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American University of Beirut John Foss, Barbary Captivity, and Strains

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American University of Beirut John Foss, Barbary Captivity, and Strains AMERICAN UNIVERSITY OF BEIRUT JOHN FOSS, BARBARY CAPTIVITY, AND STRAINS OF AMERICAN THOUGHT IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY By IAN BENJAMIN LARSON A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts to the Center for Arab and Middle Eastern Studies of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences at the American University of Beirut Beirut, Lebanon December 2014 AMERICAN UNIVERSITY OF BEIRUT THESIS/DISSERTATION FULL TITLE by STUDENT FULL NAME Approved by: ______________________________________________________________________ Dr. Adam Waterman, Assistant Professor Advisor Department of English [Signature] ______________________________________________________________________ Dr. Alexis Member of Committee [Signature] ______________________________________________________________________ [Idem] Member of Committee [Signature] ______________________________________________________________________ [Idem] Member of Committee Date of thesis/dissertation defense: [Month Day, Year] AMERICAN UNIVERSITY OF BEIRUT THESIS, DISSERTATION, PROJECT RELEASE FORM Student Name: _________________________________________________________ Last First Middle Master’s Thesis Master’s Project Doctoral Dissertation I authorize the American University of Beirut to: (a) reproduce hard or electronic copies of my thesis, dissertation, or project; (b) include such copies in the archives and digital repositories of the University; and (c) make freely available such copies to third parties for research or educational purposes. I authorize the American University of Beirut, three years after the date of submitting my thesis, dissertation, or project, to: (a) reproduce hard or electronic copies of it; (b) include such copies in the archives and digital repositories of the University; and (c) make freely available such copies to third parties for research or educational purposes. __________________________________________________ Signature Date ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Special thanks are due to Nabil Matar for planting the seeds of this project, and to Adam Waterman, Alexis Wick, and Alex Lubin for giving me free rein to follow where it led. I am also grateful to the Hani Salaam Travel and Research Grant selection committee for enabling my research at the American Antiquarian Society. v AN ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS OF Ian Larson for Master of Arts Major: Center for Arab and Middle Eastern Studies This work is an attempt to draw out the ideological underpinnings of A Journal of the Captivity and Sufferings of John Foss, the 1798 captivity narrative of the Massachusetts sailor John Foss. This study undertakes to demonstrate how the Journal draws on motivating secular and religious thought to make sense of the “embarrassments” John Foss and his fellow American captives endured at the hands of their Muslim masters in Algiers. By identifying the American nation with the sufferers of biblical history, Foss mediated the weakness endemic to the United States in his time and appealed to an afflictive model of progress. This teleological model sustained the period’s rising “secular optimism,” and the Journal’s narrative binds the captive’s fate with that of the nation while demonstrating an important discursive use of Islam in the early United States. The experiences in Algiers in the 1780s and 1790s made manifest many of the inadequacies of the American government, military, and social institutions in what Robert Allison has characterized as “a time of fear.” The roughly three-decade course of American Barbary captivity that culminated in Tripoli in the early nineteenth century, however, would transport the nation to an ideologically significant “time of triumph.”1 This progression describes an arc resembling that followed by the English in the previous century. As Gerald MacLean and Nabil Matar have written of seventeenth- century Britain, “the nightmare of captivity gave way to the dream of empire.”2 John Foss’s Journal appeared at a critical juncture of a similar transition in the American relationship to the world of Islam. The severity of Foss’s abjection forced him to confront the modest exigencies of American identity in the early years of American independence. More important, however is that Foss also embraced the optimistic thrust of many American ideologies emerging at the time he wrote the Journal. Reconciling the two domains of real despondency and anticipated triumph required the Journal to accept seemingly contradictory notions of national weakness and strength. Foss clears this hurdle by embracing religiously inflected language that justified his and his nation’s humiliation as part of a dualistic progression. He did this in service of a belief that the American nation was fitted to play a special part in human history. Examining the sources and dimensions of these influences sheds light on a critical moment in American thought. 1 Robert J. Allison, The Crescent Obscured: The United States and the Muslim World, 1776- 1815 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), xviii. 2 Gerald MacLean and Nabil Matar, Britain and the Islamic World, 1558-1713 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 127. vi Contents I. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 9 A. Literature on Barbary captivity ..................................................................................13 B. Literature on American religious ideologies ..............................................................19 II. THE ALGERIAN ROOTS OF EARLY AMERICAN HUMILIATION .............................. 26 A. America’s ‘late separation and present weakness’ .....................................................27 B. The Mediterranean uncorked ......................................................................................32 C. Ahumiliating matter of leverage .................................................................................37 D. American poverty .......................................................................................................42 III. ISLAM, CAPTIVITY, AND AMERICAN SLAVERY ...................................................... 48 A. The long history of American captivity .....................................................................50 B. Muslims in America ...................................................................................................59 C. Captives or slaves? .....................................................................................................65 D. Slaves and the political sphere ...................................................................................69 E. Congress and captivity................................................................................................71 F. The navy and its hierarchy ..........................................................................................73 IV. THE PRECEDENT FOR SUFFERING ............................................................................... 79 A. Typology ....................................................................................................................81 B. Deliverance .................................................................................................................85 C. The glorious millennium ............................................................................................88 D. A new view of the millennium ...................................................................................92 E. Pastor Elijah Parish .....................................................................................................95 V. JOHN FOSS AND AMERICAN REDEMPTION .............................................................. 100 vii A. Byfield Parish and the early life of John Foss ..........................................................102 B. Weakness ..................................................................................................................105 C. Conversion, clothing, and identity ...........................................................................110 D. Foul black bread .......................................................................................................115 E. Abjection ..................................................................................................................117 F. Barbary captives and the End ...................................................................................120 E. Finale ........................................................................................................................126 G. Joel Barlow, poet and diplomat ................................................................................128 H. Stars and stripes and ‘Algerine Slaves’ ....................................................................130 I. ‘A great partiality for his country’ .............................................................................136 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................................................ 137 A. Selected Primary Sources .........................................................................................137 B. Secondary Sources ...................................................................................................141 viii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION A Journal of the Captivity and Sufferings of John Foss recounts the “hapless fate” of its eponymous author, an American sailor who sought “an honest livelihood” aboard a brig that sailed
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