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Home , Abijah (queen), Gihon, Isaiah 24, Isaiah 66, Jeremiah 1, Jeremiah 2

The Major , Part 1 and

Raphael. The Isaiah, detail (fresco), c. 1511. Basilica of Sant’ Agostine, Rome.

with

Dr. Bill Creasy

Copyright © 2021 by Logos Educational Corporation.

All rights reserved. No part of this course—audio, video, photography, maps, timelines or other media—may be reproduced or transmitted in any form by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage or retrieval devices without permission in writing or a licensing agreement from the copyright holder.

Scripture texts in this work are taken from the New American , revised edition © 2010, 1991, 1986, 1970 Confraternity of Christian Doctrine, Washington, D.C. and are used by permission of the copyright owner. All Rights Reserved. No part of the New American Bible may be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the copyright owner.

2 The Major Prophets, Part 1 Isaiah and Jeremiah

Traditional Author: Isaiah

Traditional Dates Written: c. 740-686 B.C.

Traditional Periods Covered: c. 740-539 B.C.

Traditional Author: Jeremiah

Traditional Dates Written: c. 626-586 B.C.

Traditional Periods Covered: c. 626-586 B.C.

Introduction

The Hebrew Scriptures (or the ) feature three main characters: king, priest and prophet. Of course, God is to be ’s king: in the beginning, God makes an irrevocable covenant with Israel; he leads the out of in the Exodus; reaffirms the covenant at Mount Sinai; tests the Israelites throughout their 40-year wilderness experience; and finally, under ’s leadership, moves them into the land of —the “Promised Land”—where they dislodge (to some degree) the indigenous people who live there: the Canaanites, Hittites, Amorites, Perizzites, Hivites and Jebusites (Judges 3: 5-6).

With the death of Joshua and his generation, however, the Israelites quickly fall far from God, ignoring the covenant, intermarrying with the indigenous people, and serving their gods. A steep cycle of decline begins, and with each turn of the cycle, the nation spirals lower and lower, until by the end of the , around 1050 B.C.: “There was no king in Israel [including God]; everyone did what was right in their own sight” (21: 25).

With each cycle of decline God raises a “Judge.” In the book of Judges, we meet 13 Judges, but they are not judicial figures, they are military or political leaders (although —the only woman judge—serves both judicial and military functions). Theoretically, Judges were to emerge at a time of crisis, address the crisis, and then return to their ordinary lives as farmers and shepherds. But, of course, when people are given power (or take it), they are loath to give it up, so as time goes by the judges become more and more corrupt, clinging to power and position. By 1 the people are fed up with the corrupt judges, and they demand a king, “like all the other nations, to rule us” (8: 5).

3 The King

The people choose Saul, son of Kish, a Benjamite, to reign as Israel’s first king, 1050- 1010 B.C. Although Saul looks like a king, he doesn’t have the heart of a king, and Saul fails miserably at the , quickly descending into paranoia and madness, and opening the door for the dashing and heroic young to replace him. With the death of Saul and his three sons—Jonathan, Abinadab and Malki-Shua—at the battle of Mount Gilboa, David steps through the door, reigning as king from 1010-970 B.C. Through brilliant (and sometimes brutal) political maneuvering and continual warfare, David forges a loose confederation of twelve tribes into a united monarchy, elevating them to a position of regional power. David is Israel’s ideal king: he is a magnificent warrior, a brilliant king, a profound man of God . . . but a deeply flawed man, as well, fully human in his loves and hates, his passions and desires, his foibles and failures.

With David’s death, his son becomes king, and he reigns from 970-930 B.C. Solomon inherits David’s united monarchy, and Solomon overlays the monarchy with a brilliant administrative structure, for the most part ignoring tribal boundaries and loyalties. Through strategic alliances with other kings and tribal warlords, Solomon vertically integrates the entire economy of his day, controlling not only the food production center of Egypt, but the land and maritime distribution routes, as well. As a result, under Solomon’s reign Israel dominates the biblical world, generating enormous wealth in the process.

But Solomon’s reign quickly produces internal conflict and incipient rebellion, as well. Due to the burdensome taxes imposed on his people and the hated practice of corvée (unpaid, conscripted labor), upon Solomon’s death, civil war breaks out. Jeroboam, leader of the rebel forces, rallies the northern tribes against Solomon’s son , who leads the lone tribe of , the house of David. The civil war is a disaster: the northern tribes become the nation of Israel, with its capital at , while the southern tribe of Judah becomes the nation of Judah, with its capital at . The civil war rages for nearly 80 years, fracturing the united monarchy into shards of splintered glass and inviting invasion from the surrounding nations and tribal peoples.

With Solomon’s death, the united monarchy collapses. Nineteen kings will rule in the northern kingdom of Israel; twenty kings will rule in the southern .

Here’s the list:

4 Northern Kingdom of Israel Southern Kingdom of Judah

1. Jeroboam I (930-909) 1. Rehoboam (930-913) 2. Abijah (913-910) 2. Nadab (909-908) 3. Asa (910-869) 3. Baasha (908-886) 4. Elah (886-885) 5. Zimri (885-7 days) 6. Omri (885-874) 7. Ahab (874-853) 4. Jehoshaphat (869-848) 8. Ahaziah (853-852) 9. Joram (852-841) 5. Jehoram (848-841) 10. (841-814) 6. Ahaziah (841) 7. Athaliah (841-835) 11. Jehoahaz (814-798) 8. Joash (835-796) 12. Jehoash (798-782) 9. Amaziah (796-767) 13. Jeroboam II (782-753) 10. (767-740) 14. Zechariah (753-752) 15. Shallum (752-1 month) 16. Menahem (752-742) 17. Pekahiah (742-740) 18. (740-732) 11. Jotham (740-735) 19. Hoshea (732-721) 12. (735-715) 13. (715-686) 14. Manasseh (786-642) 15. Amon (642-640) 16. (640-609) 17. Jehoahaz (609-3 months) 18. (609-598) 19. Jehoiachin (598-597) 20. (597-686)

1 & 2 Samuel, 1 & 2 Kings and 1 & 2 Chronicles tell the story of the kings of Israel and Judah, a tale that spans 1050-586 B.C., nearly half a millennium. It is a sprawling story that provides the historical and narrative context for the prophets, for nearly all of the prophets live and work during the time of the kings. What they have to say has its immediate application during the prophets’ own time and place.

5 The Priests

God creates Israel’s priesthood during Israel’s wilderness years (1446-1406 B.C.) by appointing ’ older brother , as High Priest, and Aaron’s sons—Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar and Ithamar—as priests (Exodus 28: 1). The priesthood is then restricted to the patrilineal descendants of Aaron, scion of the tribe of Levi.

By definition, a priest in Scripture speaks to God on behalf of the people, and he ministers to the people by offering sacrifices to God on their behalf: the burnt offering, grain offering, fellowship (or “peace”) offering, sin offering and guilt offering (Leviticus 1-5). Israel’s priests serve at the Tabernacle (1446-959 B.C.), Solomon’s Temple (959- 586 B.C.) and the (516 B.C.-A.D. 70) until the destruction of Jerusalem (kohanim , ֹכּ ֲה ִנ םי and the Second Temple in A.D. 70. Today in , priests (the continue in the Kohen (or Cohen) families of rabbinical Judaism, although they have no official function in a synagogue. In Orthodox communities, however, it is customary to have a kohan read the first of three readings at daily synagogue services (on Mondays and Thursdays) and the first of seven readings on Shabbat, the Sabbath. A kohan may , תכרב הכ נ י ם also be called upon in Orthodox services to offer the “priestly blessing” (the birkat kohanim), head covered and hands held aloft in the “priestly blessing” gesture (like the Vulcan salutation given by Mr. Spock (Leonard Nimoy, the Jewish actor in Star Trek, who copied it from the Orthodox rabbi of Nimoy’s childhood!).

In biblical Judaism, the priests enjoyed high status among the people and their leaders, and they often worked hand-in-hand with court officials to advance the king’s agenda. Given their status and position, however, priests could easily become corrupt. Jeremiah, himself a priest as well as a prophet, excoriates the corrupt leaders and priests of his day, saying: “The prophets prophesy falsely, and the priests teach on their own authority; yet my people love it this way” (5: 31); “small and great alike, all are greedy for gain, prophet and priest, all practice fraud” (6: 13). And we read in Jeremiah that “the priest , son of Immer, chief officer in the house of the Lord, heard Jeremiah prophesying . . . so he struck the prophet and him in the stocks at the upper Gate of in the house of the Lord” (20: 1-2). And, of course, in times Caiaphas the High Priest works hand-in-hand with the Roman authorities, having arrested, beaten, tried and handed over to Pontius Pilate, demanding that Jesus be crucified.

More often than not, priests in the Hebrew Scriptures supported the status quo, currying favor with the kings and their court officials. “Good” priests were few and far between.

6 The Prophets

As a priest speaks to God on behalf of the people, the prophet speaks to the people on behalf of God. A prophet is necessarily confrontational, typically confronting both priests and kings. Prophets come in two types: oral prophets and writing prophets. Oral prophets like and are great prophets, but they don’t write a single word. Elijah, for example, confronts the corrupt king of Israel, Ahab; his vile, loathsome and despicable wife, Jezebel; and the army of prophets of whom they employ. In the climax of the story, Elijah takes on four hundred prophets of Baal on , taunting them as they call on Baal, and finally himself calling down fire from heaven and thunderously defeating them all . . . after which, Elijah butchers them! Elisha, too, makes enemies of kings, both foreign and domestic. Both are great prophets, but they are not writers.

Of the writing prophets, we have sixteen in the Christian canon: four major prophets and .1 Importantly, major prophets are not more important than minor prophets; major prophets are major because their books are long, while minor prophets are minor because their books are short.

Major Prophets Minor Prophets

Isaiah (66 chapters) (14 chapters) Jeremiah (52) (4) Lamentations (5) (9) (48) (1) (14) (4) (7) (3) (3) (3) (2) Zechariah (14) (3)

Lamentations is only five chapters long, but it is written by Jeremiah, so it is included with him. Daniel is a special case. The Jewish canon includes Daniel among the , the “Writings,” not among the Nevi-im, the “Prophets,” for Daniel is an

1 The Jewish canon differs, classifying the Hebrew Scriptures (the Tanakh) into three categories: (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers Deuteronomy); Nevi’im (“Former Prophets”—Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings; “Latter Prophets”—Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel); “Minor Prophets”—Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zachariah, Malachi); and Ketuvim (“”—, Proverbs, Job, Ruth, Lamentations, , ; “Other books”—Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, Chronicles).

7 altogether a different genre of composition. The was written sometime during the 2nd century B.C, although its story is set in during the , 605-539 B.C. Daniel is a young man of the royal house of David who is taken captive from Jerusalem to Babylon in 605 B.C., and he serves at the court of king Nebuchadnezzar. The story fits neatly into the apocalyptic genre, and it combines with “end-time” (or eschatological) visions. Daniel differs greatly from the other major and minor prophets, all of whom speak into their own historical context. The Christian canon of the Hebrew Scriptures moves Daniel from the Ketuvim to the Major Prophets—a companion to Isaiah, Jeremiah and Ezekiel—primarily because Daniel was an especially important book to Jesus, who identified closely with it, understanding himself to be the “Son of Man,” referenced in Daniel 7:

“As the visions during the night continued, I saw coming with the clouds of heaven One like a son of man. When he reached the Ancient of Days and was presented before him, He received dominion, splendor, and kingship; all nations, peoples and tongues will serve him. His dominion is an everlasting dominion that shall not pass away, his kingship, one that shall not be destroyed.”

(7: 13-14)

In the Olivet Discourse—Jesus’ words on the “end times”—he alludes to Daniel, as well, saying:

“When you see the desolating abomination spoken of through Daniel the prophet [Daniel 9: 27; 11: 31; 12: 11] standing in the holy place (let the reader understand), then those in Judea must flee to the mountains, a person on the housetop must not go down to get things out of his house, a person in the field must not return to get his cloak. Woe to pregnant women and nursing mothers in those days. Pray that your flight not be in winter or on the Sabbath, for at that time there will be great tribulation, such as has not been since the beginning of the world until now, nor ever will be. And if those days had not been shortened, no one would be saved; but for the sake of the elect they will be shortened.”

(: 15-22)

And finally, at Jesus’ trial before the Sanhedrin, the high priest cuts to the chase, demanding a clear answer from Jesus, saying: “I order you to tell us under oath before the living God whether you are the , the Son of God” (Matthew 26: 63). And Jesus replies, alluding directly to Daniel 7: 13-14—

“You have said so [su◊ ei‹maß]. But I tell you: From now on you will see ‘the Son of Man

8 seated at the right hand of the Power’ and ‘coming on the clouds of heaven.’”

(Matthew 26: 64)

That gets Jesus a death sentence.

The book of Daniel plays a central role in Jesus’ self-identity, and consequently it goes on to play a central role in Christian apocalyptic or “end time” thinking. Thus, the Christian canon elevates Daniel to the status of a .

Importantly, all prophets speak into their own historical context, addressing issues that are current in their own day. A prophet is emphatically NOT a fortune teller, someone who looks down the corridors of time and says: “I see Jesus coming; he’ll be born in Bethlehem 500 years from now!” A prophet always—100% of the time—speaks into his own historical context. That’s his job.

When Moses is about to die in the , he says to the Israelites:

“A prophet like me will the LORD, your God, raise up for you from among your own kindred; that is the one to whom you shall listen.”

(18: 15)

But how would the people know if a person claiming to be a prophet actually is one? Anyone can claim to be a prophet . . . and turn out to be a phony, a “false” prophet. So, Moses replies:

“If a prophet speaks in the name of the LORD but the word does not come true, it is a word the LORD did not speak. The prophet has spoken it presumptuously; do not fear him.”

(18: 22)

So, if what the prophet says doesn’t come true for another 500 years, how would the prophet’s audience know to believe him? Consequently, what the prophet says must come true within the lifetime of his audience, or shortly thereafter.

Isaiah offers a perfect example. Isaiah operates as a prophet during the reigns of kings Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz and Hezekiah; that is, 740-686 B.C. During the reign of Ahaz, king of Judah (732-715 B.C.), Israel in the north had formed an alliance with (Syria) to their north. Together Aram and Israel seek to conquer Ahaz and the southern kingdom of Judah.

It’s 735 B.C., and Ahaz is terrified, knowing that he cannot defeat the northern alliance. God sends Isaiah to tell Ahaz not to fear them, for Ahaz has a much bigger problem on his hands: the Assyrian Empire (northern Iraq of today) is on the rise, and they will

9 obliterate both Aram and Israel . . . then they’ll come after Judah. Ahaz doesn’t believe Isaiah, so he demands a sign . . . and Isaiah gives him one:

“Listen, house of David! Is it not enough that you weary human beings? Must you also weary my God? Therefore, the Lord himself will give you a sign, the young woman, pregnant and about to bear a son, shall name him Emmanuel. Curds and honey he will eat so that he may learn to reject evil and choose good; for before the child learns to reject evil and choose good, the land of those two kings whom you dread shall be deserted.” (7: 13-16)

Isaiah 7: 14 is traditionally translated: “Behold, a virgin shall conceive, and bear a son, and shall call his name Emmanuel” (KJV). And that’s how Matthew understands it when he writes of Jesus’ birth:

“All this took place to fulfill what the Lord had said through the prophet: ‘Behold, the virgin shall be with child and bear a son, and they shall name him Emmanuel,’ which means ‘God is with us.’”

(1: 22-23)

al-mah’] and it merely means “young] הָמְלַע The Hebrew word translated “virgin” is woman,” not necessarily a physiological “virgin” (although in Isaiah’s and Matthew’s day the two were nearly synonymous). But Isaiah is not looking 735 years down the corridor of time, predicting the birth of Jesus. He is speaking of his immediate future, when the sign he gave will be fulfilled. And it is fulfilled in the very next chapter of Isaiah:

“The LORD said to me: Take a large tablet, and inscribe on it with an ordinary stylus, ‘belonging to Maher-shalal-hash-baz,’ and call reliable witnesses for me, the priest, and Zechariah, son of Jeberechiah. Then I [Isaiah] went to the prophetess [Mrs. Isaiah] and she conceived and bore a son. The LORD said to me: Name him Maher-shalal-hash- baz, for before the child learns to say, ‘My father, my mother,’ the wealth of Damascus and the spoils of Samaria shall be carried off by the king of .” (8: 1-4)

”al-mah’) gives birth to a son, and before that boy can say “Papa ָמְלַע ה So, Mrs. Isaiah (an or “Mama,” before he knows right from wrong (traditionally at 12 years old), Aram and Israel will not even exist. And sure enough, Assyria conquers both Aram and Israel in 722 B.C., 12 years after Maher-shalal-hash-baz is born. The child’s name is symbolic, by the way, meaning “quick spoils, speedy plunder,” exactly what Assyria gets from Aram and Israel. So, Isaiah’s prophecy in 7: 14 is literally fulfilled only one chapter later in 8: 3.

10 The early Christians understood that Isaiah’s prophecy in 7: 14 was literally fulfilled in 8: 3, but they read this fulfilled prophecy as foreshadowing an even greater fulfillment in al-mah’] (Mrs. Isaiah, the “young woman”) conceived and gave] הָמְלַע their day. As the birth to a son in Isaiah, so in the manner of “stepped up parallelism,” does the Virgin Mary [parqevnoß, par-the’-nos, a physiological virgin] conceive and give birth to a son, Jesus. We see fulfilled prophecy in the Hebrew Scriptures foreshadowing events in the New Testament hundreds of times. So, Old Testament prophecy does not predict events in the New Testament; rather, fulfilled prophecy in the Old Testament foreshadows events in the New Testament. In the literary world, this foreshadowing is called “intertextuality,” and we’ll explore it in-depth in our two courses on the Major Prophets: Isaiah and Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Daniel.

All of the writing prophets operate during the time of the kings, so it’s important to understand the historical context into which they write, if we’re to understand their books. Here are the prophets associated with their corresponding kings:

Northern Kingdom of Israel Southern Kingdom of Judah

1. Jeroboam I (930-909) 1. Rehoboam (930-913) 2. Abijah (913-910) 2. Nadab (909-908) 3. Asa (910-869) 3. Baasha (908-886) 4. Elah (886-885) 5. Zimri (885-7 days) 6. Omri (885-874) 7. Ahab (874-853) Elijah, Elisha (oral) 4. Jehoshaphat (869-848) 8. Ahaziah (853-852) 9. Joram (852-841) 5. Jehoram (848-841) 10. Jehu (841-814) 6. Ahaziah (841) 7. Athaliah (841-835) 11. Jehoahaz (814-798) 8. Joash (835-796) 12. Jehoash (798-782) 9. Amaziah (796-767) 13. Jeroboam II (782-753) Hosea 10. Uzziah (767-740) Amos/Jonah 14. Zechariah (753-752) Micah . Shallum (752-1 month) 16. Menahem (752-742) 17. Pekahiah (742-740) 18. Pekah (740-732) 11. Jotham (740-735) 19. Hoshea (732-721) 12. Ahaz (735-715) 13. Hezekiah (715-686) 14. Manasseh (786-642) 15. Amon (642-640) 16. Josiah (640-609) Nahum/Zephaniah 17. Jehoahaz (609-3 months) Habakkuk/Joel 18. Jehoiakim (609-598) Jeremiah/Daniel 19. Jehoiachin (598-597) 20. Zedekiah (597-586) Ezekiel/Obadiah Haggai (c. 520) Zechariah (c.520) Malachi (c. 460)

11 Isaiah

In this course, we’ll focus on two of the major prophets: Isaiah and Jeremiah.

Isaiah served as a prophet from 740-686 B.C., during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz and Hezekiah, (: 1). Scripture first mentions Isaiah briefly during the final days of king Uzziah (: 22-23), and then Isaiah emerges as a major figure during the reigns of Ahaz (735-715 B.C.) and Hezekiah (715-686 B.C.). As the threat from the Assyrian Empire grows, so does Isaiah’s presence in our story. It is Isaiah who takes center stage in the defeat of in 701 B.C., when the “angel of the Lord” silently puts to death 185,000 Assyrian troops in the dark of night outside the walls of Jerusalem.

The was a perennial favorite among Jews during the Second Temple period (516 B.C.–A.D. 70). Eighteen copies of Isaiah—in whole or in part—were discovered among the , including the Great Isaiah scroll, 1QIsaa. Isaiah (1QIsaa) is one of the original seven Dead Sea scrolls discovered in Cave #1 at in 1947: it is a complete copy of Isaiah. Produced sometime around 125 B.C., it is over 1,000 years older than the next complete copy of Isaiah, the , which was copied in Tiberias (on the shore of the Sea of Galilee) in the 10th century A.D.

The Isaiah scroll (1QIsaa) is significant for many reasons, but the most important reason is textual. Until its discovery, most Scripture scholars and readers believed that the transmission of the text—that is, hand copying one manuscript from another over many centuries—introduced changes into the text, either deliberately or accidentally, through scribal revisions or errors. However, comparing the Isaiah scroll to the Aleppo Codex— two hand-written copies of Isaiah separated by over 1,000 years—shows the two to be nearly identical. Apart from scribal errors (omitted words or lines, inversions, dittography, and so on), the manuscripts are substantively identical, thus validating the integrity of the biblical text.

So, let’s have a look at the book of Isaiah. The text begins:

The vision which Isaiah, son of , saw concerning Judah and Jerusalem in the days of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz and Hezekiah, kings of Judah. (Isaiah 1: 1)

Isaiah’s opening verse tells us who Isaiah is; his message concerns the southern kingdom of Judah and Jerusalem; and the vision concerns the time during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz and Hezekiah, that is, 740-686 B.C. We are also told that Isaiah received what he is about to tell us through a “vision.” The Hebrew word translated “vision” is .khah-zon’], an utterance inspired by God] ןוֹזָח

Although for most of its history, Isaiah was read as the work of a single author, the 19th century German theologian, Bernard Duhm (1847-1928), proposed that the final version

12 of Isaiah, as we have it, was composed by at least three separate authors during three distinct periods of time:

1. Proto-Isaiah, chapters 1-39, was composed chiefly by Isaiah himself (740-686 B.C.); 2. Deutero-Isaiah (or 2nd Isaiah), chapters 40-55, was composed by a 6th-century B.C. author or authors during the Babylonian exile (586-539 B.C.); and 3. Trito-Isaiah (or 3rd Isaiah), chapters 56-66, was composed after the return from Babylon (539 B.C. and onward) as an anthology written by several different authors.

Today, nearly all credible scripture scholars accept the tripartite structure of Isaiah. Indeed, our Catholic Study Bible, 3rd edition (NAB translation), Oxford University Press, 2016, even labels the text as such.

If we read Isaiah in this tripartite fashion, we find:

1. Proto-Isaiah, chapters 1-39, concerns Judah and Jerusalem during the reigns of Uzziah through Hezekiah (740-686 B.C.). Seeing the astounding corruption and apostasy taking place, Isaiah foresees a terrible judgment on Judah and her people, a judgment executed by the Assyrian Empire, a judgment that will lead ultimately to God’s intervention and the arrival of a righteous “Davidic” king; 2. Deutero-Isaiah (or 2nd Isaiah), chapters 40-55, focuses on Judah oppressed by the Babylonian Empire (586-539 B.C.), and restored by God’s “Anointed One” mah-shee’-akh, “Messiah”], , king of Persia; and , ַחיִשָׁמ ] 3. Trito-Isaiah (or 3rd Isaiah), chapters 56-66, consists of a collection or anthology of “oracles” by various authors written after the return from Babylon (539 B.C. and onward), envisioning a Messianic kingdom.

Even though Isaiah is comprised of these three independent sections, written, redacted and edited by many different authors sometime after the return from Babylon in 539 B.C., the text still displays a remarkable literary unity, a unity that we might view in this way:

Chapters Theme Genre

1-35 Judgment Drama 36-39 Historical “hinge” Prose 40-66 Grace Poetry

For this course, we’ll examine closely each of these three sections, seeking to understand the historical context of each, as well as how Isaiah foreshadows New Testament events throughout his book.

13 Jeremiah

Unlike Isaiah the “thundering prophet,” Jeremiah is the “weeping prophet,” for Jeremiah hated being a prophet, and at every turn he weeps great tears and he tries to resign!

When God calls Isaiah to be a prophet, Isaiah reports:

“Then one of the seraphim flew to me, holding an ember which he had taken with tongs from the altar. He touched my mouth with it. ‘See,’ he said, ‘now that this has touched your lips, your wickedness is removed, your sin purged.’ Then I heard the voice of the Lord saying, ‘Whom shall I send? Who will go for us?’

[Isaiah responded] ‘Here I am,’ I said; ‘send me!’”

(: 6-8)

Isaiah couldn’t wait to be a prophet!

Jeremiah had just the opposite response to his call:

The word of the LORD came to me:

Before I formed you in the womb I knew you, before you were born I dedicated you, a prophet to the nations I appointed you. ‘Ah, Lord GOD! I said, ‘I do not know how to speak. I am too young!’ But the LORD answered me, ‘Do not say, “I am too young.” To whomever I send you, you shall go; whatever I command you, you shall speak. Do not be afraid of them, for I am with you to deliver you’ . . .

Then the LORD extended his hand and touched my mouth, saying to me, ‘See, I place my words in your mouth! Today I appoint you over nations and over kingdoms, to uproot and to tear down, to destroy and to demolish, to build and to plant.’”

(: 4-10)

Of Scripture’s four major prophets—Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Daniel—Jeremiah is the only one who is overtly reluctant to take on the job. Recall that a prophet—by definition—speaks to the people on behalf of God. Typically, the prophet’s role is confrontational, chiding king, priests and people for their betrayal of God and his covenant. Nearly always, the prophet is met with scorn and contempt. Frequently, he is attacked, either verbally or physically, sometimes he’s beaten and imprisoned, and sometimes he’s even killed. No one in their right mind would want to be a prophet!

Jeremiah is especially reluctant to take the job, for Jeremiah is also a priest from the Benjamite village of . Priest and prophet have opposite roles, and calling a priest to be a prophet is like hiring the same lawyer to represent both parties in a

14 particularly contentious divorce! As a result, no other prophet in Scripture (or no other person in Scripture for that matter!) displays such despair and melancholy as Jeremiah.

Jeremiah is called to be a prophet in the thirteenth year of king Josiah, 626 B.C. (Jeremiah 1: 2), and he serves as a prophet through the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 B.C, and its aftermath. Viewed by the people of Jerusalem as a Babylonian collaborator, Jeremiah is left behind with the “remnant” in Jerusalem, hated and despised. He dies some years later as he accompanies those who flee to Egypt after an uprising in which Jewish rebels murder , Nebuchadnezzar’s appointed “governor” of Judea (-44).

Jeremiah reports how God set the stage for Jeremiah’s prophetic role:

“The LORD said to me in the days of King Josiah: Do you see what rebellious Israel has done? She has gone up every high mountain, and zah-nah’]. And I , הָנָז ] under every green tree she has played the whore thought: After she has done all this, she will return to me. But she did not return. Then, even though that traitor her sister Judah, saw that, in response to all the adulteries rebel Israel had committed, I sent her away and gave her a bill of divorce, nevertheless Judah, the traitor, her sister, was not frightened; she too went off and played the whore. With her casual whoredom, she polluted the land, committing adultery with stone and wood.” (3: 6-9)

God refers to the northern kingdom of Israel in very graphic terms as his unfaithful wife whom he has divorced, and God portrays Judah in even more graphic terms as Israel’s sister who is a whore, just like her sister. So, God pronounces judgment on Judah.

“Proclaim it in Judah, in Jerusalem announce it; Blow the trumpet throughout the land, call out, ‘Fill the ranks!’ Say, ‘Assemble, let us march to the fortified cities.’ Raise the signal—to ! Seek refuge! Don’t [just] stand there! Disaster I bring from the north, and great destruction. Up comes the lion from its lair [Babylon], the destroyer of nations has set out, has left its place, To turn your land into a desolation, your cities into an uninhabited waste.”

(4: 5-7)

15 The dreadful message breaks Jeremiah’s heart, and throughout his book Jeremiah casts his eyes to heaven and speaks poignant asides that express his pain and anguish:

My anguish! my anguish! how I writhe [in pain]! The walls of my heart! My heart beats wildly, I cannot be still; For I myself have heard the blast of the horn, the battle cry.

Ruin upon ruin is reported; the whole land is laid waste. In an instant, my tents are ravaged; in a flash, my shelters.

How long must I see the signal, hear the blast of the horn! My people are fools, they do not know me; They are senseless children, without understanding; They are wise at evil, but they [know not] how to do good.

I looked at the earth—it was waste and void; at the heavens—their light had gone out! I looked at the mountains—they were quaking! All the hills were crumbling! I looked—there was no one; even the birds of the air had flown away! I looked—the garden land was a wilderness, with all its cities destroyed before the LORD, before his blazing anger.”

(4: 19-26)

With the “thundering” prophet Isaiah and the “weeping” prophet Jeremiah, we get our foot in the door of biblical prophecy. In The Major Prophets, Part 2, we’ll cover Ezekiel and Daniel, and then we’ll cover The Minor Prophets after that. Combined, the prophets offer some of the richest material in all of Scripture, read both within their own historical and narrative contexts, and read “intertextually” as foreshadowing events in the New Testament.

We’re about to begin a great adventure together!

16 The Major Prophets, Part 1 Isaiah and Jeremiah Syllabus

Lesson #1: Introduction to the Prophets

Giovanni Battista Gaulli (“Baciccio”). “Daniel, Ezekiel, Jeremiah and Isaiah” (Pendentive fresco), c. 1679-1685. Church of the Gesù, Rome.

Photography by Marie-Lan Nguyen https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Daniel_Ezekiel_Jeremiah_Isaiah_Gesu_Rome.jpg

The Hebrew Scriptures (or the Old Testament) feature three main characters: king, priest and prophet. We have met all thirty-nine kings—from Saul through Zedekiah—in our Kings of Israel and Judah course, and we’ve met the first priests in our Exodus and

17 Leviticus courses: Moses’ brother Aaron, and his three sons: Nadab, Abihu, and Ithamar. The king leads God’s people in the affairs of the world, ideally in consultation with God; the priests speak to God on behalf of the people, and they offer the five great sacrifices to God (the burnt offering, grain offering, fellowship offering, sin offering and guilt offering), first at the Tabernacle and later at the 1st and 2nd Temples.

As the priest speaks to God on behalf of the people, so the prophet speaks to the people of behalf of God. Nearly always, the role of the prophet is confrontational, telling the people (and the king) in no uncertain terms, that they are straying far away from God. Consequently, prophets are typically despised by both the king and the people, and they’re often beaten, thrown in jail or killed. No one in their right mind would want to be a prophet!

What a prophet says always—100% of the time—has its primary application in the prophet’s own time and place; sometimes what he (or she) says, however, “foreshadows” future events in the New Testament. In this lesson, we introduce the prophets and explore who they are and what they do.

Lesson #2: Introduction to Isaiah

Raphael. The Prophet Isaiah, detail (fresco), c. 1511. Basilica of Sant’ Agostine, Rome.

18 Isaiah serves as a prophet from 740-686 B.C., during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz and Hezekiah, kings of Judah (Isaiah 1: 1). Scripture first mentions Isaiah briefly during the final days of king Uzziah (2 Chronicles 26: 22-23), and then Isaiah emerges as a major figure during the reigns of Ahaz (732-715 B.C.) and Hezekiah (715-686 B.C.). As the threat from the Assyrian Empire grows, so does Isaiah’s presence in our story. It is Isaiah who takes center stage in the defeat of Sennacherib in 701 B.C., when the “angel of the Lord” silently puts to death 185,000 Assyrian troops in the dark of night outside the walls of Jerusalem.

The book of Isaiah was a perennial favorite among Jews during the Second Temple period (516 B.C.–A.D. 70), and Isaiah was a favorite among Christians in New Testament times. It still is today. Indeed, there are over 400 quotes, paraphrases and allusions to Isaiah in the New Testament; some have called Isaiah the “fifth .”2 St. Jerome (A.D. 342-420), one of history’s greatest biblical scholars, even declared that:

“[Isaiah] should be called an evangelist rather than a prophet because he describes all the mysteries of Christ and the Church so clearly that you would think he is composing a history of what already happened rather than prophesying about what is to come.”3

Recall that when Philip is walking down the road from Jerusalem to Gaza in Acts 8: 26- 40, he encounters an Ethiopian eunuch, an official in the court of Candace, Queen of .4 The eunuch is softly reading aloud to himself from a scroll of Isaiah:

“Like a sheep he was led to the slaughter, and as a lamb before its shearer is silent, so he opened not his mouth. In (his) humiliation justice was denied him. Who will tell of his posterity? For his life is taken from the earth.”

(53: 7-8)

When the eunuch asks Philip who the author is describing, Philip starts with these verses and proclaims Jesus to him, identifying Jesus with the “suffering servant” of : 13 - 53: 12.

As we’ll see, reading Isaiah “backward” (viewing Isaiah through the lens of the New Testament) is commonplace in Christian understanding.

2 John F. A. Sawyer. The Fifth Gospel: Isaiah in the History of . Cambridge: The University of Cambridge, 1995.

3 Prologue to Jerome’s translation of Isaiah in Biblia Sacra iuxta vulgatam versionem, trans. Robert Weber (Stuttgart: Württembergische Bibelanstalt; Ed. altera emendata edition, 1975), p. 1096.

4 “Candace” is the Latinized form of the Greek Kandavkh (Kandake), not a name, but a title; she was probably Nawidemak, the fourth in succession of female rulers of Kush in the late 1st century B.C. through the early 1st century A.D.

19 Lesson #3: Israel in the Dock (1: 1 – 5: 30)

“Isaiah, Chapters 1-5,” The Great Isaiah Scroll (1QIsaa, parchment), 1st century B.C. Israel Museum, Jerusalem.

Isaiah 1-5 offers a prologue to Isaiah’s call to be a prophet, which we’ll read in Isaiah 6-12. Presented in dramatic form, the opening chapters of Isaiah vividly depict how far Israel has fallen from its covenant relationship with God. In these chapters, God puts Israel in the dock: God sits on the judgment seat and calls forth witnesses—the “heavens” and the “earth”—to testify against Israel’s crimes. Depicting the scene as a drama performed on stage —as we will in class—brings the chapters to life!

20 Lesson #4: The Book of Emmanuel (6: 1 – 12: 6)

Botticelli. Annunciation (tempera on panel), c. 1489-1490. Uffizi Gallery, Florence.

Understanding from Isaiah 1-5 how far Israel has fallen from God’s covenant, Isaiah 6-12 focuses on Isaiah’s call as a prophet and on his first crisis: the northern kingdom of Israel’s alliance with Aram (Syria) and their plan to attack Judah and Jerusalem, depose king Ahaz and replace him with someone of their own choosing, someone more pliable. Such a tripartite alliance promises safety in a dangerous world where the mighty Assyrian empire is on the rise. Knowing our geography and the geo-political dynamics of the Near East during the second half of the eighth-century B.C., we understand that Assyria plans to attack the south, obliterate Aram, Israel and Judah, and target the ever-fertile and prosperous Egypt.

21 In 735 B.C., Isaiah confronts a trembling king Ahaz who demands a “sign” to confirm that what Isaiah says will come to pass. And God indeed provides a sign: “Behold, a al-mah’; LXX, parqevnoß, par-tha’-nos] shall conceive, and give birth to a , הָמְל ַ◌ע] virgin son, and shall call his name ” (7: 14 KJV). As we shall see, this prophecy will be fulfilled literally in the very next chapter () when Isaiah’s wife conceives and bears a son. But New Testament readers, beginning with Matthew himself, read this “sign” as a prophecy of the Virgin Mary conceiving and giving birth to Jesus:

“All this took place to fulfill what the Lord had said through the prophet: ‘Behold, the virgin [ parqevnoß, par-tha’-nos] shall be with child and bear a son, and they shall name him Emmanuel,” which means ‘God is with us.’”

(Matthew 1: 22-23)

We will explore this “prophetic” use of Old Testament scripture in depth in this lesson.

22 Lesson #5: Woe to the Nations (13: 1 – 23: 24)

“The Fall of Babylon,” Nuremberg Chronicle, 1493. Anton Koberger, Nuremberg.

[The Nuremberg Chronicle is an illustrated biblical paraphrase published first in Latin (July 12, 1493) and then in German (December 23, 1493). It is one of the first incunabulum to integrate successfully text and illustration. Many of the woodcuts were later hand colored. Today, approximately 400 Latin and 300 German copies survive.]

Up until this point Isaiah has focused on the current and future events in Judah. Now, his mas-sah’, or , אָשַּׂמ ] ”vision broadens and becomes universal with ten “oracles visions of destruction]:

An oracle concerning Babylon (13: 1 – 14: 27) Philistia (14: 28-32) (15: 1 – 16: 14) Damascus (17: 1 – 18: 7) Egypt (19: 1 – 20: 6) Babylon (21: 1-10) (21: 11-12) Arabia (21: 13-17) Jerusalem (22: 1-25) Tyre and (23: 1-18)

23 Lesson #6: Apocalypse of Isaiah (24: 1 – 27: 13)

Michelangelo. Isaiah (fresco), 1509. Sistine Chapel, Vatican City.

The ten “oracles” in : 1 – 23: 18 portray the devastation of the traditional enemies of God’s people and of sinful Jerusalem itself, with the promise that in the end, all people will be one and will one God with Zion at the center of a new creation. Before that happens, though, we encounter what we can only describe as the “Apocalypse of Isaiah”: destruction on a global scale and the salvation of a remnant of God’s people. This “mini-Apocalypse” is carefully structured:5

5 J. Alec Motyer brilliantly points out the chiastic structure below in his must-have commentary, The Prophecy of Isaiah: An Introduction & Commentary (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 1993), pp. 194-195.

24 A The Lord’s harvest from a destroyed world (24: 1-13) B The song of the world remnant (24: 14-16a) C The sinful world overthrown (24: 16b-20) D The waiting world (24: 21-23) E The song of the ruined city (25: 1-5) F (25: 6-12) E’ The song of the strong city (26: 1-6) D’ The waiting people of God (26: 7-21) C’ Spiritual forces of evil overthrown (27: 1) B’ The song of the remnant of the people (27: 2-6) A’ The Lord’s harvest from a destroyed people (27: 7-13)

We’ll work through -27 following this chiastic outline.

Lesson #7: I, the Lord, am God (28: 1 – 33: 24)

Map of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in 824/671 B.C. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sennacherib#/media/File:Map_of_Assyria.png

Following Isaiah’s vision of a future “apocalypse,” Isaiah now demonstrates that God does in fact rule the world, and that what Isaiah has revealed is sure and certain to occur. It is not obvious to all, however, for the world in which Isaiah lives and king Hezekiah reigns (715-686 B.C.) is a very precarious one. Assyria poses an existential threat to Judah under Assyria’s new king, Sennacherib (705-681 B.C.): Damascus and Aram fell

25 to the Assyrians in 732 B.C. and Samaria and Israel fell in 722 B.C., just as Isaiah said they would (: 7-9). Now, Assyria targets Judah. To counter, Egypt proposes a rebellion against Assyria, while in Babylon Merodach-Baladan (722-710; 703-702 B.C.) sends ambassadors to Hezekiah proposing an alliance against Assyria. Judah, it seems, is caught in the middle of a power grab by vastly superior empires.

Viewed from this perspective, who possibly could have believed Isaiah when he said in his “oracles”:

“On that day there shall be a highway from Egypt to Assyria; the Assyrians shall enter Egypt, and the Egyptians enter Assyria, and the Egyptians shall worship with the Assyrians. On that day Israel shall be a third party with Egypt and Assyria, a blessing in the midst of the earth.” (19: 23-24)

That strained credulity.

26 Lesson #8: Vengeance Belongs to the Lord (34: 1 – 35: 10)

Map of nations surrounding Judah, c. 830 B.C.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#/media/File:Kingdoms_around_Israel_830_map.svg

Isaiah 34-35 presents a concluding double theme of judgment and salvation, bringing the “judgment” section of Isaiah (chapters 1-35) to a close. Edom typifies God’s eschatological foe (judgment), while Zion typifies renewal and restoration (salvation).

Edom enters the biblical story in the person of Esau, ’s twin brother. Struggling even in the womb of their mother Rebekah, Jacob and Esau are embryonic prototypes of the struggle between two nations: Israel, formed by Jacob’s twelve sons and their offspring, and Esau, founder of the nation of Edom. Early in the story, Jacob is the aggressor, deviously duping Esau, while Esau remains a rather passive victim. Later, however, hostility between the two nations mutually intensifies. Saul goes to war with Edom (as well as with Moab, , the kings of Zobah and the ) in 1 Samuel 14: 47; David conquers and annexes Edom (2 Samuel 8: 14); Solomon faces Edomite rebellion (1 Kings 11: 14), as does Jehoram (: 20); Amaziah fights an Edomite war (: 7); and Edom’s hostility toward Jerusalem at the city’s fall to the Babylonians in 586 B.C. is notorious, remembered in poetry:

27 “Remember, LORD, against Edom that day at Jerusalem. They said: ‘Level it, level it down to its foundations!’”

(Psalm 137: 7)

The entire (short though it is, only 21 verses) is a scathing indictment against Edom. Indeed, judgment on Edom slips easily from historical retribution to eschatological catastrophe.

Zion, in contrast, is the symbolic epicenter of God’s universal salvific action.

Lesson #9: Historical “Hinge” (36: 1 - 39: 8)

Peter Paul Rubens. The Defeat of Sennacherib (oil on canvas), c. 1612-1614. Alte Pinakothek, Munich.

Isaiah 36-39 presents an historical “hinge,” a dramatic, narrative tale of the Assyrian siege of Jerusalem in 701 B.C. under Assyria’s king Sennacherib. As we noted previously, Damascus and Aram fell to the Assyrians in 732 B.C. and Samaria and Israel fell in 722 B.C. Now, the Assyrians are at the gates of Jerusalem. Hezekiah works hand- in-hand with Isaiah to save the city, but it seems utterly impossible: 185,000 Assyrian

28 troops surround the city, and Sennacherib issues an ultimatum. Only a miracle will save the day. And that’s what happens.

In this lesson, we tell the tale.

Lesson #10: Redemption, Part 1 (40: 1 – 48: 22)

Cyrus Cylinder (Akkadian cuneiform script on clay cylinder), 539 B.C. British Museum, London.

[This is the proclamation by Cyrus the Great, king of Persia, allowing those taken captive by Assyria and Babylon to return home and rebuild their cities and temples. Many see this proclamation as “the first declaration of human rights.”]

In many ways, Isaiah 1-39 dramatically highlights Isaiah’s judgment/salvation dynamic, making clear that God judges the evil behavior of his covenant people, while at the same time offering them salvation, oftentimes in spite of themselves. And we learn in these chapters that both judgment and salvation are not limited to God’s covenant people Israel, but extend to all of humanity. As we move into “Second” or “Deutero-Isaiah” (40: 1 – 55: 13), God the creator of an infinitely complex universe holds as his central concern the welfare of his covenant people Israel, and we learn in these chapters that God rules history, all of the people and forces on the world stage. Here, we have a message of

29 comfort, the assurance that “in all things God works for the good of those who love him,” as St. Paul so wisely says (Romans 8: 28).

In these chapters, we leave the Assyrian threat and move past the fall of Jerusalem to the Babylonian Empire (586 B.C.), with the assurance that Cyrus, king of Persia, will free God’s people from their Babylonian captivity. And we learn that the “suffering servant” Israel will go on to play a unique role in the salvation of all humanity.

Lesson #11: Redemption, Part 2 (49: 1 – 55: 13)

Salvador Dali. Christ of St. John of the Cross [detail], (oil on canvas), 1951. Kelvingrove Art Gallery and Museum, Glasgow.

Chapters 40-48 focused on the redemption of Israel from Babylonian captivity, thanks to Cyrus the Great king of Persia. As we move into chapters 49-55, redemption takes on a universal scope. The “suffering servant” we meet in the first three “” (42: 1-4; 49: 1-6; 50: 4-7) becomes more concrete, more vivid in the fourth song (52: 13 – 53: 12).

Isaiah’s “suffering servant” is Israel, personified; but in the manner of stepped up parallelism and “reading backward” through a New Testament lens, the “suffering

30 servant” is Jesus, the one who takes our sin upon himself and pays the penalty for our sins before a holy and righteous God, enabling our redemption.

Lesson #12: A Vision of the Future (56: 1 – 66: 24)

Edward Hicks. Peaceable Kingdom (oil on canvas), c. 1834. National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.

As we move into “Third” or “Trito-Isaiah,” we witness the struggles and hoped-for blessings of the post-exilic community, now back in its homeland. -55 portray an unconditional promise of redemption, but here the final chapters of Isaiah depict clear expectations for receiving that promise, for “there is no peace for the wicked” (56: 21). Ultimately, though, Zion “shall be a glorious crown in the hand of the Lord, a royal diadem in the hand of . . . God” (62: 3); indeed, all of creation will witness a marvelous rebirth:

“See, I am creating new heavens and a new earth; The former things shall not be remembered nor come to mind.” (65: 17)

31 Lesson #13: Introduction to Jeremiah

Rembrandt. Jeremiah Lamenting the Destruction of Jerusalem (oil on canvas), c. 1630. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.

Unlike Isaiah the “thundering prophet,” Jeremiah is the “weeping prophet,” for Jeremiah hated being a prophet, and at every turn he weeps great tears and he tries to resign! Of Scripture’s four major prophets—Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Daniel—Jeremiah is the only one who is overtly reluctant to take on the job. Recall that a prophet—by definition—speaks to the people on behalf of God. Typically, the prophet’s role is confrontational, chiding king, priests and people for their betrayal of God and his covenant. Nearly always, the prophet is met with scorn and contempt. Frequently, he is attacked, either verbally or physically, sometimes he’s beaten and imprisoned, and sometimes he’s even killed. No one in their right mind would want to be a prophet!

32

Jeremiah is especially reluctant to take the job, for Jeremiah is also a priest from the Benjamite village of Anathoth. Priest and prophet have opposite roles, and calling a priest to be a prophet is like hiring the same lawyer to represent both parties in a particularly contentious divorce! As a result, no other prophet in Scripture (or no other person in Scripture for that matter!) displays such despair and melancholy as Jeremiah.

With this lesson, we meet Scripture’s most reluctant prophet.

Lesson #14: The Mantle of the Prophet (1: 1 – 25: 38)

Michelangelo. Prophet Jeremiah (fresco), 1511. Sistine Chapel, Vatican City.

33 When God called Isaiah to be a prophet, Isaiah reports:

“Then one of the seraphim flew to me, holding an ember which he had taken with tongs from the altar. He touched my mouth with it. ‘See,’ he said, ‘now that this has touched your lips, your wickedness is removed, your sin purged.’ Then I heard the voice of the Lord saying, ‘Whom shall I send? Who will go for us?’

[Isaiah responded] ‘Here I am,’ I said; ‘send me!’”

(Isaiah 6: 6-8)

Isaiah couldn’t wait to be a prophet!

Jeremiah had just the opposite response to his call:

The word of the LORD came to me:

Before I formed you in the womb I knew you, before you were born I dedicated you, a prophet to the nations I appointed you. ‘Ah, Lord GOD! I said, ‘I do not know how to speak. I am too young!’ But the LORD answered me, ‘Do not say, “I am too young.” To whomever I send you, you shall go; whatever I command you, you shall speak. Do not be afraid of them, for I am with you to deliver you’ . . .

Then the LORD extended his hand and touched my mouth, saying to me, ‘See, I place my words in your mouth! Today I appoint you over nations and over kingdoms, to uproot and to tear down, to destroy and to demolish, to build and to plant.’”

(Jeremiah 1: 4-10)

In this lesson, we witness Jeremiah’s prophetic call, and we watch as God’s thrusts him into action during Judah and Jerusalem’s most desperate moment.

34 Lesson #15: False Prophets Abound (26: 1 – 29: 32)

Francis Barlow. “The Wolf in Sheep’s Clothing” (engraving) from Aesop’s Fables: with His Life in English, French and Latin, 2nd ed. London, 1687.

[Barlow produced 30 full page engravings and 110 in-text engravings for the 1st edition of Aesop’s Fables (London, 1666). In 1687 a 2nd edition was published in folio format, with additional engravings. The Yale Center for British Art contains a copy of the 1687 edition. All copies of the 1666 edition perished in the Great Fire of London, 1666. The “wolf in sheep’s clothing” saying originated with Jesus in Matthew 7: 15. It was later attributed to Aesop during the Middle Ages, and it is included as #451 in the Perry Index of Aesop’s sayings.]

In times of crisis, kings and leaders often surround themselves with sycophants who tell them what they want to hear.

At the Battle of in 612 B.C., a coalition of , Babylonians, Scythians and Cimmerians besieged Nineveh, the largest city in the ancient world and the capital of the Assyrian Empire, totally destroying it. In the aftermath, Babylon became the imperial center of , leading to the Neo-Babylonian Empire (626-539 B.C.) dominating the region. Nebuchadnezzar II (605-562 B.C.) became king of Babylon, and he set his eyes on Judah and Jerusalem, attacking Jerusalem for the first time that same year, resulting in king Jehoiakim (609-598 B.C.) paying tribute to Nebuchadnezzar and becoming a vassal king to Babylon. When Jehoiakim stupidly refused to pay tribute in 598 B.C., Nebuchadnezzar laid siege to Jerusalem again, during which time Jehoiakim died and Jehoiachin (also called ) succeeded him. After three months and ten days, however, Nebuchadnezzar exiled Jehoiachin and his entire family to Babylon, where Jehoiachin stayed in prison for the next thirty-seven years. Meanwhile, Nebuchadnezzar appointed Jehoiachin’s uncle, Zedekiah, as king (598-586 B.C.).

35 Attempting to form an alliance with Egypt, Zedekiah rebelled against Nebuchadnezzar in 588 B.C., resulting in a two-year siege of Jerusalem (588-586 B.C.) and the fall of Jerusalem in the summer of 586 B.C. The Babylonians sacked the city, burned Solomon’s Temple, and exiled the entire Jewish population to Babylon, the start of the “Babylonian Captivity,” the greatest disaster to befall Judah and Jerusalem until that time.

All the while, the kings—Jehoiakim, Jehoiachin and Zedekiah—surrounded themselves with “false prophets,” sycophants who told them what they wanted to hear. Jeremiah was the lone voice of truth, and he suffered for it, denouncing the “false prophets” all the while.

Lesson #16: Consolation (30: 1 – 33: 26)

William Blake. The Angels Hovering over the Body of Christ in the Sepulcher (watercolor, pen and ink), c. 1805. Victoria and Albert Museum, London.

During the terrible times that Jeremiah struggled as a reluctant prophet, a brief glimmer of light entered his world. Jeremiah knew that Jerusalem would fall and that his people

36 would go into exile. But in the midst of Jeremiah’s despair, God promised that his people would return, the time of mourning would end, and they would rebuild Jerusalem with a Davidic king to rule them. And not only that, but God would establish a “” with Israel and Judah, one written not upon tablets of stone, but upon the hearts of the people.

In the entire , this promise of a “new covenant” offers the only hope and comfort Jeremiah will ever know. Viewed through a Christian lens, the incarnation, life, death, burial and resurrection of Jesus inaugurates this “New Covenant.”

Lesson #17: Impending Doom (34: 1 – 38: 18)

Johann Bocksberger, illustrator. “Ebed-Melech Pulls Jeremiah out of the Cistern,” Neuwe biblische Figuren, dess Alten und Neuwen Testaments (woodcut), 1569. Sigmund Feyerabend, Frankfurt am Main.

Jeremiah has his secretary, Baruch, write on a scroll all that Jeremiah has said, and he instructs Baruch to read the scroll publically at the Temple. Of course, Baruch is arrested and taken to the king’s officials, who have Baruch read to them what Jeremiah had written. Alarmed, they take the scroll to king Zedekiah, and as the scroll is read to him, with ice-cold anger he cuts each page from the scroll and burns it in the fire! He then orders Jeremiah’s arrest. Fortunately, both Jeremiah and Baruch have gone into hiding.

37 As Jeremiah continues prophesying doom for Jerusalem, king Zedekiah and his royal administrators finally lay hands on Jeremiah and toss him in a cistern, where he is left to die, only to be rescued by a sympathetic court official, Ebed-Melech, an Ethiopian.

Lesson #18: Jerusalem Falls (39: 1-18)

Hartman Schedel, “The Destruction of Jerusalem,” Nuremberg Chronicle (woodcuts by Michael Wolgemut), 1493. Anton Koberger, Nuremberg.

[The Nuremberg Chronicle is a biblical and world history paraphrase, written in Latin by Hartman Schedel, with 1,809 woodcut illustrations from the workshop of Michael Wolgemut, many of them hand colored. Enormously popular, the original Latin version was printed in 1,400-1,500 copies, and a simultaneous German translation was published in 700-1,000 copies. The Nuremberg Chronicle is an excellent example of an incunabulum, a book printed “in the cradle” of printing, those printed 1450-1500.]

After a two-year siege (588-586 B.C.) Jerusalem falls to Babylon on 14 August 586 B. C.6 Here is the account from :

“In the tenth month of the ninth year of Zedekiah’s reign, on the tenth day of the month, Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, and his whole army advanced against Jerusalem, encamped around it, and built siege walls on every side. The siege of the city continued until the eleventh year of Zedekiah. On the ninth day of the month, when famine had gripped the city, and the people of the land had no more food, the city walls were breached. That night, all the soldiers came to the gate between the two walls near the king’s garden (the Chaldeans had the city surrounded), while the king went toward the Arabah. But the Chaldean army pursued the king and overtook him in the desert near , abandoned by his whole army. The king was therefore arrested and brought to to the

6 A. Malamat. “The Last Kings of Judah and the Fall of Jerusalem: An Historical-Chronological Study,” Israel Exploration Journal 18, 3 (1968), pp. 137-156; see especially p. 150.

38 king of Babylon, who pronounced sentence on him. They slew Zedekiah’s sons before his eyes; then they put out his eyes, bound him with fetters, and brought him to Babylon. On the seventh day of the fifth month (this was in the nineteenth year of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon), Nebuzaradan, captain of the bodyguard, came to Jerusalem as the agent of the king of Babylon. He burned the house of the LORD, the house of the king, and all the houses of Jerusalem (every noble house); he destroyed them by fire.” (25: 1-9)

Jeremiah is in the city during the entire two-year siege, and he gives his eyewitness account in the .

In this lesson, we will follow the parallel account of Jerusalem’s fall as recorded in : 1-18, as well as in other biblical and historical records.

Lesson #19: The Aftermath (40: 1 – 52: 34)

James Tissot. The Flight of the Prisoners (gouache on board), c. 1896-1902. Jewish Museum, New York.

With the total destruction of Jerusalem, the slaughter of Zedekiah and his sons and the majority of the population either killed or taken captive to Babylon, Nebuchadnezzar

39 leaves behind a “remnant” to farm the land, sending its produce to Babylon as tribute. Nebuchadnezzar appoints Gedaliah as “governor” of the newly-conquered land and Nebuchadnezzar issues orders concerning Jeremiah:

“Concerning Jeremiah, Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, gave these orders through Nebuzaradan, captain of the bodyguard: ‘Take him and look after him; do not let anything happen to him. Whatever he may ask, you must do for him.’ Thereupon Nebuzaradan, captain of the bodyguard, and Nebushazban, a high dignitary, and Nergal-sharezer, a chief officer, and all the nobles of the king of Babylon, had Jeremiah taken out of the courtyard of the guard and entrusted to Gedaliah, son of , son of , to bring him home. And so he remained among the people.”

(39: 11-14)

All along, the Jews of Jerusalem had viewed Jeremiah as a traitor and a Babylonian collaborator, and by releasing Jeremiah under the protection of Gedaliah, Nebuchadnezzar validated their suspicions, sealing Jeremiah’s fate. Jeremiah’s fellow Jews loath and despise him—indeed, they hate him—but as a priest of God, as well as a prophet, Jeremiah does his best to minister to his people.

And then a group of Jewish rebels assassinate Gedaliah.

The remnant knows—as does Jeremiah—that Nebuchadnezzar will return with a vengeance, and slaughter them all. Jeremiah counsels submission: beg Nebuchadnezzar to spare their lives. But the remnant is terrified, and against Jeremiah’s advice, they flee to Egypt, dragging a reluctant Jeremiah with them.

And in Egypt they all die.

40 Lesson #20: Lamentations (1: 1 – 5: 22)

Guiard des Moulins. “Famine in the City,” Bible Historiale (MMW, 10 B 23, 191r), 1372. The Hague, Netherlands.

Lamentations is Jeremiah’s eye-witness account of the two-year siege of Jerusalem, 588- 586. The siege of a fortified city is a terrible thing to behold. Once the defending city’s army is defeated, the walled city locks and bars the gates, keeping the enemy out. But barred and locked gates also keep the defenders in. If the enemy can locate the city’s fresh water source outside the city walls, they simply poison the water supply by dumping animal dung into it.7 Without fresh water, the city will fall within two or three weeks. Since Nebuchadnezzar cannot access the water supply, he starves them out, not

7 The Gihon Spring supplied fresh water to the city of Jerusalem, and it was outside the city walls. But thanks to king Hezekiah, when Sennacherib planned his invasion of Jerusalem in 701 B.C., Hezekiah dug a 1,750-foot-long tunnel at a .06% downward gradient through solid bedrock, diverting the spring’s fresh water to the , which was inside the city walls. Hezekiah’s tunnel was the greatest water engineering feat of the pre-Classical period. Consequently, Nebuchadnezzar could not access Jerusalem’s fresh water supply.

41 letting food supplies into or out of the city. It takes two years, but the city finally falls on 14 August 586 B.C.

And then the slaughter begins.

Lamentations is a work of sheer poetic genius. To keep Lamentations’ searing emotions in check, Jeremiah writes five tightly-structured poems (Lamentations’ five chapters), poems 1,2, 4 and 5 consisting of 22 verses, each verse beginning with a ;(Tav) תּ ) and ending with) א successive letter in the , starting with the equivalent in English of A through Z. The third—and central—poem consists of 66 verses, a triple acrostic!

This is an extraordinary—though heart-rending—portrayal of extreme suffering and degradation. It is also dazzling poetry.

42 Bibliography

The sheer length of Isaiah—66 chapters, 1,291 verses, 25,608 Hebrew words—is daunting, and the fact that Isaiah is quoted, paraphrased or alluded to in the New Testament over 400 times, has generated a vast body of scholarly literature, both ancient and modern; not to mention Jeremiah with 52 chapters, 1,364 verses and 33,002 words. One could spend several lifetimes studying Isaiah and Jeremiah and hardly make a dent in the scholarship! The rather brief bibliography that follows offers some of the best scholarship from the past twenty-five years or so. All of the works listed below include extensive bibliographies that will guide you deeper into your study of the major prophets, Isaiah and Jeremiah. Enjoy!

Isaiah

Klaus Baltzer. Deutero-Isaiah (Hermeneia: A Critical & Historical Commentary on the Bible). Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2001.

John Barton. Isaiah 1-39 (Old Testament Reading Guide). Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996.

G. K. Beale and D. A. Carson, eds. Commentary on the New Testament Use of the Old Testament. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2007.

Joseph Blenkinsopp. Isaiah 1-39; Isaiah 40-55; -66 (Anchor Yale Bible Commentaries 19, 19A, 19B). New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000-2003.

Daniel I. Block and Richard L. Schultz, eds. Bind Up the Testimony: Explorations in the Genesis of the Book of Isaiah. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 2015.

Craig C. Broyles and Craig A. Evans, eds. Writing and Reading the Scroll of Isaiah, 2 Vols. (Supplements to Vetus Testamentum). Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers, 1997.

Brevard S. Childs. Isaiah (The Old Testament Library). Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2001.

Richard J. Clifford. Fair Spoken and Persuading: An Interpretation of Second Isaiah. New York: Paulist Press, 1984; Academic Renewal Press, 2002.

Craig A. Evans. To See and Not Perceive: Isaiah 6: 9-10 in Early Jewish and Christian Interpretation (The Library of / Old Testament Studies). Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1989.

Craig A. Evans and James A. Sanders, eds. Early Christian Interpretation of the Scriptures of Israel: Investigations and Proposals (The Library of New Testament Studies). Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997.

43 Craig A. Evans and William R. Stegner, eds. The and the Scriptures of Israel (The Library of New Testament Studies). Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1999.

Michael Fishbane. Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985.

John E. Goldingay and David F. Payne. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Isaiah 40-55, 2 Vols. (International Critical Commentary). London: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2007.

John E. Goldingay. Isaiah 56-66: A Critical and Exegetical Commentary (International Critical Commentary). London: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2014.

_____. The Theology of the Book of Isaiah. Downers Grove: InterVaristy Press, 2014.

Richard B. Hays, Stefan Alkier and Leroy A. Huizenga, eds. Reading the Bible Intertextually. Waco, TX: Baylor University Press, 2009.

Dan G. Johnson. From Chaos to Restoration: An Integrative Reading of Isaiah 24-27 (The Library of Hebrew Bible/ Old Testament Studies). Sheffield, England: Sheffield Academic Press, 1988.

J. Alec Motyer. The Prophecy of Isaiah, an Introduction & Commentary. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1993.

John N. Oswalt. The Book of Isaiah, Chapters 1-39 (The New International Commentary on the Old Testament). Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1986.

_____. The Book of Isaiah, Chapters 40-66 (The New International Commentary on the Old Testament). Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1998.

J. J. M. Roberts. First Isaiah (Hermeneia: A Critical & Historical Commentary on the Bible). Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2015.

John F.A. Sawyer. The Fifth Gospel: Isaiah in the History of Christianity. Cambridge: The University of Cambridge, 1995.

Jacob Stromberg. An Introduction to the Study of Isaiah (T&T Clark Approaches to ). London: T & T Clark, 2011.

H. G. M. Williamson. Isaiah 1-5: A Critical and Exegetical Commentary (International Critical Commentary). London: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2014.

44 Ben Witherington III. Isaiah Old and New: Exegesis, Intertextuality, and Hermeneutics. Minneapolis, Fortress Press, 2017.

Jeremiah/Lamentations

Leslie C. Allen. Jeremiah (Old Testament Library). Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2008.

Hans M. Barstad. The Myth of the Empty Land: A Study in the History and Archaeology of Judah during the “Exilic” Period. Oslo: Scandanavian University Press, 1996.

Adele Berlin. Lamentations: A Commentary (The Old Testament Library). Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2002.

Walter Brueggemann. A Commentary on Jeremiah: Exile and Homecoming. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1998.

Simeon Chavel. “‘Let My People Go!’ Emancipation, Revelation, and Scribal Activity in : 8-14,” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 76 (1997), pp. 71- 95.

Peter Craigie, Page H. Kelley and Joel F. Drinkard, Jr. Jeremiah 1-25 (Word Biblical Commentary, 26). Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1991.

C. L. Crouch. An Introduction to the Study of Jeremiah (T&T Clark Approaches to Biblical Studies). London: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2017.

J. Andrew Dearman. “My Servants the Scribes: Composition and Context in ,” Journal of Biblical Literature 109 (1990), pp. 403-421.

Duane Garrett and Paul R. House. and Lamentations (Word Biblical Commentary, 23B). Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishers, 2004.

R. K. Harrison. Jeremiah and Lamentations (Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries). Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1973.

Delbert R. Hillers. Lamentations: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (Anchor Yale Bible Commentaries, 44). New Haven: Yale University Press, 2nd rev. ed., 2007.

William L. Holladay. Jeremiah: A Commentary on the Book of Jeremiah, 2 vols. (Hermeneia: A Critical and Historical Commentary on the Bible). Grand Rapids: Fortress Press, 1986, 1990.

45 J. Gerald Janzen. Studies in the Text of Jeremiah (Harvard Semitic Monographs, 6). Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1973; reprint 2014.

Gerald L. Keown, Pamela J. Scalise and Thomas G. Smothers. -52 (Word Biblical Commentary, 27). Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishers, 1995.

Philip J. King. Jeremiah: An Archaeological Companion. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1993.

H. Lalleman-de Winkel. Jeremiah in Prophetic Tradition: An Examination of the Book of Jeremiah in Light of Israel’s Prophetic Tradition (Contributions to Biblical Exegesis and Theology). Leuven: Peeters Publishers, 2000.

Tremper Longman III. Jeremiah, Lamentations (Understanding the Bible Commentary Series). Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 2008.

Jack R. Lundbom. Jeremiah 1-20; -36; -52 (Anchor Yale Bible Commentaries, 21A, 21B, 21C). New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999, 2004, 2004.

J. G. McConville. Judgment and Promise: An Interpretation of the Book of Jeremiah. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1993.

Tiberius Rata. The Covenant Motif in Jeremiah’s Book of Comfort: Textual and Intertextual Studies of -33 (Studies in Biblical Literature, 105). Bern: Peter LangInternational Academic Publishers, 2007.

J. A. Thompson. The Book of Jeremiah (The New International Commentary on the Old Testament). Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1980.

Emanuel Tov. The Translation of Jeremiah and Baruch (Harvard Semitic Monographs, 8). Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1976

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