A DISCIPLINE-BASED ART EDUCATION MODEL FOR CRITICISM AND INQUIRY DIRECTED TO NON-WESTERN ART

by DAWNA MARLYN HAMM WALSH, B.A., M.ED. A DISSERTATION IN FINE ARTS Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Approved

December, 1992 7'^

Copyright 1992 by Dawna Marlyn Hamm Walsh All Rights Reserved ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am greatly indebted to my chairman. Dr. Marvin Moon, for his leadership and support during the extended period of this study. He has been the primary source for clarification during its critical phases. My thanks to him (and his wife, Betty) for the many hours of consultation that were so graciously extended. Through his guidance, he has provided a caring, humanistic role model of teacher, artist, mentor, and friend.

Dr. Beverly Krieger and Dr. Gene Mittler provided valuable insights in numerous discussions. I am grateful to the continued encouragement and guidance of Dr. George and Ruth Sorensen. I have profited greatly from courses and discussions with my former professors: Dr. Ollie Jensen- Theisen, Dr. Bill Lockhart, Dr. Marvin Flatten, Dr. Reid Hastie, and Dr. Clarence Kincaid. Colleagues and students from Dallas Baptist University have been my catalysts and sources for inspiration. They have provided insight, as well as purpose, to the study. Finally, I wish to thank my husband, John, for his unending assistance. His patience and love are gratefully acknowledged. I am indebted to my four children. Grant, Whitney, Preston, and Austin, who each generated needed laughter and provided balance to my life. Thank you to my parents for their serenity of spirit and unwavering support.

• • 11 TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii ABSTRACT vi LIST OF FIGURES viii CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION 1 Purpose of the Study 1 Need for the Study 2 Discipline-Based Art Education Curricula 3 Criticism and Aesthetic Perception in Art Appreciation 5 Need to Expand Current Theories of Aesthetics to Include Non-Western Art Issues 6 The Inclusion of Non-Western Art in Art Criticism as a Discipline of DBAE 7 The Need for Modification of Existing Models in Measuring Aesthetic Qualities of Non-Western Art 10 Cultural Balance in Discipline-Based Art Education 14 The Need for a Written Model 17 Limitations of the Study 18 General Research Questions 20 Definition of Terms 21 Definitions of Art Elements 24 Definitions of Principles of Art 26 II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 28 History of Art Criticism/Inquiry and Art Appreciation 28 « Before 1920 28 1920-1940 31 1940-1970 35 After 1990 39

111 Models of Art Criticism/Inquiry For Art Appreciation 48 Stevenson Model 1950 51 Bruner Theory 1958 52 Sibley Model 1962 54 Weitz Model 1966 56 Moffit Model 1969 57 Feldman Model 1970 59 Broudy Model 1972 62 R. Smith Model 1973 65 Hurwitz Model 1977 66 Hamblen Model 1984 68 Lankford Model 1984 69 Mittler Model 1986 71 Crawford 1987 73 Anderson Model 1988 74 III. EXEMPLARY MODEL IN ART CRITICISM FOR JUDGING NON-WESTERN WORKS OF ART 83 Introduction to the Model 83 Phase 1: Introductory Activities 86 Step (1)—Introduction 86 Phase 2: Internal Cue Search 91 Step (2)—Description 91 Step (3)—Analysis 94 Step (4)—Interpretation 98 Step (5)—Judgment: Tentative Decision-Making Based Upon Internal Cues 100 Phase 3: Confirmation Check 103 Step (6)—Investigate: Contextualism 103 Step (7)—Investigate: Instrumentalism 106 Step (8)—Judgment: Tentative Decision-Making Based Upon External Cues 108

Phase 4: Confirmation Completion 109 Step (9)—Final Decision-Making Based Upon Internal and External Cues 109

IV Phase 5: Reinforcement 112

Step (10)—Reinforcement 112

IV. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 117

Summary 117 Conclusions 124 Recommendations for Further Study 131

BIBLIOGRAPHY 136

APPENDIX 143

A. STEP ONE—INTRODUCTION— INSTRUCTOR'S NOTES AND MODEL APPLICATIONS 143 B. STEP TWO—DESCRIPTION—INSTRUCTOR'S NOTES AND MODEL APPLICATIONS 154 C. STEP THREE—ANALYSIS—INSTRUCTOR'S NOTES AND MODEL APPLICATIONS 161 D. STEP FOUR—INTERPRETATION— INSTRUCTOR'S NOTES AND MODEL APPLICATIONS 168 E. STEP FIVE—JUDGMENT: TENTATIVE DECISION-MAKING BASED UPON INTERNAL CUES—INSTRUCTOR'S NOTES AND MODEL APPLICATIONS 173 F. STEP SIX—INVESTIGATE: CONTEXTUALISM—INSTRUCTOR'S NOTES AND MODEL APPLICATIONS 179 G. STEP SEVEN—INVESTIGATE: INSTRUMENTALISM—INSTRUCTOR'S NOTES AND MODEL APPLICATIONS 188 H. STEP EIGHT—JUDGMENT: TENTATIVE DECISION-MAKING BASED UPON EXTERNAL CUES—INSTRUCTOR'S NOTES AND MODEL APPLICATIONS 193 I. STEP NINE—FINAL DECISION-MAKING BASED UPON INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL CUES—INSTRUCTOR'S NOTES AND MODEL APPLICATIONS 200 J. STEP TEN—REINFORCEMENT— INSTRUCTOR'S NOTES AND MODEL APPLICATIONS 210 K. SCRIPT ON THE ASIAN PEOPLE, CULTURE AND DEMOGRAPHICS OF AFGHANISTAN 218 L. SCRIPT ON ASIAN MINIATURE PAINTINGS 230 M. SCRIPT ON THE ASIAN ART OF AFGHANISTAN 241 ABSTRACT

The purpose of this professional problem is to develop a discipline-based art education model for criticism and inquiry directed to non-Western art to be used at the college level. The study includes a review of the literature concerning art appreciation and art criticism/inquiry dating from 1900, and outlines models for art criticism/inquiry used by educators in the classroom. Throughout the review, a search was conducted for applications of models specifically intended for non- Western art, but it was found that current models are directed primarily to Western artworks.

The ten-step model developed for this study introduces novice art students to art criticism and inquiry through its application to non-Western art, and an exemplary application in the appendix is directed to an artwork from Afghanistan selected from a series of audio-visual presentations developed by the author. Students are led to search for information in the form of both internal and external cues in forming premature and tentative decisions or evaluations before arriving at an informed, final judgment about an artwork. The model functions as a tool by providing a framework for viewing and analyzing these foreign and unfamiliar works derived from different cultural, religious and social perspectives, and is intended to encourage students to delay judgments until an optimum measure of information has been collected. vi The procedural considerations concerning the methods through which criticism for non-Western art is generated and ordered include the following: the need for a critical theory of art that questions the appropriateness of traditional art models for non-Western art; the influence of cross-cultural interpretations for responding to, examining, analyzing and judging non-Western art; and the potential use of the model as a tool for encouraging appreciation of non-Western art.

In conclusion, this study has the potential to play a relevant role in teaching non-Western art appreciation as well as providing an impetus for educating Western students about the diversity of foreign cultures and the influences of the art from those cultures. Historically, emphasis in art appreciation has been placed on the use of models of criticism which exclude critical study of non-Western art. If education is to be meaningful and meet the needs of a culturally diverse nation and world, discipline-based art education must contain both the critical study of Western and non-Western art.

Vll LIST OF FIGURES

1.1 Jesus and the Dead Dog ^2 1.2 Christ and the Samaritan Woman at the Well 13 3.1 Summary of the Model for Criticism and Inquiry of Non-Western Art in Discipline-Based Art Education 84 A.l The Quest in the Name of Allah 147

Vlll CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study is three-fold: (1) To review past and present literature concerning art criticism/inquiry and art appreciation in relation to art education; (2) To outline current models of art criticism/inquiry used in teaching art appreciation and to identify portions which might have relevance for application to the criticism of non-Western art; (3) To construct a model for cross-cultural art and inquiry designed to provide students with critical knowledge, understanding and appreciation of non- Western art. Use of the model is intended for the following purposes: (a) to clarify the place of non-Western art criticism within courses for art appreciation; (b) to increase students' awareness of the cultural and personal value of non-Western art within discipline-based art education; and (c) to involve students in active investigations and cue searches concerning art questions intended for improving critical thinking, decision-making and appreciation of non-Western art. Instructor's strategy notes and applications of the model are included in the appendix for the edification of the reader. The model is intended for utilization with non-art majors on the college or university level, but it can be modified for use on the secondary level in public schools.

Need for the Study The study agrees that a discipline-based approach is proper and indeed necessary to art education, and, as art criticism is a key component in discipline-based art education (DBAE), it is a response to recent reports by art education leaders that the traditional focus of the curriculum has failed to address fully this key area. Further, it is a stated goal of DBAE to broaden the content of art education to include "folk, applied and fine arts from Western and non- Western cultures and from ancient to contemporary times" (Clark, Day & Greer, 1987, p. 135). In order to promote this goal, the author proposes that a model in criticism is needed and should be designed to focus specifically on non- traditional, non-Western artworks to be introduced for teaching art appreciation. It is important that the model include a written format in order to increase the likelihood that it serve as a useful tool for the student once the classroom experience has ended. The written format also may serve to guide teachers who are lacking in knowledge of the art and culture of non-Western societies, as many teachers are inexperienced in non-Western art history and criticism.

Discipline-Based Art Education Curricula Many people view art as a frill, as little more than recreation, and as an opportunity for students to take a break from the taxing demands of more serious study in other disciplines within the curricula. Art criticism is presented by some teachers as discussion based on emotional response, preference and premature decision-making. Curriculum reform in art education has made strides in recent years, but, in reality, the need for how to study art critically is still great. The Getty Center's research on university and college art education courses and requirements reveals approximately 75% of the coursework was in studio production, with the remaining courses in art history, art criticism, and aesthetics. This imbalance of requirements has left art teachers, and consequently, students unprepared and uninformed (Duke, 1988). "In her comparison of the results of the 1978- 79 scores with those of 1974-75, Patricia Miller emphasized a decline in scores for valuing art, knowledge of art history, and responding to art" (Miller, 1983, p. 36). Teaching art as a discipline within the curriculum implies art is a basic body of knowledge with a serious focus which is challenging and which requires demanding study. It endeavors to be integrated, instructional and sequenced with sophisticated professional behaviors serving as prototypical instructional outcomes (Hamblen, 1987). Discipline-based art education reflects a philosophy of curriculum which advocates a balance between the areas of art studio production, art history, art criticism and aesthetics. Activities derived from the four areas of DBAE present information, concepts, and skills within the procedures and modes of inquiry of challenging art learning (Greer, 1984). "In a DBAE curriculum, the emphasis is on learning art content, not on students' artistic development or the conveying of original qualities in their art products. . ." (Hainblen, 1988, p. 23). Excellence in art education is the goal of DBAE, and review of the literature strongly indicates it is the current and future direction of art education. The area of criticism within DBAE theory is a sound and important direction in which research is needed. "All too often the focus of visual art in the schools is on the elements and principles of art—on design—rather than on the cultural, historical, philosophi­ cal and critical study of art" (Zeller, 1989, p. 50). Through DBAE research, primarily funded through the Getty Center for Education in the Arts, criticism and aesthetics are being emphasized more as they gain importance as strong academic components in the curricula. Still, additional research and model curricula are needed to make the goal of excellence a reality. Criticism and AeRthetic Perception in Art ADPreciation

Criticism and aesthetics are often taught within the realm of art appreciation. One of the first tasks of teaching art appreciation or criticism is to encourage students' attitudes toward a work that lead to recognizing the expressive character of particular works of art. The initial stage of attending to works of art is seen as establishing their aesthetic perception. Because this role of aesthetic perception is basic to every domain of art, it follows that a major goal of DBAE instruction is to provide conditions that can lead to aesthetic experience. (Greer, 1984, p. 214) The need and challenge is to create curricular materials for students that will provide conditions which encourage development of aesthetic perception through teaching art appreciation and criticism. The aesthetic experience in education cannot be only a frill, but "must be embraced as a central pedagogical activity in the struggle for an aesthetic and humane society" (Bersson, 1984, p. 39). One of the main problems Bersson notes is the lack of courage among art educators to educate students to experience aesthetically. He sees a critical need to direct students to aesthetic education's "crucial new role: social criticism . . . highly subjective aesthetic experience would come to serve as a catalyst of large scale social change" (Bersson, 1984, p. 39). Aesthetic education directed to social criti­ cism through art appreciation emphasizes the sensuous experi­ ence, conceptual knowledge and social context. There is no doubt Bersson makes these points well within his article, but he gives little direction as to how educators can encourage students to make this happen within their lives. Students, particularly novice students in art appreciation, need direction. DBAE attempts to provide that direction.

Need to Expand Theories of Criticism to Include Non-Western Art Issues Current leading theories of art and art criticism operations include those of Feldman and Smith. Edmund Feldman writes: There has been remarkably little cross- fertilization between the disciplines that study art and the disciplines that study society. The study of art as a language is conducted by aestheticians more than art historians. Art critics are somewhere in between. (Feldman, 1985, p. 71) Non-Western art issues have been given more attention in recent publications by Feldman, as he has added more non- Western art reproductions to serve as critical examples. "The kinds and purposes of art are so varied that no single critical theory is likely to be adequate for the evaluation of all works" (Feldman, 1982, p. 470). Introduction of non-Western art into the curriculum will require the student to explore historical, religious and cultural realities that are not generally within the experience of students. In order effectively to use non- Western art works in developing the ability to criticize and judge such art aesthetically, new components must be introduced into existing models. Students must be able to develop the perceptions, knowledge and reasons necessary for evaluating art from a non-Western culture. Smith's critical approach is educationally sound, especially in his model for making judgments of value. But, like the other processes it requires a student to have an advanced level of a prior knowledge, a refined perception, and capability with language and reason in order to be effective. (Cromer, 1990, p. 52) Given the general unfamiliarity of the typical novice art student with non-Western art, it is apparent that a model for criticism is needed that accounts for the frontiers of a different cultural, social, and religious nature. Kristin Congdon addresses the problem as she states: Many art educators have tried repeatedly to encourage the acceptance of an expanded range of art forms to be studied and seen as aesthetically valuable in our curricula. I now ask that we look at the expansion of art criticism formats as well so that they, too, can reflect a culturally pluristic approach to teaching. (Congdon, 1989, p. 182)

The Inclusion of Non-Western Art in Art Criticism as a Discipline of DBAE There are many proponents concerning the importance of the use of criticism in developing a complete art education. In comparing other DBAE disciplines with the discipline of criticism, Howard Risatti expresses: Like art history, aesthetics, and art production, and unlike any other discipline, art criticism is primarily concerned with the visual arts. It seeks to inform and educate people (including artists) about art by providing insights into its meaning so as to increase the understanding and appreciation of art and to illuminate the cultural and social values reflectf>d in it. (Risatti, 1987, p. 219, emphasis added) It is this illumination of "cultural and social values" that a study of non-Western art enhances. Including a study of non-Western art would, in fact, expand one's ability to criticize traditionally favored Euro-American works by providing a different social and cultural reference.

As pointed out by Jim Cromer, "transformations in educational subject matter areas happen over long periods of time" (Cromer, 1990, p. 1). He noted also that art and aesthetics have evolved in that same manner and, indeed, that the same evolutionary process can be observed in much of human cultural and social development including language, the law and theatre. One concern of art criticism is to provide a more comprehensive framework for art education in the visual arts in the curriculum to the end for augmenting and broadening the total education of its students. The primary focus of art education should be information, subject matter content, with attention to the ways in which such information can be analyzed, interpreted, and synthesized in understanding our own and other cultures, both past and present. (Zeller, 1989, p. 56) In studying vocabulary, students are often instructed to review the Latin or Greek roots of English words. In a similar way, many of the historical "roots" for Euro-American works may be found in the often simple, primitive materials and subjects of non-Western art. Indeed, in more contemporary times, artists such as Gauguin, Picasso, and Rousseau sought primitive locations, subjects or styles—returning to them as 8 inspirations for creations of their own works. Encounters with these primitive and unfamiliar sources, however, can be both rewarding and disorienting. Our most customary form of perception is one that is instrumental in character. As a result, our attention to visual form is usually extended in time just long enough to accomplish practical tasks. These durations are often very brief. They are not only brief, they neglect vast arrays of visual information that are present in the world but that, with our instrumental orientation, we never see. (Eisner, 1987, p. 16) The art of non-Western societies provides a source of reference for the study of the diverse social, cultural and religious perspectives which they represent. The art, when introduced in the criticism curriculum, can be the instrument that lubricates students' minds and directs their critical thoughts into new comparative realms. In the same process the students are challenged to explore for themselves the social and cultural context of an orientation that is probably different from their own. Art criticism, by challenging the student to explore and evaluate the quality of a work of art, encourages the student to consider the broad cultural and social objectives of society, of which individual artistic expression is only a part and the work of art a reflection. (Risatti, 1987, p. 223) The need to include non-Western art in the criticism discipline of art education is based upon the concept that cultural and social enlightenment are goals of the curriculum. Limiting study to Western art forms stymies or greatly restricts the likelihood of reaching this end. Inclusion of non-Western art can lead to a more challenging inspection of the similarities and dissimilarities between one's own culture and social standards and those of seemingly distant societies.

The Need for Modification of Existing Models in Measuring Aesthetic Oualities of Non-Western Art If one agrees with the earlier assumption that the American campus, indeed the entire American scene, is undergoing a significant shift from segregated and homogeneous "neighborhood" cultures and societies to a mixture of various commingled beliefs, then art education can be a forum for opening the minds of students to other lifestyles and value systems. It follows then that exposures to artworks that are unfamiliar in content and context can provide a format for challenging students in regard to these concerns. It is not enough that students know how to look at art objects; they must also become knowledgeable about the various aesthetic qualities they should be looking for; that is, they must know what to look for. (Mittler, 1980, p. 19) In defining the aesthetic qualities of non-Western art, it is important to determine whether or not an existing model can be applied effectively in order for this process to be successful. Perhaps the Mittler approach of simplifying the process to determine aesthetic qualities is the most appropriate educational model for the criticism of artwork. In the students' cultural context, it is concise and easily understood and has been widely adopted for instructional

10 design by art teachers and art textbooks, as well as for curriculum guides. The concept of studying art by relating it to the three aesthetic theories—Imitationalism, Formalism and Emotionalism—provides clarity to understanding criticism.

Mittler proposes that "during art criticism, students temporarily disregard historical data in order to focus complete attention on works of art" (Mittler, 1980, p. 18). In measuring non-Western artwork that is produced by artists of different cultures, different religions and different value systems, the American college student may be ill-equipped to judge the art fairly. A student exposed to such a "foreign" concept as Jesus wearing a turban and pointed-toed shoes might never find the value of this religious scene of Jesus's reverence to the dead dog (Figure 1.1). The Islamic belief that Jesus was a prophet who dressed in Arabic clothing would be contraindicative to a student who had just viewed a European religious painting of Jesus with the historically traditional long hair, beard, robe and halo (Figure 1.2). Outside of the cultural and religious context of Islam the painting in Figure 1.1 would predictably arouse little emotion or feeling in the mind of the viewer, since the viewer, without prompting, would find no religious significance based on his own experience and beliefs. The painting could be judged for its literal qualities, but this would certainly be an incomplete interpretation if Mittler's phenomenological model were used.

11 Figure 1.1 "Jesus and the Dead Dog." A. D. 1500. Unknown Artist. Tempera on paper, Persian. Source: Arnold, Sir Thomas W. Painting in Islam: . Study of the Place of Pictorial Art in Muslim Culture. New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1965 105. 12 Figure 1.2. "Christ and the Samaritan Woman at the Well." 1850. Christian Schleisner. Oil on Canvas. Source: Muhlberger, Richard. The Bible in Art. New York Portland House, 1990 p. 79.

13 One then must add some new dimension to Mittler's model in order to use effectively non-Western art in teaching aesthetics, and that dimension must be one that forces viewers to move from their own contextual setting into a setting that is more closely related to that of the artist. This must be done in each stage of the experience of viewing the work, although viewers initially must rely solely on their own experience, before being led to "think" in the new cultural and religious context.

This mental trip could, for the diligent or curious students, act as a catalyst for further study of the historical and cultural context of the work in order to confirm or correct initial critical viewing. Outside of the classroom this model may have the potential to enable students to develop a quicker acceptance of the differences in culture, dress, religion, and beliefs to which he is exposed in multi­ cultural America.

Cultural Balance in Discipline-Based Art Education In order to address the need for balance in discipline- based art education (DBAE), a key purpose of the curriculum is to address a rapidly changing ethnic population to broaden the cultural views of its students. As the traditional approach has been limited and perhaps ineffective in answering the need for expanding the students' global vision, considerable rethinking is in order concerning DBAE's role in this regard. 14 The accepted convention in art education has been to rely on Western Art as the basis for this study: With limited time and resources for art instruction, DBAE proponents have argued that it is necessary that primarily artistic exemplars, as designated by selected experts be studied. Not surprisingly, such a limitation on artistic study has resulted in an emphasis on Western fine art. (Hamblen, 1988, p. 24) The way in which our past system has taught students to look at art by focusing on European and American styles is inadequate and biased. Preble asserts that we have developed a distinctive way of looking at the world that is not the way the world actually is but simply the way our group conventionally looks at our world. Every society's cognitive system keeps it functioning; yet major human problems are caused by the fact that almost any group may believe that its way of seeing things is reality - the way the world actually is. (Preble, 1988, p. 8) An elitist art education that is devoted to the fine arts and the cultural policy of America's power gentry is visible throughout colleges and universities. The art considered worthy of study has long been influenced by textbook publishers, upper class art collectors, museum trustees and gallery operators. Many art educators and art critics have inadvertently "become cultural emissaries and unconscious guardians of an upper class power elite" (Bersson, 1984, p. 42). The tendency of the educational system to accept this restricted approach has led at least one writer to point out that "due to this selectivity, the life-world aesthetic

15 experiences of many students are ignored or made to adjust to what is designated worthy of study" (Hamblen, 1988, p. 24). All students should have an opportunity to develop a greater understanding and appreciation of art not only for their own self gratification, but also to aid them in opening their eyes and mind to the cultures that coexist with their own. We can think of culture as a lens through which we view reality . . . culture colors whatever we look at, and modifies it in some way. Thus culture determines to some extent what we see in a work of art, what ideas will find expression, and what the artist's attitudes will be. (Horowitz, 1985, p. 61) One cannot deny the fact that the nation is growing rapidly in its cultural diversity. Exposure to different ethnicities, religions, physical characteristics, life and dress habits is being forced upon society by the velocity and magnitude of the influx of these untraditional and unfamiliar customs and people. In "Alienation of Ethnic Minority Students at a Predominantly White University," Loo discovered that there is a need for a fuller understanding of the societal, racial, class, and institutional barriers to assuring equal opportunity for academic success for minority populations and a determined effort by academic institutions to address and eliminate these barriers. (Loo, 1986, p. 74) During the 1990s, California will be faced with a population in which 40% of the college-age residents will be non-Caucasian. Striking a balance in DBAE by teaching criticism using both traditional Euro-American and non-Western 16 art examples is necessary to insure that the vision that today's students carry forward into general society is one that acknowledges the differences that are illustrated. Acceptance of the positive attributes of divergent approaches will occur only with an understanding of that which is not familiar unless studied. DBAE can and should lead to a broadened human perspective and to acceptance of a shrinking multi-cultured world. An important characteristic of DBAE is building a broad frame of reference from the visual arts to the many world cultures of the past and present.

The Need for a Written Model In many educational disciplines, the combined use of written and oral instruction and response is used to develop the abilities of the student. For example, every first year law student is instructed to create written briefs in preparation for a Socratic presentation of the law that is discovered in the cases. "Interaction, integration, and unification, which have been present during all stages of criticism ..." (Cromer, 1990, p. 37) are concepts that can be enhanced by requiring a written response. To criticize artwork properly one writer concludes: It follows that we cannot lightly scan . . . if we wish to experience everything they represent. The casual museum stroller who spends on the average of five seconds in front of a work has but the slightest inkling of art's plentitude or of its capacity to enlarge awareness. (Smith, 1987, p. 51)

17 Time and thought are critical elements in properly criticizing a work of art, and it may take years or even half a lifetime to see and appreciate a great work. In order to increase the likelihood that a sufficient amount of time and thought are committed by the student, a written model should be considered. Writing just one or two pages about a building, or graphic design can significantly deepen one's appreciation of that work of art. Writing is to the viewer what sketching is to the artist or designer; it gets us to look clearly, think seriously, and focus our feelings on the art object. The process of writing can engage the imagination, emotions, memories, senses and concentrate all of these powers of thought and feelings in a singular act of appreciation. (Bersson, 1991, p. 558) This concept is also supported by Wilson when he reports that "when students are provided adequate critical models with instruction in writing art criticisms they perform consistently well" (Wilson, 1988, p. 134). In the same work, he more succinctly concluded, "art criticism in the schools should be an act of writing" (Wilson, 1988, p. 137).

Limitations of the Study This professional problem includes three of the four disciplines of the DBAE approach, emphasizing art criticism, but also embracing art history and aesthetics. Art production is excluded. Included are three of the four essential elements of the State of Texas: perceiving, appreciating, and evaluating. Expressing is excluded.

18 This model limits aesthetics to the theories of literal, formal and expressive qualities of the art work (Mittler, 1986).

This professional problem is directed toward art criticism/inquiry and art appreciation and does not require active production of art by the students. Art history is involved only to the extent necessary for defining the context and purpose of the work concerned. The problem does not seek to create a discipline-based art education curriculum; rather it is restricted to the formulation of a model for criticism and appreciation which may be used in a DBAE curriculum. As the model in this study is intended for use with non- art students on a college or university level, it is based upon previous models developed in the past by art educators for use in the classroom. This professional problem does not intend to develop a model based solely on cultural contextual theory; rather, it develops a rationale for criticism/inquiry that includes formal analysis and contrasts the extrinsic forces of the culture of the artwork with the cultural norms of the viewer. The critical inquiry of the non-Western art model in this professional problem does not articulate a teaching tool directed only to the art teacher; rather it is a written prescriptive learning method which the individual novice art

19 student can apply within the class discussion and independently outside of class. This professional problem does not present methods for evaluating the information acquired through the application of the model, as that is deemed beyond the scope of the study. For the purposes of this study, the applications of the model are restricted to two-dimensional art, although minimal modifications are necessary for its application to three- dimensional works. The exemplary applications of this model presented in the appendix of this study are restricted to one painting by a contemporary non-Western artist from Afghanistan.

General Research Ouestions This study seeks to investigate the following questions: 1. What general events, traditions, strategies and ideas have influenced the art appreciation curricula? 2. What models are used for critical appreciation in the areas of art education? 3. Is there a model for criticism and inquiry to increase understanding and appreciation of non-Western art? 4. What strategy, theory and format are needed for a model of critical appreciation for non-Western art?

20 Definition of Terms The following terms are defined as they are employed in this study. Aesthetic Oualities. Cues within a work which are studied during the process of art criticism. The nature of the qualities may be visual, expressive and literal in the art object. Aesthetics. Sensitive response to the complexity of artworks and the valued experiences of them; critical reflection on art (Crawford, 1987). An evaluative discipline that has to do, importantly, with feelings expressed in art and in the appreciation of art, and with the judgments that are usually taken to be based on these feelings (Saw, 1971). The tripartite components are art doctrine, art history, and art criticism (Cromer, 1990). Art Appreciation. Includes three of the four disciplines of DBAE emphasizing art criticism but also embracing art history and aesthetics. Art production is excluded. Included are three of the four essential elements of the State of Texas: perceiving, appreciating, and evaluating. Expressing is excluded. Contextualism. An approach to the understanding of art that centers on the study of art "in context"; that is, in relation to the rest of life. The emphasis is upon the study of everything that surrounds and relates to the work of art: the viewer; the artist; the physical setting of the work; and

21 the art, culture and society that gave birth to it (Bersson, 1991).

Critical Activity. Cognitive activities of the critical process in the form of meaningful talk, writing, and thinking about art that would take place in expressive encounters (Dorn, 1984). Criticism/Inquiry. The process of critical analysis, interpreting, judging, and evaluating an art object through an investigative mode of questioning. The life goal of criticism/inquiry of art is art appreciation. Cross-cultural. Comparing the differences and similar­ ities between cultures by using one culture to study another. A study concerned with gaining knowledge, understanding and critical appreciation of a different culture and its art. Cue. A specific defining or criterial attribute in the art object resulting in or contributing to the placing of the object in one identity category rather than another. Culturally Oriented Approach to the Criticism of Art. In this professional problem the culturally oriented approach to the criticism of art will include the cultural background of the viewer and the cultural context of the object as part of the process of developing the rationale for making the judgmental evaluation of the work of art. Culture. The patterns of behavior, artifacts, and knowledge that people have learned or created. Culture is an

22 organization of things, the meaning given by people to objects, places and activities (Spradley, 1980). Discipline-Based Art Education (DBAE). Integrated instruction comprising the four areas of art criticism, aesthetics, art history and studio production (Hamblen, 1987). This professional problem is directed to art criticism and aesthetics in DBAE. It is concerned with but not directed to art history. Essential Elements of Art. Mandated curriculum devel­ oped under the direction of the Texas State Board of Education which outlines the scope of the requirements of the art program. The four required Essential Elements of art are: (a) Perceiving. Awareness and sensitivity to natural and human-made environments, (b) Expressing. Inventive and imaginative expression through art materials and tools, (c) Appreciating. Understanding and appreciation of self and others through art culture and heritage, and (d) Evaluating. Aesthetic growth through visual discrimi­ nation and judgment (Texas Education Agency, 1990). This professional problem is directed to (a) perceiving, (c) appreciating, and (d) evaluating. Instrumentalism. An approach to the understanding of art that posits greatness in art results from effectiveness in advancing the objectives of humanity. It usually is defined by a major social or economic institution: religion, family.

23 political, economic. The purpose of the art is frequently moral, ethical or commemorative (Feldman, 1982). Model for Criticism/Inquiry. A set of prescriptive sequenced tasks organized as a learning method to gain information upon which to base judgment, increase perception and appreciation of a visual work of art. Multi-cultural Education. Learning instruction which supports cultural diversity including ethnicity, race, religion, nationality, language and income. It promotes cultural pluralism (Blandy and Congdon, 1988). Novice Students of Art Appreciation. Students who are being introduced to the concepts, methods, and subject matter of art scholarship, such as students enrolled in a first level art appreciation course in college. It is assumed that these students would possess minimal knowledge of artists, specific works of art and methods of inquiry of non-Western works of art.

Definitions of Art Elements Art Elements. The basic visual or structural component that an artist manipulates to create an artwork. Color. The result of light being reflected from a surface. White light contains all colors. If it is beamed through a prism, it breaks into the familiar rainbow. Thus, something that looks red is absorbing all the other colors and reflecting back only the red. Primary colors are red, yellow

24 and blue. Secondary colors are obtained by mixing the primary colors together. Secondary colors are orange, green and purple. Color has three major dimensions: hue, value and intensity. Line. The path of a point moving in space. It is a visual path of action. Shape. The aspect of form seen as a flat, two-dimensional area or plane. Shapes become visible when a line encloses an area or when a change in color or texture sets an area apart from its surroundings. Space. The illusion of depth in paintings. It can be created by overlapping one shape with another, using a receding line or diminishing object. Texture. The quality of a surface and the way it feels. Artists use three types of textures: actual, symbolic, and imitation. Actual texture is caused by the application of the paint or the treatment of the surface of the paper or canvas. Symbolic texture is the stylized use of imitation texture. Imitation texture exactly copies the appearance of a surface. Value. The relative lightness or darkness of surfaces. The amount of light reflected from a surface determines its value (Mittler, 1986; Ocvirk, 1985; Preble, 1985a). Word Imagery. Integrating the use of calligraphic letters, in the form of word images, into the design.

25 Definitions of Art Principles Art Principles. The method by which an artist manipulates the elements of art into a desired arrangement or composition. Balance. The distribution of weight evenly in the work of art. (a) Symmetrical or Formal—One side is the same as the other side. The placement of the object of greatest importance is frequently in the middle and balances figures on either side to mirror one another. (b) Asymmetrical or Informal—Combines elements that differ in size, shape, color—Small weight may balance larger weight. The more isolated an object is, the greater its importance. One side differs from the other. (c) Radial—The design is based on parts focusing around the center. Complexity. The intricate and sophisticated design relationships characterized by the organized, interrelated elements and parts. Contrast. The opposition of elements to create interest in a design. It is achieved by relating lines or forms of definitely different character. The purpose of contrast is to make one element stand out more sharply. Emphasis. The establishment of that which is most important—one design or idea is dominant. The design is planned so that the eye is drawn to the center of interest;

26 the rest of the design is seen in order of subordinate importance.

Haoaony. The restful relationships of parts of a design. It requires an orderly arrangement of elements. Movement. The systematic viewing procedure from one place to another. The viewer is directed through the design in order of various parts. Pattern. Decorative repetition of the same motif as applied design onto the surface of the work of art. Rhythm. The measured repetition created by repeating lines, forms, patterns, values, colors and progression of sizes or shapes. Unity. The arrangement of parts to create an orderly whole or oneness. It requires varying emphasis so that the design has dominant and subordinate areas. It is created by definite center of interest, repetition, similarity, grouping and overlapping elements. Variety. The lack of sameness through combining different ideas, qualities and varying degrees of contrast and opposition (Mittler, 1986; Ocvirk, 1985; Preble, 1985a).

27 CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Historv Of Art Criticism/ Inguiry And Art Appreciation Introduction

The review of literature will draw from the writings of art educators who include theory and methodology concerning art criticism/inquiry and art appreciation, as well as those who address the topic of the influence of cross-cultural and multi-cultural art education. Reviewing theories and events from past history may help to understand and examine the present in order to prepare for the future in art education. The historical review is divided into four main chronological sections beginning with the years before 1920, 1920-1940, 1940-1970 and after 1970. Each section attempts to trace important events that have influenced the development of art criticism and appreciation.

Before 1920 The first art appreciation courses in American colleges and universities were introduced at Harvard in 1898. In an effort to elevate the study of art to an academic level, Charles Elliott Norton refined an art survey of masterpieces into an art appreciation course. A number of institutions followed this precedent by adding art appreciation to their curriculum (Logan, 1955). 28 A major direction in thought that influenced art appreciation began in 1899 when the National Education Association appointed a committee to determine the objectives of art education in the learning curriculum. The committee cited the development of appreciation of beauty as a major goal. Thus, art appreciation was formally made a goal of the art program (Klar, 1933). The direction of art education in America was influenced at the beginning of the twentieth century by Arthur Wesley Dow, who stated that "the true purpose of art teaching is the education of the whole people for appreciation" (Logan, 1955, p. 110). In 1899, Dow's book. Composition^ delved into the elements of the creation of a work of art: space, value, line, although color was given little attention until the book was revised in 1913. Principles of composition also were added in the later edition: (a) opposition and contrast, (b) transition, (c) subordination and balance, (d) repetition and rhythm, and (e) symmetry. Dow stated, "The most important fact about great creative work is that it is beautiful; and the best way to see this is to study the art structure of it" (Dow, 1913, p. 39). Between 1903 and 1915, Henry R. Poore's book. Pictorial Composition and the Critical Judgment of Pictures, also became popular among teachers, as it provided them with a method of analysis in art which included balance, line, value, color, and other areas of art structure, and included diagrams and

29 reproductions along with instructions on how to look at art. Poore was an early influence upon the use of art criticism and inquiry in teaching art appreciation (Jones, 1974).

"Appreciation of the aesthetic qualities of art was the avowed goal of picture study" (Stankiewicz, 1985, p. 86). The Picture Study Movement is associated with Henry Turner Bailey who became the editor of the School Arts Book in 1903. A major emphasis in picture study was searching for the cultural value of training students to see beauty, learn strong values, and develop good taste. Through the publication. School Arts BoQk, art teachers were influenced by the study of black and white reproductions of "great" works. By relating beauty with morality and encouraging teacher-originated curricula in art, he further influenced teachers (Hamblen, 1985). From 1902 to 1909, John Cotton Dana was a librarian at the Newark Free Library, where he established a circulation of picture collections for school use. He encouraged students to be aware of and look closely at everything in their daily experience—comic books, storefronts, billboards, and the common things. Most art teachers during this time were still concentrating on copying from nature (Dobbs, 1971). In 1908, the Prang Company published an art text. Guide to Pictures, designed to assist art teachers. The book began with Egyptian and Greek art, then continued chronologically through the Romantic time period. No attempt was made to help teachers know how to assess the art (Prang, 1908).

30 In contrast to Prang's book was the humanistic approach expressed by Charles Caffin in A Guide to Pictures for Beginners and Students. He stated, "The enjoyment of beauty, whether in pictures or any other form, comes to us through feeling" (Caffin, p. 14). He emphasized that art should make our lives better and richer. The study of formal aspects of composition, through elements and principles, was presented to elicit human feelings and responses to the study of pictures.

1920-1940 In the twenties. Progressive Education, led by John Dewey, concentrated on the needs of the child as the basis for determining the quality and the quantity of art to be used as the subject matter worthy of study. Another important aspect of the arts to the progressive education theory was art appreciation which was assumed to be an outcome of art expression. The new approach to art appreciation resulted in an experience based art program. The formal, structured study of great works and composition was no longer advocated in the same manner, although it continued to exist (Jones, 1974). Mathias, in The Beginnings of Art in Public Schools, stated, "If we are to hope for a society with art appreciation and some ability to meet some art problems, an adequate course must provide for developing ability for self-expression and for understanding the expression of others" (1924, p. 71). In Art in the Schools. Belle Boas wrote that good taste and

31 aesthetic judgment will progressively develop under good art teaching along with creative expression in young lives (Boas, 1924). Logan (1955) stated to the contrary, however, that the term "art appreciation" should be eliminated as it suggests an activity almost impossible for millions of Americans to experience. He indicated that works of art were remote for most people and were represented at best by small reproductions. In Picture Study, students saw "masterpieces" painted by the world's "greatest" artists, primarily European masters. Even as late as 1927, impressionists, cubists, and contemporary American artists were omitted. Art appreciation was mostly a reflection of European ethical values. Art appreciation did not lead in the shaping of tastes or in the enabling of students to experience the work of the artists of their day (Neale, 1927). In 1925 the Federated Council on Art Education, funded by the Carnegie Corporation of New York, was established. The Council studied practices in art education in America. Their report states that there are three broad objectives: appreciation, skills and knowledge, and six specific objectives: appreciation, skills, habits, attitudes, ideals, and outstanding abilities (Logan, 1955). Modern art education in America is often said to have started in the 1920s, when art as education drew widespread interest. The new attitude in art paralleled the general

32 public interest in education of the same period. Art grew in three directions—fine arts, art appreciation, and industrial arts (crafts and art for industry) (DeFrancesco, 1958). Thomas Munro, an aesthetician, may have helped form an early base upon which later aesthetic educators constructed their work. He posed critical questions concerning works of art which encompassed the stages of description, formal analysis and interpretation. His questioning strategy encouraged the viewer to observe the work through different points of view in order to gain more understanding of the object. His ideas and questions began to be used by teachers of art appreciation (Munro, 1956). Two important educational projects were begun in 1933. One was an intensive school/community project on a local scale, the Owatonna project. The other was a nationwide study of secondary curriculum, now known as the Eight-Year Study. Both studies have influenced the development of art appre­ ciation. The Owatonna Project was designed to raise the aesthetic standards of a small community. Edwin Ziegfield, who taught in the schools and worked in the community, pointed out that the project was best characterized by the phrase, "Art is a way of life" (Hastie, 1969, p. 305). The Eight-Year Study was concerned with the need for change, improvement, and flexibility in the current structured secondary art curric­ ulum (Logan, 1955). The academic approach to appreciation in

33 high school was based upon picture study in a chronolog­ ically developed art history program. John Dewey's Art as Experience (1934) concentrated on developing in detail the thesis of the title. Art as an activity and as a product was considered important when and as it influenced human experience. According to Dewey, there was a difference between recognition and perception of an art object. Recognizing the object, according to this interpre­ tation, was to interact with it on an exclusively cognitive level. The process of perception involved cognition as well as the deliberate effort to enrich the self through imaginative interaction of the aesthetic response. Dewey's ideas eventually were to lead to the development of aesthetic education. In his aesthetic theory, closely related to his functionalist psychology and his democratic social philosophy, Dewey believed art represented what life might be, rather than the "art for art's sake" philosophy. Munro, a student of Dewey's, was influenced by his philosophy. Munro's work began to suggest the importance of an encompassing comparative and cross-cultural approach to the study of art history. Instrumentalism, also a theory of Dewey's, was concerned with the general forms of conception of the object and the reasoning behind the object. He believed in the importance of understanding the conditions under which the object was made, the controlling operations that were characteristic of the

34 thinking represented in the object, and the object's influence upon future consequences. Dewey defined instrumentalism as an attempt to constitute a precise logical theory of concepts, of judgments and inferences in their various forms, by considering primarily how thought functions in the experimental determinations of future consequences... it attempts to establish universally recognized distinctions and rules of logic by deriving them from the reconstructive or mediative function ascribed to reason. It aims to constitute a theory of the general forms of conception and reasoning. (Dewey, 1931, p. 434) John Dewey was one of the most influential philosophers and educators as well as one of the most outspoken leaders of social reform during the first half of the 1900s.

1940-1970 Viktor Lowenfeld, a psychologist and a prominent art educator, emerged in the forties. Although art was important to him in his own life, and although he valued it for his students, his primary concern was in the growth of the child as a seeing, thinking and feeling human being— concerns that were not alien to those who were brought up on the educational philosophy of Dewey. (Pappas, 1970, p. 23) Lowenfeld's philosophy of teaching emphasized the importance of developing the imagination, process over product and stressed the creative studio experience. In Creative and Mental Growth (1952), Lowenfeld stressed the importance of integrating four areas of experience into the art education program: emotional, intellectual, perceptual and aesthetic. His philosophy was basic to today's emphasis on multi-cultural art education. He stated: 35 If we want to understand a period and its characteristics, we should look at its cultural, social and scientific achievements and its art expression. If we want to understand fully a work of art we should look at the time in which it was created, the circumstances which determine its style and art expression as well as the individual forces which led the artist to his form of expression. This interchanging effect between period and culture, social, political and religious environment and art expression has always been of greatest significance for the understanding of both the period in which a culture was created as well as the culture itself. (Lowenfeld, 1952, p. 20)

Lowenfeld's philosophy was partially rooted in his teaching experience while at Hampton Institute in Virginia. During these years prior to his teaching at Penn State University, he taught students from a primarily low-income African-American community. He made a great effort to identify with the social situation of his students. Having grown up as a Jew in Austria before coming to America, he developed a strong social consciousness against discrimination of any ethnic group. He encouraged all students to use and reflect their culture in their art. "Lowenfeld had a sensitive relationship with other cultures of the world. This made him a great teacher" (Smith, 1988, p. 42). This quality seems to be reflected in the lives of many great teachers and should be an important concern for all teachers in cross- cultural or multi-cultural art education. McFee stressed the impacts of individual learner differences and of the psychological and cultural-anthropo­ logical factors affecting learning, as the influences of culture, past learning and feelings were important in McFee's 36 concept. She emphasized interaction with one's environment and delineated art as communication between people and their society (Mutchler, 1976). McFee exemplified sociological and anthropological aesthetic interests which preceded a later emphasis on multi-cultural art education.

In 1965, a series of conferences, seminars and symposia on aesthetic education were held. Most of the conferences were directly supported by the Arts and Humanities Program as developmental activities. Of special importance to the Aesthetic Education Program was the Seminar in Art Education for Research and Curriculum Development held at the Pennsylvania State University in September 1964, under the direction of Edward Mattil. Its planning report proposed a design for curriculum development in aesthetic education and suggested an initial plan for organizing major tasks and functions for such a program (Efland, 1990). The CEMREL, Inc., Aesthetic Education Program, focused around content groups called centers-of-attention. Instruc­ tional units or "packages" were designed around each center. For example, its first grouping. Aesthetics in the Physical World, investigated the aesthetic qualities of time, space, motion, sound and light. Because some or all of these elements are basic to every art form, they provided a starting point for aesthetic education. A basic goal of each unit was to lead students to the awareness that all phenomena, whether

37 man-made or natural, can have aesthetic qualities (Efland, 1990) .

Viewing education from a national perspective, in the late 1960s John D. Rockefeller III voiced his concern about the state of art education in American schools. Rockefeller felt art education was considered a separate matter, not woven into the fabric of general education, and that it was segregated and restricted in scope. Present in the system at that time was a program to involve some of the children— usually those who demonstrated special interest or talent— with one or two of the arts, and the teaching of history remained distinct from art history. The children graduated without being taught that the creative scientist and the creative artist had a great deal in common. The demand for an integrated art curriculum which was relevant to life continued (Smith, 1987). One of the earliest efforts to research and develop the teaching of art in the schools emerged in 1965 with the establishment of the Arts and Humanities Program within the U.S. Office of Education's Bureau of Research. The government thereby made an introductory commitment to the importance of the arts in the schools, and subsequent support for research and development in art provided a legitimacy for art educators previously available only to the sciences and science education.

38 After 1970

Upon its creation in 1972, the National Institute of Education inherited the curriculum development programs from the Bureau of Research of the Office of Education. Among these was the Aesthetic Education Program being developed at CEMREL, a regional educational laboratory in St. Louis. This new curriculum in aesthetic education was intended for the general classroom, kindergarten through seventh grades, rather than the once-a-week art specialist activity. This program stressed aesthetic perception in all facets of human experience, especially in arts, rather than relying only on manual dexterity, crafts-skills, or historical knowledge in any one medium. Committed to the learning-by-doing pedagogy, the developers borrowed from the educational philosophy of Piaget, the aesthetic education theories of Lowenfeld and Herbert Read, and the ideas of Broudy, Barkan, and others (Smith, 1987). Teaching strategies needed to meet the goal of developing art appreciation on the part of the learner are quite different from those employed under the theories of the early 1900s. Goals today stress the student's perceptual develop­ ment concerning cultural awareness and sensitivity. However, as the end behavior becomes one of reacting to a work of non- Western art, the instructor will find it necessary to engage the student in thinking and feeling about the art work from other cultures in a manner that is more than superficial. The

39 instructor will have to provide a method of questioning that leads students into developing key concepts for themselves as the questioning process proceeds. The questioning process traditionally presented to students has frequently focused on four areas of concern, as the students may begin evaluation of a work of art based upon these characteristics. The four key characteristics important to Western art are cited by Hart (1991): (1) Individuality—The centrality and role of the individual artist is important to the work. (2) Originality—The uniqueness and originality of the work is important to its success. (3) Permanence—The permanence of the art object is important. (4) Form—The centrality of form is important to the work. Evaluation of form and stylistic analysis is seen as important in determining the merit of the work. These four criteria are considered important to Western philosophy on viewing art. Discussion or talking about art in the college classroom has frequently focused on these four criteria, and this may present the illusion that all artworks, whether Western or non-Western, can be discussed by using the same set of criteria. Feldman stressed the importance of the language of criticism when talking about art. He presented criticism and

40 critical talk as crucial to the development of art appreciation and emphasized that all art teachers should work continuously on the development of critical skills. Teachers of art appreciation began to use the four areas he stressed— description, analysis, interpretation, and evaluation—in their curriculum. Before Feldman's book. Becoming Human Through Art, few statements about art criticism or evaluation can be found in books concerned with teaching art appreciation (Clark, S., 1975). Textbooks directed to teaching art appreciation frequently referred to the theory of formalism, but did not mention its name. They addressed processes for analyzing art, but few direct references were made to a formalistic theory. Clark's study revealed that there were few theoretical state­ ments providing guidance on how to do criticism and evalua­ tion. In fact, she discovered that textbooks contained very little concerning art appreciation except to make brief refer­ ences in conjunction with art production (Clark, S., 1975). In her book Preparation for Art. McFee focused on the importance of the function of culture in understanding and appreciating art. She stressed that the major roles of art education were to strengthen self-esteem, deepen pride about one's own culture through art, and to teach appreciation of different cultures through the use of art. Multi-cultural education has remained a concern and a goal in art education (McFee, 1977, 1987).

41 McFee, along with Rogena Degge, wrote Art. Culture and Environment in 1977. This text included many non-Western art exemplars along with its basic art education instruction, and major sections were devoted to the impact of culture upon art, artists and life. If teachers help students become more aware of cultural diversity in art and help students evaluate the qualities of art in different contexts, they may be better able to understand themselves in terms of their own cultural background—why they like what they do and see as they see. And they may be more aware of the impact of their own and other people's art. (McFee, 1977, p. 297) In conducting criticism, the content of the art and the context of its creation should be familiar to the students. If art is studied from another culture, relationships should be drawn in the process with what is already known. Laura Chapman's book. Approaches to Art in Education, placed an emphasis on responding to works of art, but she also stressed the need for an eclectic art program that reflected the study of Western as well as cross-cultural art. Her concepts preceded many of the concepts held within discipline based art education. One of those concepts that she considered important was the relationship of art to culture, history and criticism (Chapman, 1978). Chapman stated "art programs should be eclectic; they should reflect major traditions of artistic thought and practice in Western culture as well as cross-cultural insights drawn from anthropology" (Smith, 1987, p. 21).

42 Contextual ism maintains the view that a work of art should be apprehended in its complete context, i.e., that history and knowledge strongly influence understanding of a work of art. Art educators such as McFee and Chapman, support this view, believing that the total art experience is richer if approached with contextual knowledge. Contextualists believe all appreciation of works of art should be studied in context. A work of art may be appreciated without contextual information but only to a limited degree. Understanding work from another culture is dependent on contextual information. Elliot Eisner has strengthened the introduction of cultural emphasis in the art appreciation curricula. He noted That meaning and knowledge are human constructions, that man is the architect of his own experience, and that the forms of meaning humans are able to create are significantly influenced by the cultural forms they learn to use. (Risatti, 1987, p. 219) He stressed among art educators the need for visual literacy and criticism in art appreciation. Discipline-based art education, funded by the Getty Foundation, and the Essential Elements of Art of the state of Texas became important to the development of criticism and art appreciation in the 1980s. DBAE research and the Essential Elements began to direct more art educators to the need for the study of art criticism along with art history, art production and aesthetics. The demand to include these four elements in Texas art curricula have influenced all Texas schools including college level art courses. Teachers saw the

43 need for inclusion, but there remained confusion among many art educators about how to teach criticism and aesthetics. Art educators began to develop curricula and instructional methods to include aesthetics, but this was difficult to implement because it was an area in which most teachers had little or no background or training. Gene Mittler's Art in Focus helped guide teachers on how to include the four required areas found in the Essential Elements for Texas as well as in the philosophy for DBAE. Increasingly, art educators were looking for curricula that included application of art-critical components in addition to studio instruction. Mittler included the aesthetics component which encompassed broader issues, such as theories of art, the nature of the aesthetic experience, definitions of art and the question of why art is valued (Mittler, 1986). Mittler's text, Art in Focus, introduced the students to the aesthetic theories of imitationalism, formalism and emotionalism. These aesthetic theories were aligned with the art criticism process. Imitationalism directs focus to the literal aesthetic qualities or subject matter, included in the work. Formalism directs attention to the visual aesthetic qualities or formal qualities in the artwork. Emotionalism is concerned with the expressive aesthetic qualities—the ideas, moods or feelings communicated by the work. Few other art textbooks included theories of aesthetics, although there was

44 growing advocacy in art education to include aesthetics in the art curriculum. Teachers have been unclear concerning a methodology for teaching aesthetics and criticism; thus, studio-oriented programs have continued to dominate art education, but, increasingly, programs are appearing that cite as their objective the teaching of art appreciation. The model of the art student as appreciator and critic is supplementing the traditional model of student as creator and artist. This recent change in direction shifts the outcome of art appreciation from creating a work of art to that of criticism through developing inquiry, perception, knowledge, discrim­ ination and judgment within students. Regarding culturally based art education, the direction in DBAE literature and presentations by art educators such as Kristin Congdon have forged a more intense move in that direction. Congdon, who has presented her views at DBAE symposiums, states: The "Multi-Cultural Symposium on Understanding and Appreciating the Arts" gave art education and art therapy students the chance to change, clarify and reinforce their values on ethnic groups and their artistic processes. It also broadened their perspectives on the kinds of art they choose to value in their own lives and in the context of art education. (Congdon, 1988, p. 24) This result was achieved through discussing, writing and evaluating diverse ethnic groups and their art. This process promoted "cultural/historical understandings of varying

45 cultural groups and recognizing the social impact of our decision making processes" (Blandy and Congdon, 1988, p. 22). Our current challenge is to provide multi­ cultural perspectives and experience for new students and to help all students recognize their values, know how to clarify and change them and to be able to incorporate and act on their beliefs in the art classroom. (Congdon, 1988, p. 24) Discipline-based art education curriculum content now includes goals and objectives for addressing values, skills, attitudes and knowledge which stress the art backgrounds and expressions of diverse cultural groups. Research is being conducted and ideas are being presented that include culturally based methodologies for the presentation and understanding of art, cultural/historical approaches to making and appreciating art and the recognition of the social impact that art education can have on the lives of its students (Clark, Day, Greer, 1987).

Conclusion This survey of literature has attempted to deal historically with selected major forces at work in the area of art criticism/inquiry, appreciation and the recent direction of cross-cultural and multi-cultural art education. Today's direction and concepts within discipline-based art education go beyond the design of compositional analysis, beyond the product of experience, and beyond the basic dimensions of life. When one thinks of today's cultural and critical emphasis in teaching art appreciation, one's mind cannot help 46 but relate it to the past. The concern with how to teach art appreciation has grown in importance in recent years, and, although it is new in concept, it has long been an important part in the historical process of art education. The 1980s and 1990s have left art instructors dependent upon current instructional materials and models. Not only must art teachers be trained, but instructional procedures appropriate for new curricula must be developed. It seems extremely unlikely that the average art teacher can meet the challenge if at the same time, there are no support materials, such as model curricula or tested methods for teaching aesthetics. (Erickson, 1986, p. 159) Along with curricula, new models are needed for art criticism which contain formats reflecting a culturally pluristic approach to teaching art education. If educators meet the demands of cross-cultural needs, a format for criticism of non-Western art may be necessary to promote the global views of diverse ethnic groups. Expanding our world views, as well as permitting and celebrating the world views of our diverse populations, can only help to promote the goals of multi-cultural art education. Many art educators have tried repeatedly to encourage the acceptance of an expanded range of art forms to be studied and seen as aesthetically valuable in our curricula. I now ask that we look at the expansion of art criticism formats as well so that they, too, can reflect a culturally pluristic approach to teaching. (Congdon, 1989, p. 182) Students may be prone to view art from non-Western cultures in the way that they were taught through their

47 Western culture. McFee addresses this prevailing problem, as she states:

One prevalent fallacy among people is to be so centric in sociocultural views of art that they assume their responses, categories and judgments are universal. Though centric views can be applied to other arts, they need to be recognized as such, and other cultural systems for viewing art should be considered. (McFee, 1991, p. 72) The following section outlines models which were developed to learn in the areas of aesthetics and art appreciation, although there is a void in the area of models for critical appreciation directed to non-Western art.

Models of Art Criticism/Inquiry For Art Appreciation Introduction The intent of this section is to present a chronological survey of theoretical data in which art criticism has been approached in art education and to present exemplary models that utilize critical theories. The formats of models in art criticism have in common a linear step-by-step decision-making sequence in which steps build upon each other. They are presented in this format for consideration. The purpose of this section is to present a summary description of selected art criticism models and theories that might be used in teaching art appreciation of non-Western art to novice art students. Art appreciation has been and is a goal of art education and art criticism.

48 A major outcome of all areas of art and aesthetics has been to appreciate and cherish works of art. Considering the level of viewing skills of spectators of art and the need for developing aesthetic perception and comprehension of aesthetic objects, art appreciation could eventually, through a subject centered approach to art education, become one of the most important goals of art criticism. (Cromer, 1990, p. 8) Criticism and evaluation of art is considered important in the role of art appreciation (Hamblen, 1987). The models selected for review were used in conjunction with teaching critical inquiry in art appreciation and education. In addition, an attempt has been made to present models that have characteristics which may be useful in criticism of non- Western art. One objective of the review has been to proceed through­ out the review in a chronological format, but, in some in­ stances, multiple publication dates and subtle changes in a specific model over a period of time make the establishment of a firm date of a model difficult. Thus, there may be concern in some instances, about which model preceded another. The methods that critics use to describe and interpret works of art and the standards with which they evaluate them are diverse and have varied throughout the history of art criticism. Methods and models have varied through history in approach, but the goal of each seems consistently to agree with Risatti who points out: Art criticism seeks to inform and educate people about art, by providing insights into its 49 meaning so as to increase the understanding and appreciation of art and illuminate the cultural and societal values reflected in it. (Clark, Day, Greer, 1987, p. 152)

"The task of criticism is not simply to decide between good and bad, but to help us gain greater understanding" (Horowitz, 1985, p. 200). Criticism aids enjoyment when performed knowledgeably, and the ability to participate is enhanced as critical perceptions of art develop. Works of art can change and do not always look the same, because tastes change, and with such change the perceiver's eyes and viewpoint change. Values and decisions derived from critical judgments and freedom of opinion can be consciously chosen, as the process is an acquired facility developed over time. Learning to make aesthetic judgments increases one's ability to perceive more richly both man-made and natural objects, as well as to judge the art work created by oneself and others. The skills of decision-making that lead to aesthetic valuing develop through frequent use over time (Herberholz, 1989). The critical process is an analytical method for perceiving the work of art, and the common characteristics of all of the methods cited here are the emphases upon the integrity of the work of art and its effect upon the viewer. One must be able to justify our arguments in terms we both accept. That makes us look more carefully at the object of our discussion, and reinspect our own attitudes toward it. (Hurwitz, 1977, p. 3)

50 There is a certain logical progression in most models of critical inquiry, as most proceed through factual processes, then interpretive processes, and finally explanatory processes. However, it should be understood that the levels of inquiry are often intermixed. Factual claims concerning the art object are usually established before interpretations or explanations are attempted. Descriptions can be used to support interpretive and explanatory claims; explanations of changes in style can be used to support interpretive conclusions; interpretations of meaning can be used to support conclusions about when, where, or by whom an art work was produced, and so forth (Erickson, 1988).

The Stevenson Model, 1950 Stevenson refers to the "living context" of the critic's response to an art object. He stresses that proper criticism is based on observing appearances in a work of art. His model is based upon scientific and nonscientific features. The first three scientific features in his model (Stevenson, 1950) are: (1) The student looks for ways an art object can be experienced. (2) He searches for varying conditions under which he can examine the work. (3) He chooses how to observe the work based upon his background.

51 The last two non-scientific features in his model are: (4) He makes evaluations and critical interpretations about the work. (5) He gives reasons to support judgment of the work. In the fourth (nonscientific) step, the critic makes statements about the properties of the object. In step five, he may give as a reason to support the basis for judgment his own reasoning from the previous steps, or it may be based on the meaning as understood by a class of students. Stevenson points out that the critic brings his own background into his observations. If he has a strong base in the cultural and historical aspects of the work of art, such as non-Western art, he may be able to impart helpful information in these areas in the direction of enabling the viewer to observe the work. This direction may be influenced by the critic's interest, skills, beliefs, background and knowledge.

The Bruner Theory. 1958 Bruner did not create a model for criticism but instead a theory on which a model was based. He helped lay the foundation for the need in art education to be more structured and disciplined, and to build on levels of readiness. He believed that the main task of education was to give students an understanding of the fundamental structure.

52 According to Bruner, perception is a process of making decisions. The student makes a sequence of decisions concerning the art object, and this decision-making process involves the use of discriminatory cues. This allows the student to sort the cues concerning the object into categories. In order to use the cues, the student must infer identifying characteristics concerning the object, and these characteristics are then divided into categories based upon sets of common specifications. The categories may vary in the accessibility of the information available to the student; thus the student must have a base of experience that enables him to categorize, make inferences and predictions regarding the art object. If the student is not ready to participate in this process, more input or information must be gained in order to recognize the cues in the object. The critical act is a decision-making process. The student is required to make a series of decisions in order to participate in critical appreciation. According to Bruner (1958), there are four stages in the sequencing of decision­ making: (1) Primitive Categorization—The object is perceptually isolated as a basic work of art. (2) Cue Search—The student scans the work of art for information in order to find cues that allow a more precise placement of the object into tentative.

53 related categories. This stage is sometimes referred to as "sorting" sensory input. (3) Confirmation Check—Following the cue search and tentative categorization, a selective data process occurs. The search is narrowed by additional cues that confirm earlier tentative decisions. Information is selectively "filtered" to confirm earlier decisions. This state is sometimes referred to as "gating." The information may be categorized beyond a specific level of certainty. (4) Confirmation Completion—This stage completes and confirms the cue search. Less relevant and incongruent cues are drastically reduced. The student "gates out" unimportant information in order to confirm the categorization of the art object (Bruner, 1958). Bruner's ideas helped develop the basics for a model through promoting the importance for students to comprehend hierarchial steps. A comprehensive art education prepares students to think in systematic ways. Bruner influenced DBAE curricula to be more sequentially organized for cumulative learning.

The Sibley Model. 1962 Frank Sibley is concerned with the viewer's ability to see and tell about certain qualities and features in the art

54 object. He makes a distinction between the aesthetic and non- aesthetic qualities of a work of art. Sibley says the aesthetic qualities involve the viewer's perceptiveness and taste, while the non-aesthetic qualities are obvious, literal features. Each is important as is the manner of the teacher's style of presentation.

The teacher, or critic, is encouraged by Sibley to lead an oral discussion to involve the viewer to see the same aesthetic and non-aesthetic qualities. The following suggestions may help teachers to present criticism to their students: (1) Point out non-aesthetic features such as the elements of art that do not involve taste. (2) Refer to aesthetic qualities such as feelings and ideas related to taste. (3) Relate non-aesthetic features to aesthetic features. (4) Use similes and metaphors to make the presentation interesting. (5) Use contrasts and comparisons. (6) Repeat and relate words to help students develop the skill of applying terms. (7) Enthusiastically speak and gesture (Sibley, 1962). In viewing non-Western art, it may be difficult to begin immediately with step one, non-aesthetic features, as students may need to first analyze and discuss their initial reactions

55 if the object is unusual to their cultural frame of reference. Step five may be helpful in making contrasts and comparisons between Western and non-Western culture, art and life.

The Weitz Model. 1966 Morris Weitz is not concerned with the critic's persuasion or the senses, as he focuses instead upon the conceptual distinctions among description, explanation, evaluation and aesthetics. The students using his model would discuss: (1) Descriptive statements or factual claims about the art object. (2) Explanations or interpretations and hypotheses about the important aspects of the work of art. (3) Evaluation involving arguments aimed at validating the assessment. (4) Aesthetics involving theorizing about the defining nature of selected descriptive terms and the impact of a specific theory on the work of art (Weitz, 1966a). Concerning step four, Weitz, a philosopher of aesthetics, said that it is easier to teach art than discuss its nature. Weitz goes on to say the great contribution of theories of art is precisely in their teachings, not in their definitions of art: each of the theories represents a set of explorable criteria which serve to remind us of what we may have neglected or to

56 make us see what we may not have seen. (Weitz, 1966a, p.26)

There is no one theory or true statement of the sufficient and necessary properties in all works of art. Instead, the theories of art have different sets of directions for full participation in contrasting works of art. Each theory helps present different criteria that may possibly be missed in criticism. He states: To understand the role of aesthetic theory is not to conceive it as definition, logically doomed to failure, but to read it as summaries of seriously made recommendations to attend in certain ways to certain features of art. (Weitz; Eisner, ed., 1966, p. 74) Weitz believes everything in and about an artwork plays a role in critically exploring it. These ideas may be important to gain understanding and appreciation of a non- Western work of art. According to Weitz, cultural contextual information would be important to judgment of a non-Western object.

The Moffit Model. 1969 The readiness attitude of the student is emphasized by J. F. Moffit and is referred to as the "aesthetic response." Few models of critical inquiry include this important factor of readiness. Moffit's model was created as an exemplary model for studying art history. Unlike Feldman's or Mittler's models of critical inquiry for art appreciation, Moffit's has no final step of judging the work of art.

57 Following is an outline of the Moffit model in which the student is led to discuss the ideas represented in each of the three steps:

(1) Content: Idea Expressed (a) Aesthetic Response—Discuss the aesthetic response, i.e., why it is liked or disliked. The student's point of view is given as he begins an immediate relationship to the object. (b) Characterization—The quality of the emotion expressed in the given subject matter is expressed. (2) Form (a) Materials—Discuss media, technique of the work and personal style of the artist. (b) Specific Form—Discuss the chiaroscuro, texture, rhythm, space, depth and pattern. (c) Color—Discuss how the artist uses color for his expressive style. (d) Composition—Discuss how the picture is constructed and components are arranged. (3) Environment: Historical Background (a) The art historical placement is established. (b) The cultural background and influence is established.

58 (i) Discuss the national and ethnical characteristics. (ii) Discuss the philosophical and religious influences, (iii) Discuss sociological, political and economic influences on the artist. (c) Interpretive Keys (i) Review and discuss contemporary documents. (ii) Search for other sources and important second hand information. (d) Discuss the distorting effects on changing historical contexts upon perceptions of a work of art. Moffit includes important aspects in his model in step three. Environment: Historical Background, which may help the viewer understand and possibly appreciate a non-Western work of art more completely. He begins with the viewers as they initially are asked to think about why they like or dislike the art work. This step requires the viewers to probe and think about their aesthetic response in regard to their own culture (Moffit, 1969).

The Feldman Model. 1970 Sheila Clark's 1975 study of art appreciation in art education textbooks designed for art teachers revealed that

59 there are very few theoretical statements about art criticism and evaluation. The inclusion of criteria or standards for evaluating works of art was very brief (Clark, S., 1975). Before 1970, only the Feldman text. Becoming Human Through Art, presented a method for the criticism and evaluation of works of art. A thorough reading of his theory shows that he believes the student first examines the art object for thematic and utilitarian values prior to description (Feldman, 1982). The student looks for the "pervasive quality," or style, of the artwork. Immediately the student begins to search for cues to categorize information about the art object. Feldman's philosophy includes four areas of style—objective accuracy, formal order, emotion and fantasy. The student strongly begins to associate the work with one of the four styles, although these areas of style are not included as portions of Feldman's model, per se. The Feldman system of criticism is an inductive process for inferring conclusions (generalities) from the available evidence (particulars). His model of criticism has served as a model in four stages for making statements about a work of art. It has been used by teachers of art appreciation with the underlying premise that, if students master this method, they will be able to think and talk intelligently about art. Hobbs believes that if students can think and talk

60 intelligently about art they will know and like it better (Hobbs, 1985).

Discussing art is considered integral to the critical experience, as well as interpretation of the work of art. Feldman emphasizes the importance of interpretation in explaining the art work. Feldman states: Interpretation is tremendously challenging; it is certainly the most important part of the critical enterprise. Explaining a work of art involves discovering its meanings and also stating the relevance of these meanings to our lives and to the human situation in general. (Feldman, 1985, p. 476) He positions this act in step three of his model. Following is a summary of Feldman's method of criticism model for the student to use in art-critical performance: (1) Description—The process of taking inventory, of noting what is immediately visible in an artwork. Identifying things about the object that can be easily seen, named, described, and agreed upon by a group of people. (2) Formal Analysis—Discovering the relationships and organization between the elements and principles of art within the whole work of art. (3) Interpretation—The process of finding the overall meaning of a work that the critic has described and analyzed. Interpretation involving discovering the meanings of a work of art and stating their

61 relevance to our lives and the human situation in general. (4) Judgment—Judging a work of art means giving it a rank in relation to other works of its type. Discovering the relevance of technique, materials, craftsmanship and skill involved in the evolution of the art object. Comparing the art object under study with a wide range of comparable works in time and space (Feldman, 1982). "The chief goal of art criticism is understanding. We wish to find a way of looking at objects of art and thinking about them which will yield the maximum of knowledge about their real merits" (Feldman, 1967, p. 44). Geahigan isolates three additional goals in Feldman's conception of criticism:

(1) Criticism as a set of skills which is to result from the performance of criticism as an activity. (2) An often stressed goal of criticism is to gain understanding and knowledge. (3) A last goal of criticism is to obtain enjoyment, satisfaction and pleasure (Geahigan, 1979).

The Broudy Model. 1972 Broudy's model identifies four levels of aesthetic perception, followed by three levels that entail aesthetic criticism. His view involves what he refers to as the

62 informed aesthetic response. The model begins with four steps which involve aesthetic perception: (1) Sensory Properties—The student observes what appears to exist within a potentially aesthetic object by identifying the visual properties (art elements). (2) Formal Properties—The student responds to how the object is organized to achieve expressive power by identifying the principles of art. (3) Expressive Properties—The student responds to what the object has to say by identifying mood, dynamic states and expressions. (4) Technical Properties—The student observes how the work was created. Broudy's next three steps in the model involve aesthetic criticism. The model continues: (5) Historical—The student determines the nature of expressive intent of works of art within the context of culture, style and period. (6) Recreative—The student apprehends imaginatively what the artist has expressed in a specific work of art. (7) Judicial—The student estimates the value of a work of art in relation to other works (Broudy, 1972). Broudy views aesthetic education as the reason for teaching art. He believes it is important to recognize

63 cultural heritage through the fine arts which, in turn, may lead young people to value traditions through enlightened cherishing.

The process of art appreciation, as outlined by Harry Broudy, develops in the following manner: (1) An art object is considered (attitude). (2) A set of criteria is used that serves the purposes intended by the group or individual using it (cognitive). (3) Qualities in the work of art are measured against the criteria (cognitive). (4) A judgment is rendered and the art product is evaluated and rated (judgment and attitude). Broudy views appreciative learning as a process of development with each successive step building on the preceding one. Broudy defines the attitudes present at the beginning of this process as a readiness of disposition towards an object. He emphasizes the importance of confronting original works of art, when possible, in teaching art appreciation. He contends that when students have had experiences in developing perceptual awareness and criticism, they develop aesthetic scanning skills that can be applied to art objects throughout their lives (Broudy, 1972). This may be true, but it is questionable if the same scanning skills work for non-Western art if they are acquired through exposure to Western art only. Scanning tends to disregard the cultural

64 and historical base of an art object. Perhaps different scanning skills may be required for non-Western art.

The R. Smith Model. 1973 Perception can be promoted through aesthetic criticism, according to Ralph Smith. His model is outlined in the following steps: (1) Describe—The student describes the surface object of the work. (2) Analyze—The student analyzes the object for the basic elements of art. (3) Interpret—The student interprets that which conveys the meaning of the work. (4) Evaluate—The student evaluates or makes an assessment of how well the artist used his medium in terms of the relation of the individual parts to the overall impression the piece makes (R. A. Smith, 1972). The model omits regard for any measure of cultural importance in its view of aesthetic criticism. Thus, it may work well with an object from Western culture, but it omits important factors for use with non-Western art works because it relies on the assumption that the viewer's perception is in tune with the work, with no consideration to cultural context. Smith notes there can be no guarantee that these steps will successfully lead students to feel and see what is to be

65 experienced, as he states there is no such thing as a perfect judgment or appraisal. He also contests: The teaching of categories, concepts, criteria, and procedures, though seeming to hold out the only hope for making sense of what can be known in a work of art, constitutes no more than elements of heuristic devices, or sets of questions to ask without expectation that each of them will necessarily be revealingly answered. (Pappas, 1970, p. 419)

Smith suggests that initial evidence of growth in aesthetic criticism is found in written and oral responses by students. Selecting works of art which are sufficiently different from ones previously seen by the students will allow their responses to be more relevant, appropriate, cohesive and persuasive in evaluation. Perhaps a non-Western work of art would be a good exemplar in following Smith's suggestion.

The Hurwitz Model. 1977 Hurwitz diagrams three approaches to art appreciation and to the work of art being presented for study to the student: (1) Phenomenological Approach (a) Discuss the critical process based upon the work of art. (b) Give a description of the work of art. (c) Analyze the work including the elements and principles of art. (d) Interpret the work.

66 (2) Associative Approach

(a) Discuss the biographical material on the artist. (b) Discuss the anecdotes concerning the work. (c) Discuss the material indirectly related to the art object. (3) Multisensory Approach (a) Present visual resources to increase perception skills. (b) Include the student's total sensory apparati (smell, sight, sound, touch movement) to deepen awareness. (c) Present games involving the student and art object (Hurwitz, 1977). Hurwitz believes a phenomenological insistence upon the total elimination of the extraneous is acceptable for a college art teacher but that it is of utmost importance to include many contexts for art when presenting art to children (Hurwitz, 1977). Perhaps it is of equal importance to present a diversity of contexts, including non-Western art, to all students regardless of the age factor. Rather than age, a more important consideration might be their cultural background and former exposure to contrasting cultural backgrounds and non-Western art.

67 The Hamblen Model. 1984

The Hamblen model is based on Bloom's Taxonomy. She created a questioning strategy for art criticism that is hierarchial, beginning with knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and ending with evaluation (Hamblen, 1984b).

She based her art critical model on the theories of Bloom and Feldman:

(1) Factual—The student recognizes, recalls or defines information. He identifies perceptual qualities and states generally accepted ideas about the art work. (2) Analytical—The student identifies causes and reasons. He analyzes information to reach a conclusion and analyzes conclusions to find evidence for support. (3) Speculative—The student produces original ideas and makes predictions concerning the work of art. (4) Evaluative—The student judges the merit of the art work, using the preceding criteria for assessment (Hamblen, 1985). Hamblen's model encourages students to question, but her four step model does lack the important cultural-historical component for studying non-Western art. Analyzing informa­ tion to reach a conclusion is in most models, but fewer of them include the need to analyze the conclusions for support.

68 Her model encourages the student to speculate and predict, a concept which is not used frequently in other models. Aesthetics is seen by Hamblen as an area of study which focuses on the viewer, as she believes such study has the potential to expand the student's aesthetic valuing. She states:

A study of aesthetics could provide an examination of criteria used in aesthetic valuing. If art were considered a contested concept, and if it were considered as having variable meanings and values among different individuals and groups, a study of aesthetics would open a door to a vista of a series of systems making up multiple aesthetic world views. (Hamblen, 1987, p. 71)

The Lankford Model, 1984 Lankford emphasizes the viewer's perception, as well as the properties of the work of art. Individuals approach an object equipped with certain aptitudes and within the context of a given experiential situation. What an object means depends as much upon a viewer's perception as upon the properties of the object. (Lankford, 1984, p. 152) Lankford's method is divided into five steps: (1) Receptiveness—The viewer is required to free himself of habitual responses and preconditions in order to receive new information. (2) Orienting—The viewer is required to determine the visual boundary within which a work exists, effects of physical conditions surrounding the work, and

69 position oneself to view the work clearly in its entirety.

(3) Bracketing—The viewer is required to concentrate and focus upon the extant qualities of the object and limit critical dialogue to content relevant to the communication of the work. (4) Interpretive analysis—The viewer discusses the symbolic and representational meanings, relation­ ship of elements of art and feelings perpetuated by these factors. (5) Synthesis—The viewer discusses the judgment and significance of the work as a whole. This discussion is approached with caution as no conclusion is absolute. In order for the viewer, the student, to begin the steps of art criticism for non-Western art, Lankford's step one, Receptiveness, is vital. Habits, opinions and beliefs are firmly imbedded within behavior patterns, and a concerted effort may be necessary to free oneself of pre­ conceptions and habitual responses that too often result in hasty judgments. (Lankford, 1984, p. 156) Lankford believes that gaining experience in art criticism may also help one encounter other experiences basic to life. Art criticism promotes appreciation of art and the process of critical thinking.

70 The Mittler Model. 1986

Gene Mittler's model is similar to Feldman's in its four steps for art criticism. The four areas are: (1) Description, (2) Analysis, (3) Interpretation, and (4) Judgment. His model is unique in that he combines, in an easily understood manner, theories of art within the model of criticism. He has created a model which clearly presents aesthetic qualities. Theories of art have been used to form the criteria on which to base judgments, add to the organization of the model, and provide an aesthetics focus. The theories he aligns to the criticism steps are: imitationalism, formalism and emotionalism. Mittler's phenomenological model is: (1) Description—Students look for the literal aesthetic qualities or how accurately real the subject matter is to the viewer (Imitationalism). Literal Qualities: Qualities referred to emphasize the accurate description of subject matter. The most important aspect about the work of art is its verisimilitude: the appearance of being true or real. (Mittler, 1986, p. 53) (2) Analysis—Students look for the formal aesthetic qualities and how the elements in the work are organized through principles of art (Formalism). Formal Qualities: Qualities referred to emphasize the organization of the work of art through the use of the elements and principles of art. (Mittler, 1986, p. 53)

71 (3) Interpretation—Students look for the expressive aesthetic qualities, ideas, moods, and feelings (Emotionalism). Expressive Qualities: Qualities referred to emphasize the idea, moods and feelings conveyed to the viewer by the work of art. (Mittler, 1986, p. 53) (4) Judgment—Students assess the literal, visual and expressive aesthetic qualities to determine the works' success (Mittler, 1986). This model teaches the viewer what to look for in an artwork as well as teaching the viewer a strategy of how to look. Mittler regards this strategy as the internal cue search. The students acquire information directly from the artwork. Pertaining to critical encounters with art, however, extended periods of cue search must be regarded not as a luxury but as a necessity. In order for students to perceive, understand, judge and gain pleasure from something as complex as a work of art, ample time must be devoted to a thorough examination. (Mittler, 1983, p. 19) Mittler's steps using the strategy of cue search are: (1) Premature Decision-Making—Students scan the work and stop with an incomplete analysis of the work's cues. (2) Searching for Internal Cues—The students search actively for internal cues. They use art criticism operations to describe, analyze, interpret and judge. They look for the aesthetic qualities of the work of art. 72 (3) Searching for External Cues—The students search for external cues to confirm decisions. Historical and cultural considerations based on facts are considered.

(4) Final Decision-Making—The students use external and internal cues to finalize their decision (Mittler, 1983).

Crawford. 1987

During a panel discussion held at the Getty Center for Education in the Arts, Crawford discussed five main areas of consideration in regard to aesthetics. (1) The Art Object, (2) Appreciation and Interpretation, (3) Critical Evaluation, (4) Creation and (5) The Cultural Context. Area five addresses a major concern of this professional problem, as Crawford discusses the importance of cultural conditions to the art object and aesthetics. He also stresses the importance of the art historical aspects within the realm of the cultural context. This inclusion may be necessary to enhance critical appreciation of non-Western art (Crawford, 1987).

73 The Anderson Model. 1988

Anderson stresses critical thinking because it encouraged all thinking skills, such as the ability to analyze, deduce and make decisions based on personally integrated criteria, and the ability to "analyze, deduce and make decisions based on personally integrated criteria, and the ability to understand the consequences of decision-making" (Anderson, 1990, p. 133). Anderson's model for art criticism is structured pedagogically in an attempt to incorporate affective and intuitive thinking with analytical and intellectual ways of viewing and perceiving works of art. The steps in the model are: (1) Reaction—The student reacts to how the work makes him feel. This is a deeply intuitive and affective response. (2) Perceptual Analysis—This begins the student's search to discover why he felt the reaction. Within perceptual analysis are three steps: (a) Representation—The student gives a careful accounting of the obvious symbolic, thematic and formal qualities of a work of art. (b) Formal Analysis—The student examines the techniques, formal qualities, relationships of forms and perceptual organization.

74 (c) Formal Characteristics—The student searches for the work's style and expressive nature. (3) Interpretation—The student is to think with feeling and feel his thoughts in relation to the work's expressive and emotional content and cognitive meaning. (4) Contextual Examination—The student researches the contextual framework of the work including visual symbols, social, political, religious, historical, and economic influences. (5) Synthesis—The student arrives at his evaluation of the work based upon the preceding steps. The descriptive and analytical components are combined with expert opinion to complete this final step (Anderson, 1988). Anderson's fourth step, contextual examination, may be important to the understanding of non-Western art. He empha­ sizes the value of the cultural and historical aspects, as he cites: Self-knowledge is crucial to critical appreciation. It is the result of open-ended problem solving which is creative and interpretive in nature, which is funded by an awareness of the cultural and historical context. (Anderson, 1990, p. 139) Anderson's model concludes the chronological literature review of models of art criticism/inquiry for art apprecia­ tion. A few ideas will now be presented which may be impor­ tant in teaching criticism in art appreciation. 75 Some Associated Thoughts

^^ The Critical Eye (1969), Ballo refers to the diverse ways of perceiving as seeing with different eyes. The student may have "ordinary eyes" that enable him to have only an uninformed, biased summary opinion of the work of art. Another student may have "categorical eyes" because he adopts only one viewpoint for judging the art of all periods and of every civilization, even though he is aware of other viewpoints. This student ignores any other works of art which need to be viewed from a different angle for understanding. It is impossible to confront a work of art without developing some attitude towards it and placing some value on it. Your own response may vary from boredom to adoration to outrage. If your attitude on these matters is firmly fixed—if you have some clear idea what a picture ought to look like—you will have little trouble in making value judgments. An art work will be good art to the degree that it fits your preconceptions and bad art to the degree that it does not. (Sporre, 1981, p. 6) The student who develops "critical eyes" learns how to "change the angle of vision" and view works of art against the historical, cultural, and social background that produced them, taking into account the career of the artist, his temperament and the civilization which he reflects. Critical judgment is thus synonymous with basic knowledge, which enables one to penetrate into the very essence of each particular work by examining the technique and the style employed in order to achieve expression (Ballo, 1969). Any work of art is a highly selective, highly refined, and inevitably a highly fictive version of 76 reality. its appearance will be determined not simply by the subject and not simply by the personality of the artist, but also by the styles and conventions of his time. (Horowitz, 1985, p. 61)

It stands to reason that if a student is (a) encouraged to observe analytically all relevant visual qualities or attributes; and (b) encouraged to organize that mass of information by its similarities and differences thereby identifying concepts, then he or she (c) can more efficiently select from the organized, broader base that information which can relate to a problem or creative intent; and (d) can relate concepts into a synthesizing product or generalization (Armstrong, 1977). The typical rapid survey of the history of art is probably not our best means for abiding college students on a road leading to the appreciation of art...there should be more reliance upon the individual to make a personal choice of the language of art that best serves what he has to say and how he wishes to say it. (Hastie, 1971, p. 9)

Summary and Conclusions The assumption is often made by society that art is a universal language and, therefore, that no cross-cultural conflicts exist. True, language and art are both forms of communication; however, the questions must be raised as to what, how and to whom it is being communicated. These questions are major justifications for the role of the teacher of art appreciation. Our students need not only to look at art and be inspired to make art, but to learn to argue 77 about art-the way aestheticians do. With thought­ ful guidance, they need to reflect, to determine for themselves which questions are worth asking, how to go about finding the best available answers and how to communicate clearly the evidence of their research through their own images and words. (Irvine, 1991, p. 15) Bruner (1958) presents theories that may give the student guidance in asking questions, communicating, reflecting and supporting their decisions in the process of the criticism of non-Western art, as they are required to discover and sort cues that are less familiar. His theory offers a system of understanding tentative decisions which lead to the confirmation completion. Bruner's theories may be important to support a model for non-Western art to be used with college students. The students will encounter new ideas and questions as they view non-Western art, and judging non-Western art creates a context for different judgmental criteria than that appro­ priate for Western art. There are models, as several have been presented here, with different criteria that might be used to judge different art objects. Criteria in some models relate to "art for art's sake" or the aesthetics of art, but others relate to the extent to which a work of art fulfills certain cultural or personal functions. Non-Western art requires each of these criteria in order to gain knowledge and understanding. Criticism of non-Western art may require the art student to think like a critic as well as an art historian.

78 When we look at an artwork and think like an art critic ... we can describe what we see, analyze it and react to it . . . When we look at an artwork and think like an art historian, we learn about the artwork from external sources. We are on a fact-finding mission in which we collect available evidence about the artwork. (Herberholz, 1985, p. 87)

Using models based only on aesthetic judgments is not appropriate for non-Western art because it is highly possible that the cultural context may give the insight for appreci­ ating the object. Bersson (1991) describes contextualism: Contextual ism is the approach to the understanding of art that centers on the study of art "in context," that is, in relation to the rest of life. Contextualism emphasizes the study of everything that surrounds and relates to the work of art: the viewer, the artist, the physical setting of the work; and the art, culture and society that gave birth to it. (Bersson, 1991, p. 570) When cultural contextual information is omitted from the model, the student may not seek important aspects of infor­ mation to gain greater knowledge which may lead to under­ standing and appreciation of non-Western art. The additional theory of instrumentalism may need exploration as the students encounter non-Western art. Instrumentalism conceives art as a tool for advancing some religious, moral, psychological or political purpose. Like contextualism, this view of artistic excellence is based on external cues. The instrumentalist theory of art finds support in understanding practices of the past. No models were found which included contextualism or instrumentalism as integral steps. In designing a model for non-Western art, 79 this additional criteria may be found essential to the understanding and critical appreciation of non-Western art. Eisner stressed that the problem of determining the best criteria to be used in evaluating works of art is not merely a methodological one. Deciding upon what is best as a method or means also implies that the means selected will contribute to the achievement to the larger ends sought (Eisner, 1972). According to Wilson, identification of useful critical models is a difficult task, as they frequently are written in a manner that is difficult for college students to understand (Wilson, 1986). Art criticism formats are presented with few guidelines on appropriate educational applications, specific methodologies for implementation, and designation of their proposed audience (Hamblen, 1985). Many of the models reviewed in this survey may be successful in generating informed talk about art. However, they may pose limitations when applied to non-Western art because they depend upon the teacher to have historical and cultural background knowledge on the art objects being presented. This is a problem because many teachers do not have the interest, time or easily accessible resources to gain knowledge needed for the presentation of non-Western art pieces. The models presented suggest the importance of art historical information (Stevenson, 1950; Moffit, 1969; Broudy, 1972; Hurwitz, 1977; Crawford, 1987; Anderson, 1988), and each

80 of these models confirms, to some degree, the need for inclusion of historical information within the model. In theory, many art teachers agree that this information should be included in the study of the object, but the tendency is for teachers to present a familiar art object, usually not a non-Western object, because they are more knowledgeable about the object. In order for a non-Western object to be effectively presented to the students, the teacher may feel required to conduct a prior thorough study for which he or she lacks the time, energy or interest.

Bruner (1958) and Mittler (1983) present steps based upon the strategy of searching for cues in and from the object. Students may be taught this process. The students may learn to sort and categorize the cues, categories based upon similar and dissimilar qualities in and from the object. This approach shifts the dependence of the presentation from the teacher to the student. This strategy may encourage teachers who know little about non-Western art to include it in their curricula. Any method used to evaluate a non-Western work of art should be consonant with the goals of art appreciation and the larger scheme of discipline-based art education. The goals of art appreciation include: aesthetics, criticism and art history. An exemplary model is needed for non-Western art which helps teachers guide students to develop an understand­ ing of the commonalities and differences in art within and

81 across cultures. DBAE philosophy addresses this need in its stated aims to promote recognition, acknowledgement and celebration of racial and cultural diversity in art. This literature review on art criticism is an essential, but only first step toward development and implementation of a model for non-Western art.

82 CHAPTER III EXEMPLARY MODEL IN ART CRITICISM FOR JUDGING NON-WESTERN WORKS OF ART

Introduction to the Model The model is intended to introduce the novice art student to criticism and inquiry of non-Western art by helping that student develop a framework for viewing and criticizing works of art. Learning to perceive cues in works of art increases one's ability to make aesthetic judgments. This model is a tool to encourage art thinking, perception and final decision­ making. It enables the student (viewer) to ask questions and gain knowledge with decision-making concerning art with which the viewer lacks familiarity because of its foreign origin. The ten-step model (Figure 3.1) is divided into five phases: (1) Introductory Activities, (2) Cue Search, (3) Confirmation Check, (4) Confirmation Completion and (5) Reinforcement. Introductory Activities introduce non-Western art, clarifying previously learned art values and serve as a transition from Western to non-Western art. Cue search is directed to identifying the internal cues in the artworks and requires the student to describe, analyze, interpret and make a tentative judgment regarding the work. Confirmation Check follows and requires the student first to investigate external cues about the art object and the artist who created it to

83 steps in the Model

Phase 1: INTRODUCTION Introductory Western Art and Art Criticism Activities Methodology Non-Western Art and Internal Responses: Premature Decision-Making Transition: Western Art to Non-Western Art

Phase 2: 2 DESCRIPTION Internal cue Literal Qualities Search (Imitationalism) I Visual Qualities: Elements N of Art (Formalism) T 3 ANALYSIS E Visual Qualities: Principles R of Art (Formalism) N A Examine: Technical & Media L Craftsmanship C 4 INTERPRETATION U Expressive Qualities E (Emotionalism) S

5 JUDGMENT: TENTATIVE DECISION­ MAKING BASED UPON INTERNAL CUES

Phase 3 6 INVESTIGATE: CONTEXTUALISM E Confirmation Art and Context X Check T Features of Artistic Style E R 7 INVESTIGATE: INSTRUMENTALISM N Art and Purpose: Impact of A Time and Place L C U 8 JUDGMENT: TENTATIVE DECISION­ E MAKING BASED UPON EXTERNAL CUES S

Phase 4 9 FINAL DECISION-MAKING BASED I Confirmation UPON INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL CUES N Completion Reassessment: Literal, T Visual and Expressive E R Qualities, Context and N Purpose A L Confirmation of the Decision & E Phase 5 10 REINFORCEMENT X Reinforcement Looking Back: Comparing T Premature and Final Decisions E R Focus on the viewer: Impact N of the Work and the A Criticism Experience L

Figure 3.1 Summary of the Model for Criticism and Inquiry of Non-Western Art in DBAE

84 gain any contextual information. These external cues emphasize the study of everything that relates to the work of art including its history and culture. This information provides a foundation for the next step which involves a study of Instrumentalism in relation to the object. These external cues allow the student to make another tentative judgment about the work of art. Next, Confirmation Completion requires the student to engage in final decision-making based upon all previous cues and information learned from and about the object. The last phase. Reinforcement, summarizes the experience and includes values clarification by the student.

The model utilizes a ten-step approach that introduces the college student to the task of searching for cues and determining cue categorization, while at the same time learning the criticism process of this model. Each step builds upon the step that precedes it. The ten steps are designed for use over a series of classroom meetings. The model provides flexibility in that it can be applied to a single example of non-Western art in the course, or, if time permits, to several works in order to provide more practice for the art student. The purpose of this chapter is to present a model that is clear in format and may be applied to the learning of art criticism as a way of understanding and judging non-Western works of art. The model is directed to teachers of novice students in art who have little or no background in applying

85 critical methodology to non-Western art, and it may be used by the teacher to foster oral critical discussion. It may also be used by the teacher to guide the student in critical thinking and writing about non-Western art. Instructional strategy notes which correspond with each step of the model are located in the Appendix. The notes present questions and ideas to encourage discovery of the cues and categorize new information.

Phase 1: Introductory Activities Step (1) Introduction Western Art and Art Criticism Methodology The introduction of an art criticism methodology to novice art students can be accomplished in a quite natural manner by beginning with the direct, initial impacts of artworks on the students and then proceeding to a more structured, analytical procedure. If students are to understand non-Western art, it is helpful first to consider art with which the majority is more familiar. As their encounters with art have been restricted almost entirely to art from the West, this approach logically should begin with considerations of paintings that the students already appreciate and consider to be "true art." This introduction then is concerned with beginning the process by placing the student on familiar ground.

86 To facilitate this process, students have been asked over a period of weeks to propose Western artworks which they prefer and to discuss informally these basically intuitive choices. Students are asked to consider criteria which identify an object as a work of art, and they are encouraged to isolate some of the important characteristics of Western art. Two of the more common presumptions among novice art students are that art should be realistic and that it should be beautiful.

Obviously, everything that falls under the heading of art cannot be given a simple definition, so it may be more helpful to review the characteristics of art by Western standards than to define it. Martin and Jacobus (1991) are useful for this purpose, as they designate three of the most widely accepted criteria for such identification: (1) the object is made by an artist; (2) the object is intended to be a work of art by its maker; (3) important, recognized experts agree it is a work of art. Hart (1991) cites four tenets for Western art: individuality, originality, permanence and form. Students may suggest each or be asked to react to any or all of these criteria. Early in this process, Feldman's four stages of art criticism are introduced (description, formal analysis, interpretation and judgment), although the second stage must be used somewhat perfunctory in the beginning until the concepts of the art elements and principles are internalized

87 (Feldman, 1982). Practicing this art criticism methodology on the more familiar works of Western art first will prepare students to apply the same steps later to non-Western works.

Non-Western Art and Internal Responses: Premature Decision-Making Basically, the first step of this model begins with the formation of a bridge between the students' current, though incomplete, knowledge of Western art and the exploration of artworks from a non-Western culture, and once again it endeavors to evoke and explore the initial impacts of these works of art upon the students (Moffit, 1969). This time, however, the pieces under consideration are a number of exemplars of art from a single non-Western culture, which are presented in the form of reproductions, slides and originals, if possible. Generally, works should be selected which contain features similar to Western art rather than being radically different (such as similar subject matter and media), as this allows a smoother transition between the two. Students are then encouraged to react to these works and to explore these feelings and reactions, but the object is to prevent students from making premature final decisions about these unfamiliar exemplars. On the other hand, the role of the instructor during this step is to lead the students subtly to an awareness of the roles of their Western backgrounds and expectations in establishing their "screens" for viewing these non-Western artworks. 88 Every person will have an initial reaction or first impression upon viewing any work of art, as communication through imagery is immediate, and the introduction to non- Western art similarly sets the student's minds in motion (Stevenson, 1950; Lankford, 1984). Most often these decisions are based upon preference only, like or dislike, which is not the same process as an evaluation based upon informed decision-making.

The first step of this model then is intended to sensitize students to the reactions, views and cultural influences which they bring to the work. That is, premature decision-making generally occurs during step one because the students react before they have gained important information in the form of the cues found in the work. For example, Mittler (1983) includes premature decision­ making in the beginning of his model, and he views it as the step from which students move as they embark upon a search for internal cues. The internal cues are the aesthetic qualities in a work of art, and it is necessary to move students beyond this first step, to a point where they begin formulating questions and answers necessary for critical examination and informed decision-making. As the students proceed with the subsequent nine steps of the model, they seek answers to questions that help uncover cues or aesthetic qualities which must be taken into account before final decisions can be made. By taking these cues and

89 qualities into account, the students are led to consider all aspects of criticism to make an informed final decision. The internal cues are discovered by applying the following four steps in this model to the work of art.

Transition: Western Art to Non-Western Art For students to gain significant understanding of non- Western works, they must prepare for participation through self-criticism. They should be encouraged to question actively the conditioning they have received through direct and indirect cultural training in our Western world. They should discover that Western values in art are not always congruent with those to be found in non-Western works. It is as important for the teacher to understand the students' backgrounds as it is for the individual student to understand their own biases. A main tenet in creating a cross-cultural art learning environment includes the teacher's as well as the students' confrontations with their own Western cultural training and social biases. This is also a prereq­ uisite for engaging in the task of looking at, responding to, and talking about art from a diverse culture. Discussion with the students should stress that the transition from Western to non-Western art is not always an easy one, as the students must set aside their loyalties to traditional Western art values and criteria for judgment in order to open themselves to those in the art of a non-Western 90 culture. Only then will students recognize that a lack of knowledge about the art values of the specific culture concerned obscures much of the content, delights and wonders of non-Western artworks.

Phase 2: Internal Cue Search Step (2) Description Literal Qualities (Imitationalism) At this point, an artwork is selected from the body of exemplars from the non-Western culture used in step one. This singular work will be the non-Western object of art to be criticized in the remainder of the model. As with steps three, four, and five which follow, step two enables the student to gain basic information from a work of art in the form of internal cues only. It should be emphasized that the search for internal cues confines criticism to the work itself. In this step and the following three steps, criticism necessarily will reflect the Western art values of the class, although nagging inconsistencies will begin to be evident during the process. Students should be encouraged in their observations of these differences although their interpretations of them will remain naive at this stage. The cultural significance of the work will be explored later in the model. In step two, the focus should be directly on the artwork in order to identify the type of art it represents and the

91 theme or subject of the work. The student should be looking for the literal qualities only in this non-Western artwork, and they should be encouraged to ask simple questions about the work, looking for answers that reveal internal cues. Exemplary questions might be: What do I see in the painting? Does the painting remind me of anything? The questions are references to the literal qualities perceived in the work and do not include value judgments.

It is sometimes difficult, however, for the student to avoid making inferences and value judgments even at this early stage. This would be another attempt at premature decision­ making. However, they must understand that the purpose of this step is not to judge but merely to identify what is seen in the work. That is, objects may be recognized as people, trees, mountains, flowers, musical instruments, books and other identifiable objects. Thus, step two involves observing and gathering factual information from the work. It is a beginning, although an important beginning. Students make descriptive statements, essentially factual claims, about the artwork. These can be verified by observation and enable students to inventory all the literal qualities in a work. Once this is done they turn their attention to identifying the elements of art in the work.

92 visual Qualities: Elements of Art (Formalism)

The purpose of this step is to identify the art elements within a non-Western artwork and to search for applications of the elements that are unique in that cultural context. This step requires students to use a formalistic approach, as formalism is the theory of art that focuses attention on the visual or formal qualities of a work. The various lines, shapes, colors and textures used in a composition are identified. An appreciation of the sensuous visual qualities is initiated without focusing on the formal relationship with the principles of art or with the emotional ideas expressed by the work. The art elements belong to the art work itself and are part of the physical properties of the work. The lines, shapes, colors, textures, space, values and intensities of the colors cannot be separated from the art work any more than the subject or the medium can be. Understanding an art object requires that one visually dissect the object. In this way utilizations of the elements in manners that are endemic to the non-Western art may be observed and recognized. For example, word imagery in the form of calligraphy is highly valued within Afghan compositions, but this is not considered an element in Western art. (See Appendices.) Also the sensuous values of the elements emphasized in Afghan art may be identified as: the sheen of jet black hair; the use of a wide variety of pure, opaque colors; the intense luminosity of 93 color; elaborate patterns that create simulated textures; proliferation of the use of organic shapes related to nature. On the other hand, references to flowing lines, cool or warm color, square or round shapes often yield universal sensory responses. Observations such as soft material, wavy, flowing hair or rugged mountains can be made by people from any culture. For this reason, this step in criticism transcends cultures, but students should observe generally how the elements of art are used differently in the West and as compared with non-Western cultures.

Step (3^1 Analysis In step three students function as formalist critics, continuing their search for the organizational plan of an artwork. The step is divided into two parts: analyzing the application of principles of art to organize the elements and analyzing the technical and media craftsmanship.

Visual Qualities: Principles of Art (Formalism) The first part of step three is designed to have students analyze the relationship between the elements and principles in the non-Western art object. The students continue to use formalism, the theory of art which places emphasis on the visual qualities of the work—the effective organization of the elements of art through the use of the principles

94 (Mittler, 1989). In short, formalism addresses the compo­ sition or design of the work. The principles to be considered are: balance, variety, contrast, emphasis, repetition, harmony, movement, proportion, and pattern. Each should be considered according to how it is used to organize the art elements in the work. The previous step required the student to isolate and observe individual elements by visually dissecting the work, but this step requires putting the pieces—the elements—back together. It is necessary to discover the organization within the art object in order to understand it completely, and this involves asking such questions as: Are the elements in the work successfully interrelated? Does the work make use of repetitious shapes? How is unity, the successful application of principles, achieved? Again, dissimilarities will be noted between the non- Western artwork and more familiar Western work, e.g., a definite emphasis on patterning; the organization of colors and shapes into complex, delicate, visual textures of abstract pattern; the underlying harmony and lyricism of stylized, repetitious patterns in the flowers, feathers, etc., the stylization of trees, foliage, mountains, etc. Students will observe and categorize other character­ istics as well. These may include: the treatment of flat surfaces abstractly; geometrical perspective, with little or no attempt at realism; simple spatial relationships, perhaps

95 only two-dimensional; the practice of showing every object from its most characteristic or easily perceived viewpoint; using multiple baselines to indicate distance, etc. If the design of the work was planned for an audience of non-Western people, however, how can a Westerner view and respond to it? Response to a work of art is dependent upon the way in which one perceives relationships among the aspects of form referred to as the art elements. Form itself is interpreted as physical reality. The content attributed to art objects is sometimes referred to as the meaning of what is seen. The students may begin to realize that the meaning may vary, as the organizational design may vary, between art from Western and non-Western cultures.

The formalist view is sometimes referred to as "art for art's sake," or art valued for its artistic properties alone. Adhering to this view helps students look closely at the elements and principles of art, and, acting as formalist critics, they are encouraged to respond to an art work's sensuous design qualities. The student-critic must decide whether or not the organization observed in the work is successful, but who determines the standards of success? Is this determined by Western or non-Western critics? Is this standard the same in both Western and non-Western cultures?

96 Examine: Technical and Media Craftsmanship

The second part of step three may involve the greater number of exemplary non-Western artworks originally introduced to the students as well as the singular work being criticized. These works may be displayed around the room for the students' observation and to allow more valid generalizations to be drawn. A few of the smaller works can be passed around the class, providing opportunities for students actually to touch and feel the works while the instructor encourages them to think about how the works were executed. Whenever possible, they should be allowed to compare originals with reproductions to observe the difference. Non-Western art is frequently unsigned, thus anonymous, but the painter is often a dedicated craftsman who has worked hard at developing the technical skill observed in the work. During this step, emphasis is placed on gaining insight into the methods, tools, and craftsmanship of the works (Broudy, 1972). Questions may arise concerning the availability of certain tools and materials and the limited access to training necessary to use tools and develop advanced techniques. For example, the paint medium the Afghan artist chooses for his work has an important bearing on how the work looks. Not all media lend themselves to the same expressive ends. Afghan miniature paintings would not be as effective in oil as they are in tempera and watercolor. Tempera paint dries rapidly, which means that the Afghan artist has a more 97 difficult time smoothly blending tones together. As a con­ sequence, the painting is often created with short, separate strokes, and a close inspection of the original reveals these tiny individual brushstrokes. Egg is added to the tempera to improve permanency, so that correcting errors is somewhat difficult due to the slight transparent nature of the medium. Consequently, Afghan art is carefully planned and executed and the effect of the completed painting is usually one of great delicacy and neatness.

Watercolor is the Afghan's other major medium of choice, and tempera and watercolor are often used together on the same piece. Afghan artists tend to favor the indirect method of painting, in which images are slowly built-up in a step-by- step process, because it lends itself to representations of the subject matter with controlled, technical skill instead of creative spontaneity. Whatever the culture of the artwork being considered, the student should be encouraged to ask how its media and methods compare with those used in Western painting. Knowing how a work is created is often important to understanding that work. To understand the media, technique and methods used is to gain insights leading to greater knowledge and appreciation of a work of art.

98 step f4^ Interprf^t^t-ir^n

Expressive Qualities (Emotionalism) Many models refer to interpretation as one of the most pleasurable, desirable and enriching experiences in the performance of criticism. This step involves students in the theory of emotionalism, the theory of art which places emphasis on a work's expressive qualities. Viewers look at a work of art in this regard and allow themselves to become a part of it. They imagine what they would see and feel if they could be "inside" the space created by the artist. As it is often the response to the expressive cues in an artwork that creates viewer interest, questions are asked by the teacher which aid in arriving at personal interpretations of the work. Such questions would include: Is there a message in the artwork? How did the artist communicate this message to the viewer? Can more than one message be found? What does it mean to the viewer? What is the mood or feeling of the artwork? To interpret an artwork, one must discover the moods, emotions, feelings, symbols and meanings of the object. These cues can help students understand what is seen and the way in which an artwork can be interpreted. However, the steps of this model lead the students to the realization that additional cues must be taken into consideration in order to understand non-Western artwork.

99 Form and content combine to create expressiveness. Together they are important because they contribute to the overall significance of the work. Cultural references clearly influence this act of interpretation because ideational elements form the basis by which content is expressed and ultimately interpreted.

Interpreting the meaning of a work from another culture requires time and a desire to build an understanding based on new knowledge, as questions will arise involving symbols that are unknown due to lack of cultural understanding. Indeed, a complete theme or subject may prove to be difficult to inter­ pret for this reason. This step involving interpretation leaves the students in a position to make a decision regarding judgment of the work— but only a tentative judgement. More experiences must occur, more cues must be recognized, and more questions must be asked and answered before decision-making can occur.

Step (5) Judgment: Tentative Decision- Making Based Upon Internal Cues In step five, students are taught how to judge a non- Western work of art basing judgment solely upon the internal cues observed earlier in the previous three steps. They are in a position to review everything learned during these steps in order to make intelligent, personally rewarding judgments. The discussion leading up to judgment has focused upon the literal, visual and expressive aesthetic qualities, as the 100 students were introduced to the theories emphasizing these qualities during steps two through four. Now, they should review these qualities as observed in the non-Western object when making this tentative decision. In reviewing the critical process up to this point, the students have sought to determine which of the three aesthetic qualities makes the greatest contribution to the work's artistic excellence and success. If two or three aesthetic qualities are viewed as equal in influence, they should consider this during the judgement process, but the role that each plays in the work's success should be reviewed. The imitationalist is concerned with how realistic or naturalistic the work of art appears. Imitationalists see excellence according to the accurate depiction of life imitated in the work of art. The success of the work is measured by the degree of naturalism used in the art work. The formalist is most concerned with how effectively art elements and principles are used. The excellence of the art object is determined by its visual organization. The for­ malist looks for the relationships between the visual elements of an artwork regardless of labels, associations or symbolic meanings (Feldman, 1982). The form of the art object deter­ mines its success and the visual pleasure it affords the viewer. The emotionalist (or expressivist) is concerned with the quality of ideas or feelings communicated and how well those

101 ideas and feelings come through to the perceiver. Emotion­ alist critics see excellence as the objects potential to communicate ideas and feelings in a vivid, intense and true manner. Emotionalists are not especially interested in formal organization for its own sake (Feldman, 1982). Mittler (1986) discusses the expressive qualities of feelings, moods and emotions as the concerns of emotionalism. When interpreting an art object, the perceiver focuses attention on the expres­ sive qualities emphasized by emotionalism. Students then are encouraged to assimilate the internal cues and information gained in the previous steps to make tentative judgments about the singular piece of non-Western art that has been the object of this criticism. They should base their judgments on one, two or all three of the aesthetic qualities noted in the work. Of course, there are other models and theories with different criteria that might be used to judge different art objects. Criteria in some models and theories are based exclusively on the aesthetic qualities; others specify that a work of art must fulfill certain cultural or personal functions; but theories based entirely on internal cues are not appropriate for non-Western art. It is highly possible that the cultural context may be the critical factor providing the insight necessary for understanding and appreciating an art object.

102 A content choice at this point must be consciously made with reference to the available internal cues. Students should now realize that, if no contextual or historical infor­ mation is available, the final decision-making process must be deferred. The choice of deferral is an admission that only a tentative decision is possible due to the lack of necessary knowledge with which to make a final and complete judgment. When the search for cultural information is omitted from the model, the student is denied important external information providing the knowledge needed for a complete understanding of non-Western art. Discussion should be directed to how internal cues lead to questions regarding external criteria that cannot be answered without additional study.

Phase 3: Confirmation Check Step (6^ Investigate: Contextualism Art and Context An objective of step six is for students to recognize cultural identity and diversity in art, and, conversely, it should lead them to recognize the non-Western art object as a product of its culture. This recognition will derive from the students' search for external cues, i.e., a search to gain knowledge and understanding from sources outside of the artwork itself (Moffit, 1969). These external cues afford the student an opportunity to determine the influences surrounding the work. Consequently,

103 any information concerning the context in which the piece was created should be investigated. Students should search for cues which indicate how culture and history have influenced the work and the artist who created it: Who is the artist? What is known about that artist? Was the importance of the work recognized when it was created? What other important events were taking place at the time and in the place where it was created?

While it should be expected that the same work of art will be perceived by different students in different ways, it will be helpful if they are aware of events and experiences surrounding the production of the work. This understanding may be gained from research and the ideas expressed by historians, art critics, sociologists and informed and knowl­ edgeable people. Discipline-based art education advocates the need for contextual art study in the curriculum. It is an integral part of understanding and appreciating art and leads to the next step, Instructionalism. DBAE theory supports providing depth of understanding that includes historical and cultural meanings of art (Hamblen, 1988).

Features of Artistic Style The students should search for external and internal cues to identify the features that give the work its unique identity as the product of a particular culture, group or

104 artist. Feldman (1982) refers to style as the pervasive quality (or qualities) inherent in all art, and students can utilize these styles or qualities as a means for categorizing works of art.

One student may most appreciate the objective accuracy of a work; another student may immediately admire the formal order, i.e., its balance, harmony and stability of the work. A third may be impressed by the emotional or expressive qualities. A fourth may be impressed with its fantasy—the imaginative presentation of unreal forms, places and events in the work. Non-Western art may trigger any one of these responses from a student, although it is possible that not all non-Western art can be categorized according to them. The "triggering" may be based on how the cultural orientations of the object and the viewer come together. Thus, the characteristics of the object and the perceptions of the student meet. The confusion that students may feel may be due primarily to "seeing" the work as foreign. Despite their discovery of some connections with the work, often the discon­ nections outweigh the familiarities. Cues facilitate concept development of the style concerned by encouraging students to begin to identify the mass of accumulated data on the basis of similarities of attributes or characteristics. Features such as media, material and technique are noted, as they may help the students recognize the style of the work of art.

105 Many art objects from other cultures were made to serve functions of which students in the West are generally unaware (Preble, 1985). Functions, styles, and the concept of reality in art changes between cultures, and over time cultures develop styles and pictorial conventions to frame reality. Familiarity with these styles and conventions may help the student to distinguish a tradition and recognize the artwork's contribution to the society. This process is crucial in order to fully understand any work of art and move into the next step of the model.

Step (7) Investigate: Instrumentalism Art and Purpose This step encourages the student to ask "why was this work created?" The student should search for external cues to provide information regarding the purpose of the object. Art as purpose is important to the theory of instrumentalism. The instrumentalist sees art as serving a propaganda-like purpose by communicating ideas related to moral, religious, commemorative, political or economic reason. They focus upon the consequences of the ideas and feelings expressed in the object, as they want to serve ends more important than art itself (Feldman, 1982). If the art object does not promote the objective of humanity, the work may be regarded as a failure in the eyes of the instrumentalist.

106 Instrumentalism is included within this model because many non-Western artworks are created for religious, moral or commemorative purposes. Students should search for cues and information as they ask questions such as: What instructional religious, devotional, sacramental or ritualistic ideas are expressed by the work? How is the message and purpose tied to the belief system of this culture? As a consequence, students may not understand the work until they gain knowledge regarding its religious purpose.

The work should be recognized as a record of human heritage and achievement. Art has many uses. The student should search for cues that suggest the possible use of the object under scrutiny (Broudy, 1972). Students should recognize that works of art may often have a purpose when they are made, but they many not continue to be used as originally intended. They should search for cues related to moral, ethnical, familial or commemorative purposes. It is important that students investigate external and internal cues in order to learn facts that may have influenced the work of art. They must ask questions and look for answers on how time and place affected the object. Instrumentalist art requires strong motivation on the part of its creator. The motivation to create the work lies with the purpose the art is intended to serve. Instrumentalists believe the aesthetic values of the work are found in its ability to express a larger, more meaningful

107 purpose. Expression provides the standard of judgment for the instrumentalist. Consequently, art may be viewed as excellent by the Afghans, for example, because of its goal to implement the messages of the Koran, without regard to visual organ­ ization of form. The work is a failure in the eyes of the instrumentalist if the object does not promote an understood purpose of society.

Step (8^^ Judgment: Tentative Decision- Making Based Upon External Cues Art criticism and art history operations are combined to help the student respond to Western and non-Western artworks. In the process of researching the external cues, the student may find it necessary to serve as his own art historian due to the fact that many non-Western works of art have not been researched, analyzed, or evaluated. An appreciation of non-Western art requires the student to base a judgement on the work's external cues. This step also requires the acquisition of historical and contextual information and the application of external criteria to the art object. In order to make judgment about the non-Western artwork, the students rely on ability to process, structure, use and assess external cues. Students cannot expect to understand non-Western art by relying exclusively on an examination of internal cues. Understanding and appreciation comes from students' compre­ hension and awareness of the purposes and cultural struggles 108 behind the work. Information must be obtained that allows students to understand the non-Western society and culture. Students will never be able literally to "walk in the shoes of the artist," observe the process of the creation of the work, live in the time period of the past and experience the culture without this information.

Lack of accurate information about the art object may influence its judgment, so students must make a conscious decision regarding the extent to which this limitation affects their judgments. They must be aware of ways to gain information by researching, seeking visual information from similar art objects and comparative analysis with additional similar and dissimilar objects. The ultimate choice could be to travel to the non-Western country concerned, study and compare original works and interview any person with knowledge about the art object. All of this information is external and will influence the confirmation check.

Phase 4: Confirmation Completion Step (9) Final Decision-Making Based Upon Internal and External Cues Reassessment: Literal, Visual, and Expressive Qualities The goal of this step in the model is to confirm the student's readiness to make a final decision as a consequence of participating in a thorough examination of the non-Western

109 work of art. A final decision should be based on conscien­ tious reassessments of both internal and external cues. They should be able to relate their decisions to specific criteria, and they should be able to formulate and substantiate an intelligent, knowledgeable decision about the work.

Students should review their experiences and the infor­ mation gained in all of the preceding steps, concentrating on the two steps involving tentative judgments about the work, steps five (internal cues) and eight (external cues). This allows them to review the important information and criteria which prompted the tentative decision-making. Reassessment of the literal, visual, and expressive aesthetic qualities based upon the external cues is necessary for final decision-making. The students should review the internal cues in light of the external cues. How does information gained through application of contextual and instrumental theories influence the aesthetic qualities reflecting the concerns of Imitationalism, Formalism and Emotionalism? How does this combined information gained from and about the object help in the formulation of a final decision?

Confirmation of the Decision This final judgment will be determined more easily as the students review their answers to questions such as these: How is the work related to human behavior, needs and purposes? Is

110 this work a good example of its style? What aesthetic quali­ ties are the most important? What aims and purposes were intended for the piece? How was artistic quality identified? What do other, similar pieces of non-Western art look like? What made this piece different? Would one have any reason for anticipating that this work might have any significant influence upon other artists in the future? Students should discuss questions such as these relating to all information gained up to this point as they have focused upon the non- Western artwork. Confirmation completion means that a decision has been considered intelligently from many angles and can be substan­ tiated. When evaluation is viewed not as approval or disapproval, but as an attempt to confirm cues, then the goal of gaining the fullest possible appreciation of the work of art will most likely be served. A goal of this step is for students to understand the consequences of the previous decisions incurred in the process of criticism, i.e., those involving premature and tentative decisions. By reviewing the important questions that have been discovered and discussed, each student should be able to determine and substantiate his or her individual, final decision. This final judgment should integrate all previous decisions and critical thinking. Enough important internal and external information should have been discovered by the

111 students in all of the preceding steps to assure an intelli­ gent and informed final judgment about the work.

Phase 5: Reinforcement Step flOl Reinforcement Looking Back: Comparing Premature and Final Decisions The experience with one non-Western art object is likely to increase sensitivity to the next. This may be reinforced by again looking at the group of non-Western works which were presented earlier in step one of the process—the ones to which the critical model was not applied. How have the ideas, feelings, knowledge and values of the student changed? What value was derived from the critical inquiry of non-Western art? Where does the experience fit in the student's life? The students should compare the cues identified in the Western art in the introduction to the model with those discovered in non-Western art. How are the cues similar and how are they different? What information was considered relevant in the confirmation check? What informational cues were frequently used in the decision-making process? Which cues are found in both Western and non-Western art? The tenets of Western art should be used to compare the criteria of Western art to the art of non-Western culture concerned as a reinforcement of the cross-cultural comparisons. The four characteristics should be briefly applied to the work by the students in a broad, general 112 context. The four tenets—individuality, originality, permanence and form—should be applied briefly to the artwork by the students in a broad, general context, as this comparison may help to raise questions that will provide further insights. Discussions by the students should focus upon the following questions: Is the importance of the individual artist viewed the same in Western and non-Western culture? Is the uniqueness and originality of the work important in the non-Western culture as it is in the West? How important is the permanence of the object in this diverse culture? Is the centrality of form valued equally or differently in the contrasting cultures? How is it used differently? Are these characteristics important to the work as it is viewed in our culture? How might it be viewed in its own culture? How would the student write tenets for the art of the non-Western culture concerned? What might be learned from this? Students, for the purpose of confirmation, should discuss the three Western art criteria presented in the introduction and apply them to the non-Western artwork: Was the object made by an artist? Was the object intended to be a work of art by its maker? Do important, recognized experts agree that it is a work of art? (Martin and Jacobus, 1991). These three questions are frequently presented in art discussions or embedded in art literature, and, if adhered to rigorously.

113 they may tend to disqualify a vast portion of the art of the non-Western world. Students also should be able to discuss and substantiate the answers to the following questions: What difficulties arose in applying Western criteria to a non-Western art object? Are these criteria applicable to Western as well as non-Western art? If not, why is it difficult to transfer Western criteria? Does this mean non-Western art is not art? How might the criteria for the two cultures differ? These questions are important for the student to consider as the final evaluations are made. If they are not well considered and answered, the students' decisions may be eroded as the questions are later encountered.

Focus on the Viewer: Impact of the work and the Criticism Experience In addition to monitoring their own attitudes about art from non-Western cultures throughout the critical experience, both teachers and students must confront continually other biases of a social, political, economic or cultural nature. By comparing steps one and ten, students are able to compare the informational and attitudinal changes that have occurred. One may be disappointed if one entertains the expectation that all students will arrive at a consensus. However, they will gain insights and understandings of non-Western art as they participate both individually and collectively in the comparative process. 114 Art provides a way of seeing that is similar to using another person's eyes. It is a way of getting beyond the limitations of our ordinary, daily way of looking at things. If one is able to see through another's eyes, one can see the validity of another's point of view. Discussion should focus upon some of the following considerations: Has the student's point of view changed between the premature and final decision-makings? How is this change manifested? Through application of this model, was appreciation lost or changed in character? What changes in critical appreciation of art have occurred in the student since step one? What did the student learn about himself? How have attitudes and beliefs about non-Western art been altered? Did the student learn about the aesthetic attitudes and art cultural values of others who are different? In conclusion, a goal of using the model is to teach students to make decisions about non-Western art. Through this experience, the students may realize no culture or ethnic group is superior to another. Students may discover Western art is not superior to non-Western art, but that it has a different context. The art may have been created for a different purpose than what was originally thought. The knowledge of purpose may foster the understanding of the object. Critical decision-making opens new doors to understanding and knowledge of non-Western art, as well as its culture.

115 The concluding discussion should focus upon the ability and vital importance of art to relate one human being to another through visual form. Art provides one of the most potent proofs of the basic unity of all people, and this idea can be reinforced through the application of this model. Through art, the student may enhance the realization of personal experience and discover the sensibilities of others (Ryder, 1987). This model is important because it helps students to establish and reinforce the meaning and relevance of the critical experience. Like the aesthetic experience, this may occur profoundly, or it may begin simply and intensify through time and experience later in life. A goal of this model is to validate in the mind of the viewer the act and relevance of criticism of non-Western art. Hopefully, students will realize the value of the experience and choose to repeat it throughout life with other non-Western artworks.

116 CHAPTER IV SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary As the world truly becomes a global village, it is found that the interests of the nation, even the economy, is becoming more and more interdependent parts of the broader interests of the planet. These interfaces require that Americans acquire much greater understanding of other countries, other cultures, if they are to be effective world partners—if Americans are to compete. Yet, it is found that the nation is changing also from the inside. The greater mobility of world populations has resulted in mass immigrations of non-Western peoples and cultures on a massive scale with the result that the American populace rapidly is becoming multicultural to a degree unprecedented in history. Thus, greater understanding is imperative, not just to understand other countries, but to understand America. Much of the burden for the acquisition of this knowledge and understanding of other cultures lies within the educa­ tional system in art curriculae this growing awareness is reflected in the tenets of discipline-based art education (DBAE). Augmenting the previous and almost exclusive concern of art education with personal expression and creativity, DBAE has placed strong emphases upon knowledge and understanding of art by expanding the concerns of the field to include art 117 criticism, art history, and aesthetics; as well as the more traditional offerings in studio art. It also has stressed that the content of this study should include all types of art, including folk art and non-Western art. This study relates to non-Western art, and art criticism is its primary concern. Its goal is to teach decision-making which may lead to greater understanding of other cultures through art.

Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to develop a discipline- based art education model for criticism and inquiry directed to non-Western art to be used with non-art majors at the college level. Its purpose is three-fold: (1) to review the literature concerning art criticism/inquiry and art appre­ ciation in relation to art education; (2) to survey past and current models of art criticism/inquiry deemed applicable for the classroom; and (3) to construct a discipline-based art education model for cross-cultural art criticism in classrooms on the college level.

Historical Precedents Art criticism/inquiry and art appreciation in art education have evolved from two somewhat diverse approaches conceived just before the turn of the century: Charles Elliott Norton's survey of art masterpieces at Harvard

118 University and the formally analytical approach of Arthur Wesley Dow's Composition. Others followed who reflected one or the other or both of these orientations, although they may seem more alike than different to us. They included Henry R. Poore, Henry Turner Bailey, John Cotton Dana, Charles Caffin, and the Prang Company.

John Dewey and Progressive Education became the dominating influences by the 1920s, as self-expression and the understanding of the expressions of others became important emphases. From this democratic perspective emerged Edwin Ziegfield's Owatonna Project in the 1930s with its concern for art as a way of living, and, during the same general time frame, Thomas Munro posed critical questions about works of art, using the now-familiar four steps of description, analysis, interpretation, and judgment. Viktor Lowenfeld emerged in the last 1940s to dominate the art education field for a time with his charismatic influence, extending the philosophy of Dewey with his concerns for the physical, psychological, and emotional growth of children. June McFee stressed learner differences and psychological and cultural-anthropological factors affecting learning, and aesthetic education began to emerge as a dominant force in art education after a conference on the subject at Pennsylvania State University in 1965. However, the emphasis remained primarily upon self-expression, and studio art production remained the focus in the art classroom.

119 Through the efforts of art educators such as June McFee, Laura Chapman, Eliot Eisner, Edward Feldman, and others, aesthetic education evolved into discipline-based art education by the early 1980s. Equal emphases with studio art production were advocated by the new movement for the more neglected areas of art education: art criticism, aesthetics, and art history. In specifically considering the models for art criticism/ inquiry developed for the purposes of art appreciation in the schools, one must note that the various formats have in common a linear step-by-step decision making sequence in which steps build upon each other. These include models by Stevenson, Bruner, Sibley, Weitz, Moffit, Feldman, Broudy, Smith, Hurwitz, Hamblen, Lankford, Mittler, and Crawford. The emphases vary, primarily, as to whether they stress the formalistic or the expressive qualities of the artwork, and some describe, analyze, and interpret without judging, but strong similarities exist between them otherwise. The model developed for this study draws most extensively upon those of Feldman, Bruner, and Mittler.

The Model The ten-step model developed for this study introduces novice art students to art criticism and inquiry through its application to non-Western art. Students are led to search for information in the forms of both internal and external

120 cues in forming premature and tentative decisions or evaluations before arriving at an informed, final judgment about an artwork.

The model functions as a tool by providing a framework for viewing and analyzing these foreign and unfamiliar works derived from different cultural, religious, and social perspectives, and is intended to encourage students to delay judgments until an optimum measure of information has been collected. The model is comprised basically of five Phases: (1) Introductory Activities; (2) Internal Cue Search; (3) Confirmation Check; (4) Confirmation Completion; and (5) Reinforcement. Phase one. Introductory Activities, is congruent with step one. Introduction, which in turn consists of three sub- steps: (1) Introduction of Western Art and Art Criticism Methodology (using the four-step model); (2) Non-Western Art and Internal Responses (based on premature decision-making); and (3) Transition from Western Art to Non-Western Art. In the preliminary, preparatory part, students are introduced to the Feldman model for art criticism, and, over a period of two or three weeks, several selected pieces of Western art are subjected in an exemplary manner to its four-step critical process involving description, formal analysis, interpre­ tation, and evaluation of the works.

121 The second part of phase one/step one involves the spontaneous, premature decisions of the students concerning non-Western artworks. In this step, the students are presented for the first time in the classroom with a number of artworks from a specific non-Western culture in the forms of reproductions, slides, and, if possible, original works. Their "gut" reactions are encouraged. Because of the students' general lack of exposure to or familiarity with the non-Western culture concerned, their reactions at this stage are biased, quite necessarily, only upon the internal cues observed within the works.

In the third part of phase one, step one, the students are encouraged by the instructor to verbalize their reactions and to explore them in discussions intended to make them progressively more aware that their judgments are distorted and biased by their lack of information about the works and by their own values, values biased by their Western perspectives. Phase two of the model. Internal Cue Search, contains four steps, steps two through five, which basically subject a selected artwork from the non-Western culture concerned to the four steps of art criticism: Description, Analysis, Inter­ pretation, and Judgment. This criticism, however, is based only upon the internal cues which can be observed in the work itself so that the judgment reached in Step five is based upon information that is incomplete and therefore must be regarded as tentative in nature.

122 Phase three. Confirmation Check, consists of three steps, all of which are based upon external cues. Steps six and seven relates the work with its place within the history of the culture and its art in the attempt to place it within the context of its creation (contextualism: the context and artistic style of the work) and the purpose for which it was created (instrumentalism). Step eight involves another tentative judgment of the work, based this time upon its external cues only.

Phase four of the model. Confirmation Completion, contains only one step. Step nine, which involves making a final decision about the work. Both the internal cues which have been found in the work and the external cues found outside the work are examined in making the best balanced and informed judgment possible. Phase five. Reinforcement, contains only one step as well—step ten. As its title indicates, this final part of the model reinforces what the students have learned by asking them to look back to step one to reconsider their initial reactions to the art of the non-Western culture concerned. The original exemplars are brought back into the classroom, and students are encouraged to generalize what they have learned about the culture and its art by relating their new knowledge and attitudes to a number of the other exemplars provided.

123 Conclusions Non-Western works of art are complex and multi-dimen­ sional. Such works confront novices with new orientations and concepts, some of which can differ from their point-of-view, and, in order to appreciate the full complexities of the works, a comprehensive, combined approach to their study is necessary. The approach should explore the work's literal, formal, and emotional aesthetic qualities, but consider these qualities relative to the context and purpose of its creation. This provides a holistic background for criticism so that the students are in a position to participate with a perspective of some legitimacy in regard to the work. This approach is particularly essential for criticism of artworks which are unfamiliar due to the students' prior experience and is fully congruent with the philosophy of discipline-based art education. In the review of the existing models, it was apparent that many were appropriate for use in examining Western art, but none were directed specifically to non-Western works. Novice art students tend to make premature decisions regarding the non-Western object based upon their own limited background in art, rather than upon an intelligent and knowledgeable response based upon what they have learned from and about the work. The first step of the model led students to examine their own reactions, views, influences from their

124 culture, and move away from the premature decisions that result inevitably from these initial exposures. The model is based upon the theory that, in order to develop a more successful program which promotes appreciation of non-Western art, the student within that program must not only view the art in terms of internal and external cues, but also must view the art from a different context. In order to do so, the student must attempt to move from viewing the work in the student's own context in the beginning of the model, to observing internal cues, to viewing from the context of the culture, religion and social perspective of the art object during steps six through ten. This model relies in part on the combined art criticism/ art history approach to art learning as set forth in earlier models, but the key ingredients added to this model were those of contextualism and instrumentalism. As information about the work unfolds, the perspective of the student should move into the context of the object's creation and the purpose for which it was created. It is this process during the steps of the inquiry that allows the student to interpret and evaluate the work in a way that adds the dimension of cross-cultural relevance. In order to guide the student effectively in this direction, questions throughout all of the steps in the model attempt gradually, but forcefully, to move the student to such a cross-cultural perspective.

125 simply "talking about" non-Western art is clearly insufficient to insure learning; however, there must be critical art activities in which the student can engage in decision-making and which are directly related to the concepts, principles, and objectives that have been formu­ lated. For this purpose, instructor's strategy notes for critical inquiry of non-Western art were designed to accompany this model (see Appendix). It is intended that the students learn the kinds of questions to ask about non-Western works of art by searching for both internal and external cues in and relevant to the work of art. Students who wish to develop a stronger appreciation must seek to categorize similar cues and confirm the cue search in order to gain a clearer perception and deeper understanding of the specific works. In art, the cue search may be as important as the confirmation, i.e., the students who are more successful in this step may not be the ones with all of the answers, but rather the ones who know how to apply the cue search to recognize, categorize and confirm data and criteria. This data, when properly categorized, may lead to an appreciative, new, critical awareness which could extend throughout their lives. Bringing clarity into the field of art appreciation is necessary for effective learning to flourish—clarity to stimulate further inquiry and curiosity, not to close issues. Clarity was developed through searching for cues, by asking

126 appropriate questions, and by finding and categorizing the answers. Appropriate questions which are conducive to greater student involvement and higher order thinking promote more confidence in recognition of and interest in art critical appreciation for non-Western art. In order to develop and implement the model, descriptive cue questions and cue categories about the circumstances sur­ rounding the creation of the art work, the artist, and the viewer (the student) were prepared. This information is presented in the cue search strategy (Appendix). The cue search strategy was used with the students in a sequence corresponding to each of the ten steps. This procedure allows the presentation and collection of a wide range of information with different levels of specificity, cultural interpretation, and types of questions, to enable the instructor to draw the governing concepts and steps of criticism from the concerns of non-Western art, the artist and the viewer. The procedural considerations or concerns about how art criticism/inquiry for non-Western art is generated and ordered included the following: a need for a critical theory of art that questions the appropriateness of traditional art models for non-Western art; the influences of cross-cultural inter­ pretations for responding to, examining, analyzing, and judging non-Western art; and the potential for the model for encouraging appreciation for non-Western art by the students.

127 The fact that this study has performed such a task on an Afghan culture (see Appendix), whose contemporary art, beliefs, and history are less documented than some other Asian and non-Western cultures, suggests it is also possible to apply the model to other non-Western cultures that have an abundance of contextual information surrounding their art.

This writer's approach to preparing the model for art appreciation was affected by the perceptions, interests, and preferences of the researcher who developed it originally for the study of Afghan art. The use of the model was affected also by the availability of contextual information about the culture, artist, historical period, and art objects available to the students. The works of art were selected by the researcher partly based upon the assumption that the students would have little prior knowledge of Afghan art and that the magnitudes of the resulting changes in attitudes, understanding and appreciation between step one and step ten would be most persuasive. This professional problem has emerged from the critical need for a more culturally responsive approach to art appre­ ciation in curriculum planning and implementation. Our curricula generally reflect our Western tendency to think in terms of our dominant, mainstream culture and make uneducated critical comparisons and premature judgments in which non- Western cultures are seen as marginal or inferior. They are often viewed unfairly as being uncultured or primitive in

128 relation to our own advanced technology and sophisticated accomplishments.

Although this study has shown how appreciation for non- Western works of art is encouraged through contextual cultural study, it is important to acknowledge that problems of cross- cultural interpretation are inherent in any effort of criticism/inquiry with an object from one culture and a viewer from another. Even though an effort has been made to discover cultural implications concerning the non-Western art object, the understanding must be conveyed that the concepts concerning the culture of the object concerned are shaped and viewed through the screen of the viewer's culture. Once this is accepted as a factor affecting the explanations that students may make about the non-Western art object, an effort can be made to achieve a more balanced view. This can be accomplished by cultivating the most comprehensive knowledge possible about the creation of the non-Western work of art, as this decision-making must be based on external as well as internal information. Does application of the model suggest enhanced appreciation of non-Western art by the students? Although testing and evaluation of the model are not within the scope of this study, it was used in the college classroom in the process of its development of the purpose of addressing Afghan artwork. (See Appendix for exemplars.) The responses of the students indicate that enhanced awareness resulted as they

129 considered the works' contexts within a non-Western culture and the purposes for which they were created. The students have to be willing to put themselves on trial as they search for their own biases. An open mind and willingness to realize many viewpoints are needed to appre­ ciate art from a different culture, period and civilization. Instructional procedures (see Appendix) derived from the model presented led students to develop cross-cultural empathy and a consciousness of perspective, and to view cultural differences as interesting rather than threatening. The realization that people from other non-Western cultures may hold views that diverge sharply from one's own, was one result. Empathy was another result because works of art have the potential to evoke feelings, sympathy and compassion. One of the primary goals of DBAE is to develop students' abilities to understand and appreciate art. This involves developing the abilities to respond to art through criticism. This study has developed a model for criticism and inquiry suitable for discipline-based art education and directed to non-Western art, and it represents an effort to put into effect the recommendations of a number of art educators who advocate the development of a broader more contextual, cultural approach to the teaching of art appreciation. DBAE tenets seek to illuminate cultural values reflected in the art from all people, and criticism offers an effective means to this end.

130 DBAE attempts to develop well-rounded students and people who should be able to respond comfortably and intelligently as they encounter works of art in museums, galleries and other areas, discussing and evaluating them in an informed and articulate manner. Further, they should be able to understand and appreciate unusual works of art from other cultures as well as familiar Western pieces. The need for informed critical thinkers who have skills in visual aesthetic discrim­ ination and decision-making is important to the future, and criticism within the framework of DBAE provides students with the opportunity to develop these art critical skills.

Recommendations for Further Study In response to the growing ethnic diversity within classrooms, it seems clear that teachers of art must make a major effort to understand the cultures, characteristic attitudes, feelings, values, and beliefs of all their students —especially concerning the expressive forms they take in their arts and social behavior. They must acknowledge also the indifference and/or outright hostility of some to a traditional concept of "fine art" in America based solely upon European influences. Research in college art environments needs to be conducted to provide greater insights into how art criticism/ inquiry can affect and reflect the needs of these diverse ethnic groups. On the broader scale, there is a need for

131 addressing, understanding, and eliminating any discriminatory barriers which restrict the opportunities of these groups for academic success, i.e., barriers relating to race, class, institutions, etc. (Loos, 1986, p. 74). Loos concludes that universities treat minorities as being invisible by expecting them to conform to white standards, an observation that provides further argument for the importance of studying sociocultural alienation in art appreciation curriculum. It is important to demonstrate and accept that all people are different. For years, it was popular to speak of the United States as "the great melting pot," but our "stew" has never been a puree. Historically, diversity has been a strength for our nation, producing the rich, cultural pluralism of heritage, and never have cultures been more diverse than they are today. To "start where the student is," it will be necessary to learn more about the life-styles of students through cross- cultural research by comparing the art educational backgrounds of students from the United States with those of students from other countries. For example, future studies might concern themselves with how different cultures judge their own, i.e., the criteria used by these various cultures for evaluative purposes. How similar or dissimilar are these criteria to American and to other cultures? One obvious resource of addressing this concern could be the students from various non-Western cultures that are found

132 more and more in American classrooms. These students themselves can provide valuable insights concerning the application of the model to non-Western art by relating it to their own cultures. Conversely, they can often provide the opportunity for reversing the application by centering upon the arts of their own cultures and relating them to Western art, an inverse perspective which can stimulate fresh insights for the student, for his fellow students, and for the instructor. The obvious conclusion to be drawn from these observations is that future studies involving this model should test it with a number of differing cultures. Most applications could be from the Western perspective dominant in most art classrooms in our country, but others could reverse the perspective by moving into that of the culture of a non- Western student or students. Obviously, the model could be adapted as well for cross-cultural applications between students from differing non-Western cultures. While it is at the college level that the educational system receives the greatest numbers of students with non- Western origins, many of whom are native to our country, many more are from foreign countries, and growing numbers of these are remaining in the United States after leaving the univer­ sities. The need for cross-cultural understanding is imperative.

133 Quite aside from concerns about present cultural differences, research of a rather different nature suggests itself as well. Often the cultural contexts and purposes of folk art (e.g., Mexican folk art or the art of Appalachia) and of the art of other historical eras (e.g., ancient Celtic art or prehistoric cave paintings) may be as foreign as many contemporary non-Western cultures. Even though some of these forms may not be non-Western, the model could be adapted quite easily for addressing these cultures and their products. Concern for understanding and appreciating the art of other cultures are congruent with the tenets of discipline-based art education.

Although it is outside of the scope of this study, all of these applications suggest the need for development of supportive curricula, materials, and textbooks. Such a curriculum should encourage students to become aware of experiences and ways of knowing different from their own and should promote a critical awareness of the way the belief systems of our own culture shape our view of the art of other societies and times. As cities, and consequently universities, become enriched with new American citizens, many with former non-Western backgrounds, the inclusion of criticism/inquiry of non-Western art as content in students' art studies and experiences becomes increasingly important. Such art exemplars provide opportunities for greater understanding and mutual respect on

134 the part of all students within the classroom. The extent to which non-Western art can be and should be woven into the fabric of American art and of world art for best utilization in art classes in universities is a field that is open for investigation.

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142 APPENDIX A STEP ONE—INTRODUCTION—INSTRUCTOR'S NOTES AND MODEL APPLICATIONS

143 step (1) Introduction

Prior to introducing the model, students were asked over a period of weeks to propose Western artworks which they preferred and discussed informally these basically intuitive choices. Students were asked to consider criteria which identified an object as a work of art, and they were encouraged to isolate some of the important characteristics of Western art. Early in this process, Feldman's four stages of art criticism were introduced: description, formal analysis, interpretation and judgment. The students practiced applying art criticism methodology on the more familiar works of Western art first in order to prepare them to apply the same steps later to non-Western works. Students were then encouraged to react to original works of art and reproductions from Afghanistan and to explore these feelings and reactions, but the object was to prevent students from making premature final decisions about these unfamiliar exemplars. Each student had an initial reaction or first impression upon viewing the work of art and the introduction to non-Western art similarly set the students' minds in motion. The students were encouraged to question actively the conditioning received through direct and indirect cultural training in our Western world. They discovered that Western

144 values in art were not always congruent with those found in non-Western works. The following cue questions were used by the teacher for the classroom discussion. The following cue categories facilitated the discussion by being written on the board as they were considered important. The cues were suggested by the students or the teacher.

145 Phase 1: Introductory Activities

Step (1) Introduction (presented by the teacher in the first class) Cue Questions for Discussion and Analysis of Western Art: (1) What criteria helps identify an object as a work of art? (2) What main ideas are considered important to characteristics for Western art?

Cue Categories (written on the board by the teacher): (a) individuality of the artist, (b) originality and uniqueness of the object, (c) permanence of the art object, (d) valued structural form of the artwork, (e) made by an artist, (f) intended to be art, (g) experts agree it is art and (h) new categories.

Cue Questions for Discussion and Review of Art Criticism Methodology: (1) How can appreciation of an art object be enhanced or learned? (2) What criteria is important to critical appreciation? (3) What steps may be helpful to art criticism?

Cue Categories (written on the board by the teacher): (a) description, (b) analysis, (c) interpretation, (d) evaluation and (e) new categories. 146 Figure A.l "The Quest in the Name of Allah." 1974. Mohammed Mashal. Tempera and watercolor on paper, Afghan. Source: Dawna Hamm Walsh, Private Collection, Dallas, TX. 147 Cue Questions for Initial Viewing of Non- Western Art and Discussion of Internal Responses: Premature Decision-Making (1) What was your initial impact or first impression upon viewing the work of art? (2) How does the viewer's culture influence the criticism process? (3) How does the initial exposure to non-Western art determine a premature decision?

Cue Categories (written on the board by the teacher): (a) values, (b) interests, (c) experiences, (d) convictions, (e) skills and (f) new categories.

148 Cue Questions for Discussion of Transition: Western Art to Non-Western Art (1) How is the transition from Western to non-Western art an easy or a difficult one? (2) What happens between the non-Western object and a viewer with a Western orientation?

Cue Categories (written on the board by the teacher): (a) Western art values, (b) non-Western art values and (c) new categories.

149 students' Applications of Step One—Introduction Example A:

The criteria that helps identify an object as a work of art is: if it was created by an artist, if it was intended to be a work of art, if it will be recognized by experts or valued as a work of art, if it is original or unique, and finally, whether or not the piece has permanence. The main ideas that are considered important characteristics for Western art are artistic form, content, and subject matter. By artistic form, it is meant that the parts we perceive— lines, colors, and shapes—have been organized for the best effect. Content means or refers to things or events outside from the world beyond the design. Subject matter is what the art is all about. Appreciation of an art object can be enhanced or learned through color, form, description, interpretation, and analyzing the piece of art. The criteria that is important to critical appreciation is an act that is very much related to the act of participatory enjoyment. The steps that may be helpful to art criticism are: 1) descriptive—focusing on form, 2) interpretive—focusing on content, and 3) evaluative- -focusing on the relative merits of a work. My initial impact or first impression upon viewing the work of art was that it was from the East. It was very elaborate with the colors used. I wouldn't have been surprised if it had been made for someone of high political influence. The viewer's culture influences the criticism process because the viewer may see things differently due to their background. The things that they were taught, advantages or disadvantages that they experienced, everything in their environment will affect how they see the art. The exposure to the non-Western art of Afghanistan determines a premature decision because we don't really know the culture or history about the art. The transition from Western to non-Western art may be a relatively easy transition if it is agreed that they have their own culture just as we have ours. When a non-Western object and a viewer with a Western orientation become in contrast, there is an adjustment, because it is so different from our society. Example B: Based primarily on the attention to detail, we can conclude the artist intended this painting as a piece of art. 150 My limited knowledge of art precludes my making an informed assessment as to the piece's value. However I feel comfortable in accepting it as a piece of art. I believe that the painting depicts something of a religious nature. Additionally, based on the vivid colors used, it depicts something that the artist relates to in a positive way. I see the artist having no fear of what is illustrated. Based on the light at the top of the painting as well as what seems to be a linear flow from the bottom to the top that this may depict an ascension to a "better place." However, my interpretation of this work is colored by my Western, Christian upbringing and, therefore, upon closer examination may prove to be faulty. Example C: To be a work of art, an object must include several criteria: it must be made by an artist, intended to be a work of art, recognized by experts as a work of art, it must have originality or uniqueness, and it must have permanence. As we are socialized through our culture, we learn what art is. Our parents, friends, environment, and culture in general influence our appreciation, but ultimately each individual chooses what we do or do not like. By studying art and its content, we enhance our appreciation of it. After viewing this particular work of art, questions are raised and insights to it are needed. My first impression of this work was that it was from a different culture than mine. Western art has a different approach and style than Eastern art because of culture, style of dress, speech, customs, religions, and entertainment. Example D: The first question that comes to mind is: does this painting qualify as a work of art? Further investigation and participation in the painting will help this critical process. For it to meet the criteria as a work of art these three questions must be answered. Is it made by an artist? Is it intended to be a work of art? Is it recognized and valued by experts as a piece of art? Identifying the art form, content and historical data are important factors in order to appreciate the painting. My first impression of the work is that it is Middle Eastern, very ornate, and possibly typifies a religious experience of some sort, possibly a fairy tale. The borders are gaudy and very busy. Is there a message in the unclear and disassociated scenes that are depicted?

151 Example E:

Appreciation of an art object can be enhanced by consciously viewing art and evaluating each work of art individually to determine how it rates in each of the three key points of form, content and relative merits. My first impression of this work of art was that it appealed to me very much. Upon my first impression, I could not explain why it appealed to me but after careful evaluation I can say that I have a little more understanding of non-Western art. The transition from Western art to non-Western art is a difficult one for me being of Western orientation. Example F: The three identifiers of a work of art are that it is made by an artist, it is intended to be a work of art, and that it is recognized by experts as a work of art; therefore, the miniature painting by the artist Mashal is classified as a work of art. As one could probably tell by the artist's name, it is not a piece of Western art, thus, it is harder to appreciate. To gain appreciation of a piece like this, one cannot just study the piece. Appreciating comes from repeated viewing and an understanding of the artist and the background. My initial impression of this piece was that it reminded me of a book of fairy tales about Arabian knights that I had as a child. The book had the illustrations enclosed just as this, except with only one border. The pictures were just as brightly colored and told a story. I brought this to the conclusion that this picture must also tell a story. Unfortunately, I felt hopeless in depicting this story by myself because I felt like I could not decipher the symbolism to reach the meaning. The initial exposure of this non- Western art had me jump to the conclusion that this was not a "real" work of art because it was not the type of art that I was used to seeing. To recognize that this was actually a true piece of art, I had to study it very closely for a few minutes. This picture had so much movement in it that I had to have a time of transition so that my eyes could get used to it and find the central focus. Western art usually has only one particular moment in time that makes it easy to identify with instead of a span of time that is hard to imagine and relate to because it is not one particular emotion. It is several thousand emotions wrapped up into one. The transition between the two took some time in order to get used to the intricate detail.

152 Example G: My first impression of this work was one of puzzlement as I tried to understand what the artist was trying to say. I considered possible subject matters of magic, religion, or even a business meeting between two men of importance. Because of my Western background, I considered only things of which I have previous knowledge. Consequently, I may not understand the culture and circumstances under which this painting was made. In order to make this transition from Western to non-Western art, I must allow myself to search for understanding and to examine the work with reference to artistically perceivable qualities.

153 APPENDIX B STEP TWO—DESCRIPTION— INSTRUCTOR'S NOTES AND MODEL APPLICATIONS

154 step (2) Description

An artwork was selected from the body of Afghan exemplars, the non-Western culture used in step one, and this singular Afghan work was the non-Western object of art criticized in the remainder of the applications of the model. A reproduction of this work is presented in this section. Step two allowed the students to gain basic information from a work of art in the form of internal cues only. Students were encouraged in their observations of these differences although their interpretations of them remained naive at this stage. The focus was directly on the artwork in order to identify the type of art it represented and the theme or subject of the work. The students looked for the literal qualities only in this non-Western artwork, and they were encouraged to ask simple questions about the work, looking for answers that revealed internal cues. Step two involved observing and gathering factual information from the work. Students made descriptive statements, essentially factual claims, about the artwork. Next the students identified the art elements within a non-Western artwork and searched for applications of the elements that were unique in that cultural context. The manner in which line, shape, color and texture are used in a composition were considered. Understanding the art object required that the students visually dissect the object.

155 students observed generally how the elements of art were used differently in the West and as compared with non-Western cultures. The following cue questions were used by the teacher for the classroom discussion. The following cue categories facilitated the discussion by being written on the board as they were considered important. The cues were suggested by the students or the teacher.

156 Phase 2: Internal Search Step (2) Description (presented by the teacher in the second class): Cue Questions for Discussion of Literal Qualities: (1) What is seen in the painting? (2) What images are recognized? (3) What is the main idea in the artwork?

Cue Categories (written on the board by the teacher): (a) subject, (b) theme, (c) main idea and (d) new categories.

Cue Questions for Discussion of Visual Qualities/Elements of Art: (1) What elements of art are observed in the art work? (2) What art elements are used in a new or unusual manner?

Cue Categories (written on the board by the teacher): (a) line, (b) shape, (c) color, (d) texture, (e) space, (f) value, (g) word imagery and (h) new categories.

157 students' Applications of Step Two—Description Example A:

The painting contains very vivid reds, pinks, and blues along with less intense colors. The painting is presented in a very lavish manner with no less than five highly detailed frames and/or borders. The painting depicts three separate scenes. The first, or lower, scene shows a man entering a doorway. Another man is standing past this entrance looking up to the middle area of the painting. The middle area depicts a man talking with another man who seems to be the central figure (person) in the painting. He is dressed in a long, flowing, vividly colored red robe. This central figure is looking out at the observer. The artist has used lines, colors, shape and contrast to lead the observer's eyes to the upper area which is set apart from the rest by a small fence and a staircase leading to this upper area. Example B: In this painting, there appears to be levels or floors, and men in worship. It may be very symbolic. Prayer, religious ceremony, and obedience seem very evident in this art. The elements of art that are observed in the art work are space, perspective, line, shape, color, texture, and value. Everything is used to perform a purpose. Mashal used line to contain his picture, and used color to emphasize certain objects. Due to the way in which he used lines, the painting seems to throw off the viewer's perspective. Example C: In the painting we see a cross-section of a house of sorts, a tri-level domain. We immediately notice the two men on the carpet and it is very obvious that one of the men is of nobility or a high social position since he is adorned in red. Beside him is another man dressed in black who has a white turban on and thus could be a counselor or a man of God. With them is another man whose back is towards us. This is located at the middle level. Below them we can see a man entering through a doorway or positioned at the doorway and above, on the third level, we see a garden of sorts. This could be an indoor garden as this could be the house of a rich man who can afford to live in such luxury and since the area is definitely a desert area, he could have an indoor garden for his own pleasure.

158 There is a strong usage of lines in this particular work of art, and the texture is represented in detail. Space is very obvious in this work of art, despite there not being any areas of visual relief, there is a strange feeling of emptiness that the viewer might feel compelled to fill though not knowing where and how. Lines are used in an unusual manner in this painting as it seems to put everything laterally onto the paper upon which it is painted. This painting speaks volumes to us as different morals can be depicted by looking at it from different angles, yet each part is interrelated with the other. There is a flow that this particular work of art portrays as it appears to tell a story. The basic representation of this work of art shows an incredible capacity of unity, as there is a unified tale being spun as each different part of the painting flows on the walls and the doorways which are unique aspects of Afghan art as compared to Western art. Example D: When I first viewed this painting, I noticed the exquisite attention to details. The figures are plain as well as the trees, doors, etc. Each leaf in the borders is clearly defined. The strong lines lead the eye in the direction the artist wishes to go. There is use of vertical and horizontal lines. The shapes are mostly geometric—the exception being the men, trees, foliage and wildlife. Example E: The painting shows a man entering a door in the lower right hand corner. This appears to be a small room or hallway. The door remains open behind him. A wall is attached to the room to the left and a garden appears behind the wall. There is a man in the garden peering upward to a platform suspended in mid-air, on which sits two men on a carpet. The man in the red robe is kneeling, looking out of the painting at us and away from the man who kneels before him. Books are on the carpet and some floral objects are on the carpet between them. A large narrow tree behind the man in red extends upward to a third level in the painting. This appears to be an oriental garden which has a fence before it. An open door is on the left. The painting's space is multi- leveled. The picture is multi-framed within five frames. The top level which is a garden, appears to be moving out of the inward-most frame into the third frame. All of the lines in the painting are decorative. The artist uses primarily blue, red, yellow, and orange colors. The texture is decorative and ornate with intricate details in the doors, wall, platform, and framing. The total painting is small and compact.

159 Example F:

The first thing that I observed in this painting is that there are three distinct levels; the most prominent being the middle level with the two men in the center of the painting. The man with the white hair and beard is the focal point of the painting. He seems to be a religious man and upon further observation I see another man to the left looking up at the two men in the middle and at the bottom level, a man is going through the door. The third level has an open door leading to it and it portrays a very peaceful natural setting. The obvious difference in the third level is that it extends out into the border of the painting, almost as if it is an exit, without indicating where it leads. Example G: The painting has five borders of different sizes and colors. Inside these borders are four men: one going through a door, one looking up at the other two who are kneeling on a rug. Above these two men is another door which leads to a gnarled tree in a garden. These images keep the story going in an upward motion with no end because the garden goes through the borders and off the edge. The repetition of the designs are the key element in the picture. These designs draw the painting together because they are so predominate throughout it. There are also several straight lines that divide the picture into its three different sections. The space that is allowed between these three pictures is also important because it lets each section be a distinctive part of the whole. Color makes a big impact on the balance of the picture. The man in the very center who is looking out is in a bright red robe while everyone else is dressed in dark colors. Another factor of color is that the bottom and top of the painting are very light which balances the dark middle section.

160 APPENDIX C STEP THREE—ANALYSIS— INSTRUCTOR'S NOTES AND MODEL APPLICATIONS

161 step (3) Analysis The students analyzed the relationship between the elements and principles in the non-Western art object. The principles to be considered were: balance, variety, contrast, emphasis, repetition, harmony, movement, proportion, and pattern. Each was considered according to how it was used to organize the art elements in the work. Step two required the student to isolate and observe individual elements by visually dissecting the work, but this step required putting the pieces—the elements—back together. It was necessary to discover the organization within the art object in order to understand it completely. The students began to realize that the meaning varied, as the organizational design varied, between art from Western and non-Western cultures. The second part of step three involved the greater number of exemplary non-Western artworks originally introduced to the students as well as the singular work being criticized. These works were displayed around the room for the students' observation and allowed more valid generalizations to be drawn. A few of the smaller works were passed around the class, providing the opportunities for students actually to touch and feel the works, and the instructor encouraged them to think about how the works were executed. Whenever possible, they were allowed to compare originals with reproductions.

162 The students were encouraged to ask how its methods and attitudes compared with Western approaches to painting. Understanding media, technique and methods helped the students gain insights which led to greater understanding of a work of art. The following cue questions were used by the teacher for the classroom discussion. The following cue categories facilitated the discussion by being written on the board as they were considered important. The cues were suggested by the students or the teacher.

163 step (3) Analysis (presented by the teacher in the third class): Cue Questions for Discussion of Visual Qualities/Principles of Art: (1) Are the parts of the work successfully interrelated? (2) How is the compositional structure organized? (3) How was unity in variety achieved? (4) What design characteristics appear unique to the non- Western art and different from those observed in Western art?

Cue Categories (written on the board by the teacher): (a) balance, (b) contrast, (c) complexity, (d) emphasis, (e) harmony, (f) movement, (g) pattern, (h) proportion, (i) repetition, (j) variety and (k) new categories.

Cue Questions for Discussion of Technical and Media Craftsmanship (presented after looking at original art and reproductions): (1) What media were used to produce the work? (2) How was the work made? (3) What do the materials contribute to the effectiveness of the overall presentation of the object?

Cue Categories (written on the board by the teacher): (a) media, (b) tools, (c) process, (d) techniques and (e) new categories.

164 students' Applications of Step Three—Analysis Example A:

The painting is of tempera and watercolors. The upper portion is without question the area of emphasis. Your gaze may wander from time to time but it will always return to the upper section. Something I find very unique and intriguing is the way the artist has further set apart the upper portion of the painting by having it overlap an area that borders the remainder of the painting. The artist has, however, carefully contrived how you move about his work. The open door at the bottom of the picture is an invitation to begin the visual journey within this painting at that point. The artist then quite easily and methodically moves the viewer from one point in the painting to the next. Example B: In this painting, the parts of the work are successfully placed and interrelated because each man looks at the one praying. The kneeling man is the main focus and everything is centered around him. The compositional structure was organized through the use of balance with everything centered around the praying man. The placement of color and the position in the art, gives balance. Unity in variety was achieved through the use of repetition of color, shapes, and contrast. The design characteristics that appear unique to Afghan art and different from those observed in Western art are the patterns and the hierarchy of different levels. The media that was used to produce the work was paint applied with very small tools—paint brushes that deftly created this work of art. The materials contribute to the effectiveness of the overall presentation of the object because the work is extremely detailed and small. Example C: Since this painting is not that old and was done in the later part of this century, I can say that acrylic water color or dye was used to paint this particular work of art. The material on which this work of art is done is paper and the fine masterful strokes that are seen are from very fine-haired brushes. The fine strokes capture very detailed and precise expressions and show very craftful work. This helps the viewer to appreciate and perhaps even gain an insight into Afghan art, lifestyle and culture.

165 Example D: There is unity in the work as well as relationships between the different parts. They are interrelated in that the men are moving toward the same person—the man in red. The railing—or bridge—separates the scenes as well as connecting them. The perspective is unique and adds to the overall unity. The perspective is not quite dimensionally correct. Also, the use of borders is dissimilar to Western art.

The artist used paints made from natural products such as roots, leaves, and berries. The artist also made his own brushes composed of single hairs. These colors have a vibrancy unique from man-made, oil-based paints. Example E: This painting is asymmetrical and informal in balance. The man in red in the center of the painting is the focal point and is emphasized by the color of his clothing. He is looking at us which draws our attention to the mysterious question or statement that he imposes on us. What has he just learned or is he contemplating? Do the two men wait for an answer or expectation? Our eyes move up the tree which is over his shoulder, and up to what appears to be paradise? They follow the line downward to the open door and the man who has entered. The five borders with patterns work to unify the work. They cause us to look deeper into the work. The stacked levels, indicate an elevation or decision that may have to be made. The luminous gold and black colors contrast and add variety. The amorphic and geometric shapes unify the work. The colors have been brushed onto tempera.

Example F: The painting seems to be very well balanced although it has two borders that I cannot connect to the painting itself. They may be there just for decoration, however these elements seem to be totally different than elements found in Western art and I do not fully comprehend their meaning. The work is successfully interrelated in its theme and the structure is extremely organized. Example G: The painting is well organized. The three levels are interrelated. The borders provide unity and proportion. To study the balance, I drew an imaginary vertical line through the center of the painting. I immediately noted the positioning of the characters provided equal balance on both sides of the line. Although the painting uses ambiguous 166 perspective, the repetitive use of borders and various decorative design make this painting unigue. The basic decorative designs of this painting differ from designs in Western art.

167 APPENDIX D STEP FOUR—INTERPRETATION— INSTRUCTOR'S NOTES AND MODEL APPLICATIONS

168 step f4^ Interpretation

This step involved students in the theory of emotionalism, the theory of art which places emphasis on a work's expressive qualities. The students looked at the work of art in this regard which allowed them to become a part of it. Questions were asked by the teacher which aided in arriving at personal interpretations of the work. To interpret the artwork, the students sought to discover the moods, emotions, feelings, symbols and meanings of the object. These categories of cues helped the students understand what was seen and the way in which the artwork could be interpreted. Cultural references clearly influenced this act of interpretation because ideational elements formed the basis by which content was interpreted. Questions arose involving symbols that were unknown due to lack of cultural understanding. The complete theme or subject proved to be difficult to interpret for this reason. The following cue questions were used by the teacher for the classroom discussion. The following cue categories facilitated the discussion by being written on the board as they were considered important. The cues were suggested by the students or the teacher.

169 step f4^ Interpretation (presented by the teacher in the fourth class) Cue Questions for Discussion of Expressive Qualities: (1) What is the main message in the art work? (2) What other messages are expressed? (3) How does the artist communicate the message in the work? (4) What mood is expressed in the art work? (5) What symbols are used to express the ideas in the work of art?

Cue Categories (written on the board by the teacher): (a) message, (b) meaning, (c) mood, (d) symbols and (e) new categories.

170 students' Applications of Step Four—Interpretation Example A:

It seems the goal of the painting is to depict the journey required to reach whatever is symbolized by the upper area of the painting. The fence in front of this area indicates that entrance is not automatic. However, there is also a staircase which tells the observer that the entrance is not impossible. With the exception of the lighted area at the top, the clothing of the men depicted is the brightest part of the painting which leads me to believe that they are critical to the meaning of the painting. The central figure has an expression on his face that seems to offer some margin of hope that the observer may also enter into the lighted area. The people depicted are all men and have long, white beards. Does this mean that only males of considerable maturity are capable of ascending to the lighted area? Example B: It is possible to think of several messages in the art work. One could be that the kneeling man is in council, between heaven and hell, or perhaps just praying. However, the main message appears to be that of prayer. The artist communicates the message in the work by making the mood seem very serene and peaceful, as in prayer. The symbols that are used to express the ideas in the work of art are the Koran in the center, the man in the red cloak, and the image above of a peaceful paradise. Example C: The message of the painting might be ascension, religion, or magic. The mood could be contemplation, reflection, or self-evaluation. The man's face and the waiting looks on the faces of the holy men, causes us to wait with them for the answer or decision that we expect from the man in red. Does he solicit our help? Is the decision everlasting? Example D: The feeling I get from the whole painting is that man goes through the door of life, on up to a level of knowledge and possibly religious understanding and when he is questioned by the man with the white beard and hair, he can ascend to the third level which is peace and tranquility. Ultimately, he can be extended out of this level possibly to heaven, although the painting does not portray what there is after leaving the third level. 171 Example E: The main message of the art work is expressed through the somber mood that the colors portray. The painting is on a serious level, although we cannot comprehend what it is at this point. Example F: The overall mood of the painting is serious and peaceful. It appears to have a religious message. The upper portion of the frame appears to be a garden or a wonderful, restful place.

172 APPENDIX E STEP FIVE—JUDGMENT: TENTATIVE DECISION­ MAKING BASED UPON INTERNAL CUES— INSTRUCTOR'S NOTES AND MODEL APPLICATIONS

173 step (5^ Judgment: Tentative Decision- Making (Internal Cuesl

Students were taught how to judge a non-Western work of art basing judgment solely upon the internal cues observed earlier in the previous three steps. They reviewed everything learned during the cue searches in order to make an intelligent, personally rewarding tentative decision. The students sought to determine which of the three aesthetic qualities made the greatest contribution to the work's artistic excellence and success. If two aesthetic qualities were viewed as equal in influence, they considered this during the judgement process, but the role that each played in the work's success was reviewed. They based their judgments on one, two or all three of the aesthetic qualities noted in the work. A content choice at this point was consciously made based on the available internal cues. Students realized that if no contextual or historical information is available, that the final decision-making process must be deferred. Discussion was directed to how internal cues lead to questions regarding external criteria that cannot be answered without additional study. The following cue questions were used by the teacher for the classroom discussion. The following cue categories facilitated the discussion by being written on the board as they were considered important. The cues were suggested by the students or the teacher. 174 step (5'^ Judgment: Tentative Decision- Making (Internal cues presented by the teacher in the fifth class): Cue Questions for Discussion: (1) What are the pervasive qualities in the work of art? (2) Which of the aesthetic qualities makes the greatest contribution to the success and artistic excellence of the art work? (3) Are two or three aesthetic qualities viewed as equal in influence? How? (4) Why is it possible at this point only to make a tentative decision?

Cue Categories (written on the board by the teacher): (a) literal qualities, (b) visual qualities, (c) expressive qualities and (d) new categories.

175 students' Applications of Step Five— Judgment: Tentative Decision- Making Based Upon Internal Cues Example A:

I find two areas of the painting standing out from the rest. As alluded to earlier, the lighted area in the upper portion of the painting is most obvious. The artist draws you here with the use of light. After arriving there you begin to notice the other methods used to set it apart: the overlapping of the borders; the use of the fence; and the staircase. More subtle but just as interesting is the man seated in the middle area. You are first drawn to him by the vividly colored red robe. Then you become mesmerized by his intense stare. He seems to see through you, frightening at first, but then very reassuring in the knowledge that he is watching you. Example B: The pervasive qualities in the work of art are the man in red, the intricate detail, and the multiple framing. Without the meaning behind the painting, you wouldn't have the peace that comes from the painting. The balance and colors are viewed as having equal influence. They are what the viewer first sees. These qualities keep the viewer interested in seeing more. It is possible to only make a tentative decision because we don't know the history of the painting, or the artist to help see what the artist saw. Example C: The artist's fine judgment of quality and an overall supremacy of effect makes the greatest contribution to the success and the artistic excellence of this piece of art. It is, however, only possible to make a tentative decision at this point about this painting as there is not enough evidence to make a strong-based decision for someone with a Westernized background. It is still too soon to make a confident, well- informed decision. Example D: The work is very intricate with several qualities that stand out. Its clear design, and multiple-framing add an element of mystique. The different levels within the work show us that there is more to this painting than just what you 176 see. There may be cultural significance and purpose which we have not yet learned. Example E: I believe the artist has presented as a pervasive quality, a mystical or contemplating mood. The painting is intricate and unique. It's style is miniature which contributes to its uniqueness. Its expressive qualities include the story of a man who appears in the midst of a decision. Its symbolism may reflect an eternal decision that one must make. The message is symbolic of a religious decision that a Middle Eastern man must make when instructed in the ways of religion. The artist with contrasting colors, ornate and intricate detail, and mystical expression, has presented a work of art. Example F: The most obvious pervasive qualities in this painting are the colors, mostly shades of blue, which are used throughout the painting as well as the flowers and trees. They are used as a decorative element throughout the two borders of the painting as well as within the painting. The aesthetic qualities of this painting, which to me are the flowers and trees, seem to contribute to the flow of the painting which is an upward flow. The large plant seems to flow from the first to the second layer, combining them with the tree on the right which joins the second and third levels of the painting. They seem to be the binding ties between each of the levels which make your eyes move up in the painting. The viewer's eyes are led to the most aesthetic portion of the painting which is the snowy natural landscape scene portrayed on the third level.

Example G: The pervasive qualities are in the outlook that the picture portrays through the darker colors and the gloomy ending. The aesthetic qualities are predominate in the expression on the man's face that is looking out to us, almost asking us for help. As I was viewing this part of the painting especially close, I felt that not only did he have to make a decision, but I did also. At this point, no complete judgments can be made because the background information is still not known. Example H: Clearly the greatest qualities of this painting are the intricate detail and use of color. In addition, the use of multiple framing and sectioning make this work unusually unique. Just one of these factors alone would not get the 177 same effect. The color and detailed texture could stand alone, but the other elements give balance to the work. The artist uses all working together to create a unified presentation. More knowledge is still needed to have a greater enjoyment of this work.

178 APPENDIX F STEP SIX—INVESTIGATE: CONTEXTUALISM— INSTRUCTOR'S NOTES AND MODEL APPLICATIONS

179 step (6) Investigate: Contextualism

Students recognized cultural identity and diversity in the Afghan art and it led them to understand the non-Western art object as a product of its Afghan culture. This understanding derived from the students' searches for external cues from sources outside of the artwork itself. Any information concerning the context in which the piece was created was investigated. Students searched for cues which indicated how culture and history have influenced the work and the artist who created it. This understanding was gained from research and the ideas expressed by viewing the audio-visual presentation on the Asian People, Culture, and Demographics of Afghanistan (see Appendix K).

The students searched for external and internal cues to characteristic features that gave the work its unique identity as the product of a particular culture, Afghanistan. Cues facilitated concept development of the style concerned by encouraging students to identify the mass of accumulated data on the basis of similarities of attributes or characteristics. Features such as media, material and technique were noted, as they helped the students recognize the style of the work of art. Familiarity with the styles and conventions of miniature painting helped the students to distinguish a tradition and recognize the artwork's contribution to the society. The

180 students did this through the audio-visual presentation on Asian Miniature Painting (see Appendix L). The following cue questions were used by the teacher for the classroom discussion. The following cue categories facilitated the discussion by being written on the board as they were considered important. The cues were suggested by the students or the teacher.

181 Phase 3: Confirmation Check Step (6) Investigate: Contextualism (presented by the teacher in the sixth class):

Cue Questions for Discussion of Art in Context (presented with the audio-visual presentation, Asian People, Culture and Demographics of Afghanistan, Appendix K): (1) How is history reflected in the work? (2) How is culture reflected in the work? (3) What important international, national and local events were taking place when it was produced? (4) What was the importance of the work when it was created? (5) What is known about the artist? (6) How does the current context affect the work of art?

Cue Categories (written on the board by the teacher): (a) time/date/place, (b) origin of the work, (c) history, (d) culture, (e) artist, (f) current context and (g) new categories.

Cue Questions for Discussion of Artistic Style (presented with the audio-visual presentation, Asian Miniature Paintings, Appendix L): (1) What is the pervasive quality inherent in the work of

art? (2) What features give the work a unique identity as the product of a particular culture, group or artist?

182 (3) What attributes are unique to the collective expression? (4) What characteristics are observed in the making of the object that are similar to other objects?

Cue Categories (written on the board by the teacher): (a) objective accuracy, (b) formal order, (c) emotional qualities, (d) fantasy, (e) concept of reality, (f) use of media, (g) use of tools, (h) technique/method and (i) ornamentation.

183 students' Applications of Step Six— Investigate: Contextualism Example A:

The artist, Mohammed Mashal, painted this picture in 1974. In 1977, Afghanistan was invaded by the Soviet Union. Mashal was Muslim. He is now dead. He, like others in his country, could see the impending invasion on the horizon. The painting shows Mashal to be a very detail oriented individual. Example B:

History is reflected in the work through the absence of women, the dress—turbans, white beards—and the Koran which shows their faith. It was a time of civil unrest. The painting was produced to document or preserve the Muslim heritage. The artist, Mashal, wanted to capture his heritage. He was well respected. In order to make the fine detail that is revealed in the painting, he was required to make paint brushes and ground his own pigments. The current context does affect the work of art because the meanings and influences are now known. The pervasive guality inherent in the work of art is that it seems to be looking ahead, moving into the afterlife. The features that give the work a unique identity as the product of a particular culture, group or artist is the religious theme. The attributes that are unique to the collective expression are that each man centers around the man in red. The characteristics that are observed in the making of the objects is the same detail and balance. Example C: Afghan history is strongly depicted in this painting as it shows the kind of lifestyle that was led by the Afghan people in the past eras. Even though this painting was done in 1974, it can in no way show the modern Afghan lifestyle as lavish, as this ceases to exist today in Afghanistan. The Muslim culture is strongly personified in this painting as the basic "mina" work and the Muslim architecture proves it. The culture can be said to be highly religious and the people very cultured and noble. The most important event that was going on in Afghanistan when this work of art was produced was the Russian invasion. This painting depicts the lifestyle between the fourteenth and seventeenth century A.D. The artist is Mashal, a famous, well-respected painter in Afghanistan.

184 Example D:

The artist's name is Mashal and he is from Afghanistan. The work was painted in 1974 and remains untitled. During the time this work was being painted, there was a Communist invasion by Russia. The museum and university in Afghanistan were closed and many works of art were lost and not yet found today.

The non-Western culture is very predominate in this painting. It portrays the religion of the Muslims, their study of the Koran, their worship of Allah, and the great importance of these things combined. The levels represent their ascension to a better life through their religion. Again, the many borders show a difference in outlook and in beliefs from Western art. Example E: The artist Mashal, a well respected artist, painted this work in Kabul, Afghanistan in 1974. The Russian invasion of Afghanistan was imminent at the time of this painting. With imminent danger approaching, his intention was to preserve a sense of the history and rich religious culture of Afghanistan. The painting depicts the religious life of a Muslim as he enters life through a door, looking ahead to the afterlife through the door to eternity. The men with white beards represent the respect of learned men. The books on the carpet represent the Koran. The style of the painting is miniature. It is indicative of the Safavid period of miniatures. Geometric patterns border the work with typical elaborate multi-colored frames like the design of a carpet. The contrasting colors and gold, stylize with elegance, a fairy tale atmosphere. The art of calligraphy was encouraged by contemporary taste around the tenth century and is reflected in this piece. Geometric patterns filled whole pages of the Koran.

Example F: Although I am not familiar with the history of Afghanistan, I can tell that the artist is portraying a scene that would be more easily understood by his own culture and I am sure his intent is to preserve the history of Afghanistan within the context of his painting. Just the fact that there are only men in his painting tells us something about his particular culture, which being Muslim, indicate that such heavy religious matters are the realm of men and not women. I feel that the use of the borders with their flowery flowing design is another aspect of Afghan art that may be particularly indigenous to Afghanistan.

185 Example G:

The history of this painting is reflected through the clothing that the men are wearing and the ornaments along the doors. A part of the culture that is shown is in the Koran that sits in front of the two men in the center of the painting.

During the time that this painting was being produced, the Russian invasion was impending. For these people at this time, that meant that they might have to fight for and even possibly give up their religion. This work was important because it faced people with the question that they didn't want to answer because of fear for their lives. The artist, Mashal painted this in 1974 probably with pigments that he had ground himself. A pervasive quality of his style was that it was very, very small yet very detailed. The painting looks as if it were made out of smoothly printed material instead of paint. Example H: In Mashal's painting, the emphasis seems to be on religion. The clothing of the four men in the painting seems to suggest a certain culture. They are wearing turbans and robes. It also appears they all have beards. After obtaining some background information, I have learned Mashal's painting was completed prior to the Russian invasion of 1977-78. Mashal actually completed the painting in 1974. He was Afghan and his religious preference was Islamic. Mashal's painting was possibly created to raise religious consciousness. This five inch miniature painting is quite typical to the Afghan culture. Islamic miniatures have various distinctive features in common. The miniatures are normally surrounded by an elaborate multi-colored frame or contained within wide borders similar to those of a carpet. Mashal's painting like other Afghan artists used the geometrical perspective. The clothing and repetitive use of gold also identify the painting to the Afghan culture. Example I: The painting was done in 1974 by a well known and respected artist in Afghanistan by the name of Mashal. This country is located between Iran and Russia and is about the size of Texas. This is a country where marketplaces line the streets to purchase rugs, ceramics, food, silver, etc. The women are covered by veils if they appear in public. The country is on the verge of war where all its history could be destroyed. I think the artist has hopes of preserving the 186 country's history through his artwork. Miniatures are seldom created anymore. The artist used tempera and watercolors. He made his own brushes by using sticks with one or two hairs attached to make the brush for the fine intricate details in the rugs and tapestry. We find out that the artist is Muslim which explains his choice of men contemplating religion. The Muslim religion requires prayer five times a day. The men in the painting all have white beards which are worn with pride by the Muslims as a symbol of honor. The painting only has men because women are kept in the background. I believe the painting is portraying man's quest for Allah. The Koran, the Muslim religious book, is between the two men on the platform which further indicates the importance of the Muslim faith. The place is a Mosque, a holy place for worship. The Mosque is always opulent and ornate, even if the people of the land are poor and starving. Example J: The art form studied was painted in 1974 by Mashal, an Islamic miniature artist. The painting is representative of Afghanistan's culture. Examples of culture seen in the painting are: Emphasis on the rug—rugs are important economically and are signs of status within the culture; there are no women in the painting—women have a low profile status in this culture; teacher is identified with white beard—white beards are a symbol of wisdom and admired in the artist's culture; turbans are worn by all men in the painting—turbans are a common dress in Afghan culture.

187 APPENDIX G STEP SEVEN—INVESTIGATE: INSTRUMENTALISM— INSTRUCTOR'S NOTES AND MODEL APPLICATIONS

188 step (7) Investigate: Instrumental i RTH

The students searched for external cues to gain information regarding the purpose of the object. Students did not understand the work until they gained knowledge regarding the religious purpose. The students searched for cues that suggested the use of the object.

They searched for cues related to moral, ethnical, familial or commemorative purposes. Students investigated external and internal cues in order to learn facts that influenced the work of art. They asked questions and looked for answers on how time and place affected the object. Instrumentalists believed the aesthetic values of the work were found in its ability to express a larger, more meaningful purpose. The students continued to search for answers through the audio-visual presentation. The Asian Art of Afghanistan (see Appendix M). The following cue questions were used by the teacher for the classroom discussion. The following cue categories facilitated the discussion by being written on the board as they were considered important. The cues were suggested by the students or the teacher.

189 step (7) Investigate: Instrumentalism (presented by the teacher in the seventh class):

Cue Questions for Discussion of Art and Purpose (presented with the audio-visual presentation, Asian Art of Afghanistan, Appendix M): (1) Why was this work created? (2) What was the purpose of the work of art? (3) How does the work promote an understood purpose? (4) How does the work advance the objectives of humanity? (5) Why was purpose viewed more important than form? (6) Why was the work's purpose important to its intended audience? (7) How was the original purpose served by the work different from that of today?

Cue Categories (written on the board by the teacher): (a) religious purpose, (b) commemorative purpose, (c) political purpose, (d) economic purpose, (e) ritualistic purpose, (f) familial ideas, (g) moral ideas, (h) ethical ideas and (i) new categories.

190 students' Applications of Step Seven— Investigate: Instrumentalism Example A:

Mashal's painting depicted what was surely a reassuring theme during the troubled times which lead to its birth. He has shown, through his painting, a belief in an afterlife. The painting beckons the viewer to follow the pathway depicted to a bright and glorious future. We can only imagine what it must be like to face what was then a military giant with little more than a rock or spear. Surely consolation was taken from Mashal's depiction of the hereafter; the place without fear and turmoil. Example B: This work was created to possibly advance humanity, for political gain, or for family reasons which may have been personal. Again, maybe to unify society, maybe even to remind society about obedience to God. The work promotes an understood purpose by the use of color, which brings the viewer directly to the man in prayer. The work advances the objectives of humanity by showing them that there is a time for prayer. Purpose was viewed more important than form because he wanted to get his point across. This was considered to be far more important than whether or not the lines or shapes were in the best place. The work's purpose was important to its intended audience because they were in fear of losing their way of life due to Russia. The original purpose served by the work is different from that of today and Western society because it is changing and people are becoming more free. More Western artists seem to avoid preserving heritage in this manner.

Example C: The beauty that is vividly reflected in this work of art is breathtaking and gives the viewer a keen insight into the Eastern lifestyle. It shows richness and splendor and a very obvious mystical aura, the kind that one feels when they watch 1001 Arabian Nights. This gives a very unique feature to the overall effect and it gives a unique identity to the artist, culture and the history behind this wonderful work of art. Prophetic significance in this painting to me is unknown. The fact that it might have to do with the Muslim religion is very obvious and not really necessary to mention as it comes from a very staunch and ethnic Muslim background. The presence of the holy man or counselor might show that this is a prayer session or a time of repentance. The trees and the 191 lithe mystical garden at the top of the painting depict the afterlife. Example D:

This work does indeed have a purpose. It portrays the painter's religion and his effort to share it with others. During times of strife, you must have something to believe in and hope for. For the Muslims, their hope was in Allah. There is more concentration on the purpose and the mood of this work than on the form. This is so because the perspective is not quite correct and could be a distraction, but it is not. Example E: This work was created to preserve the culture and rich religious history of the Afghans and their purpose to inspire the study of the Koran. Example F: I think that this work was created to make a definite religious statement. The work may have been created during the time that Russia was at cold war with Afghanistan. Maybe the artist felt that he had to make a statement about his culture and religion that would live on after him. His goal may have been to show future generations in Afghanistan what was being done at a particular time in history and to pass on some religious feeling that might not be passed on if the older generation would perish in their struggle with Russia. Sort of an immortality of thought was being passed on to future generations. Example G: During the time period in 1974 in which this painting was created, the Vietnam war was a vivid reality. The Nixon Watergate scandal also was in process about that time. More important to the painter however, were the problems Afghanistan faced from Russia. This work was created to portray a certain cultural ritual practiced by the Afghan people. Its purpose very likely was to explain life's journey. It exemplifies the existence of disciplined religion in the lives of these people. It also pays tribute to their god, Allah. Obviously, this purpose is more important than the form of the work because the latter only serves to illustrate the former. The purpose of explaining life's journey is important to the intended viewers because it gives meaning to their existence. 192 APPENDIX H STEP EIGHT—JUDGMENT: TENTATIVE DECISION­ MAKING BASED UPON EXTERNAL CUES— INSTRUCTOR'S NOTES AND MODEL APPLICATIONS

193 step (8) Judgment: Tentative Decision- Making (External Pn^g)

In the process of researching the external cues, the students found it necessary to serve as historians due to the fact that this non-Western work of art had not been researched, analyzed, or evaluated. An appreciation of non-Western art required the students to base judgement on the work's external cues. This step also required the acquisition of historical and contextual information and the application of external criteria to the art object. In order to make judgment about the Afghan artwork, the students relied on ability to process, structure, use and assess external cues. Information was obtained that allowed the students to understand the non-Western Afghan society and culture. This was primarily gained through three audio-visual presentations. (Appendices K, L and M) The students made conscious decisions regarding the extent to which the limitations affected their judgments. They became aware of ways to gain information by seeking visual information from similar objects and comparative analysis with additional similar and dissimilar objects. All of this information was external and influenced the confirmation check. The following cue questions were used by the teacher for the classroom discussion. The following cue categories facilitated the discussion by being written on the board as

194 they were considered important. The cues were suggested by the students or the teacher.

195 step (8) Judgment: Tentative Decision Making (External cues presented in the eighth class by the teacher): Cue Questions for Discussion: (1) How is contextualism important to the work? (2) What role does instrumentalism play in the success of the work? (3) What pervasive external quality makes the greatest contribution to the success of the work of art? (4) What external quality is secondary, or third, in importance to the work's success? (5) Why is it possible only to make a tentative decision based on external qualities?

Cue Categories (written on the board by the teacher): (a) art and context, (b) features of artistic style, (c) art and purpose and (d) new categories.

196 students' Applications of Step Eight Judgment: Tentative Decision- Making Based Upon External Cues Example A:

It is, quite simply, impossible for us to go inside the head of the artist and know what he meant and felt when he created his painting. We cannot know all of the contextual influences. We are able to gain instrumental purpose in what may be a limited degree. We must consider this information as a part of the whole. We, therefore, can now make nothing other than a tentative decision when reviewing the work. As stated earlier, the area of illumination, that area of light, in the upper most region of the painting is the central theme. It is that illumination that carries the primary message of the painting. This knowledge may add to the tentative decision process. Example B: Contextualism is important to the work because it surrounds, contains the art. It has a way of conveying everything in true focus. Instrumentalism plays a role in the success of the work because if something is communicated through the correct means, then it will be noticed. The pervasive internal quality that makes the greatest contribution to the success of the work of art is the background and scenery that spreads itself throughout the painting. The internal quality that is also important to the work's success is the ability to draw the viewer, which he has done through color. It is possible to only make a tentative decision based on external or internal qualities because the viewer is making a decision based on partial knowledge.

Example C: The context is extremely important to this work for many reasons. One, an American Southern Baptist would most likely not choose this subject to paint—only someone who knows about the Muslim religion could do this well. Another reason is the searching for significance in a time of despair. People turn to their god(s) when trouble strikes. The purpose is successful because, after one knows what the work is about, you are able to see the artist's meaning. He is telling us his reason for living—Allah.

197 The extensive attention to details also makes this work a success. The one evaluating the painting is aware of every detail and its significance to the artist. The gold leaves and multiple borders add a richness that leads the observer to see the many details within those borders. Example D:

The work becomes even more important in 1974 with the imminent invasion by Russia. The preservation of culture and religion is significant, in the possible changes that may take place after the invasion. A way of life is expressed in art, to capture a sense of nationality, and religious association, so that it might unify the Afghan people and remind them of their roots and heritage. The ornateness of the painting, reflects the Islamic temple decor as well as is found in carpet design of the area. Example E: Contextualism is very important to this work since the theme is a religious scene and each level is relevant to the next. They form the context of this painting. I also feel that this religious quality makes the greatest contribution to the success of the painting. Example F: The greatest attribute to the paintings success is the minute details. To be able to see an expression on a face that small is a miracle in itself! Other qualities that contribute to its success are the colors that were used, and the details that draw the picture together. Example G: During phase four of the criticism, the audience may come to a much better understanding of the art piece. Many symbols of the times are used by the painter. His culture is reflected by the intentional absence of all women, by the white beard on the old man—symbolizing great wisdom and earning respect in decision-making, and by the turbans and dress of the men. The piece is one from Afghanistan by Mohammed Mashal painted in 1974. During the time of the birth of this particular painting, a Russian invasion of Afghanistan was well underway. It is believed that the painter created this work to preserve the art history of miniatures in his country of this time.

198 Example H:

We know that Mashal painted this scene in 1974, which was not too long before his homeland of Afghanistan was to be invaded by the Russian army. Uncertainty over the possible outcome of the conflict likely prompted him to produce this work of art as a record of those things held most dear to him and his countrymen.

This work was created in watercolor and tempera. Mashal ground his own pigment in order to achieve the rich hues necessary for this painting. He also made the tiny brushes required for the rich details. Example I: The external quality that made the greatest contribution in my interpretation of this painting was the knowledge that Mashal was from Afghanistan and that he was of the Muslim religion. Recognizing some of the hardships experienced by Afghans and knowing more about their culture helped me understand their strong bond to Allah. This work of art shows the levels and steps each Muslim follows in his quest to please Allah. Example J: This art work has a quality which is different from that of Western art work. It should not be judged by the same standards as Western art. The artistic elements, as well as meaning, are very different. Contextualism is important in this work because it illustrates how lifes' journey can be summed up in one painting. Because of the complexity of the culture of the Afghan people, it is only possible to make tentative decisions initially regarding content of this painting.

199 APPENDIX I STEP NINE—FINAL DECISION-MAKING BASED UPON EXTERNAL CUES—INSTRUCTOR'S NOTES AND MODEL APPLICATIONS

200 step (9) Final Decision-Making Using Internal and External Cuf^g

The final decision was based on conscientious reassessments of both internal and external cues. The students were able to relate their decisions to specific criteria, and they were able to formulate and substantiate intelligent, knowledgeable decisions about the work. Students reviewed their experiences and the information gained in all of the preceding steps, concentrating on the two steps involving tentative judgments about the work, steps five (internal cues) and eight (external cues). This allowed them to review the important information and criteria which prompted the tentative decision-making.

Reassessment of the literal, visual, and expressive aesthetic qualities based upon the external cues was necessary for final decision-making. The students reviewed the internal cues in light of the external cues. Students discussed questions relating to all information gained up to this point as they focused upon the non-Western Afghan artwork. Evaluation was viewed not as approval or disapproval, but as an attempt to confirm cues. A goal of this step was for students to understand the consequences of the previous decisions incurred in the process of criticism, i.e., those involving premature, and tentative decisions. By reviewing the important questions that were discovered and discussed, students were able to determine and substantiate

201 their individual, final decisions. This final judgment integrated all previous decisions and critical thinking. The following cue questions were used by the teacher for the classroom discussion. The following cue categories facilitated the discussion by being written on the board as they were considered important. The cues were suggested by the students or the teacher.

202 Phase 4: Confirmation Completion Step (9) Final Decision-Making (Internal and external cues presented by the teacher in the ninth class): Cue Questions for Discussion of Reassessment: Literal, Visual, and Expressive Qualities

(1) How were the aesthetic qualities identified? (2) What aesthetic qualities are the most important to the work of art? (3) How are the artistic qualities (literal, visual, and expressive) reassessed in light of the external cues (4) How has the context of the work affected the aesthetic qualities? (5) How are the aesthetic qualities in the work related to human behavior, needs and purposes? (6) What aims and purposes were intended for the piece? (7) What is the value of the work to preserve part of the culture in which it was created?

Cue Categories (written on the board by the teacher): (a) literal, (b) visual, (c) expressive, (d) context, (e) purpose, and (f) new categories.

Cue Questions for Discussion of Confirmation of the Decision: (1) Is there any prophetic significance in the future for

this work? (2) How can this work be of value to Western culture? 203 (3) How do critics from the non-Western culture of origin regard this work? (4) How do critics from the Western culture regard this work?

(5) What influence has this work had on other art works and artists? (6) What level of attention does this art object deserve? (7) What importance is both internal and external information to confirming the final decision regarding the work of art?

Cue Categories (written on the board by the teacher): (a) internal qualities, (b) external qualities, (c) impact of work, (d) objectives of humanity, (e) cultural emissary, (f) critics, (g) prophetic significance and (h) new categories.

204 students' Applications of Step Nine Final Decision-Making Based Upon Internal and External Cues Example A:

To truly and completely appreciate the painting, it is necessary for one to have a basis to understand both the internal and external cues. With an understanding of both we can see that Mashal was attempting to leave his countrymen and even the rest of us with certain assurances. If we believe that there is, in fact, a better place after death, then the fear associated with death is minimized. In fact, it is belief in the afterlife that allows us to appreciate life itself, rather than live in fear of losing it. Example B:

The artistic qualities that were identified were balance, the use of color, and the imagery which gave the painting a life of its own. The artistic qualities emphasized what the artist thought was important. Since this works aim was to preserve its heritage, this viewer believes this was accomplished. Western civilization can and should use this as an example of Eastern art. It will teach culture and exposure to non-Western art. America is very narrow-minded when it comes to liking art; perhaps it will teach others to appreciate non- Western art. Since Afghan critics have praised this work of art, it probably has had some influence on artists already. Example C: This work of art has many spectacular qualities within it. The details, the intricate patterns, and the eye- entrancing lines all produce a certain mood. These qualities are somewhat altered when the context of the painting is revealed. At first, the mood is simply of contemplation. Once some background is learned, the mood changes to that of waiting or possibly pensiveness. The artist wishes to capture and convey his culture to other cultures. By doing this, his religion will become even stronger. To the Western culture, this can be a valuable lesson. We are not the only ones with religion—those in the East have their traditions as well. By observing this painting, one can become aware of another culture totally different from anything previously known.

205 To properly regard this work of art, there must be considerations of first impressions as well as context. Without context, the painting cannot be known to its ultimate depths. Idle speculation and vivid imaginations can create wonderful stories, but ones that are not always correct. By simply judging a work on its context, the element of emotion is left out. To be perceived as a work of art, you must consider both internal and external aspects. Example D:

The painting portrays a rich heritage of the Afghan people through their Islamic experience. The miniature art form recalls the historically rich art experience of former centuries of Afghan Art. This piece of art provides our Western culture with a snapshot of non-Western culture and history. Example E: I think this work of art is of great value in preserving the cultural and religious feelings of Afghanistan and the other aesthetic qualities of this work that relate to human behavior. It shows that we need focus and guidance (as they are receiving from the white haired man) in order to reach a higher plane in which we can improve our minds and prepare us for the hereafter. I think that this is a purpose that is needed in all cultures for one to improve oneself and free oneself from the burden of human error, to cleanse their souls for eternal redemption. Example F: The artistic cues are put into context with the aid of the external cues. We can now understand that the painting was not meant to be ornamental, but that it wanted the onlooker to focus on the message that it was giving. The details were not meant to draw away from the message. They were to aid in understanding the message of the story and the way that the eye was supposed to move around in the painting. The value of this work was to preserve the feelings of these people of this time of possible crisis. It was not only to preserve it, but it was to expresss it in its simplest form so that everyone could relate to it.

Example G: The final decision-making process will then take place. The audience can finally tie together the external cues with the artistic qualities. Once a viewer understands the creator's point of view and some history of the work, he/she 206 can appreciate the piece on a much higher level and minute details are suddenly of great importance. Such as the stairs in the painting, they obviously represent the climb or compiling of spiritual knowledge. The door at the bottom is probably a symbol for the rebirth or acceptance of religion. The vertical ascension is assuredly the walk of a believer in God's path of righteousness. It is now time to evaluate all previous categories. Of these categories history is most likely to prevail. For once the history of the country and the painter is made known, the painting takes on an entirely different meaning and becomes better understood. Now a valid substantiated decision can be made by the viewer on his/her liking or disliking of the artwork. Example H: In all the knowledge I have obtained by participation with this work, I take a new look at the piece through different eyes. I now understand why there are levels to the painting. I know the importance of the figure in red, and the seriousness religion takes in the culture of Afghanistan. Knowing the outside influences has explained some of the aesthetic qualities presented in the work. I can see the path man takes in today's culture as compared to other cultures. I feel I can and have learned from this painting. We need to work toward a higher level of self-discipline evident to other cultures. Example I: I identified the various aesthetic qualities by closely examining the work and making myself identify what caused this work to be unified. I discovered that the various artistic elements of line, shape and color, as well as the religious content and purpose of the painting were most important in making a true interpretation of the work. The historical context and information about miniature painting affirms my conclusions that the work provides a glance into one aspect of a strong religious culture. It illustrates the passing of man from an earthly world to a heavenly world after judgment of his actions. This work is extremely valuable to Western culture because it allows us to empathetically experience one aspect of these people's worship. Non-Western culture will also find it valuable because it illustrates an everyday aspect of their beliefs and practices. Internal examination of the art elements, mood, and subject matter can provide an understanding and appreciation of the actual work of art, but only after revelation of the external historical background can I truly appreciate the work for its spiritual content and expression of non-Western culture's beliefs. 207 Looking back at my analysis from introduction to final decision-making, i see that the external cues of religious historical background and a knowledge of the Afghan culture of the artist was most important in confirming my interpretation. Without an understanding of unifying artistic qualities and elements in miniatures and the religious fervor of the people, this painting would merely be a look at a meeting between men considering an important decision. With religious information this painting becomes a look at a universal theme of afterlife. Example J:

The subject of the painting has a unique hierarchical structure. The painting seems to be stacked. The general flow is from bottom to top. The man on the left in the garden is standing tall and looking up to the center level and the tree on the right in the center level extends to the upper balcony allowing the eye to follow the movement. The variety in the patterns of the borders, the door and door frame, the garden wall, and the platform and surrounding area are unique to this non-Western work of art. These varied repetitious designs lend unity to the painting. The artist used his skill in combining royal colors and articles of nature in the trees and flowers to attract the viewers attention. In studying the painting and learning what the artist was attempting to relate about the purpose of living, I feel the message was successfully delivered. He portrayed the righteous life as worthwhile and rewarding in the beautiful setting. Example K: The fact that the old man in this painting has consulted a prophet for advice only shows normal human behavior when facing crisis. The information given to him by the prophet serves to satisfy his need for security in life. The cloudy future above the two main subjects serves to illustrate the painter's view that the prophet has forecasted a continuing uncertain future for the old man. Western cultures can view this painting in much the same way as the Afghan culture can. Western critics can only regard this work as another religion's way of coping with the uncertainties of life. The key to obtaining a full understanding of this work is to gather enough internal and external information to be able to develop an accurate assessment of what the painter was trying to depict and convey.

208 Example L: The message that this painting is trying to give, in my opinion, is the kind of noble lifestyle that was led by the Afghan people in the past. It shows a man of superiority in private discussion or perhaps even prayer with his counselor or family priest. It depicts a strong Muslim household and strong Muslim lifestyle. The artist displays this message by the strong Muslim designs and Muslim characteristics. The mood is one of serenity and calmness and one can almost feel the peace that is being emanated through this work of art. The strong Muslim architecture symbolizes part of what this painting is trying to portray. The work of art expresses a message of contemplation. The men in the picture are searching for significance by using their minds. They find their significance in the Koran, Allah, and their religion—they are Muslims. The mood is that of expectation. The man in black seated on the floor is awaiting an answer from the man in red. The man in red represents a high authority or judge.

209 APPENDIX J STEP TEN—REINFORCEMENT— INSTRUCTOR'S NOTES AND MODEL APPLICATIONS

210 Step (10) Reinforcement

The students compared the cues identified in the Western art in the introduction to the model with those discovered in non-Western art. The tenets of Western art were used to compare the criteria of Western art to the art of Afghanistan as a reinforcement of the cross-cultural comparisons. Students, for the purpose of confirmation, discussed the three Western art criteria presented in the introduction and applied them to the non-Western artwork.

In addition to monitoring their own attitudes about art from non-Western cultures throughout the critical experience, the students confronted continually other biases of a social, political, economic or cultural nature, and, by comparing steps one and ten, students compared the informational and attitudinal changes that occurred. Students realized Western art is not superior to non-Western art, but that it has a different context. The art was created for a different purpose than what was originally thought. The knowledge of purpose fostered the understanding of the object. The concluding discussion focused upon the ability and vital importance of art to relate one human being to another through visual form. This model helped the students establish and reinforce the meaning and relevance of the critical experience. The following cue questions were used by the teacher for the classroom discussion. The following cue categories

211 facilitated the discussion by being written on the board as they were considered important. The cues were suggested by the students or the teacher.

212 Phase 5: Reinforcement Step (10) Reinforcement (presented by the teacher in the tenth class): Cue Questions for Looking Back: Comparing Premature and Final Decisions (1) How are the cues in Western art like and unlike non- Western art? (2) What new categories were established in order to sort like and unlike criteria? (3) What information was considered most relevant in the confirmation check? (4) What were the most frequently used cues in the decision process? (5) Which preceding categories in the model were most and least important to Western art? (6) Which preceding categories in the model were most and least important to non-Western art?

Cue Categories (written on the board by the teacher): (a) Western art, (b) non-Western art, (c) elitist art and

(d) new categories.

Cue Questions for Focus on the Viewer: Impact of the Work and the Criticism Experience: (1) How has the point of view changed between premature and final decision making?

213 (2) What was learned on a personal level regarding self attitudes and beliefs? (3) What aesthetic attitudes and art cultural values regarding the non-Western culture were learned? (4) How does critical appreciation open new doors to understanding and knowledge of non-Western art? (5) How is art able to unify people from diverse cultures?

Cue Categories (written on the board by the teacher): (a) cultural pluralism, (b) art as social institution for change, (c) life unity, (d) art as language and (e) new categories.

214 students' Applications of Step Ten—Reinforcement Example A:

As far as I know, this is my first exposure to Afghan art. When I first looked at the painting, I saw something very disjointed. But as I lingered, the lines and the contrast used by the artist began to draw things together. I began to develop a basic understanding of what was being depicted. As I learned about the artist and the period in which the painting was produced, I came to better understand and appreciate the painting and its message. We in the West can learn from this painting. We know that the artist is Muslim. We see that he is depicting something which, in all probability, is the cornerstone of his religion. This belief in a higher place, a life after death, is also the cornerstone of our Christian beliefs. If we share a belief that this is critical to all else we believe, then just maybe, there is not as much as I sometimes think separating us from them. In fact, a painting of this type could be the catalyst that allows us to finally see no more "them" and see all the world's occupants as "us."

Example B: In summation, this painting does not fit in Western culture. The reason behind this conclusion is because this society is very different from the East. This does not mean that the West will not appreciate it. The West will appreciate the idea of preserving one's heritage. This viewer's opinion has changed because now the history is known and that gives more insight into the painting. The message behind the painting changed this viewer's attitude as more was learned about the work. It was obviously important to the artist. Art is able to unify people from diverse cultures if they seek to understand it and if they can relate to some aspects of the work of art.

Example C: This work of art can be of great value to the Western society and culture as it shows the Muslim lifestyle and also the livelihood that was once led by the people of Afghanistan. It also gives an insight to the history and the culture of the Eastern lifestyle. This type of art can help to unify people from diverse cultures as one can become less ignorant of another's ethnic background and even be able to appreciate and support other's ethnic background. It will show a unification

215 of the different cultures and the different backgrounds of the various people of this world. Example D:

By looking back to the tentative decisions and comparing them to the final decision, there is a great deal of difference. My tentative decision was that the mood was contemplative, the details were too intricate, and the men were aimlessly waiting. After learning of the context, my decision changed somewhat. The artist's purpose was to share his religion, to show his culture to us, and to give insight into the Eastern society. Although the artist was from Afghanistan, and the observer from the United States of America, there is still a common bond. Both can look at a painting, draw conclusions, and have an opinion on it. The different cultures may not understand the "why" of a work of art, but they can observe and see the "who," the humanity represented. Example E: Now that I have reviewed the historical data pertaining to non-Western art, and have participated in the painting, I have a better understanding and appreciation of the art form and expression of love by the artist for his beloved country and it's rich ancient culture and religion. The unity and utility of space, which the artist used to conceptualize his thoughts of religion, are much clearer to me now and the painting does appear in unity of theme. I see the artist's great desire to show the joy and hope by presenting vivid colors and ornateness in his work as a sharp contrast with the drab colors of Afghan dress and the brown countryside. Example F: I have had to use all of the cues for non-Western art provided to me in order to come to a final conclusion about this work of art. Each of them were helpful in drawing a conclusion. They facilitated an examination of a style of art that I have no prior knowledge of or interest in. This whole procedure has helped me a great deal in the appreciation of non-Western art and it has opened new doors to my understanding of one non-Western painting. With this knowledge, I am looking forward to discovering other non- Western art to develop a better understanding. Hopefully, I will be able to be an art critic on my own.

216 Example G:

As I studied this painting, what began for me as a jumbled gathering of detached parts became instead an exciting tale of man's voyage to spiritual completeness. I was continually drawn back to the eyes of the man in red. It seemed that his eyes were trying to tell me that what was in his heart was terribly important, and because it was so critical to him, it would be a shame if it did not live on. I believe that Mashal accomplished his goal for this painting, and that in time, it hopefully will be preserved for posterity. I believe that any Westerner who truly studies this work will feel a kinship with the painter and the people represented therein. Example H: In retrospect, I am embarrassed to admit my initial response to Mashal's untitled work. Originally I saw the beauty, but would not have purchased something like this. So much of our own art we can identify with in one way or another. With art of other cultures, we need to learn more about the art to understand how to appreciate what we see. My original opinion was premature and close minded. By being more critical and analyzing the work, I learned from the work as well as about it. I learned more about myself and how giving something different a chance, can open my eyes to art in the non-Western world. If everyone had the opportunity to learn in this fashion, we could understand other non-Western cultures and be more open to their influences. My attitude toward non-Western art has definitely changed. I would now be likely to have a painting in this style in my home. I feel the enjoyment of helping others appreciate a non-Western work of art would prompt me to own and discuss a painting like this one. I can use my own experience of art criticism to open others' eyes to new attitudes. I only wish I had the opportunity to tell Mashal of his success. This work has opened my eyes to new opinions as I am sure it will do for others. His purpose of preservation of culture and influence has been obtained.

217 APPENDIX K SCRIPT ON THE ASIAN PEOPLE, CULTURE AND DEMOGRAPHICS OF AFGHANISTAN

218 E. SCRIPT ON THE ASIAN PEOPLE, CULTURE & DEMOGRAPHICS OF AFGHANISTAN SLIDE NUMBER

l" Afghanistan is not a large country; it has only 250,000 square miles. It is approximately the same size as the state of Texas. 2. The landlocked country is located in South Central Asia. 3. Four countries surround Afghanistan. The Soviet Union borders the vast northern portion with the Republic of China to the northeast. Iran is located to the West. Pakistan lies to the south and east. 3. The rugged Hindu Kush, a massive mountain range, dominates the country. The mountainous barrier is open for caravan travel about nine months out of the year. This towering mountain range separates the rich soils of the northern plains from the southern sun-baked deserts. 4. In the far northeast corner of Afghanistan the Himalayas reach towering peaks of over 20,000 feet. 5. Afghanistan is a country of extreme contrasts. Cold nights follow hot bright days; spring rains follow extreme summer droughts. Towering masses of jagged rocks 6. hang over vast stretches of flat, wind­ swept plains. Intensely scorching summer winter months of deep snow. Expansive areas of brown sand are broken by green islands of cultivation. 7^ The Kabul River is the only river in the country which after traveling through Pakistan eventually reaches the Arabian Sea. Other rivers serve to water the fertile lands of the country. g^ Sloping plains and steppes are watered by rivers flowing from northern mountains.

219 Kabul is the capital of Afghanistan. The Kabul River flows through the heart of the city. Kabul is nestled between two mountain ranges which surround the capital. 10 There are a few paved, wide streets but ii* most streets are narrow and unpaved. Traffic consists of donkeys, camels, buses, bicycles, horsemen, 12. horsedrawn carriages, carts, automobiles, and occasional flocks of goats or sheep. 13. The Kabul bazaar is one of the most picturesque markets of central Asia. 14. Here are the many noises, sights, sounds, colors and smells of the East in all of its charm, intrigue and infinite variety. 15. The market place appears to be one of unbelievable confusion yet if one will look long enough in this jam-packed, bustling, merchant mart, almost any item can be found. 16. Each kind of merchandise has its own unique area within the winding streets and alley ways. Here prayer rugs and galims are sold. 17. Craftsmen of every trade, pedal and sell their wares in the market place. Here we see colorful earthenware bowls and jugs made on foot driven potters' wheels. 18. Around the corner we hear the coppersmiths tapping their hammers in rhythmic echoes. 19. Materials are expensive and all too scarce to not plan carefully. Meticulously planned patterns utilize every scrap.

20 All excess metal is melted down and reshaped or liquified for a new destiny.

220 2i' Crackling hot fires await easy recycling as they are tended and fanned from dawn to dusk. 22. Intermittent hawking convincingly beckons visitors. Loud voices are interspersed with 23. the deafening pounding of hammers at work on trays, pots and pitchers from a multitude of sizes. 24. Gleaming wares are guarded by friends nestled together sharing warmth and gossip. 25. Problems are lightened as a piping hot pot of freshly brewed green tea is shared. 26. Embellished macho stories are exchanged as well as tokes on the hooka. 27. Next door nimble fingers weave and wrap softened grass rope for making furniture. 28. Chairs, beds, stools, and tables which are colorfully created before our eyes. 29. Nearby the carpenter whittles needed wooden parts as his pile of long curls of shavings grows deep around him. 30. Additional wood can be easily purchased from a not too distant vendor. Tall pine tree poles provide shade for these relaxed merchants. 31. Wood is a major source of fuel among all Afghan families. These men will chop, weigh and deliver it to your door. 32. This roving street barber found a customer in this smiling, soon-to-be clean shaven lad. He is able to mind his pile of tangerine while receiving his answer to the long, hot summer. 33^ This local barber shop has added its own cooling system with the big fan above.

221 ^*" The barbers can have their straight-edge razors, as well as knives, sharpened by this willing gentleman. ^5- Walking on further in the bazaar we see a cobbler at work. 36. He has competition from these two young entrepreneurs. 37. Shoes may be purchased from this Afghan with the push cart filled with colorful, rubber shoes. 38. Another nearby cart is laden with socks for sale. 39. Beautiful embroidered materials colorfully appeal to the veiled women shoppers. 40. Though their dress barely shows under the full-length veil covering all of their face and head, they selectively choose their clothes as if everyone sees. 41. With equal care they shop for their seldom seen jewelry in the bazaar. This jeweler deftly combines the delicate gold parts. 42. Another crafts person is busy at work at the loom. Weavers may be seen in the bazaar creating carpets, galims or cloth. 43. Carpet merchants display their woven designs inside and outside of their shops. 44. The sidewalks serve as a work space for carpet repairers to mend time's destruction. 45. Further on, we see more Afghan carpets spread upon the sidewalk. This time a turbaned, kneeling gentlemen is responding to the Islamic call to prayer heard on the loud speakers throughout the city. 46^ On the corner we see a sidewalk display of numerous items from handmade hats to 222 bracelets to medicine. The vendor is reciting a prayer from the Koran as he fingers his red prayer beads. ^*^- The air is filled with scents of freshly baked bread. Men quickly lure their customers with the inviting aroma of the hot bread 4S- immediately after it is taken from the oven. 49. Said peers out a window to offer us goat kabob on skewers. Goat and lamb are the most commonly eaten meats. 50. Beef cattle are rare and hog meat is forbidden due to the Islamic religious custom. Here we see a typical butcher shop in the bazaar. 51. Sitting outside of the butcher shop, we see a bearded man in grey who ventured to town this morning with his pan of eggs to sell. 52. Nearby bins of eggs are available for the choosing. Some eggs have been hard boiled and dyed red. 53. When sold, these sweet oranges and tangerines will help buy more firewood to keep warm. The happy gathering of turbaned Afghans is a typical sight in the bazaar. 54. This next contrasting scene of a very lavish array of fruits and vegetables is indeed colorful and inviting. The young man perches cross-legged among this edible assortment; he is ready to fill any shopper's bag. 55. Across the street are opened bags of fragrant cooking spices and nuts. The shopper is bartering in an attempt to get a good price before making his purchase. 55. Larger bags and baskets hold heaping mounds of dried fruit and nuts. The yellow and white tent roof provides insurance against the afternoon rain. 223 ^"^' Another vendor has set up a similar, yet more open, display. Pistachios, pine nuts and walnuts are plentiful. 58- Afternoon tea time is a tradition in the bazaar as well as throughout the country. Brass samovars filled with hot tea are dotted throughout the bazaar. 59. This craftsman is repairing broken tea pots and cups. In a country as this, where tea pots are used over and over throughout the day, his business is quite good. 60. Another gentleman smokes hashish during afternoon tea time. 61. Men dominate the bazaar during all hours. Women in chadri veils are mainly seen shopping in the mornings. This lady stares back at us through the tiny holes in the veil covering her face. She has just arrived at her home after shopping for food for her family. 62. The food preparation is the responsibility of the women. Here at home with a simple head covering in place of her veil the 63. women slice vegetables and 64. stir boiling meat in the out-of-doors. 65. This lady takes time to clean up after tea time while another takes a carbonated break from her kitchen tasks. 66. Women remain at home the majority of the time. They sometimes venture to a friend's home if they are hidden under the veil during travel. 67. They fix each other's hair, make crafts, 68. sew, and play with the children as they visit.

69 Afghan mothers are close to their children and keep them near their side.

224 ^^- Older sisters assume much of the home responsibility at an early age. They help care for younger siblings as well as

"^^^ help wash clothes, clean house and other household duties.

"72. Sometimes clothes are washed in the rivers as well as bodies for bath time.

"73. The women freguently take care of the gardens to help provide food for their families.

"74. Wherever she goes her children keep her company until they are old enough to attend a local school if one exists in the community. 75. This school meets under the green trees to hold daily classes. 76. In small villages as these, it is not uncommon for children to meet each day outside at a designated spot. 77. In the cities, school buildings are usually provided for the children. A caring teacher takes time out to know his students. 78. Only approximately ten percent of the population is literate. Primitive though this school is, these boys are fortunate to be in it considering they live among so many people who have had such limited educational opportunities. 79. These girls have been provided with a more modern, better equipped facility compared to some of the previously seen schools. 80. Here we see young children engaged in a circle activity in their kindergarten in Kabul. 81 This child is able to read, study and learn in a more spacious, well equipped educational environment.

225 82 The great majority of students on the primary and secondary levels are boys. ^^' Religious and social attitudes disapprove of education beyond about eighth grade for girls, especially in the rural areas. 84. Far fewer schools exist for girls. In 1970 there were 2,500 boys schools compared to 350 girls schools throughout the country. 85. The society is very male dominated. The men are generally proud and strive to promote a macho image. 86. They are extremely protective of their wife and children. 87. In any household, the senior male has supreme authority, and great respect is given to men, particularly to older men. 88. Marriages are usually arranged, sometimes years before they take place. Cousin marriages are widely regarded as ideal. 89. The bride goes to the home of her new husband and lives with the family after the marriage takes place. 90. Sometimes a room or two are added on to the parent's house to accommodate the newly extended family. 91. The Koran permits a Moslem to have four wives if he can treat them equally, but few men can afford more than one. 92. Homes are made of mud bricks and 93. generally have very thick walls. 94. Most people live in villages of varying sizes. In general, the number of houses depend on the number of families who can be fed from the produce of the nearby fields

95 and on the amount of water available throughout the year.

226 ^^' Some Afghans live in yurts like we now see. 9*7. The nomads, or koochies, live in tents. Some are nomadic and travel throughout Asia. 98. Other nomads are pastoral and move back and forth between a warm and cool climate. 99. Some nomads travel by lorry truck whereas others choose to go by camel caravan. 100. More than two-thirds of the population has some tribal connection. Each individual member of the tribe has connections with his extended family, lineage, tribe and ethnic community. 101. The equalitarian influence of Islam makes itself felt as a general awareness of human dignity exists. 102. Islam is a strongly binding force throughout the country's diverse ethnic and tribal groups. Approximately 99% of the people are Moslem. 103. The devout believer says his prayers five times daily, keeps the fast during the holy days and aspires to make a pilgrimage to Mecca, the holy city of Islam. The observances of Islam are an integral part of life's daily routine. 104. The mosques, of which there are some fifteen thousand, are usually decorated with pale blue and green glazed tiles. The simple curved architecture, 105. the pleasantly laid-out gardens, have all the unhurried calm in keeping with a reverent place of worship. 206. The criterion which establishes one as a Moslem is his willingness to recite publicly the profession of faith. Moslems believe Allah is the one God and Mohammed is his messenger.

227 ^^"7- The government uses religious rites and celebrations as unifying symbols to further the nation's building efforts. ^°S- No Roos, or New Year, is a time of unifying energies and families. ^09. Jeshen is another holiday for picnics, fairs and celebration. This day commemorates the Independence Day of 1919. 110. Jeshen is a day for kites, 111. music, folk dancing, 112. and games of the national sport, Buzkashi. 113. Buzkashi demands the most skilled horseback riders in the country. 114. Two teams are pitted against one another as they fight over the stuffed goat for scorepoints. 115. This nation of approximately fifteen million people is a strong and proud nation. 116. The conflict of ideas in "East meets West" has always created an inner— turmoil within the people of Afghanistan. 117. The West has taught young Afghans a new freedom that creates conflict with many of the older people. 118. Modernization and technology have been very slowly received but continue to make an impact. 119. The official military has never been very strong 120. but they are flanked by many faithful volunteers as the Afghans struggle to preserve their heritage. 121. Even with limited weaponry the Afghans fight to maintain their freedom.

228 ^22. Many leaders have passed through this gateway to Afghanistan and 123. many have been willing to die for the cause of their country. 124. In the recognition of the Afghan's strong sense of person dignity, 125. his independent spirit, his loyalties to family and tribe, 126. and his intrinsic pride lies the foundation for his country's evolution and survival. 127. All wars with Afghans have been in the nature of holy wars, or jihads. Whenever Afghans have defended their soil they have done so in the fanatical belief that they were defending Islam. 128. Tomorrow dawns a new day with new ideas and devotion. Traditions imbedded in a culture as ancient as that of Afghanistan do not die easily. 129. Undoubtedly, the youth of today will give a strong impetus to the direction of this intriguing country in Asia,

229 APPENDIX L SCRIPT ON THE ASIAN MINIATURE PAINTINGS

230 C) ASIAN MINIATURE PAINTINGS SLIDE NUMBER

1- The miniature style of painting is deeply imbedded in Afghanistan's Islamic tradition. 2* It flourished during the Timurid Dynasty, which was established in Herat in the fifteenth century . This elaborately decorated towering minaret remains as a tribute to this period. A true renaissance in art took place during this rich artistic atmosphere. 3. Herat, the commercial and cultural capital of the Middle East and Asia at this time, added to Afghanistan's heritage as a crossroads and stopping place for many artistic influences. 5. In earlier days painters traditionally worked together as a team in the royal studios to coordinate book illustrations such as we see here. 6. These fifteenth century painters, calligraphers, gilders, margin decorators and scribes worked together to decorate the illustrations as well as skillfully decorating covers for the manuscripts. 7. The classic Herat style which continues to influence today's artists was greatly developed by Behzad. One of Behzad's most important disciples of the twentieth century is Said Mashal whose work we see pictured here. 8. This influential contemporary artist, Mashal, has been strongly influenced since his childhood by the exquisite miniature works of Behzad. His father often brought home books with miniature paintings which gave him an early curiosity about art and the miniature style of painting. 9^ Mashal studied miniature art with his father who taught him how to mix colors

231 from natural elements such as vegetables and herbs as this young Afghan is doing. •^^' Seeking to re-create the excitement and beauty of miniature art in Afghanistan, Mashal worked diligently on learning the style of the fifteenth century artist Behzad. One of Mashal's early works is pictured here. 11- Early in his life, Mashal developed a dream to reestablish the Herat school of art and cultural center. He worked and taught other students in the school he established. Mashal taught approximately three thousand students in the miniature style of painting. 12. Additionally, he taught over four thousand more students in art at the Herat Teacher Training Institute. He chose to teach at the Institute with the hope of inspiring some of his students to continue the tradition of painting. Others he hoped would appreciate the ancient art and pass along their understanding to their students when they became teachers. 13. The establishment and survival of an art school was no easy task for Mashal. He constantly encountered the problem of fund raising in an impoverished land. He occasionally charged students if they were in a position to pay, but he allowed many students to enter and learn under his guidance for no fee. 14. Besides the relentless economic problems, students often had to drop out of the school, to help earn a living for their families. 15. Few students possessed the dedication and patience to learn the skills to finish a single painting which often took from six months to a year to complete. Mashal sometimes grew very discouraged. Nonetheless, throughout life Mashal has taught about miniature painting whenever he found an interested person.

232 •^^' For many years, Mashal taught students in miniature painting in conjunction with his duties as head of an organization which promoted crafts and art in Herat. 1*^- The operation had approximately one thousand craftsmen and artists and was quite helpful in improving the designs and quality of carpet weaving. 18. Additionally, craftsmen worked in other areas of art also.. Here we see cloth weaving, 19. woodcarving, 20. jewelry, 21. stone cutting, mosaic tiles, and 22. sculpting. 23. Blending many of his colors from herbs, as well as using tempera paints and watercolors, Mashal has created many detailed miniatures. He excels in the purity and harmony of colors. The delicacy and finesse of his drawings, and the exquisite rendering of pattern and detail are particularly striking. He gives detailed attention to the decorated margins which frame this beautiful 5" x 8" miniature. In keeping with the Herat styles, he maintains the subtle balance of the composition, even when asymmetrical. 24. Mashal gleaned inspiration from many sources. He sometimes recreates scenes from the early Timurid period such as the one we are now viewing. 25. He also paints in the style of naturalism which shows the real world with broadening subject matter. 26. Including scenes from everyday life. 27. Mashal paints the tiny details for the miniatures sometimes with a brush made from only one or two hairs. He paints with a set of approximately twelve 233 brushes which he either made or imported from Europe. The diminutive work is but an inch tall. 28- Sometimes he pays tribute to the earlier centuries of life in Afghanistan as he recreates themes closely akin to those chosen by the earlier miniaturist, Behzad. 29. Western influences of subject are sometimes depicted. The gentlemen wears a Western style tie and suit but he is painted in the miniature style. 30. The next slide illustrates the Western corruption of the mind on Islam. 31. In contrast, a lighter subject was selected as Mashal depicts Afghan women with their veils thrown back doing a folkloric dance in a large circle. 32. The traditional "Romeo and Juliet pursuit" was exemplified in the detail of the gentleman upon the white horse 33. as he pursued the fair maiden perched in the lofty window above. 34. Mashal colorfully depicted the story through ornate patterning of texture and design within a small 6" x 9" framework. 35. Mashal was a dedicated Moslem and was sometimes influenced by religious themes. 36. The following works of art show Moslem men as they study or contemplate Islam and the teachings of Mohammad. 37. The elegant gold illuminated decoration surrounding the 5" x 8" miniature shows the work of Mashal's steady hand and perceptive eyes. The painting pours over its frame into the margin. This extension is often seen in miniatures of the Timurid school. Within the border are unique individual renderings of trees, foliage, mountains, birds and animals. Mashal used pure gold to mix the paint for this margin decoration.

234 The miniature work is actually framed within several borders; two of the borders are of the solid colors gold and red, while the other two borders are embellished with decorative renderings. 38 These add to the already strong use of pattern in design which exists within miniature painting. 39. Ornate patterns enhance the robes of the two scholars and the carpet upon which they sit. Decorative tiles and flowers add to the patterning. 40. Next we see an exquisite miniature framed with a border of lesser quality. Mashal simply used a patterning of curving lines with almost no attention to detail. 41. Mashal deftly crated the beautiful border shown in the next work. 42. Here he reveals the interwoven design of flowers, leaves and vines over the royal blue and gold background. 43. An even more exquisitely detailed border is shown in the outstanding 5" x 8" art work by Mohammed Homayoun Etemadi, another artist who worked in the miniature style. 44. The Koran border designed by Etemadi glistens with the golden renderings of beasts, birds and foliage. 45. Etemadi illustrated an extraordinarily delicate border for the calligraphic design for one of his father's poems. Miniscule flowers of gold and white overlay a deep blue background. Flowers are also used within the framework as Etemadi punctuated the calligraphy with them at various intervals.

46 The art of calligraphy which was an important influence on Islamic painting, illumination, designing, and architecture, was one of the most highly prized arts in Afghanistan. The term

235 "calligraphy" means beautiful writing or elegant penmanship. ^'^' It took many years of practice and skill to develop the grace and distinction of individual styles in calligraphy. In earlier days, it was the princes, princesses and wealthy children who learned calligraphy. In recent years, this art form has grown to widespread acceptance as a reguired subject for children throughout the country in the public schools. 48 In the Islamic world, the profession of calligraphy was, and is today, considered as one of excellence and high dignity. 49. Calligraphy adorns many walls in homes and public buildings throughout the country. This work was designed by Seljouki. Calligraphy has long been used to present selected passages of the Holy Koran or poetry. Translated this says "Oh God, you are the one who never dies. With your hands you give us many things. Looking at your face, I receive all that I need." 50. Seljouki lived in Herat and followed the footsteps of the early miniaturist Behzad so closely that he chose to name his son Behzad Seljouki. 51. This work is decorative and bold in treatment. Hussain Seljouki balanced the calligraphy in a more symmetrical manner. An artistic approach is presented as Hussain used white and red tempera on black paper in a totally asymmetrical design of Arabic letters. 52. Homoyoun Etemadi illustrated a poem about two lovers. The maiden looks into her mirror as she admires her own beauty, while below her turbaned lover serenades her as he plays the rhubab. 53^ A similar approach in style is shown as Etemadi illustrated the brief poem with brightly colored flowers and a finely

236 detailed bird. A gold border frames the small calligraphic miniature. ^^' Elements of nature are frequently used to create the exquisite borders painted by present Afghan artists. This artist created a border of flowers which unifies the colorful depiction of many flowers within the bordered framework. 55. Next we see another flowered border framing galloping horses with turbaned riders. The bold border frames the 4" x 7" ovalesque miniature. 56. Fighting horsemen bearing lances lunge into the pictorial space as they are ensconced with a small matching border. 57. Here we see a more contemporary style as leaves and butterflies line the borders. 58. Gul Mohammad Honarjo created an elaborate border of tiny vines and flowers. The border's design and colors were repeated in the diverse patterns created within the picture. A beautiful maiden enticingly looks at the viewer as she plays the tambour. Honarjo richly adorned her with hat, beads, feathers and scarves as well as her beautifully patterned dress. The tambour and vessels have their own ornate patterns. 59. Another border pattern which repeats some of the same colors is seen in the work by Honarjo. Ornate design work creates the surrounding border. Within this framework is a lovely maiden looking into the wine bowl. Behind her are many faces of the men which pass through her mind. The artist leaves the viewer with the question, "Which one will she choose?" 50. This typifies the more modern Afghan woman represented in the contemporary paintings influenced by the miniature style. Here she possesses long, thick black hair, alluring eyes, is robed in finery and pictured in tune with nature as she creates music amidst the flowers and trees. Depth of field was created by 237 placing the distant mountain in the background. ^1* Honarjo positions the woman in the often seen S-curve stance. The trees depicted in the background show influence of Western landscape painting. ^2. Another artist shows examples of the S- curve in picturing his well adorned lady. This painting depicts the Western influence of a barren tree in the background; on the other hand, the clouds were influenced from the early miniature style. The last five works of art show a more recent influence in the miniature style by depicting large figures in the overall spatial relationship of the painting. 63. The following five presentations of art depict people more forth rightly with less extraneous detail. The contemporary artists feel at liberty to paint only a main character instead of an entire story which usually engages more than one character. 64. Mashal allowed this work to be photographed before the final touches had been applied. The influence of the Behzad works are shown in the gnarled trees. 65. Behzad Seljouki boldly depicts a religious leader studying the Koran and chanting on his knees. Little modeling was given to the form of the figure. 66. Mashal painted a portrait of a gentlemen in keeping with the miniature style, although the single figure boldly demands a large amount of positive space within the composition. 67. Furug painted a very modeled rendering in profile of a turbanned gentlemen. Beyond the foreground is a delicate pattern on an arch-way representing a Mosgue and a low table with the Holy Koran. In keeping with the miniature style, it was very popular to show the Koran with or 238 near a person to denote their deep religious dedication.

^^" Earlier miniature works depicted more activity and people within a single work of art. There was less concern with perspective and anatomy in earlier works.

^^- People and objects in this 6" x 9" miniature were not proportionately positioned according to the depth of field.

"70. This detail of the same work shows the rather flat, shallow appearance less seen in some of the more recent contemporary works of art. 71. A greater distance in depth of field is shown in this more contemporary style by Etemadi. The style of mountains and clouds were strongly influenced by earlier miniature artists. 72. Moving closer in, we see the traditional attention to detail with more emphasis on modeling and anatomy. 73. another hunting scene shows the richly textured decorative patterning throughout this less compressed miniature work. 74. Scenes of everyday life thematically recur. This shows the common life tasks of plowing and shepherding. 75. The task is glorified as well dressed musicians accompany the workers. Repetition in pattern and color add to the overall texture.. 76. The Afghan miniature art represents the romantic depiction of the heroes and heroines of Afghanistan. The Afghans like the heroes of their art to be fabulously brave 77. and their heroines to be dazzlingly beautiful and woefully pursued by handsome men.

239 78. This is part of the unique charm of the miniature style which existed in the fifteenth century and repeats itself today as twentieth century artists continue in the same style. 79. Conquest after conquest swept over Afghanistan throughout the centuries; while a vitality has persisted, renewed itself and refused to succumb to the events of history. 80. One might expect to find the early miniature style which began in the fifteenth century obliterated by the influx of foreign ideas and forms, but instead, it has emerged slowly and surely, re-establishing itself afresh. 81. Many of the contemporary artists of today are proud of this part of their heritage and continue to produce in the miniature style.

240 APPENDIX M SCRIPT ON THE ASIAN ART OF AFGHANISTAN

241 B) SCRIPT ON THE HISTORY OF ASIAN ART OF AFGHANISTAN SLIDE NUMBER

1- In approximately 300 B.C. when the Greeks built the early city of Ay Khanom, there were remnants of early life in Afghanistan. Ag Kupruk has revealed human life dating back to 20,000 B.C. At this site the oldest sculpture in Asia, depicting a man's head, was discovered by archaeologist Louis Dupree. 2' There are indications of Greek penetration into various areas of Afghanistan. The Greek city of Ay Khanom developed after the arrival of Alexander the Great around 330 B.C. French archaeologists discovered the remains of the model Greek city including castles, well planned streets, a stadium, a temple and decorated halls and pillars. 3. The Greeks influenced the method and style of the artists of Afghanistan greatly. Aessof, a Greek master sculptor, strongly directed the styles of the three dimensional work. Bactrian Greek coins were excavated which surpassed in beauty the coins minted in Greece. 4. Gandharan art emerged from the strong influences of the art of northwest India during the Kushan period around A.D. 128. Gandharan art was the official art of the Kushan Emperor Kanishka and his immediate successors. Kanishka, a devout Buddhist, encouraged the growth of Gandharan art which derived most of its subject matter from the Buddhist religion. The Gandhara school is usually credited with the first representation of the Buddha in human form. The Kushans ruled Gandhara, the region near Jalalabad, around the time of the birth of Christ. 5. There are differing opinions among art historians concerning influences upon Gandharan art. Many scholars agree with Richard N. Frye who said, "The primary influence of the art of Gandhara is from 242 Greece." Benjamin Rowland said, "The Gandhara stone sculptures have little to do with Greek art... and are more closely related to Roman art."

^- The art owes its origin to the Graeco- Bactrian rulers of Afghanistan. Though the technique is borrowed from the Greeks, the art itself is essentially local in spirit and is employed to give expression to the beliefs and practices of the Buddha. Practically everything excavated is an illustration of the life and previous life of the great teacher. 7« Gandharan art has survived mainly in three dimensional forms, predominantly in stone and partly in stucco, plaster and clay found in Hadda, an excavation site. Most of the stone sculptures were carved in schist; other sculptures were in stucco. Hadda was a large Buddhist monastic settlement south of Jalalabad. Over 30,000 stucco heads and figurines have been recovered from Hadda stupa shrines. 8. Some of these remain on the site but many were transferred to the Kabul Museum for protection and study. However, many were stolen during the Russian invasion in 1979. We will be viewing work excavated at Hadda in the following twenty-three slides. 9. This shows a typical head of Buddha from Hadda. The hair is wavy; the eyebrows form a continuous line with the nose; the smile and expression are withdrawn, reflective and serene. The thin high nose is parallel to the lines of the forehead. The lips are similar to those seen on the statues of Apollo and Adonis, the Greek gods. The beauty and experience seen in the Buddha's expression are characteristic of the classical style. The face represents modesty, affection, sympathy, confidence and love.

10 The clear lines of the half opened eyes give a look of temporalness of this world

243 with a view into an eternal world beyond this life. The long ear lobes were once adorned with earrings, probably of gold. The protuberance on top of the head represents the Enlightenment of Buddha. 11* In the Gandharan sculpture there is often superb anatomical rendering and dramatic use of light and shade. The bone and sinew of the sculptures are defined in the Greek manner. The concepts of Buddhism, peace and wisdom, were the ideals the artists revealed. The Graeco- Buddhists gave their works spiritual characteristics in the serenity of the faces of their sculptures. 12. Freguently the hands and fingers of figures were positioned in a very expressive manner. The hands of Buddha are shown in the teaching gesture. Enhancing the expressive hands are carefully executed folds of drapery. 13. The ancient artists often took advantage of one of the most expressive devices available to sculptors, draping a fabric. 14. Drapery emphasized the volume of the body, and the soft pliant folds revealed the body beneath, perpetuating the style of Gandharan statues. 15. A "wet drapery" technique blending flesh and fabric is also used. 16. Here we see various contrasting treatments of the use of draped fabric to show mass and form in human figure while this next work shows a softer use of drapery. 17. We can observe the strong Indian features with less emphasis on the draped garments and the folds of the material. 18. Indian influence features less of the wavy pattern in the hair and flattened eyebrows connecting with the nose. The Indian influence upon the Buddha figure has positioned him in the Oriental or yoga pose. 244 ^^' This cross-legged position has become a fixed iconographic form of Buddha figures. The Gandharan standing Buddha was influenced by Hellenistic art. 2°* The halo or nimbus, symbol of divinity of Christ in early Christian art, was sometimes used to deify the figures. 21- Greek influences are indicated through the decorative use of tritons, centaurs and other mythical forms. 22. Sometimes ornamentations of garlands, vines, lotuses and decorative pillars are used. 23. Animal figures sometimes are apparent in scenes which depict the life of Buddha. 24. This shows a crouching lion. 25. Here we see a ram to the left of the Buddha. 26. Donors sometimes come to the region to pay homage. 27. It is believed to be donors that are depicted along with Buddha as they pay their contribution to the monastery. 28. Characteristic of the Gandharan school are stupas. Stupas originally served as funerary monuments for the ashes of people of importance. Later they were used as shrines, or the very large ones as chapels. Their plinths were divided into sections or parasol layers. The shrines are often decorated with stories of Buddha's life. 29. Gandharan art is eclectic due to its birth at one of the major crossroads of east and west Afghanistan. Kushan and Indian influences upon the sculptures unearthed at Hadda are obvious. Bactrian and Hellenistic art are also visible influences upon these treasures. Roman art influence can be studied and observed in the statues and other sculpted pieces found within Gandharan art. 245 '^^' Buddhists left a dynamic impact at the site of the cave temples in the village of Bamiyan. Bamiyan is located at the southern branch of the famous silk caravan route about 120 miles west of Kabul. 31- Carved within the rock cliffs is a colossal statue of Buddha, 175 feet in height. It is said to be the largest statue existing in the world today. The small people at the base give a comparative idea of its size. Notes by early Chinese pilgrims to Bamiyan give an account of the majestic sight of these awesome Buddhist statues. The pilgrims were required to approach the Buddhas, crouched with heads down. Trumpets and flutes began to play as people behind the large arms of the statues pulled ropes creating up and down movement in the arms. Lighted torches flashed behind the hollow eyes. The account states that some of the pilgrims would faint and fall to the ground due to fatigue after such a long journey combined with the excitement created by the impressive, animated sight of the enormous Buddha. 32. Approximately 400 yards away is another enormous image of Buddha which is 125 feet tall. Sometime in the third or fourth centuries the impressive shrines were sculpted out of the valley walls. 33. Buddhist pilgrims came to pay homage to the once richly painted, gilded, bejeweled and highly decorated statues and the dedicated monks who lived within the many cave dwellings surrounding the figures. A few of the many cave entrances are shown here. Bamiyan, the great monastic center of the Kushan period, mainly consisted of rock carved sanctuaries around the two immense niches of Buddha carved into the sandstone cliffs. The complicated maze of caves and grottos were used as sanctuaries, vestibules, assembly halls and small monastic cells for the monks.

246 •^^' Mongolian hordes, Ghengis Kahn, iconoclastic Moslems, the vandalism of ignorant people, and the destruction of time have all contributed to the havoc wreaked upon the magnificent Buddhist statues and their grandeur. The cutting of human images was, and still is, prohibited in Islam. When Islam began to grasp a strong hold on Afghanistan, zealous missionaries destroyed the faces and other areas of the large Buddhist figures.

35. Many caves were elaborately decorated. Centuries of soot from the fires of camping nomads have covered many of the paintings. Many of the works of art on the cave walls have been physically desecrated by the well-meaning but fanatical Moslems. A few remaining frescoes on cave walls are the only surviving examples of early Buddhist painting since none survived in Gandhara. 36. The paintings date after the fourth century A.D. They were intended to provide a setting for the statues of Buddha. The paintings may be divided into periods of Indian, Sasanian and Central Asian styles. The paint was a tempera or pise. Pise is a mixture of earth, straw, horsehair and clay. Following the application of pise, a thin layer of finely powdered gypsum was spread over the cave wall; upon this slip the pigments were applied. All of the colors, except indigo, used at Bamiyan were produced locally. 37. The next five cave wall paintings represent people serving Buddha, events in his life or donors. Brown-cloaked figures sit against aureoles of white outlined in ochre and blue. Celestial blue made from lapis lazuli served as the most common background. The heads of Buddhas were often ringed with nimbi and topped with evidence of the enlighten­ ment. 3g^ The stylized figures were usually seated in the Indian cross-legged position. The 247 raised hands show Buddha teaching. The hands are positioned with grace as they give their mystical gestures and messages.

^^' This shows a Buddha flanked by a disciple and donor. Both the donor and the Buddha were adorned with hair ribbons which were from the Sasanian influence. 40. Next we see gesturing of dancing handmaids. Their arms and legs reflect graceful movement. 41. The paintings at Bamiyan and the mammoth sculptures of Buddha show the sophistication of the artists of this period and the elegance of their style. 42. During the seventh century A.D., the Arabs entered Asia. Most of the region of Afghanistan which was then called Aryana was conguered by the Arabs. They brought a new and fruitful civilization to the area. The new Moslem leaders believed it to be a sin to pray to statues, idols of human or animal forms and strictly forbade such worship. 43. They persuaded the artists to adapt the fine arts, engraving, geometrical designs, 44. and different styles of calligraphic design in their buildings, shrines, mosgues, graves and books. 45. One of the great capitals of the Islamic world was Gazni, located eighty five miles south of Kabul. Baghdad was the model for this city of splendor. Gazni flourished with ornate buildings, great libraries and architectural grandeur until its permanent devastation by Genghis Kahn and his blood thirsty armies in 1221. Here we see one of two minarets, once part of the great mosque, which were left standing. They are intricately decorated with red brick relief designs. Geometric and floral patterns were elaborately combined with square script within the panels.

248 Excavations have revealed fragments of sculpture, pottery and metalwork from the ruins of Ghazni. Many of these pieces were displayed in the Kabul Museum until the Russian invasion in 1979. 47 Genghis Kahn's hordes demolished many of Afghanistan's cities, mosques and monuments, leaving thousands of dead in their treacherous wake. 48 This shows the remains of the city of Qala-i-Bost. Ruins clearly depict the early life of the busy 11th and 12th century city of discernable mosgues, bazaars, baths and walls still standing today. 49. The richly decorated ceremonial arch remains standing as the principal entrance to the citadel. It has a span of eighty feet. Geometric designs in brick and blue tile create the principal design of the large arch which was built in the 11th century. 50. Appearing next is the minaret of Jam, built about 1190 in the center of the province of Ghor. Jam is the second highest minaret in the world, standing 213 feet; the Delhi, India minaret is 238 feet and was inspired by the minaret of Jam. 51. Jam was rediscovered in 1957 when a pilot flying off course noticed it and circled it several times; the news then reached the Afghan Historical Society in Kabul. Until that moment the outside world knew nothing of its existence. Few people even today have seen the magnificent monument because it is almost impossible to reach the remote mountain location without a hardy four-wheel drive vehicle and much perseverance.

52 The minaret of Jam is the only well- preserved architectural monument from the 12th century Ghorid period in central Afghanistan. The tower is technically advanced from several points of view: engineering, decoration and intricate

249 arabesgues. The base of the structure is forty-seven feet in diameter. Eight vertical panels extending from the octagonal base, consist of floral and geometric designs Above these designs is inscribed the 19th Sura of the Koran, Maryam.

^•^' A brilliant persian-blue kufic inscription is located below the first balcony. These letters proclaim the then Ghorid ruler, "Ghiyas-ad-Din Mohammad ibn Sam, Sultan Magnificent! King of Kings 1" Without question, he had this built as a tribute to himself and his dynasty, but historians have questioned why he chose this remote site for the magnificent tower of tribute. Some think he believed this remoteness would increase the tower's longevity. 54. In 1200 a great mosque, the Masjid-i- Jami', was built in Herat. The Ghorids built the mosque, but in the 15th century the Timurids covered the entire mosque with their own style and motifs. A few areas have been uncovered which provide interesting comparisons in design. 55. Calligraphers, tilemakers and all manner of artisans lavished the mosgue with years and years of effort. Mystics and scholars, including great poets such as Jami, taught there. 56. Shah Rukh was succeeded to the throne immediately after the death of his father, Tamerlane, in 1404. Under the patronage of this peace-loving and constructive monarch and his gueen Gawar Shad all forms of art and beauty flourished during his tenure. The renaissance of Persian literature and arts bloomed in Herat, making the city the great cultural center of the world at that time. 57. Glazed tile had been a Persian tradition for several centuries, but the highest refinement of it was attained during the Timurid period.

250 ^^* The dominant color was turquoise blue but to obtain details in the designs many colors were developed. Fragments of tiles were cut with extreme care, enabling the artists to create many intricate designs and decorations mingled with Kufic calligraphic writing in the most delicate mosaics. 59. Glazed tile archways ^0. and minarets were used to create the splendor of the Herat mosgue, Masjid-i- Jami. ^1« In approximately 1425, Queen Gawar Shad began construction of a place for learning and worship in Herat. an enormous landscaped courtyard surrounded by eight minarets was erected. Most of the minarets have been destroyed in wars or by earthguakes. Here is an example of one of the few remaining minarets. The minaret is best viewed from one of the Queen's private gardens. It is one of the finest surviving examples of architectural tile mosaics from this period. 62. Another Timurid edifice stands at Mazar- i-Sharif in the province of Balkh, 266 miles northwest of Kabul. 63. The mosgue and shrine of Hazrat Ali was built in 1481 under Sultan Husain Baigara in Mazari-Sharif. It is considered by many Afghans to be the most beautiful building in the country. 64. The 15th century building was destroyed, but reconstruction efforts have restored the mosgue to its original beauty. 65. This shows the decorative gold design through an archway. Rustic orange, gold and blue richly decorate the top of the entrance.

66 Here we see the geometric, floral and arabesgue designs in brightly colored tiles which adorn the mosgue.

251 Inside, exguisite carpets woven especially for this mosque, compliment richly embroidered fabric covering many of the interior walls.

^^' Mosgues such as these are often depicted in miniature paintings of this period. The beginning of miniature painting in Afghanistan cannot be dated exactly, but is known to have been practiced as early as the thirteenth century. Miniature painting, however, reached its height in Herat in the fifteenth century under Tamerlane's son, Shah Rukh. 69. During the time of this rich cultural environment of the arts Behzad came into prominence. Behzad whose work we see here, was the most prominent miniature painter from the Timurid dynasty. He was born in Herat around the middle of the fifteenth century. His parents died when he was very young and a famous painter named Mirak Aqa became his guardian. Behzad made his first miniatures under Aga's guidance. As a young man, several royal government patrons began to support Behzad and he was appointed as head of their newly established Academy of Arts. He tutored many miniature painters who carried on his traditions and style. 70. Here we can observe the unique style and technique of Behzad as seen through his composition, lively action, individuality of the characters, delicacy of execution, expression of detail, variety of blended flesh tones and harmonious color schemes- pink, Vermillion, dark red and various shades of yellow, green and blue, placed against the dark green of nature's settings. 71. Behzad combined great technical skill as shown here with studied naturalism as he illustrated an illuminated historical and poetical works at the Timurid court. He exercised profound influence on his contemporaries and upon successive generations of painters.

252 ^^* About 1921, Ghulam M. Kahn went to Europe to study lithography in Germany. Upon his return to Afghanistan in 1923, he established the School of Fine Arts in Kabul. Associates of Ghulam, taught decorating, miniature painting and design. Several foreign instructors also joined the faculty who taught portraiture and watercolor. A Russian taught sculpting and caricature. In just the first year the enrollment number grew from eight to twenty-five students. More teachers and broader subject matter were added over the next few years. 73. The school added the teaching of perspective, mirror-making, sculpting, as we see here, plaster casting and the lost wax method of casting, as well as, watercolor and portraiture. Also carpentry, architecture, wood carving, carpet weaving and anatomy were added to the curriculum. 74. As the school flourished, a new interest and national pride in art grew in the Afghan people. The school's success was largely due to the kings who promoted the arts. King Amanullah encouraged advancement of the arts and humanities. This zeal for knowledge and advancement was carried on by King Shah. 75. While the institution flourished under these rulers, the volatile nature of Afghanistan's history prevented the full fruition of its goals. Coups d' etat and wars disrupted the progress of the arts and closed the school several times prior to the Russian invasion of the late 70's. Fortunately, a strong commitment had been established within some of the faculty and students, and it was reopened each time as soon as possible. Only the future will reveal whether the commitment can survive the present upheaval in Afghanistan. 76. The alumni from the Kabul School of fine Arts have been sent all over the provinces of Afghanistan. Consequently, with their training and support from the 253 government, students in small villages have been exposed to arts and crafts. Awareness of art, largely due to the establishment of the Fine Arts School, emerged in Afghanistan in the early 1900s and has continued through today. '^'^' The rug weaving industry has received government attention and young people are being properly trained to preserve the tradition of the ancient age. The distinctive features of Afghanistan's rug designs, colors and weave are being taught to young women who seek jobs in the rug centers of the larger cities. 78. Old structural masterpieces, such as the Masjid-i-Jami' in Herat and the mosgue and shrine of Hezrat Ali in Mazar-i- Sharif, are objects of archaeological restoration projects to reconstruct their original beauty. These projects provide a training ground for young artisans to learn the ancient methods of coloring and firing tiles. 79. Stone carving, gilding, embroidery and stitchery are several skills in which young Afghans are participating and learning from the methods and traditions of the older people. The Red Cross organized a women's center in Kabul where women learn native craft skills. Crafts such as we see here are sold to support the center. 80. Foreign influences have added new vigor to the life of Afghan art. Foreigners have given artists a new market for their work; thus, directly and indirectly, the foreigners have influenced the subjects and styles of the Afghan artists. 81. The Germans have been very influential in aiding Afghanistan's artistic development by sending teachers who were formally trained to teach at the School of Fine Arts. Students in this school earn teaching degrees in art for primary or secondary schools. Course offerings include drawing, painting, sculpture.

254 ceramics, architecture, carpentry, printing, weaving and tailoring.

^^' I" tl^e late 1950's a group of art patrons encouraged the government to establish an art center emphasizing a creative approach to art rather than the technical approach to art of the School of Fine Arts supported by the Germans. In 1961, a second School of Fine Arts was established by the government. Numerous foreign teachers have come and helped its development. ^^' A visiting professor from the Philippines Mr. Hernando emphasized creativity in art and influenced many Afghan artists and art teachers. He held numerous seminars in the early 1960's and discussed the importance of creativity, originality, individual thinking and art philosophy. Many artists of today were impressed by his creative, rather than technical approach to art. Nonetheless, there is still a very strong emphasis on developing controlled technical skill in the art school and public school. 84. In 1967, the Department of Fine Arts was established at Kabul University. Among five selected teachers, one named Haiderzad, was in the visual arts. He joined the staff to teach sculpting and painting. Here we see one of his works of art. Haiderzad visited many museums and art schools throughout Europe and the United States in the late sixties. 85. He developed a strong desire to make an impact on the artists of Afghanistan and to develop a creative learning center for the visual arts on an accredited level. In 1975 the Department of Art at Kabul University was established. A four year Bachelor of Arts degree in Art was begun which was the first university art department and art degree in Afghan­ istan. 86. The continuous, prevalent problem of lack of funds for supplies has always plagued the development of art in the public 255 schools. Some of the teachers in the public schools have been exposed to and trained in art, but their students have few materials with which to work. Sometimes the family of the student may be able to purchase materials for their child. Thus, a few of the students may actually participate in the steps of the method and technigue while other students remain observers. The art teachers are aware that this is not the ideal situation, but generally feel some exposure to art is better than none. 87. Afghanistan has a rich cultural heritage in art; it spans a vast bountiful period of time. This historical overview skims the surface of that bounty beginning with 330 B.C. 88. And continuing through 1977. The last sixty years have brought the strongest emphasis on teaching of art in Afghanistan since 89. the arts renaissance of the Timurid reign in the 1550's. 90. Rivalry between the Moghuls and the Persians and later between the British and Russians forced Afghanistan into domestic isolationism from which it only began to emerge in the early 1900's. 91. Little new or original art or architecture was produced in the country between the early sixteenth and the twentieth centuries. The artists and works of art represented in the continuation of this presentation show the new direction and growth of art within Afghanistan during this century.

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