Japan's Initiatives to Enroll Indian Students: Challenges and Opportunities

Asia-Pacific Journal of Social Science Introduction Special Issue No.3, December 2012 ISSN 2229-5801(Print) / ISSN 0975-5942 (Electronic) “The emergence of a postmodern paradox at the dawn of the new century: while the global © International Society for Asia-Pacific Studies [ISAPS] economy unleashes powerful forces that produce larger and more diverse flows of migrants from developing countries (market penetration and its associated structural transformations), it simultaneously creates conditions within developed nations that Japan's Initiatives to Enroll Indian Students: Challenges promote the implementation of restrictive immigration policies (greater inequality and and Opportunities segmented unemployment).” -- Douglas S. Massey.

G. Jayachandra Reddy International education is another form of European and the two World Wars. By the end of Director, Centre for Southeast Asian and Pacific Studies, Sri Venkateswara University, migration in the modern world. Historically, the 20 Century the dynamics of migration has Tirupati-517502, A.P., India Email: [email protected] there are different patterns of migration and key entirely changed and globalization has emerged factors which influenced such migration. The as a new vehicle for such migrations. Though migration has a great role in changing the ethnic there are arguments that globalization has Abstract compositions of different countries of the world. accentuated much economic differences, which Irrespective of conceptual differences or similarities, the concepts like “globalization” and For instance, the migration of Indians (Indians made the people (skilled or unskilled) to move “internationalization” are perceived as main drivers in promoting “international education”. On the were brought to Fiji during British colonization of country to country. However, while the other hand, the emergence of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is viewed as a India for sugarcane cultivation) to Fiji led to a unrestricted movement of goods and capital is potential factor to augment the opportunities of international education. Of course, countries like the conflict between Fijians and Indo-Fijians. The accepted almost without qualification, the US, Germany, the UK and Australia are in the forefront in attracting the international students into most prominent in the history of migration may movement of labour tends to raise sensitive their higher education spectrum. Countries like China and India are the potential sources to get a good be the transatlantic slave migration.1 The political and sociological issues. Still, it is number of international students, because of availability of people who are inclined to go abroad for cataclysm of world war I and II has its imprints on necessary to recognise that migration can never higher education and employment. immigration to North America. Douglas S. be eliminated or even fully controlled. In fact, In the recent past, Japan has come up with more number of policies and strategies in its higher Massey, an American researcher, classified the with rising globalisation, migratory pressures education system to attract foreign students in large numbers. No doubt, in no way Japanese higher international migration into four categories like will most likely increase. The challenge for the education institutions or standards are inferior to any country, but Japan has failed in attracting mercantile period (1400-1800), industrial period international community will be to deal with this Indian students. Japan's inability to enroll foreign students in a big way cannot be solely attributed to in the early 19th Century, migration due to issue in the broader context of a coherent, human- Japan's being a non-English speaking nation. In Germany and France, which are also non-English outbreak of World Wars, and post industrial centred and human rights based response to speaking nations, the enrollment of foreign students has gone up by 12.3% and 11.9% respectively in migration in the middle of 1960s. globalisation. 2008. There is a clear difference between different International Organization for Migration (IOM) Japan has been specifically losing the biggest market of international students particularly from India. forms of migrations in the history. Much predicts that “the total number of international For instance, while 100,000 Chinese students joined Japanese educational institutions, Indian significance is attributed to the colonial migration migrants will approach 250 million by the year students number was as low as 600. system, it was not voluntary and moreover forced 2050. Such a prediction has to reflect many In 2008, the Government of Japan unveiled the "300,000 Foreign Students Plan," which envisaged by the rulers to move to the other countries, where probable factors. These include the effects of war, increasing the number of foreign students in Japan from the current 140,000 to 300,000 by 2020. In their labour services were in demand. War famine, drought and epidemics, the increasing this context, Japan launched a project called “Global 30” or “G30” aiming at creating a supportive migrations are another form of the most economic gap between rich and poor countries environment, for international students to study in Japan and to get high quality of education. It may unwanted for any country, notably during many and the differential between countries in which be mentioned that at the beginning of 2012, the Vice-President of University of Tokyo has launched an office in Bengaluru which may serve as an open shop for promoting the policy of G30 in India. With this 1 background, this paper attempts to analyze the challenges and opportunities for Japan which is The slave trade has a long history. The transatlantic slave trade was neither Africa's longest or largest but it has had a determined to tap Indian student market. significant impact on the make-up of current populations. As can be seen from the following statistics, the African slave trade was not just confined to the United States--its scope was very international. The transatlantic slave trade began in Keywords: Indian Students, Japan Institutions, Immigration, Employment Opportunities and 1442 when African slaves were sent to Europe (Portugal). In 1550 slaves were sent to the Caribbean. The vast majority of Higher Education. the international trade was carried out by non-U.S. enterprises. In fact, the African slave trade began before the United States was even founded. Britain was the nation most deeply involved 41% Portugal 29% France 19% Holland 6, US 3% Denmark 1% (Migration Patterns).

Asia-Pacific Journal of Social Sciences, Special Issue No.3, December 2012, pp. 108-120 108 Asia-Pacific Journal of Social Sciences, Special Issue No.3, December 2012, pp. 108-120 109 G. Jayachandra Reddy Japan's Initiatives to Enroll Indian Students: Challenges and Opportunities population is growing and those where it is Crescent Societies, are warning of the Much of the migration in recent years has been a brunt of this reality as more and more Indians are decreasing. On the basis of data on fertility rates, humanitarian impact of the unfettered growth of direct result of the prevailing idea that jobs returning to the country disenfranchised, UN projections show significant decreases in the carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere, caused abroad are more lucrative than those found disillusioned, often financially burdened, and populations of many countries in Europe and mainly by the burning of fossil fuels in within the borders of India. Further, it has been sometimes emotionally and physically weakened some in other regions, contrasting with large industrialized nations.” Figure 1 evidently found that returnees glorify their experiences in (particularly unskilled labour working in the projected increases in parts of Asia, Africa and the explains that many of the industrial countries are other countries, and minimize the challenges they Western Asia). By the end of the 20 century the Americas. The threat of rising sea levels and attracting more immigrants. For instance, may have faced. As of late, however, media and Indian skilled professionals spread across the extreme weather conditions, associated with Australia, Belgium and Spain have more than 10 individual reports of exploitation are exploding world (table-1) and proved their abilities apart global climate change, may also emerge as major per cent; whereas Germany has 9 per cent and these myths. Non-governmental organisations from substantially increasing India's Foreign factors behind forced migration. Already Greece, Italy and the UK has low immigrants, and government agencies are also bearing the Reserves. international aid agencies, including the around 8 per cent but registered high growth rate International Federation of Red Cross and Red of immigrants during 1995 and 2009. Table-1: Number of emigrants from India for employment at the end of 20th Century

No. of emigrants No. of emigrants Year % of growth# Year % of growth in millions* in millions* Fig-1: Foreign Population as a Percentage of the Total Population* 1986 1.41 1993 4.38 5.0 1987 1.25 -13.2 1994 4.25 -3.0 1988 1.70 36.0 1995 4.15 -2.3 1989 1.26 -25.9 1996 4.14 -0.2 1990 1.44 14.3 1997 4.16 -0.5 1991 2.02 40.3 1998 3.55 -14.7 1992 4.17 106.4 1998 3.55 -14.7 *Extracted from Bernard D'Sami, 2000; # author's calculations

Globalization has brought another form of education about the type of education they desire migration as students many students specifically for themselves or their children. In Japan, there is from developing countries moving to developed unusual consensus on the goals and means of countries. Of course, there are many push and education, but there is also a highly differentiated pull factors responsible for such a migration. public and private division of schools and Moreover, few countries like the US, UK, students, and strong variations between Australia and Germany are also competing in individual schools in each sector. Excluding attracting more international students into their about 2 percent of the population who are ethnic institutions. At the same time, students are also Koreans or descendants of an outcaste group looking at their advantages in getting an known as burakumin, Japan is a country without employment after their education in the same social cleavages based on race, ethnicity, caste, Notes: Data are from population registers or from registers of foreigners except for Greece (census), country. In this process, recently Japan has been language or religion. This contributes to strong Ireland and United Kingdom (Labour Force Survey). concentrating more on Indian students to enroll cultural agreement regarding the forms and goals Source: OECD, Trends in International Migration (2006) and International Migration Outlook (2011). More them in Japanese institutions. of education. This situation further leads to accept data tables are available online at the arguments of many sociologists across the http://www.oecd.org/document/40/0,3746,en_2649_37415_48303528_1_1_1_37415,00.html Opportunities and Challenges for world Japanese believe in collectivism than Extracted from: http://www.migrationinformation.org/datahub/charts/2.1.shtml Foreign Students in Japan individualism which is much in practice in the A diversified educational system, with significant Western world (Emiko Kobayashi et.al. 2010). A public and private sectors, is usually associated rare incident, killing of one Japanese family and with strong differences among consumers of

Asia-Pacific Journal of Social Sciences, Special Issue No.3, December 2012, pp. 108-120 110 Asia-Pacific Journal of Social Sciences, Special Issue No.3, December 2012, pp. 108-120 111 G. Jayachandra Reddy Japan's Initiatives to Enroll Indian Students: Challenges and Opportunities population is growing and those where it is Crescent Societies, are warning of the Much of the migration in recent years has been a brunt of this reality as more and more Indians are decreasing. On the basis of data on fertility rates, humanitarian impact of the unfettered growth of direct result of the prevailing idea that jobs returning to the country disenfranchised, UN projections show significant decreases in the carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere, caused abroad are more lucrative than those found disillusioned, often financially burdened, and populations of many countries in Europe and mainly by the burning of fossil fuels in within the borders of India. Further, it has been sometimes emotionally and physically weakened some in other regions, contrasting with large industrialized nations.” Figure 1 evidently found that returnees glorify their experiences in (particularly unskilled labour working in the projected increases in parts of Asia, Africa and the explains that many of the industrial countries are other countries, and minimize the challenges they Western Asia). By the end of the 20 century the Americas. The threat of rising sea levels and attracting more immigrants. For instance, may have faced. As of late, however, media and Indian skilled professionals spread across the extreme weather conditions, associated with Australia, Belgium and Spain have more than 10 individual reports of exploitation are exploding world (table-1) and proved their abilities apart global climate change, may also emerge as major per cent; whereas Germany has 9 per cent and these myths. Non-governmental organisations from substantially increasing India's Foreign factors behind forced migration. Already Greece, Italy and the UK has low immigrants, and government agencies are also bearing the Reserves. international aid agencies, including the around 8 per cent but registered high growth rate International Federation of Red Cross and Red of immigrants during 1995 and 2009. Table-1: Number of emigrants from India for employment at the end of 20th Century

Chinese students were charged with the murder, knowledge among the students, who despite native students within three years, failing which adoptability of local food. An authoritative sensitized the Japanese public and they were being part of the same culture and language, can the well qualified nurses may lose their visa and bureaucrat, Sakanaka Hidenori, Ministry of serious about granting visa to foreign students no longer really develop intellectually. go back to their home countries. As it was noted Justice, Tokyo, with his rich experience of thirty and specifically for Chinese students. A new visa Japan has often been identified as a country with by Debito Arudou, 2000, a journalist of Japan years and retired as the Tokyo Regional policy that allowed the Japanese government to “closed doors” immigration policy, particularly Times, that 95 per cent of Indonesians were tested Immigration Bureau, has advocated the deny visas to about 73% of Chinese students with regard to unskilled migrations. In one over three years period and have failed in impending population crisis as a “massive hoping to enroll in Japanese colleges for the 2004 dimension the immigration policy of Japan is qualifying the language test and 50 per cent of revolution” to match the nineteenth century Meiji academic year has been enacted (Brender, Alan, different from other countries. Japan has always them were also sent back. As a result, currently Restoration, when Japan was abruptly opened to 2004). been having a positive attitude in attracting more the response from Indonesians for such the West. He also warns that a stark choice Universities in Japan are facing a different set of skilled labour/professionals. It is interesting, employment has been drastically reduced. between a 'small Japan' of shrinking population problems its demographic structure itself is though the immigration procedure is highly International immigrants are now bypassing and economic decline, and a 'big Japan' of growth, responsible to have more number of domestic difficult and multilevel process but the duration Japan and opting the other developed countries immigration and multiculturalism (Tony students and government's pragmatic approach to apply for naturalization is only 5 years but in like the US, the UK and Australia, where more McNicol, 2007). Japan has also been in another towards budgetary sanctions and visa policy. other countries it happens to be 7-10 years. Japan simplified visa programmes in addition to trouble that the number of Japanese leaving the According to the Ministry of Education, 47 per has been attempting to attract more skilled minimized risk in learning the international coubntry is three times higher than the number of cent out of 550 private universities are unable to migrants with open policies, but still unable to language and a little bit acceptability and immigrants coming to Japan (Fig-2). achieve the targets of enrollment of students, set achieve its target in getting sufficient skilled by the government, and this situation seemed to migrants. As per the Ministry of Justice, the share be the worst ever situation. There were also of skilled migrants has just only 9 per cent out of speculations about the financial potentialities of 2.1 million migrants to Japan in 2010 (Nana Oishi, universities, one-third of Japan's private 2012). universities may go bankrupt and may merge In December 2011, the Japanese government has with other institutions in the next decade. The unveiled a new immigration policy targeting world's lowest fertility rates and a shortage of around 2000 high skilled professionals. This new children resulted in a diversified challenge to the VISA regime came into existence during 2012 education sector, closing of elementary, junior Spring. Under this process every individual will high and high schools and finally extended to be weighted in terms of points and it is called colleges. Most of the educational analysts agree “point system” (see http://www.immi- that Japanese educational institutions would moj.go.jp/newimmiact_3/en/pdf/02_e.pdf). benefit greatly from foreign students but the While low skills of Japanese language would be political and structural barriers prevent them given 10 bonus points, on the other hand making much impact (McNeill, David, 2009). proficiency in Japanese language would be well McNeill David, a noted analyst of higher appreciated. One should score 70points for better education, argued that “universities in Japan placement and they may also have the privilege of remain strikingly homogenous and isolated from getting five-years fast track visas and work status the globalizing trend in higher education. for spouses apart from permitting their parents According to the Ministry of Education, just 5,652 and housekeepers if they wish. Irrespective of Sources: http://www.moj.go.jp/ENGLISH/IB/ib-01.html Fig-2 of the 158,770 professors employed in Japanese different visa policies made by Japanese higher education are foreigners on full-time government, language is always a hurdle for even The composition of foreign students in Japan has allow them to refresh and develop their ties with contracts, mostly at private universities”. At the skilled and qualified non-Japanese. For instance, been dominated by Asians China and South Japan. Many former students of Japanese same time, many academics from Japanese during 2008, the government has immigrated Korea again share 50 and 20 per cent students universities go on to play important roles in universities are in favour of having more elder-care nurses from the Philippines and respectively out of total Asian Students. Japanese academic, business and other circles in their home heterogenic character in universities which will Indonesia. But they were required to take a universities have the practice of inviting their countries. At a reception to the former students, certainly help in promoting diversified qualified Japanese language exam along with the foreign students back to Japan to find out how Chen Qingyun, a representative of the Chinese they have used their education and skills, and to Communist Party, said that the Chinese students

Asia-Pacific Journal of Social Sciences, Special Issue No.3, December 2012, pp. 108-120 112 Asia-Pacific Journal of Social Sciences, Special Issue No.3, December 2012, pp. 108-120 113 G. Jayachandra Reddy Japan's Initiatives to Enroll Indian Students: Challenges and Opportunities who studied in Japan are emerging as a driving determined by (a) economic conditions, (b) levels. Japan is in a weak position in this respect Japanese companies are depending on either force of the nation building. Chen, who was a openness of professional markets, (c) the capacity because of its relatively low salaries for young China or Korea who have been living in Japan for student of the University of Tsukuba during 1983- of universities to attract international students as professionals. The Japanese remuneration system generation and acquainted proficiency in 90, has been and serving as Vice-President of the prospective highly skilled professionals, and (d) is still largely based on the lifetime employment Japanese language. The other international College of Horticulture Sciences at China tolerance. However, the author maintained that system, in which starting salaries are very low but immigrants, who have studied in Japanese Agriculture University (Saeki Shizuka, 2001). these hypotheses needed to be substantiated by would be increased as employees spend more universities and failed to get language Japan has finally reached its target, set in 1984, of more empirical data. years with a company. For instance, there is a proficiency are struggling to join in the Japanese enrolling 100,000 foreign students every year, the large gap at the entry level; the average starting companies, irrespective of their education and bulk of them are from China and South Korea. salary for engineers in Japan is US$42,000, outstanding performance (Nana Oishi, 2012). That means the rest of the world sends fewer than whereas it is US$60,000 in the United States It is difficult to highlight a specific reason, why 20,000 students to Japanese campuses each year. (MHLW, 2011; U.S. Department of Labor, 2011). international migrant skilled professionals do not In contrast, Japan sends nearly 40,000 students a Language is another barrier to have more prefer Japan as their destination. Taking into year to the United States alone (McNeill, David, immigrants into Japanese companies. In fact, consideration a cumulative effect, the World 2007). Japanese companies are indeed interested in Competitiveness Report indicates that Japan is March 2011 earthquake in Japan has resulted in hiring foreigners. At the same time they are not an attractive country for highly skilled many forms of losses to Japan, both directly and worried about how best they incorporate these professionals. Figure-4 illustrates that Japan was indirectly. Apart from its immediate effects, migrants into their workplace, because of the ranked 44th out of 59 major economies of the Japan also has been experiencing long run language barrier. Still, very few companies have world in attracting skilled professionals, even impediment. Reports say that there is a sharp adopted English as their official language or below China, India and Indonesia (IMD, 2009). decline in the enrollment or in certain instances Fig-3: Source: Ministry of Justice, Japan, 2011. bilingual policy. To overcome this problem, However, the report has not given any remarks dropping of foreign students from Japan institutions, in the aftermath of the earthquake The distribution pattern of skilled migrants to and the problems at Fukushima nuclear power Japan has been dominated by China followed by plant disaster. But there has been a sharp recovery Korea, USA and India (Fig-3). Basically, the in the enrollment of foreign students led by the attitude of Japanese companies has been University of Tokyo. Japan's top private different. They are not encouraging more skilled university, Waseda, however, notes a 25-percent migrants. The most recent survey showed that drop in foreign applicants for degree programs at 46% of Japanese corporations have never hired its School of International Liberal Studies. South highly skilled migrants and have no plans to hire Korean applicants alone were down by 40 them in the near future (HITO Research Institute, percent. According to the Japan Student Services 2011). Another survey found that only 23% of Organization, the disaster struck several years of Japanese corporations have hired “the potentially growth in foreign students in Japan, with overall highly skilled”those who had been international numbers of foreign students down by 2.6 per cent students in Japan (Japan Institute for Labor Policy in 2011 (McNeill, David, 2007). and Training, 2009). In fact, the percentage of Doomernik, Koslowski, and Thranhardt (2009) international students who obtained a job in attempted to tackle the question of why some Japan on graduation has been small: only 24% of policies have failed to increase the immigration of BA degree holders, 23% of MA or MSc degree highly skilled workers through a comparative holders, and 28% of professional degree holders. perspective. By examining the impact of Among PhD holders, only 30% got jobs in Japan immigration policies in the United States, in 2010 (Japan Student Services Organization, 2011). Canada, Australia, and Europe, these authors Fig-4: hypothesized that the success and failure of It has also often been assumed that highly skilled policies for highly skilled migration are migrants are driven by higher remuneration

Asia-Pacific Journal of Social Sciences, Special Issue No.3, December 2012, pp. 108-120 114 Asia-Pacific Journal of Social Sciences, Special Issue No.3, December 2012, pp. 108-120 115 G. Jayachandra Reddy Japan's Initiatives to Enroll Indian Students: Challenges and Opportunities against the success or failure of different explains the possibilities of higher saving rates in Why the US, a Favoured Destination the British rulers of India. Sikh men had several countries in attracting skilled professionals into the US when compared with Japan. For instance, Historical Perspective: Undoubtedly, there is no distinctive characteristics. To demonstrate their 2 their domestic companies . consumer price index shows around 20% lower need to have any special research to conclude that religious commitment, they never shaved their than in Japan, rents are 10% lower, groceries are religious commitment; they never shaved their Indians in Japan majority of Indian Diaspora has been nearly 24% lower than in Japan. On the average concentrated in the US. The immigration policy or beards or cut their hair. They wore turbans, for Out of many hurdles, a good number of Indians the local purchasing capacity in the US is 47% the opportunities in the 21st Century, to go to the their faith required them to cover their heads in are working in Japan and settled in certain higher than in Japan. Indians are more attracted US may not be comparable to those in the 19 their temples. Many of them share the name pockets of Japan. For instance, Nishi-Kasai is one to their higher salaries, saving rates and Century. The reason for immigration during Singh (lion), sacred to Sikhs (Koritala, 1997). India of the newly emerging sub-urban areas of Tokyo improved their purchasing capacity. Curiously, 1830-1890 is quite clear. However, when the and America, though half a world apart, have for city accommodating nearly 1000 Indians. As a while the salaries in Japan are relatively lower, British took over India, they depleted the country a long time exchanged concepts of a more perfect result, number of Indian schools and restaurants the work expected from the employees is heavy. of all her wealth and her poor citizens had no society for humankind. Immigrants from India have emerged and locally Nishi-Kasai is also choice but to leave. Though Indians felt that the feel quite at home in America's climate of freedom called as “Indiantown”. It is a rare phenomenon Table-2 : Monthly Net Salary Comparison between US is the best destiny to work and realise their and opportunity (Millis, 1981). Today, Indians are to have communities like Nishi-Kasai. Unlike the US and Japan (constant 2005 US$) ambitions, they have developed certain contributing everything from the basic genetic many other developed countries, the number of Net Monthly Salary prejudices with the other immigrants like the code of the human body to the constitution of the foreign born residents in Japan is very low just Nature of the Job USA Japan Chinese, Europeans, and Japanese apart from stars. Now, India is giving American scientists, over 2 million people or 1.56 per cent of the total General Physician 8,189 5,401 locals. Samuel L. Gompers, a leader of the who are improving and prolonging our lives, and population. On the other hand, the US and the UK Dentist 6,164 5,522 American Labor Movement, said, Sixty years' extending our environment from earth to space. are accounting for 12 per cent and 8 per cent of Engineer 4,710 2,530 contact with the Chinese, and twenty-five years' Whether the Indians came initially thinking they their total population, respectively. would stay only temporarily, or whether they Professor 4,638 4,240 experience with the Japanese and two or three came as settlers seeking a new home, all of them Umesh Joshi, Vice-President of Mombusho Computer Programmer 4,141 1,995 years' acquaintance with the Hindus should be Scholars Association of India, said: "The found themselves changed by America as they Teacher 4,055 3,350 sufficient to convince any ordinarily intelligent percentage of Indian students going to Japan for built Sikh temples in the valleys of California, Physiotherapist 3,434 2,003 person that they have no standards…(Brass, higher education is extremely poor as compared 1993). In contradiction, Indians have established a farmed the new land, practiced medicine, Professional Nurse 3,168 2,140 with China primarily because of lack of certain negative attitude of assimilation with the operated small businesses, and raised their Flight Attendant 2,949 2,961 awareness about the opportunities in Japan Americans. For instance, the Indian poet, children. The Asian Indian Americans have been among students and their parents. Last year Auxiliary Nurse 2,268 1,896 Rabindranath Tagore, winner of the Nobel Prize changed by their experiences in the West, in the (2007), only 500 Indian students went to Japan for Source: http://www.worldsalaries.org in literature, traveled to North America. When he process they have also been changing America, education as against 1 lakh to China” (The making its society richer and more multicultural. Table-3 : Price Indices Difference between the US and Japan applied for entry to the United States, Tagore Economic Times, 2008). encountered difficulties and when he finally Asian Indians have made innumerable Consumer Prices in United States are 23.85% lower than contributions to the culture and well-being of the Lucrative salary is also another important issue made it to the country, he experienced racial in Japan US; the majority of these contributions are geared which is determining the selection of Indian prejudice in Los Angeles. Tagore canceled his Consumer Prices Including Rent in United States are notably to engineering and the sciences. In students' destination for their education and 20.34% lower than in Japan tour and promptly returned to India, saying in addition, growing up in two cultures is a great employment. Table 2 is clearly exhibiting the Rent Prices in United States are 10.70% lower than in disgust, Jesus could not get into America because, challenge, yes, but not a problem. It is a difficult lower rates of salaries in Japan when compared Japan first of all, He would not have the necessary experience, but not one devoid of benefits (Free with the US. Many professional are paid less Restaurant Prices in United States are 6.21% higher than money, and secondly, He would be an Asiatic. in Japan Essays). salaries in Japan which ranges between 2,268 and (Hundley, 1981). Groceries Prices in United States are 23.91% lower than 8,189US$, whereas the same professionals in US in Japan Current Scenario: Although the immigrants were India has always been on top of sending the are getting higher salaries ranging between 1,896 Local Purchasing Power in United States is 47.08% often called Hindus or Hindoos in America, many students to the US but recently China appears to and 5,401US$. There is another disadvantage in higher than in Japan of them were not followers of Hinduism, one of be overtaking India. The number of Chinese the form of lower rates of savings in Japan which the major religions of India. Some of them were students studying in the US (128,000) increased is due to higher cost of living. Table 3 logically Source: http://www.numbeo.com/cost-of-living/compare_ by 30 per cent during 2009-10. Reports say that of countries_result.jsp?country1 =Japan&country2=United+States Hindus and some were Muslims, but most were the highest number (690,923) of international 2 Sikhs. Their religion was Sikhism, a blend of This result is based on the IMD's (2009) Executive Opinion Survey that collected evaluations from 3,960 top- and elements from Hinduism and Islam. Sikhs from students came to the US, China shares 18 per cent. middle-level business executives working in local and international corporations in 59 economies worldwide. the Punjab were highly regarded as soldiers by India, which has been in the top spot for many

Asia-Pacific Journal of Social Sciences, Special Issue No.3, December 2012, pp. 108-120 116 Asia-Pacific Journal of Social Sciences, Special Issue No.3, December 2012, pp. 108-120 117 G. Jayachandra Reddy Japan's Initiatives to Enroll Indian Students: Challenges and Opportunities against the success or failure of different explains the possibilities of higher saving rates in Why the US, a Favoured Destination the British rulers of India. Sikh men had several countries in attracting skilled professionals into the US when compared with Japan. For instance, Historical Perspective: Undoubtedly, there is no distinctive characteristics. To demonstrate their 2 their domestic companies . consumer price index shows around 20% lower need to have any special research to conclude that religious commitment, they never shaved their than in Japan, rents are 10% lower, groceries are religious commitment; they never shaved their Indians in Japan majority of Indian Diaspora has been nearly 24% lower than in Japan. On the average concentrated in the US. The immigration policy or beards or cut their hair. They wore turbans, for Out of many hurdles, a good number of Indians the local purchasing capacity in the US is 47% the opportunities in the 21st Century, to go to the their faith required them to cover their heads in are working in Japan and settled in certain higher than in Japan. Indians are more attracted US may not be comparable to those in the 19 their temples. Many of them share the name pockets of Japan. For instance, Nishi-Kasai is one to their higher salaries, saving rates and Century. The reason for immigration during Singh (lion), sacred to Sikhs (Koritala, 1997). India of the newly emerging sub-urban areas of Tokyo improved their purchasing capacity. Curiously, 1830-1890 is quite clear. However, when the and America, though half a world apart, have for city accommodating nearly 1000 Indians. As a while the salaries in Japan are relatively lower, British took over India, they depleted the country a long time exchanged concepts of a more perfect result, number of Indian schools and restaurants the work expected from the employees is heavy. of all her wealth and her poor citizens had no society for humankind. Immigrants from India have emerged and locally Nishi-Kasai is also choice but to leave. Though Indians felt that the feel quite at home in America's climate of freedom called as “Indiantown”. It is a rare phenomenon Table-2 : Monthly Net Salary Comparison between US is the best destiny to work and realise their and opportunity (Millis, 1981). Today, Indians are to have communities like Nishi-Kasai. Unlike the US and Japan (constant 2005 US$) ambitions, they have developed certain contributing everything from the basic genetic many other developed countries, the number of Net Monthly Salary prejudices with the other immigrants like the code of the human body to the constitution of the foreign born residents in Japan is very low just Nature of the Job USA Japan Chinese, Europeans, and Japanese apart from stars. Now, India is giving American scientists, over 2 million people or 1.56 per cent of the total General Physician 8,189 5,401 locals. Samuel L. Gompers, a leader of the who are improving and prolonging our lives, and population. On the other hand, the US and the UK Dentist 6,164 5,522 American Labor Movement, said, Sixty years' extending our environment from earth to space. are accounting for 12 per cent and 8 per cent of Engineer 4,710 2,530 contact with the Chinese, and twenty-five years' Whether the Indians came initially thinking they their total population, respectively. would stay only temporarily, or whether they Professor 4,638 4,240 experience with the Japanese and two or three came as settlers seeking a new home, all of them Umesh Joshi, Vice-President of Mombusho Computer Programmer 4,141 1,995 years' acquaintance with the Hindus should be Scholars Association of India, said: "The found themselves changed by America as they Teacher 4,055 3,350 sufficient to convince any ordinarily intelligent percentage of Indian students going to Japan for built Sikh temples in the valleys of California, Physiotherapist 3,434 2,003 person that they have no standards…(Brass, higher education is extremely poor as compared 1993). In contradiction, Indians have established a farmed the new land, practiced medicine, Professional Nurse 3,168 2,140 with China primarily because of lack of certain negative attitude of assimilation with the operated small businesses, and raised their Flight Attendant 2,949 2,961 awareness about the opportunities in Japan Americans. For instance, the Indian poet, children. The Asian Indian Americans have been among students and their parents. Last year Auxiliary Nurse 2,268 1,896 Rabindranath Tagore, winner of the Nobel Prize changed by their experiences in the West, in the (2007), only 500 Indian students went to Japan for Source: http://www.worldsalaries.org in literature, traveled to North America. When he process they have also been changing America, education as against 1 lakh to China” (The making its society richer and more multicultural. Table-3 : Price Indices Difference between the US and Japan applied for entry to the United States, Tagore Economic Times, 2008). encountered difficulties and when he finally Asian Indians have made innumerable Consumer Prices in United States are 23.85% lower than contributions to the culture and well-being of the Lucrative salary is also another important issue made it to the country, he experienced racial in Japan US; the majority of these contributions are geared which is determining the selection of Indian prejudice in Los Angeles. Tagore canceled his Consumer Prices Including Rent in United States are notably to engineering and the sciences. In students' destination for their education and 20.34% lower than in Japan tour and promptly returned to India, saying in addition, growing up in two cultures is a great employment. Table 2 is clearly exhibiting the Rent Prices in United States are 10.70% lower than in disgust, Jesus could not get into America because, challenge, yes, but not a problem. It is a difficult lower rates of salaries in Japan when compared Japan first of all, He would not have the necessary experience, but not one devoid of benefits (Free with the US. Many professional are paid less Restaurant Prices in United States are 6.21% higher than money, and secondly, He would be an Asiatic. in Japan Essays). salaries in Japan which ranges between 2,268 and (Hundley, 1981). Groceries Prices in United States are 23.91% lower than 8,189US$, whereas the same professionals in US in Japan Current Scenario: Although the immigrants were India has always been on top of sending the are getting higher salaries ranging between 1,896 Local Purchasing Power in United States is 47.08% often called Hindus or Hindoos in America, many students to the US but recently China appears to and 5,401US$. There is another disadvantage in higher than in Japan of them were not followers of Hinduism, one of be overtaking India. The number of Chinese the form of lower rates of savings in Japan which the major religions of India. Some of them were students studying in the US (128,000) increased is due to higher cost of living. Table 3 logically Source: http://www.numbeo.com/cost-of-living/compare_ by 30 per cent during 2009-10. Reports say that of countries_result.jsp?country1 =Japan&country2=United+States Hindus and some were Muslims, but most were the highest number (690,923) of international 2 Sikhs. Their religion was Sikhism, a blend of This result is based on the IMD's (2009) Executive Opinion Survey that collected evaluations from 3,960 top- and elements from Hinduism and Islam. Sikhs from students came to the US, China shares 18 per cent. middle-level business executives working in local and international corporations in 59 economies worldwide. the Punjab were highly regarded as soldiers by India, which has been in the top spot for many

References Koritala, Srirajasekhar, 1997, A Historical Perspective of Americans of Asian Indian Origin, http://www.tiac.net/users/koritala/india/history.htm Bernard D'Sami, 2000, Migration Patterns and Challenges for Indians Seeking Work Abroad: A Special Focus on South India, National Forum of Migrant Workers Rights. Lewin, Tamar, 2010, China Surges Past India as Top Home of Foreign Students, New York Times, November 15, 2010, p.A.14. Beth McMurtrie, 2008, Foreign Students Pour Back Into the U.S., The Chronicle of Higher Education, Vol.55(13), November 21, 2008. Massey, Douglas S. 1988. “International Migration and Economic Development in Comparative Perspective.” Population and Development Review 14:383-414. Brass, Paul, 1993, Asian Indian Americans, Encyclopedia of Multiculturalism, ed. Daniels, Rogers. Asian Americans: Emerging Minorities. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. McNeill, David, 2007, Still Foreign After All These Years, The Chronicle of Higher Education, February 16, 2007, pp.A47-A49. Brender, Alan, 2004, In Japan, Protection or Prejudice?, The Chronicle of Higher Education, Vol.50(38), May 28, 2004, pp.A.37-A.38.

Asia-Pacific Journal of Social Sciences, Special Issue No.3, December 2012, pp. 108-120 118 Asia-Pacific Journal of Social Sciences, Special Issue No.3, December 2012, pp. 108-120 119 G. Jayachandra Reddy Japan's Initiatives to Enroll Indian Students: Challenges and Opportunities years put up slightly increased to only 104,897 become overly strict in the years immediately Debito Arudou, 2012, Japan's Revolving-door Immigration Policy Hard-wired to Fail, The Japan Times, (Lewin, Tamar, 2010). following the September 11, 2001, terrorist Tuesday, March 6, 2012, http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/fl20120306ad.html attacks. Largely because of those restrictions, the Obviously, the US has been popular destination Doomernik, J., Koslowski, R., & Thranhardt, D. (2009). The battle for the brains: Why immigration policy is for international students and attracting 25 per United States has experienced enrollment declines for three years before bouncing back in not enough to attract the highly skilled, Brussels Forum Paper Series, Washington, DC: German cent of worldwide students in American Marshall Fund of the United States. institutions. Recent reports say that the US is 2006 with a 3.2 per cent increase (Beth McMurtrie, losing its top position and the other nations are 2008). Douglas S. Massey, 2003, Patterns and Processes of International Migration in the 21st Century, Paper surpassing the US. For instance, the US has Conclusion prepared for Conference on African Migration in Comparative Perspective, Johannesburg, South increased its international-student enrollment by The fundamental reasons behind the Indian Africa, 4-7 June, 2003. 17 percent from the 1999-2000 academic year to students' enrollment abroad are primarily to have Emiko Kobayashi, Harold R. Kerbo and Susan F. Sharp, 2010, Differences in Individualistic and 2004-5, compared with gains of 29 percent in better education and to have employment Collectivistic Tendencies among College Students in Japan and the United States, International Britain, 42 percent in Australia, 46 percent in opportunities in the same country. Of course, Journal of Comparative Sociology, 2010. Vol.51(1-2), pp. 59-84. Germany, 81 percent in France, and 108 percent in Japan has not been in the list of destinations for Japan (Woo, Stu, 2006). The US has proved this is Indian students for the lack of such opportunities. Free Essays, Indians Immigrating to America, http://www.freeessays.cc/db/40/rfh226.shtml only a temporary hurdle, and achieved a steady Though, language is the initial hurdle of medium increase in 2007-08 by an increase of 7 percent of education and subsequently they have to come HITO Research Institute. (2011). Gaikokujin no shinsotsusaiyo ni kansuru kigyo ishikichosa [Survey on from a year earlier, contributed an estimated $15- back and search for their employment either in corporations' recruitment of new graduates]. Tokyo, Japan: HITO Research News. billion to the U.S. economy. Some key source India or in any other country like the US. Further, Hundley, Norris. 1981 ed. Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups. The Asian American. countries also showed positive gains in 2007. The cost of living in Japan is high resulting in low California: American Bibliographical Center, 1987. number of students from China grew an eye- saving rates and multiple job opportunities are popping 19.8 percent. Indian enrollments jumped absent -- when a student loses his job, ILO, IOM and OHCHR, 2001, International Migration, Racism, Discrimination and Xenophobia, 12.8 percent. Enrollments from South Korea grew alternatively he/she requires to continue in any International Labour Office (ILO), International Organization for Migration (IOM), Office of the by 10.8 percent. This is all happening with the non-professional jobs to survive himself until he United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). positive attitude of the US government in the gets a professional job. Apart from all the hurdles, form of allocation of more resources into Japan's immigration policy is comparatively not I m m i g r a t i o n B u r e a u , M i n i s t r y o f J u s t i c e , G o v e r n m e n t o f J a p a n , promoting American higher education and acceptable for Indian students. http://www.moj.go.jp/ENGLISH/IB/ib-01.html continues to streamline the visa-approval process, which, officials acknowledge, had Institute for Management Development. (2009). World competitiveness yearbook. Lausanne, Switzerland Japan Student Services Organization, 2011, Gaikokuijn ryugakusei shinrojoukyou gakuijuyojoukyouchosakekka in AY2009 [A survey on the postgraduate situation of international students in AY2009]. Tokyo, Japan.

McNeill, David, 2009, Enrollment Crisis Threatens Japan's Private Colleges: Some fill empty seats with Asia-Pacific Journal of Social Science Special Issue No.3, December 2012 foreign students, creating new problems, The Chronicle of Higher Education, October 25, 2009. ISSN 2229-5801(Print) / ISSN 0975-5942 (Electronic) © International Society for Asia-Pacific Studies [ISAPS] McNeill, David, 2012, Foreign-Student Numbers Start to Recover in Japan, One Year after the Disaster, The Chronicle of Higher Education, April 3, 2012. Reflection on the Demographic Experiences of India and Japan Migration Patterns, http://muellerr.people.cofc.edu/page6.html

Migration Policy Institute, Washington, http://www.migrationinformation.org/ D. Sai Sujatha* and G. Brahmananda Reddy** datahub/charts/2.1.shtml *Associate Professor, Department of Population Studies & Social Work, Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati-517 502. Millis, Harry, 1981, East Indians of the West Coast. Makers of America-The New Immigrants 1904-1913. **Research Associate, Centre for Women's Studies & Centre for Extension Studies, Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati-517 502. Ministry of Health, Labor, and Welfare. (2011). [Unpublished documents]. Tokyo, Japan. Corresponding author: [email protected]

Ministry of Justice, 2011, Shutsunyukoku Kanritokei Tokeihyo [Immigration statistics]. Tokyo, Japan: Abstract Author. Retrieved from http://www.moj.go.jp/housei/toukei/toukei_ichiran_nyukan.html The future of India and Japan is of considerable interest both because of their size in the world economy but Nana Oishi, 2012, The Limits of Immigration Policies: The Challenges of Highly Skilled Migration in also because of their demographics. India will soon be the largest country in the world with a large younger Japan, American Behavioral scientist, Vol.56(8), pp.1080-1100. population and Japan is now the oldest country in the world. Japan offers an interesting contrast with Indian demography playing a more important role after 1950 while India provides another scenario. The SAEKI Shizuka, 2001, Former Students Return To Japan, Look Japan, 47.547, October 2001, p4. positive growth effects were delayed in India, but during the last fifty years they have been important and potentially will continue to be important for decades to come. Japan is now entering the third stage of Takai, Ronald, 1995, Indians in the West: South Asians in America. New York: Chelsa House Publishers, demographic transition in which , the proportion of working-age adults falls while that of old people rises. http://www.bergen.org/AAST/Proj…n/quotes_about_immigration.html India, in contrast, is just entering the second stage and its share of the working age population is expected to The Economic Times, 2008, Exam Centre in Pune for Japan Varsities, Monday, November 3, 2008. increase until 2035 and beyond. The Japanese experience also offers few suggestions for fertility control in India. First, the demographic experiences shows that once the people develop a strong motivation for The Guardian, 2012, Dispatches from Japan: Thinking beyond international student mobility, London, limiting the number of their children, irrespective of, the governmental attitude, families will be limited. 23 April 2012, http://www.guardian.co.uk/higher-education-network/blog/2012/apr/ One of the principal problems facing the Government of India in their efforts to make population control 23/japan-international-student-mobility successful is the creation of a strong motivation for Indian couples to limit their families. Another experience is in Japan rapid decline in fertility came from the wide spread use of contraceptives within a Tony McNicol, 2007, Mixed results with foreign influx: Japan is Changing, but System, Attitudes Need short period. For speedy results India may need "drastic" methods in population control, though not as to Keep Pace, The Japan Times, Tuesday, Jan. 16, 2007, http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/ abortions which Japanese has adopted .However, voluntary sterilization, particularly of the male, may fl20070116zg.html provide the answers. In particular, rapid economic growth in both India and Japan occurred as demographic conditions shifted in a highly favorable way. In the present paper the diverse experiences of U.S. Department of Labor. (2011). Occupational outlook handbook. Washington, DC: Government Printing these countries were explored to observe changes in their development experiences. Office. Retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos027.htm#earnings Keywords: Demographics, demographic transition, fertility, voluntary sterilization Woo, Stu, 2006, Competition Increases for Foreign Students, The Chronicle of Higher Education, Vol.53(10), October 27, 2006, p.A.43. Introduction have played an important role in their The future of India and Japan is of considerable development experiences. India's population has interest both because of their size in the world crossed 1.21 billion as per Census of 2011.The economy and of their demographics. India will growth of population per year is more than 17 soon be the largest country in the world with a million which is equal to the total population of large younger population and Japan is now the Australia and little more than that of Japan. So, it oldest country in the world. The diverse is rightly said that India creates one Australia and experiences of these countries can be used to little more Japan in a year. The density of judge whether or not changes in age structure population is 382 persons per square kilometer in

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