHWH will make Egypt, a nation renowned for wisdom, into a bunch of inebriates, stumbling around in their own vomit." truii; mi pimps ion mrr A • : • - J \T :l- : I /- T VT : n^pa lis© niyrins intora-^n bnxirnK wnrn In 19.2, Hibbard notes that the divine judgment against Egypt "leads to anomie and confusion."383 This is similar to 24.2 where "divine judgment ignores existing social categories and distinctions in language." The waters of the Nile are pictured as drying up in 19.5, ©IP"] 3"irP "11131 and the fields dependent upon the Nile also dry up, QT1 "liX1 EHTQ bbl. The author of 27.11 uses the same verb, WT, to depict dryness upon the land and its impact upon the branches of the trees. The writer of Isaiah 19.8 uses three synonymous verbs to depict the effects the drought will have upon the people who work the land - H3K, VDN, *?QN. Within Isaiah 24 there are two passages where two of these verbs appear in a similar context to describe a dire situation: Tlbbm pKH n^ZM nJpnK (24.4a-c) and "[Drnb'pDN tflTfl bnK (24.7a-b). Hibbard points out, "in the book of Isaiah several passages speak of YHWH's hand as the instrument of judgment against foreign nations (14.27; 19.16; 23.11; 31.3)."385 This is similar to Isaiah 26.11. 382. Polaski, Authorizing an End, 109. 383. Hibbard, Intertextuality, 42. 384. Ibid., 41. 385. Ibid., 142. 300 The final two strophes (19.16-20 and 21-25) describe what "the day" will be like for the people of Egypt. Verse 17b makes it clear that the destruction coming upon Egypt is not one of chance, but rather has been planned by Yahweh, xvby fVV KTH Itifx niNDlS rniT nay n3Sp. In Isaiah 25.le the writer even has Israel's enemies mockingly confess that Yahweh's actions are based on pimra ni^y. Isaiah 19.18 speaks of the dispersion by mentioning that "in that day" Judeans would occupy five cities, including ancient Heliopolis. Judah continues to be pictured within Egypt in verses 19-22. The altar (n2Tp, v. 19) and pillar (!"D2?D, v. 19) they build become a sign and witness to Yahweh. Such language appears to be an allusion to the Exodus period - Judah crying out, the presence of oppressors, and a savior who eventually delivers them. The writer's intent in mentioning this is that Egypt may learn that they too may come to know Yahweh, even though it may be through affliction and eventual healing. The final strophe of Isaiah 19 (verses 20-23) tells of Egypt turning back to Yahweh, :DKDTI anb -in»ai rnrr~ty ««h Kis-n ni3 nnsn-nx mm nui, (v.22). This v ' IT T : w T /-: v: T : T : AT: IJT • \- : • v VT : G~T •. ' is the result of Yahweh making himself known to them, (D'HSQ1? Ynm sni^l, v.21), striking them and yet eventually healing them. This idea of responding in a favorable manner to Yahweh's judgment is similar to that recorded in Isaiah 26.8-9 where it states that it was judgment on the land that enabled the inhabitants of the land to learn to do righteousness. Isaiah 19.23 speaks of Yahweh's intended future, which like Isaiah 27.13 is set Xinn QT2. Assyria and Egypt will no longer be enemies of Israel or each other. Such language signals a broader restoration than that of Israel and Judah. This verse along with the preceding two verses, place Assyria and Egypt "on equal standing with Israel and also apparently involve them in pilgrimage feasts. This passage assumes Israel's presence in the land, thus no return is narrated."387 The writer of Isaiah 27.13 concludes the section (Isaiah 27) as well as chapters 24-27 by telling of a return of the "perishing" and "dispersed" from the land of Assyria and Egypt. At their return they will worship Yahweh in Jerusalem. Isaiah 21.11-17 These verses are divided into two strophes: verses 11-12 and 13-17. The first strophe (21.11-12) is an oracle against Dumah. With regards to understanding the meaning of "Dumah," Brueggemann offers the following possibilities. First, it may be a place, in particular a desert oasis. Second, it could be a reference to silence. Third, it might be a misspelling for Edom. Finally, it may be seen as an intrusion dividing verses 11-12 from verses 1-10.388 Wildberger argues that "the oracles against the nations that are from Isaiah himself... were always basically directed at Judah/Jerusalem, since they were intended as a way to keep them from entering into dangerous treaties or embarking on false hopes." Wildberger's argument would still be valid if the writer were not Isaiah, but rather an individual writing as if or from the perspective of an eighth century Isaiah. If 386. Polaksi, Authorizing an End, 324-25. 387. Ibid., 328. 388. Brueggemann, Isaiah 1 -39, 173. 389. Wildberger, Isaiah 13-27, 338. 302 addressed to those in Judah/Jerusalem who are the remnant remaining after its fall, the purpose of the message Wildberger proffers still applies to this context. "The seer counsels them to take it easy. For the time being, in spite of everything, it is still 'night'."390 The theme of patience while Yahweh works on the international scene can be found in Isaiah 24-27. For instance, Yahweh's people wait eagerly for him (25.9; 26.8-9, 20). In 26.9, line c, the writer mentions that this waiting takes place at night, XintiX n3ipn TrtT=]N nb^a \rryt "•tiaa. Both in Isaiah 21.11 and 26.9 "night" is used "to convey the image of oppression and lack of freedom, in this case, no doubt, when one is under foreign rule."391 The second strophe (21.13-17) begins 2122, XtBQ and speaks of refugees in a desert region. There are five areas of intertextuality between these five verses and Isaiah 24-27. The first is in the area of lines which crescendo or build on one another and the theme of flight. Verse 15 introduces the idea of flight with four successive clauses explaining what it is they are fleeing from. m3 niain •oaia-'s ATT \ T~: /•• : • i • nta mn ^aa - T : jv J" : nii-n ntfj? '••aaai :nar6a 122 ••aaai IT T : • ' v / \" : • This same theme and literary style is observed in 24.17a-18c with regard to one fleeing. 390. Ibid. 391. Ibid., 337. 303 The second association with Isaiah 24-27 is in the area of attributing the oracle to Yahweh via the formula 121 ^K'Hto''~"ir6x rtliT ''3(21.17). A similar form expressing this idea appears in 24.3 (tPHTI "IS'nnTlK 12T\ 1)1* *2) and 25.8 (HIT] niff ''S). The third intertextual link between these two peri copes is the theme of human glory being eradicated. In verse 16 Kedar's glory comes to an end, "HJ? TDS'Ss nbsi. Blenkinsopp notes that this glory resided in their prosperity and power. "Their prosperity rested on trade in cattle, camels, and the manufacture of woven goods (Jer 49.29; Ezek 27.21; Isa 60.7), and after surviving hostile contact with Assyrians and Babylonians they secured control over a vast area from the northern Arabian and Syrian desert region to the Sinai." The fact that humanity would relish in their own accomplishments, claim glory and pride for themselves, and eventually undergo a fall from glory, is also found in Isaiah 25.11-12 and 26.4-5a. In contrast to human pride and arrogance is Yahweh's glory (24.15,23). The final motif is the concept of only a remnant remaining after the wreckage - 1BBQ1 Tip-on niaa rTOP"~lSO;2 mm. This same language and motif is found in Isaiah AT : • \TI" r- : / •• • v \r: ~ : ' ST : CO 24.6h ("linp tfiaK "IKtf31). Isaiah 22.25 This verse is a metaphor which imagines "a peg upon which everything royal is hung, so that the weight of it all, even though 'in a secure place', will give way."393 The 392. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1-39, 330. 393. Brueggemann, Isaiah I-39, 181. 304 essence of the message is that the peg on which the royal line of David hung is cut off. "Their intention is clear: to affirm that the prosperity and safety promised to Eliakim would not last, and, by implication, neither would that of the Davidic dynasty."394 The writer of Isaiah 24-27 has no need for a Davidic ruler either. In Isaiah 24.23 Yahweh has become king in Jerusalem (a'pCTTTI p»a "ina niK315 nifT "]b!i"'p) and his glory is before the elders, not a ruler from David's line. In Isaiah 27.13 it is to Yahweh that people will bow down (TlfW) on the "holy mountain in Jerusalem," not one of David's descendants. Isaiah 23.13-18 Isaiah 23.13-14 ends the larger segment to which it belongs (23.1-14). For example, Childs points out that the function of verse 13 "within the context of vv. 1-14 is to draw an analogy between mighty Babylon and glorious Tyre, both of whom suffered destruction at the hands of YHWH, Lord of hosts. The verse thus provides a late sixth- century actualization of the oracle against Tyre, which is consonant with the dominant editorial shape of chapters 13-23."395 Also, verse 14 mentions the "ships of Tarshish" OZTtthn n1»3K) from verse 1 (ttTttnn rfi»3N) and the imperative to "wail" (l^n) is repeated from verse 1 and 6 (l^n, "•« "attT I^TJ). Within these two verses (23.13-14) one discerns intertextual connections with Isaiah 24-27. The first connection is how Tyre is described in verse 13b. tnbsra'p pinto rrh'foPI* ^"P P^n?] errnn) iirpn 394. Clements, Isaiah 1-39, 190. 395. Childs, Isaiah, 169. 305 Tyre is depicted as "ruined" (H^SD) just as the "fortified city" of Isaiah 25.2 becomes a ruin. In both passages a "citadel" (fiDIX) is mentioned as the recipient of destruction. In 23.14 the theme of wailing is spoken of. The ttTtthfl nV3K (also v.l) are to wail (?ty. This same command is found earlier in verse 6 (^X ^2W ^^n). While this particular word is not found in Isaiah 24-27 the theme of expressing extreme sorrow due to destruction is found in passages such as 24.7c (3b"ina0"b3 nn3N3), 24.1 lc (rrisina y*Ti-bv nmx), and 26.17c (n^ana prrn 'rnn). The next stanza (23.15-16) begins with the formula Xinn Di'a Vrrn. "This phrase, found frequently in Isaiah, typically appears at the beginning of a unit." These two verses compare the fall of Tyre to a harlot. According to Wildberger verse 15 serves as "a short introduction to the song about the prostitute in v. 16."397 The song itself (v. 16) implies that "Tyre, like the prostitute in the song, would have to try very hard in order to be remembered at all, so devastating would be her judgment."398 A song functioning in a mocking or taunting fashion is also seen in 25.1-3 where foreigners mock Israel by offering up praise unto Yahweh. Two words used in 23.16 also appear in Isaiah 24-27: the playing of a "harp" 1133 (24.8f) and the word "song" Ttf (24.9a; 26.1a). In the last stanza (23.17-18) of this strophe (23.15-18) we read of Tyre again recovering and bringing her revenue to Jerusalem to be dedicated to Yahweh and used by his people. "This concluding theme is found throughout the oracles concerning the 396. Polaski, Authorizing an End, 74. cf. 24.21; 27.12, 13. 397. Wildberger, Isaiah 13-27, 434. 398. Clements, Isaiah 1-39, 195. 306 nations, namely, that the nations in the future will bring tribute to YHWH and be reconciled to the God of Israel (16.5; 18.7; 19.21)."399 Within Isaiah 24-27 there is no mention of tributes being brought to Jerusalem by other nations, but in 25.6-7 and 27.13 we do read of nations being gathered together. Isaiah 24-27 as a conclusion to the Oracles against the Nations The above analysis supports the hypothesis that the writer of Isaiah 24-27 began with a shortened version of the Oracles against the Nations and expanded it in order to bring them in line with his variant view of foreign nations and Jerusalem. He created book ends for the entire section by placing chapter 13 at the beginning and chapters 24- 27 at the end. Both tell of the fall of the southern kingdom and in particular Jerusalem. However, for the writer the pre-fall Jerusalem, its land, and inhabitants also became a metaphor for all the proud and faithless within Israel and the foreign nations. Their banishment was just as certain as the fall of Jerusalem. Only a righteous remnant would survive. The remnant would consist of those who had rid themselves of all foreign gods and influences, hence, the writer's purpose in emending the Oracles against the Nations. The nations had to be destroyed. The best case scenario would be the survival of a few people who would support Israel with their resources and labor. 399. Childs, Isaiah, 169. CHAPTER TEN CONCLUSION This dissertation offers a distinctive contribution to the study of Isaiah 24-27 in two ways. First, it presents a reasonable argument that one individual was responsible for these chapters and that they form a cohesive unit. This hypothesis creates doubt regarding the premise that Isaiah 24-27 originally consisted of independent texts brought together by an editor. Secondly, it provides an explanation for the similarities that exist between chapters 24-27 and portions of Isaiah 13-23. Support for my hypothesis is based on the overall structure of these four chapters and how the structure serves the writer's purpose. The individual responsible for Isaiah 24-27 recognized that what he had to say would not be well received. Therefore, he employed a literary style that would make his writing credible. He wrote as if he were Isaiah. Isaiah had predicted the fall of Jerusalem. He ended up being correct. By having his message come from the pen of Isaiah, as it were, readers would be more apt to believe what he had to say. Jerusalem, the land, and its inhabitants were a metaphor for the people of his day. He compared the proud and exalted among the natives and foreigners to a lofty city which would be left desolated. There was no place for foreign powers. At the most they would be tolerated as second class servants. He anticipated the day when a purified remnant would live in peace under the reign of Yahweh. Many of his readers would miss the point and consider the city he spoke of as existing foreign powers. 307 This study has shown that Isaiah 24-27 works well as a cohesive unit in fulfilling the writer's intentions. The text begins with very vague language. The initial segment is primarily pessimistic and filled with vicious attacks, a barren land and city, and a people scattered abroad. As the work continues the writer begins to offer hope to the weak and downtrodden. If they will remove all foreign distractions and forms of false worship, if they will trust in Yahweh rather than an ancient covenant, Yahweh would prove to be their deliverer. By the last chapter the writer is using fewer metaphors and less imagery and speaking more plainly. The writer of Isaiah 24-27 also added chapter 13 as a new introduction to the Oracles against the Nations. These two sections, chapter 13 and chapters 24-27, serve as bookends mirroring one another. The writer is also responsible for emending and adding to the oracles of Isaiah 13-23. The purpose of these additions was to encourage his audience to identify to some degree with these foreign nations. The traits they abhorred in their neighbors were present in their own community. Yahweh would treat his people no differently than he had treated the other nations when they did not learn from his judgment. The method I employed and which was instrumental in leading me to these conclusions is Sequential Analysis. The method is not a grid which is superimposed upon the text. Rather the structure naturally unfolds as one pays attention to each line and its relation to those lines surrounding it. By noting the sequence in which the lines appear one is able to identify the larger structure such as stanzas and strophes. The method is also beneficial in noting the literary style of a particular writer within the lines, as well as the stanzas and strophes. 309 The value of Sequential Analysis for future biblical research is that it can be used in analyzing the structure of both narrative and poetic passages. Both types of genre contain verbal and nominal clauses and these clauses can be found in a sequence. The type of sequence may vary (i.e. consecutive, asyndetic, etc.) but how clauses and stanzas are identified remains the same - a series of clauses of the same type, introduced or not by unlike clauses and ending with a clause of another type. Another value of this form of analysis is in discussing the historical development of a passage. Some scholars method of study is to identify the boundaries of various sections of a passage, and then classify the sections according to form and conjecture as to how and why they are found in their final location. Sequential Analysis not only reveals the overall structure of the passage, but also hints to how it might have been constructed. Such analysis may allow for a passage which traditionally has been seen as a composite work to be viewed as the product of one individual. APPENDIX Part One: Isaiah 24.1-16 Part one consists of 5 strophes: 24.1-3; 4-6; 7-9; 10-13; 14-16. There are a total of 57 lines. The predominant clause type is Qatal Asyndetic (70%). 31 of the 57 lines are verbal Qatal 55% 21 of the 31 Qatal clauses are Asyndetic 68% 4 of the 31 Qatal clauses are Conjunctive 13% 3 of the 31 Qatal clauses are Disjunctive 10% 2 of the 31 Qatal clauses are Consecutive 6% 1 of the 31 Qatal clauses is Paratactic 3% 11 of the 57 lines are verbal Yiqtol 19% 6 of the 11 clauses are Asyndetic 55% 3 of the 11 clauses are Consecutive 27% 1 of the 11 clauses is Conjunctive 9% 1 of the 11 clauses is Disjunctive 9% 14 of the 57 lines are nominal 25% 13 of the 14 clauses are Asyndetic 93% 1 of the 14 clauses is Conjunctive 7% 1 of the 57 lines is modal 1% The 1 clause is Conjunctive Part Two: Isaiah 24.17-23 Part two consists of 4 strophes: 24.17-18; 19-20; 21-22a; 22b-23. The scene consists of 25 lines. The predominant clause type is the verbal Yiqtol consecutive (40%). Also, one should note that in the first scene the verbal Qatal lines are dominate (56% of lines), while in this scene the verbal Yiqtol lines are predominate (60%). 310 311 6 of the 24 lines are verbal Qatal 25% 3 of the 6 Qatal clauses are Asyndetic 50% 2 of the 6 Qatal clauses are Conjunctive 33% 1 of the 6 Qatal clauses is Consecutive 17% 14 of the 24 lines are verbal Yiqtol 58% 10 of the 14 clauses are Consecutive 72% 2 of the 14 clauses are Asyndetic 14% 2 of the 14 clauses are Disjunctive 14% 4 of the 24 lines are nominal 17% 2 of the 4 clauses are Asyndetic 50%) 2 of the 4 clauses are Paratactic 50%> Part Three: Isaiah 25.1-12 Scene three consists of 4 strophes: 25.1-3; 4-5; 6-8; 9-12. The scene consists of 49 lines. The predominant clause type is nominal asyndetic (35%). In the entire scene there are 28 asyndetic clauses (57%). of the 49 lines are verbal Qatal 20% 6 of the 10 Qatal clauses are Asyndetic 60% 3 of the 10 Qatal clauses are Conjunctive 30% 1 of the 10 Qatal clauses is Disjunctive 10% of the 49 lines are verbal Yiqtol 35% 7 of the 17 clauses are Consecutive 41% 7 of the 17 clauses are Asyndetic 41% 2 of the 17 clauses is Conjunctive 12% 1 of the 17 clauses is Disjunctive 6% of the 49 lines are nominal 39% 17 of the 19 clauses are Asyndetic 90% 1 of the 19 clauses is Conjunctive 5% 1 of the 19 clauses is Paratactic 5% 312 3 of the 49 lines are modal 6% 1 of the 3 clauses is Asyndetic 33% 1 of the 3 clauses is Paratactic 33% 1 of the 3 clauses is Conjunctive 33% Part Four: Isaiah 26.1-11 Scene four consists of 4 strophes: 26.1-3; 4-6; 7-9; 10-11. The scene consists of 36 lines. The predominant clause type is verbal Yiqtol asyndetic (36%). In the entire scene there are 28 asyndetic clauses (80%). 7 of the 36 lines are verbal Qatal 19% 6 of the 7 Qatal clauses are Asyndetic 86% 1 of the 7 Qatal clauses are Consecutive 14% 16 of the 36 lines are verbal Yiqtol 44% 13 of the 16 clauses are Asyndetic 81% 1 of the 16 clauses are Disjunctive 1% 2 of the 12 clauses are Paratactic 13% 11 of the 36 lines are nominal 31% 8 of the 11 clauses are Asyndetic 73%) 3 of the 11 clauses are Conjunctive 27% 2 of the 36 lines are modal 1%> Part Five: Isaiah 26.12-21 Scene five consists of 4 strophes: 26.12-14; 15-18; 19-21. The scene consists of 40 lines. The predominant clause type is verbal Qatal asyndetic (37%). In the entire scene there are 30 asyndetic clauses (75%). 313 17 of the 40 lines are verbal Qatal 42% 15 of the 17 Qatal clauses are Asyndetic 88% 2 of the 17 Qatal clauses are Consecutive 11% 13 of the 40 lines are verbal Yiqtol 33% 9 of the 13 clauses are Asyndetic 69% 1 of the 13 clauses are Disjunctive 8% 3 of the 13 clauses are Consecutive 23% 4 of the 40 lines are nominal 10% 2 of the 4 clauses are Asyndetic 50% 2 of the 4 clauses are Conjunctive 50% 6 of the 40 lines are modal 15% 4 of the 6 clauses are Asyndetic 67% 2 of the 6 clauses are Paratactic 33% Part Six: Isaiah 27.1-13 Scene six consists of 5 strophes: 27.1-3; 4-6; 7-9; 10-11; 12-13. The scene consists of 46 lines. The predominant clause type is verbal Yiqtol asyndetic (20%). 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