Bufo Alvarius: a Potent Hallucinogen of Animal Origin

',"~~ lournalof ~ ETHNO- PHARMACOLOGY Journal of Ethnopharmacology 41 (1994) 1-8 Bufo alvarius: a potent hallucinogen of animal origin Andrew T. Weil*a, Wade Davisb "College of Medicine, University of Arizona, Tucson,AZ 85724, USA hlnstitute of Economic Botany, New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY 10458, USA (Received 21 August 1992; revision received 13 July 1993; accepted 31 August 1993) Abstract Anthropologists have long speculated that ancient peoples of Mesoamerica used a toad, Bufo marinus, as a ritual intoxicant. This hypothesis rests on many iconographic and mythological representations of toads and on a number of speculative ethnographic reports, The authors reject B. marinus as a candidate for such use because of the toxicity of its venom. A more likely candidate is the Sonoran desert toad, Bufo alvarius, which secretes large amounts of the potent known hallucinogen, 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT). The authors demonstrate that the venom of B. alvarius, although known to be toxic when consumed orally, may be safely smoked and is powerfully psychoactive by that route of administration. These experiments are the first documentation of an hallucinogenic agent from the animal kingdom, and they provide clear evidence of a psychoactive toad that could have been employed by Precolumbian peoples of the New World. Key words: Bufo; Hallucinogens; Tryptamine; Toad; Maya 1. Introduction In part these figures may be an artifact of the emphasis of academic research. A good many of In the worldwide distribution of hallucinogens these plants have entered the literature due to the there is a pronounced and significant discrepancy efforts of Richard Evans Schultes and his col- that has attracted the attention of numerous leagues at the Harvard Botanical Museum and authorities (Schultes, 1963; La Barre, 1970; elsewhere, and their interest has predominantly Schultes and Hofmann, 1980).Of the 200 or more been in the New World. Yet, were the hallucino- psychoactive plants that have been identified genic plants a dominant feature of traditional cul- worldwide, close to 90% are native to the tures in Africa and Eurasia, surely they would Americas; the Old World has contributed perhaps have shown up in the extensive ethnographic liter- 20 (Schultes and Hofmann, 1979; Schultes and ature and in the journals of traders and mis- Farnsworth, 1980). How might this be explained? sionaries. With few notable exceptions, they do not. * Corresponding author. Nor is this discrepancy due to floristic peculiar- 2 A.T. Weil, W. Davis/J. Ethnopharmacol. 41 (1994) 1-8 ities. The tropical rainforests of equatorial Africa Malalis Indians may have used bichos de tacuara, and Southeast Asia, in particular, are exceedingly the larvae of a moth, tentatively identified as rich and diverse. Moreover, the peoples of these Myelobia smerintha, as an hallucinogen. La Barre regions have most successfully exploited them for (1981) refers in passing to a narcotic bamboo grub pharmacologically active compounds for use both of Amazonian South America, an hallucinogenic as medicines and poisons. In fact, as much as any 'dream fish,' Kyphosus fuseus [sic], of Melanesian other material trait, the manipulation of toxic Norfolk Island, and a black and red oconenetl bird plants remains a consistent theme throughout sub- from Tlaxcala, Mexico, whose flesh is reputedly Saharan Africa. The Amerindian, for their part, hallucinogenic. Hoffer and Osmond (1967) also were certainly no strangers to plant toxins which refer to an hallucinogenic fish, the silver drummer they commonly exploited as fish, arrow and dart fish, found in the waters off Norfolk Island. poisons. Yet it is a singular fact that while the Ichthyoallyeinotoxism, or hallucinogenic fish poi- peoples of Africa consistently used these toxic soning, has been reported from the tropical Pacific preparations on each other, the Amerindian and Indian oceans (Helfrich and Banner, 1960; almost never did. And while the Amerindian suc- Halstead, 1978). Several species in two families cessfully exploited the natural world for hallu- have been implicated including two species of cinogens, the African, with few noted exceptions, mullet, Mugil cephalus and Neomyxus chaptalli, did not. This suggests the critical fact that the use and two species of goatfish, Mulloidichthys sa- of any pharmacologically active compound - moensis and Upeneus arge (Helfrich and Banner, remembering that the difference between hallu- 1960). Finally, Carneiro (1970) noted the use of an cinogen, medicine and poison is often a matter of unidentified frog in the hunting magic of Peruvian dosage - is firmly rooted in culture (La Barre, Indians in the northwest Amazon. 1970; Weil, 1972, 1980; Davis, 1985, 1992). The in- The Brazilian report, though provocative, is gestion of psychotropic plants represents but one based strictly on hearsay. No voucher specimens means of satisfying a universal human desire to ex- have verified the identity of the moth, no chemical perience altered states of awareness. If the peoples analysis has been undertaken, and, in the original of Africa did not explore their environment for report, the correspondent did not observe anyone psychoactive drugs, surely it is because they had experiencing psychoactive effects (Saint-Hilaire, discovered through trance and spirit possession an 1824). Saint-Hilaire's account is noted in the wide- alternative vehicle for transformation (Davis, ly read Handbook of South American Indians 1988a). (Cooper, 1949) and La Barre's 'narcotic bamboo If culture accounts in part for the geographical grub' may well be a reference to the same moth lar- range of psychotropic plants, it fails to explain yet vae. When recently contacted, La Barre could not another enigma concerning the biological distribu- recall the.provenance of his references to either the tion of hallucinogens. To date, all known and deli- grub or the purportedly hallucinogenic oconenetl berate human use of natural hallucinogens has bird (La Barre, pers. commun., 25 January 1992). involved derivatives of higher plants and fungi. Hallucinogenic fish poisoning has been reported The bacteria, algae, lichens, bryophytes, ferns and from South Africa, Norfolk Island and Hawaii gymnosperms are notably lacking in psychoactive (Jordan et al., 1927; Smith, 1953; Van Pel, 1959). properties. Moreover, no hallucinogenic agent has In Hawaii the fish are apparently toxic in parts of yet been found in the animal kingdom. Kauai, primarily in the Anini area, but spreading from Pilaa to Haena and around Molokai, in the 2. Previous reports of animal hallucinogens Pilaau region. The toxin evidently is found in the heads of the fish which are considered poisonous To be sure, there have been numerous scattered only in the months of June, July and August. reports of psychotomimetics derived from animals. According to one early report 40 Japanese Britton (1984) cites an early 19th century travel ac- labourers became delirious and 'mentally paralyz- count from eastern Brazil that suggests that the ed' after eating weke pahala,Upeneus arge, a goat- A. T. Weil, W. Davis /1. Ethnopharmacol. 41 (/994) 1-8 3 fish also known by the vernacular name thropologists have long speculated that ancient 'nightmare weke' (Jordan et aI., 1927). On peoples of Mesoamerica may have used this toad Molokai, local fishermen maintain that both the as a ritual intoxicant (Coe, 1971; Furst, 1972, head and tail of these fish cause vivid dreams 1974, 1976; Dobkin de Rios, 1974; Knab, 1974; which are not necessarily undesirable (Lavinia Cooke, 1979, 1981; Hamblin, 1979; Kennedy, Currier, pers. commun., 1992). Similar effects are 1982). The Bufo marinus hypothesis rests on many apparently induced by the 'dream fish' from Nor- iconographic and mythological representations of folk Island (probably Kyphosus vaigiensisy. Those toads and on a number of speculative ethno- who eat this fish before sleeping reputedly suffer graphic and ethnohistoric reports (Tozzer and terrifying nightmares (Helfrich and Banner, 1960). Allen, 1910; Wassen, 1934a,b; Thompson, 1958, Whether these fish are truly hallucinogenic and 1970; Carneiro, 1970; Furst, 1972, 1976; Dobkin whether indigenous peoples have deliberately de Rios, 1974; Knab, 1974; Kennedy, 1982). In ad- sought out the intoxication and interpreted it in dition B. marinus bones dominate the amphibian culturally meaningful ways remains unknown. In component of the faunal remains at a number of most instances, the symptoms of the intoxication Classic, Late Classic and Postclassic Maya sites - dizziness, loss of equilibrium, partial paralysis and have often been found in ritual contexts of the legs, an itching or burning sensation in the (Pollack and Ray, 1957; Olsen, 1972, 1978; throat, hallucinations and mental depression, deli- Hamblin, 1979, 1984; Wing and Steadman, 1980; rium, a subjective perception of imminent death- Wing and Scudder, 1991). The concentration and appear to be highly unpleasant and difficult to distribution of B. marinus remains at San Lorenzo distinguish from poisoning. The chemistry and led one prominent archaeologist to suggest that pharmacology of the phenomenon remain un- the Olmec civilization may have used the toad as known and attempts to replicate the intoxication a narcotic (Coe, 1971). Finally proponents cite a in controlled experiments have failed (Helfrich and single experiment in the medical literature sug- Banner, 1960; Halstead, 1978). From the isolated gesting that one ingredient of B. marinus venom is reports,

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