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AUTHOR Metallinos, Nikos TITLE Approaches to Visual Communication Media Criticism and Their Application to Television Genres. PUB DATE [95] NOTE 21p.; In: Imagery and Visual Literacy: Selected Readings from the Annual Conference of the International Visual Literacy Association (26th, Tempe, Arizona, October 12-16, 1994); see IR 016 977. PUB TYPE Information Analyses (070) Speeches/Conference Papers (150)
EDRS PRICE MFO1 /PCO1 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Communication (Thought Transfer); *Criticism; Evaluation Methods; *Film Criticism; Foreign Countries; Graphic Arts; Literature Reviews; *Mass Media; *Television Viewing; Theories; Visual Arts; Visual Literacy IDENTIFIERS *Visual Communication
ABSTRACT Several schools of thought regarding media criticism, derived from diverse disciplines and literary sources, have emerged during the last decade. To examine their application to the visual communication media arts such as film and television, this paper: (1) reviews the literature of media criticism;(2) discusses various approaches to visual communication media criticism; and (3) provides examples of the application of existing visual communication approaches to criticism. Discussion includes parameters of visual communication media arts, critical approach versus critical method, and selection of criteria for the evaluation of visual communication media arts. The following critical approaches and their applications are examined: journalistic; historical; sociological; rhetorical; narrative; cultural; semiological; psychological; ideological; genre; producer's; and visual literacy. It is suggested that the development of visual media criticism is directly related to and depends upon the development of verified theories of the various visual communication media arts. (Contains 74 references.) (MAS)
*****************i.A;,*************************************************** * Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made * from the original document. * *********************************************************************** Approaches to Visual Communication Media Criticism and Their Application to Television Genres
-PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY U S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION Otke of Educational Research and improvement Alice Walker EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION Nikos Metallinos CENTER (ERIC) O This document nes been reproduced as Waived Iron the person or otoemzetton origmatrng .1 O Mmor Clanges have been made (0 improve reproduction ouatity TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES Points of view or opinions stated in !Ns docu- INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)." ment do not necossaniy represent Oficial OEM position or policy Abstract publicized because these fields are founded on repeatedly verified theories. On the Several schools of thought regarding other hand, the noticeable shortage of media criticism have emerged during the genuine visual communication media arts lastdecade derived from diverse critical methodologies is due to the lack of disciplines and literary sources. To scientific theories that support their examine their application to the visual foundation across the board. Whereas it is communication media arts such as film and true that such visual communication media television genres, this paper (a) reviews arts as photography, theater, and film, for the literature of media criticism, (b) example, are based on verified theories, as discusses various approaches to visual academic disciplines such new visual communication media criticism, and (c) communication media arts as television, provides examples of the application of holography, computer graphics, etc., lack existing visual communication media empirical research findings in support of approaches to criticism.This paper the constructs of their basic theories. suggests that the development of visual Consequently, the development of an communication media criticism is directly academic discourse such as the study of related toand depends uponthe the visual ct mmunication media arts is development of verified theories of the directly related to, and influenced by, the various visual communication media arts. development of critical methodologies that analyze them. Could the opposite be true? Introduction Thispaper arguesthatthe Whereas literary sources referring to development ofgenuinecritical criticism of the arts and literature are methodologies for the evaluation of the plentiful and easily found, research various genres of visual communication findings that refer to critical methods of media arts will contribute, decisively, visualartsingeneral, and visual towards the development of scientifically communication media arts in particular, are sound theories governing the field of study disproportionatelylimited.Literary known as visual communication media criticism methods that analyze, evaluate, arts.It suggests that by reviewing the and interpret such forms as poetry, essays, existing methods of art criticism in novels, chronicles, etc., and fine arts general, and examining the critical criticism that evaluates such conventional methodologies scatterel in such areas as r-- art forms as painting, architecture, theater, communication, mass media, mass film, music, sculpture, etc., are already culture, popular arts, etc., we could end 0 established as unique academic discourses; up with those standards of criticism that they are eadily available and widely are most applicable and most appropriate
IVLA - 281 for the evaluation of the various products symbolically (i.e.,, the dove conveying of visual communication media.Such peace), or as representations of objectsor evaluation standards could become the events (i.e., a photograph of a person), or constructs from which the major theories as abstract forms of an object or event of the field could be developed since the (i.e., a cartoon or a drawing of a :ree). main objective of critical inquiry is to They are the products of media that create the standards for the evaluation of employ their own instruments, materials, an art form. These standards become the and techniques in the construction of the independent variables in the verification of arts, events, or objects. theories stemming from experimental research methodologies in those cases in As a field of study, the visual which such empirical research is lacking. communication media arts embrace such This is precisely the purpose of the related disciplines as visual and auditory empirical research methodology known as perception, communication, sociology, descriptive, or critical. media technologies, artcriticism, psychology, visual anthropology, anda In support of the argument that the host of others. It is mostly concerned with development ofgenuinecritical pictures and the ways that theyare methodologies will, retrospectively, structured and delivered to communicate contribute towards the development of the concepts, emotions, thoughts, and so fieldofstudyknown asvisual forth. The total communicative effect of communication media arts, we must first the visual media arts often dependson the examine briefly what constitutes this field, skill,knowledge, inspiration, and we must then define and discuss the use of sensibility of the media artist. In short, it the term's approaches (as opposed to relies on the artistic merits of the media genuine critical methods) and, finally, we product andthisisof paramount need to review the areas from which the importance to the visual communication standards for the evaluation of visual media field of study. communication media art forms must be drawn. After that brief introductionwe Critical Approach Versus Critical can examine the various approaches to Method visual communication media arts criticism and their application to various television Why use the term approach, as genres. opposed to critical methods? The term approach is preferred for the following The Parameters of Visual reasons: (a) An approach is traditional in Communication Media Arts that it originates from a known, and oiler, well established, school of thought, What constitutes the field of visual whereas a method is a technique by which communication media arts? Collectively, the critical process is achieved after the the media of painting, photography, film, medium and its products have been television, holojraphy, computer imagery, accepted. (b) An approach to visual and multimedia cs-nstitute the field of communication media arts criticism places visualcommunication media arts. the emphasis of the critical inquiry ona Cartoons,drawings, photographs, crucial aspect (mostly on the messageor frescoes, icons, film and television content), whereas a method of criticism of programs, holograms, video games, some the visual communication media arts foreis of advertising and some materialon considers the medium as well as the the internet arc visual communication audience. (c) Whereas an approach is media products, objects, or events thatarc basically built on reasoning and inferences seen or seen and heard. They arc visual to developitsargumentation (linear images or pictures with either apparentor process), the true critical method is an in- implied motion and sounds. Their main depth or vertical process resulting from the purpose is to communicate messages either diverse arguments on production,
IVLA 282 3 audience, and ideological factors, all of of television criticismas a visual k.hich are necessary for the effective communication medium. analysis and evaluation of visual communication media products. In short, Media Products such as films and it is the approach to visual communication television shows are the artifacts produced media art criticism that generates the by the media of film and television. The method and not the other way around. As threefoldprocessofproduction, soon as visual communication media art transmission, and presentationof the forms (i.e., documentaries or westerns) visual communication media programs create their genuine critical methodologies, involves a network of institutions and they are bound to be considered unique art people that the critics must consider. For forms encompassing their own artistic example, the production process of elements and appreciated for their own television programs involvesthe aesthetic merits. establishment of powerful corporate television networks and media institutions Selection of Criteria for with people working in the business, the Evaluation of Visual technology, or creative areas of the Communication Media Arts medium. Knowledge and understanding of the production units and the laws that Where are the standards for the govern them as institutions are necessary evaluation of visual communication media standards in media criticism. The arts to be found? A meaningful discussion transmission process of television of what constitutes the standards for the programs arranges the means by which evaluation of a particular film or television they reach the audience such as regular program must startfirst with the broadcasting, cable, close circuit, and pay explanation and understanding of the television, and direct satellite broadcasting. generic terms media,media products, This, in turn, decides the nature of the communication media programs,visual particular program in relationship to its media arts, to mention only the most intended audience.This is another commonly used terms in media criticism. important standard that the media critic The responsible critic and/or evaluator of must consider. The presentation process suchcommonly producedvisual of the televised program is yet another key communication media art forms as film factor in media criticism.It decides the and television programs should obtain scheduling of the particular program that, complete background information of these in turn, determines the type of program terms in all their ramifications. The presented. literature is plentiful and the various sources are easily accessible. Therefore, The generic term communication only the basic concepts of these terms will media, in the context of the present be reviewed here as they relate to the discussion, refers to the ultimate function creation of the standards for visual of all media, and particularly the visual communication media criticism. communication medium of television to mediate or communicate messages to a It is known that the term media refers vast audience.The communicative to channels that convey messages for mass purpose of the medium, therefore, is audience, as well as to the primary unquestionable. The fact that all visual electronicchannelsthatmediate communication media, and particularly communication in other contexts (Scodari television, are exposed to a great number & Thorpe, 1992). Television, as one of of obstacles that hinder the communication the most prominent visual communication process needs to be emphasized. From the media,isa mass audience oriented vast literature in the field we have learned medium, mediating messages to vast, that tr,e communication flow can break diversified, and heterogeneous audiences. do' ,n in any stage of the process.For This factor is crucial for the development example, it could be that the cause of the
IVLA - 283 4 breakdown occurred in the sender, the visual Inessage, the channel, the receiver, message area, in cases in which the issues and the feedback areas (see Figure 1). mediated are not clear, cohesive,or interesting. It could be that the images, the The popular visual communication pictures, technologically and artistically, media of film and television consist, for are not faithful,clear,or truthful the most part, of images that move andare representations of the intended message in enhanced with audio, three elements that which case it is the medium thatcauses the are unique to these two media and breakdown of the communication act. constitute the bases for the critical Perhaps the audience, at the receiving end evaluation of the programs they produce. of the continuum was not readyor capable Visual images tell the story. Dependingon of translating and comprehending the the way that they are presentedon the mediatedmessageandremained, screens (e.g., as long shots, medium therefore, unmotivated by the program. shots, close-ups and zoom-ins), and the Thismotivation,translatedin sequence they follow(e.g.,cuts, communication media terms as feedback, dissolves, fades), pictures constitute the is another crucial factor involved in the narrative aspect of the show. Obviously, communication process that may cause its the visual communication mediaprogram breakdown.In the case of television critics, particularly.of film and television, watching, the feedback is indirect and should be aware of both the technology communicated by the switching of the and the artistry involved in the creation of channels, anger, disappointment,or the images of the program. The narrated discomfort of the viewers. The various text (script), along with various other stagesandareasinwhich the natural or added sounds, support the communication breakdown couldoccur are visual images to tell the story; they assist indicated in the visual communication in the development of the characters, help media model. We call the breakdown noise to establish the atmosphere of the interference that can occur in any of the program, and enhance the mood features shown in the model below.It underlining the program.Naturally, the usually occurs in the transmission and visual communication media critics must reception stages and for this reason noise have knowledge of script writing, story has been placed between the generated
COMMON INTEREST ff e
,01 MEANING N, , rt %t ENCODER I t DECODER 0 CHANNEL ' M1 M2 FILM/TV/IMAGES NOISE FILM/TVIMAGES GENERATED RECEIVED
',CHANNEL- FEEDBACK/ DECODER ENCODER (BEHAVIORALCHANGES- BEYOND THE MESSAGE MEANING/ (BEHAVIORAL CHANGE-S)
COMMON INTEREST Figure 1.Visual Communication Media Model
1VLA - 284 r and character development, the functions techniques, inquiries, reviews, reports, performed by various sounds as well as commentaries, few of which are generic their technology and artistry in the television critical methods, as described production of the program.Finally, the earlier. motion of the images that creates the 3ense of liveliness and reality on the screen and The serious efforts during the last provides depth to the pictures is yet fifty years of a considerable number of another factor that visual communication televisionscholars, media critics, critics must acknowledge.Critics must observers, communicators, media analysts explain how motion helps to create, such as Adler and Cater (1975); Cater and technologically and artistically, the Adler (1975), Cawelti (1971, 1976), program and they must be able to comment Crombeck (1984), Fiskie (1987), Fiskie on the importance of motion in the and Hartley (1978), Hadas (1962), perception, recognition, and artistic McLuhan (1964), Newcomb (1974, success of the film or television program. 1987), Rybacki and Rybacki (1991), In summary, this brief review of (a) the Scodari and Thorpe (1992), Seldes (1956, parameters of thefieldofvisual 1961), Shayon (1962, 1971), Smith communication media arts,(b)the (1980), Vande Berg and Wenner (1991), distinction between critical methodology and many others, have resulted in the and approach to criticism, and (c) the areas formation of a plethora of critical from which the standards for criticism approaches to television programs that are must be drawn, provides the necessary reviewed below. Thevarietyof background for the discussion of the approaches and . theirnumerous approaches to visual communication media applications toexistingtelevision arts criticism that follows. programs suggest that unless the emphasis shifts from its present linear or content Criticism Approaches oriented practice to a more appropriate for and Their Application the medium's idiosyncrasies vertical one, television criticism as an academic Asstatedearlier,the most discourse will not be achieved.The representative media of the field of study consideration of the television program as known as visual communication media arts a visual communication medium art form are film and television, and between these that is analyzed, evaluated, and interpreted two media the most popular, the most on the basis of its artistic or aesthetic merit widely used, and the most powerful is is what genuine television criticism ought television. Therefore, it demands greater to be (Zettl, 1978).Therefore, we can attention, a closer look at the products it presently talk about existing approaches to produces, and better consideration as an television criticism but we are not yet art form.Since television theorists and ready to talk about fully developed researchers have not yet managed to television criticism as we do in film and organize its numerous constructs so that theater criticism.Well established as the concise theories that support the critical methods in literature, the arts, and mediumcanbeformalized,the more specificallyinsuchvisual development of appropriate critical communication media arts as theater and methodologies might be the way to close film, the reviewed critical approaches the gap. listed below and their application to the various television genres derive their From the traditional studies of the origins from literary and art criticism and arts, communication, mass media, popular they are: (1) the Journalistic Approach, (2) arts,public or pop arts,various the Sociological Approach, (3)the approaches to television criticism have Historical Approach, (4) the Rhetorical emerged. Although not fully developed, Approach, (5) the Semio logical Approach, one can find in today's literature a variety (6) the Cultural Study Approach, (7) the of sources discussing television critical Genre Approach, (8) the Producer's
IVLA - 285 6 Approach, (9) the Narrative Approach, Astriking example of how (10) the Ideological Approach, (11) the journalistic writing does not meet the Psychological Approach, and (12) the standards of critical inquiry is Morris Visual Literacy Approach to visual Wolfe's (1985) book Jolts:The TV communication media arts criticism. Wasteland and the Canadian Oasis. Wolfe (1985), a Canadian journalistic television The Journalistic Approach critic, has attempted to analyze the content of American and Canadian television This is the oldest approach to visual genres, across the board, resulting in a communication media arts criticism but it series of unsupported opinions strictly has found its wider application to based on the social context of popular televisioncriticismasreviews, television programs of the two countries commentaries, reports, opinions, and (Metallinos, 1991). short essays on various kinds of television programs. The major characteristics of the In their discussion of journalistic journalistic approachtovisual form of writing on television criticism, communication media arts in general, and Vande Berg and Wenner (1991) suggest to television in particular, are as follows: that: ". . .journalistic news, gossip, (a) They are not traditional literary opinions, columns, and reviews of critiques but mostly subjective opinions, programs are not television criticism" (p! individual views, and personal comments 18).Furthermore, they indicate that the of media writers; (b) They are tailored for features of journalistic writing such as and addressed to the mass readers of audience,style,vocabulary, length, magazines and newspapers written mostly proofs, all fall short in their attempt to to entertain rather than to inform; (c) They fully describe, evaluate, and interpret the are mostly concerned with the sociological television programs (Vande Berg & issues of the program and seldom refer to Wenner, 1991).The critical questions the medium and its artistic potentials. most typical to the journalistic approach to television criticism can be drawn from Examples of various kinds of various areas of journalistic criticism journalistic approaches to television which, according to Vande Berg and criticism can be found in such popular Wenner (1991) are: (a) personality or star North Americannewspapers and gossip, mostly found in TV Guide and magazines as Me New York Times, The tabloids,(b) industry news updates Washington Post, The Saturday Review, commonly found inChannels of The Los Angeles Times, The Globe and Communication, Broadcasting Magazine, Mail,The New Yort-Pr,TV Guide, Videography, VideoSystems,(c) Variety, Newsweek, and Time magazines, previews, mostly found in such popular to mention only those where known magazines and newspapers as TV Guide, journalists write television critiques. The Soap Opera Digest, Variety, Time, Newsweek, and (d) opinion essays, Although the overall contributions of commonly found in The New York Times, journalists to the development of television Channels of Communication, The New as a unique medium turned out to be Yorker. positive, antagonism and competition (mostly during the early years) of print Although the journalistic approach to media and electronic media hindered the visual communication media arts criticism development of television as an art form is here to stay, its application does not (Himmelstein, 1981).The journalistic substantially contribute toward the approach to television criticism leaves out development of the media as art forms and key elements of critical inquiry that are particularlyto "academic television crucial for the development of television criticism" ( Vandc Berg & Wenner, 1991, criticism as a responsible academic p. 23; Bywater & Sobchack, 1989). discourse.
IVLA - 286 7 The Historical Approach Scodari and Thorpe (1992) recognize the importance of the historical approach to The Historical Approach to visual visual communication media artscriticism, communication media arts criticism is and suggest that this approach isclosely all among the older approachesand centers on related to social criticism because the historical events that causedthe historical events occur within asocial development of the particular visual context. They theorize that: communication media art forms.The bases of criticism of the arts aredrawn The social/historical track is one that from history, the discipline thatstudies examines critical objects from the systematically past events that effect perspective of how they might nations, arts, and sciences. Thevarious contribute to the comprehension of historical circumstances that help the art ourselves and our society.In this forms to be developed, along withthe instance, the critic might examine the the changes or benchmarks that have cultural institutions of the society, are the areas from which thestandards for the occurred over a period of time evaluation of the historical approach to historical eventsthat can be visual communication media arts are documented as part of this network's culture, particularly as they might drawn. reflect the larger culture. (p. 18) From the existing literary sources approach to Vande Berg and Wenner (1991) that acknowledge the historical the visual communication media artscriticism, acknowledge the importance of discuss its objectives, and underlineits historical approach to televisioncriticism, function, there are three that need tobe discussitsvarious functions, and cited here because each one gives aunique underline its domains. They maintainthat: perspective to the historical approach to Historical criticism describes and media efiticisrn. analyzes television texts within their Bywater and Sobchack (1989) historical contexts. Historical believe that the functions performed bythe analyses attempt to assess the roles. historical approach to film criticism,which thattechnological,economic, canbeextendedtoallvisual political, legal, regulatory, and con nunicationmedia' art forms, are to aesthetic factors have played in the describe them in their historical context, to creation, reception, and impact of analyze them in terms of theiraesthetic, television textsin a particular society.Historical analyses, then, economic, and social efforts, and to of evaluate them in terms of theirhistorical examine theintersection producers, texts, and society. p. impact.These functions are most applicable to film, for which these authors 31) suggest that: From the comments providedby the historical approach to film thesethreesourcesthefollowing ... suggestions emerge:(a) Theis an criticism is always marked by he connection context of historyboth the general eminent and unavoidable history of the world from the time betweenhistoricalandsociological the first films were made until now, approaches to visual communicationmedia arts criticism which makesthe task of the and also the specific history ofthe (b) The moviesasabusiness,as art critic more demanding. technological achievement, as artistic relationship of the historical approachwith considered a artifact.Those using a historical that of the sociological is approach when assessingfilms limitation, rather than an advantage as attempt to understand howfilms some televisionscholars have also have happened in time. (p. 139) suggested (Cheserbo, 1987; Marc,1984;
IVLA - 287 Williams, 1992, etc.).(c) This approach place in society to visual communicationmedia criticism is and explain how not only one of the older institutions are effectedby the programs. ones, it is also The sociological critics' one of the most fundamentalfor the concerns also lie d_velopment of visual in classes, status,and races.They communication examine the creation of media arts criticism, andfor their entire stereotypes and field of study. lifestyles as the result ofpeople's exposure to these mediaprograms. It is the concern of the sociological The historical criticsask such critic of visual historically oriented communication mediaarts to point out to questions as:How what extent the arts have the generic, artistic,aesthetic, or even express society's basic economic developmentsof a film or ideologies and the degreeto which these a art forms gratify the needsand wants of television program changedover time? the citizens. From the various televisiongenres in existence, suchprograms as the Civil War, the World at War, The sociological approachto visual are better suited to a communication mediaarts of film and critical inquiry of thehistorical approach. television is a respected However, any populartelevision program approach to criticism.It helps to predict thecovert (including children's televisionprograms effects the program's or cartoons) can be evaluated content has on the in terms of viewers.It stimulates the evolutionary changes (Williams,1991). creation of serious and effective publicdebates. This approach to criticism, The SociologicalApproach however, is limited for the followingreasons: (a) It centers its efforts primarily Thisapproach to on issues that concern visual society and its institutions,stripping the communication mediaarts criticism is content to its bare minimum among the older, most traditional,and by placing the widely used approaches. emphasis on contentfactors rather than It derives its media related constructs. origin from the socialsciences and arts Undoubtedly, criticism, which examine this helps the developmentof theories of them through the mass communication meuia framework of social relationsand social (DeFleur & functions. It centerson the various social Ball-Rokeach, 1975), butdoes not issues,rules,relationships, contribute directly towardthe development and of generic visualcommunication media procedures contained inthe film and arts criticism. (b) The role television scripts andinterprets the social of the medium effects of the as an art form which shapes themediated programs on the viewer. In message is often left out of the its broader adaptationand usage, the sociological sociological approach approach that is heavilycontent oriented. to television Critical studies inmass communication criticism considers televisionprograms, media suggest that thisoveremphasis on particularly the popularones in prime time content and descriptive (such as situation comediesand detective analyses of stories),to be the catalysts of sociological issues in filmand television the programming has helpedto maintain the socialization process andthe ones that tradition of message rather influencethesocial, occupational, than a medium oriented critical analysis(Avery & Eason, economic, and a host ofother types of 1991). (c) It down-plays behavioral occurrences ofthe individual the role of the visual communicationmedia productsas viewers (Berger, 1982;McLuhan & art forms with artistic merits Powers, 1989; Mc Quail,1969; Sklar, and aesthetic 1980). potentials.Sociological criticsare not interested in the developmentof the media products asart forms capable of The sociological criticsof the expressing emotions and popular visual communicationmedia arts feelings. Rather, of film and television they see themas social signifiers and draw their standards cultural commentary. of criticism from thechances that take
IVLA- 288 9 The critics of the sociological to criticism, and it is for this reason that approach to visual communication media the critics look for those particular aspects arts ask such questions as: What are the of the program that exert the greatest underlying sociological (and other) persuasive power on their audiences. reasons that make a film or a television A s allnetworktelevision program so popular? What were the social commercials indicate, their ultimate influences of the program on its viewers? success is due to their excessive use and Such popular films as Top Gun and prime persuasive techniques.Application, time television sitcoms as The Bill Cosby therefore, of this approach to television Show can be effectively analyzed and criticism is very useful as it identifies the evaluated with the sociological approach to hiddenintentions(thepersuasive visual communication media arts criticism, objectives) of the program. A rhetorical among others. analysis of a television documentary, for example, might reveal the persuasive, The Rhetorical Approach subjective, and biased intentions of the producers that, otherwise, will pass This approach to art criticism derives unnoticed. from the ancient Greek philosophers Protagoras and Aristotle who developed The rhetorical approach to visual rhetoric as an art form in public speaking. communication media arts criticism is both Through the centuries it has been modified useful and effective for the following and reformed and has been used by many reasons:(a) It draws its criteria for the critics of the media arts including speech, analysis, evaluation, and interpretation of storytelling, film, and television (Rybacki media programs from the structural & Rybacki, 1991).Itisthe most analysis of their texts, and from the ways conventional of art criticism and the most by which the visual media mediate and descriptive because it draws its standards present the events, the messages. (b) It is from such traditional rhetorical schemata, applicable to all visual communication or techniques of persuasion, as ethos (or media art forms, and primarily embraces ethicalconsideration), pathos (or alltelevision program formats from truthfulness of the argumentation), and commercials to documentaries. (c) More logos (or narrative standards), regardless than any other critical approach, the of the art and the medium that carries it. rhetorical comes close to an academic The rhetorical approach considers all the critical discourse, recognized and accepted protagonists involved in the acts of by all scholars seriously concerned with creating, transforming, and responding to the development of visual communication the art such as the sender, the medium, media arts criticism in general, and and the audience. television in particular (Rybacki & Rybacki, 1991). The wide application of the rhetorical approach to visual communication media The critics of the rhetorical approach arts criticism, and primarily to television ask such questions as: What persuasive programs, is rather recent and it comes means were used in the science series from the works of speech communication Cosmos? In what ways have the texts' and media scholars starting with Kenneth structures of the films The Third Man or Burke (1950) :nd Karlyn Campbell (1972) Citizen Kane influenced their spectators and continued with the works of Foss Evidently, this approach to criticism can be (1989), Medhurst and Benson (1984), appliedtoavarietyofvisual Smith (1980), Farrell (1989), etc.Critical communication media products such studies that examine how media messages music shows (Morse, 1991), political are structured to influence audiences debates (Mumby & Spitzak, 1991), and belong to the rhetorical critical approach. game shows (Williams & Rigby, 1991). The persuasive role of the mediated event is another major concern of this approach
IVLA - 289 10 The Narrative Approach models of the society and a host of other similar elements from which the standards The origins of the narrative approach for analysis are drawn. to art criticism are found in Aristotle's Poetics in which the three known forms of According to Vande Berg and poetry--epic, dramatic, and lyricare Wenner (1991), the critics of the narrative reviewed and the main differences between approach, to extract the appropriate epic and dramatic narrations (or plots)are standards for their evaluations, ask these examined (Fergusson, 1961).It has questions: maintained its presence in. literature and art criticism, mostly under the auspices of What world view cultural or rhetorical criticism and has arrived in its archetypal models of social identity, present form, revitalized, defined, and values, actions, and structuring is acknowledged as a unique approach to affirmed, in the narrative? What visual communication media art products abstract ideas, values, roles, and by such proponents as Fisher (1987), beliefs are presented as good or evil, Chatman (1978), Deming (1985), Lewis heroic or villainous, or naturalor (1987), Smith (1988), and Martin (1986), unnatural in this narrative? What all of whom acknowledge its rightful other opposing characters, settings, application in visual communication media and actions are present?In what arts forms, particularly in film and other environment or past forms has television. this story been presented? (p. 32) The central concern of the narrative Like its predecessor, rhetoric, the approach to visual communication media narrativeapproachtovisual arts criticism is the analysis, evaluation, communication media products applies to and interpretation of the story of the almost all genres of film and television programs as it is narrated by the text, programs. However, its overemphasis on visuals, and sounds.Since the various the textual analysis of the program, its narrative elements that constitute the general look at the television program's program's storytelling can be drawn from plot, character, and symbolism, and the myths, social situations, political figures, perpetual absence of any meaningful dramatic heroes, and a plethora of other discussion of the production elements of circumstances, this approach to criticism is the programs, are some of the major collectively called narrative to incorporate drawbacks of this approach to criticismas such other critical approaches found in the it is used today by television analysts. literature of criticism as mythical method (Vande Berg & Wenner, 1991, p. 32), The Cultural Approach dramatistic criticism, and aesthetic criticism (Scodari & Thorpe, 1992). Developed as a means to explain the impact of visual communication media The goals of the narrative approach products in creating popular culture, the to criticism are to reaffirm the existing cultural approach to criticism examines the ideas and images and to revitalize, creation and distribution of meaning in reinforce, and purify them (Fisher, 1987). contemporary society. The critics of this Being a byproduct of the rhetorical approach draw the standards for the approach, the narrative approach to visual evaluations on the observed trends and communication media arts criticism uses )vements such as the civil rights, anti- the rhetorical structure of discourse and nuclear, and environmental issues found in storytelling to evaluate the media product. such mass communication media as film, It looks at the ways the story is told and television, music books, magazines, and examines the characters involved in the newspapers.And, among its founders action, the setting in which the action and proponents arc Allen (1987), Carey occurred, the signs used, the archetypal (1988), Davies, Farrell, and Mathews
IVI,A - 290 11 (1982),Fiskie (1987), Hall (1982), Cultural approaches to criticism are Rybacki & Rybacki (1991), and Steward, mostorganicmethodsof Smith, and Penton (1984). communication criticism because they do not depend on a single There is a general agreement among theory base.Because there are so the proponents of the cultural approach to many possibilities for doing cultural media arts criticism that it is widely criticism, no single approach can be spread, covers several other disciplines identified as the cultural approach. and areas of study, and that this approach (p. 132) is most applicable to film and television programs of all genres.For example, Itis, therefore, evident that this Scodari and Thorpe (1992) generally agree approach to criticism is one of the most on the wide application of the cultural appropriate and most applicable to the studies approach to media criticism and on visual communication media arts. It its wide spread to other disciplines and gathers evaluative judgments from a explain that: variety of academic disciplines, theories, and cultural movements that strengthen the Culturalstudiesisabroad analysis. It covers a vast number of issues framework for interpreted research (e.g.,political,economic, social, with rootsinfields such as ideological, and cultural) found in all film anthropology and literature [Carey; and television genres today. Finally, this Fiskie; Hall]. It considers all types approach to criticism considers equally the of discourse, artifacts, myths, and significance of the message and the rituals as texts, through which a importance of the medium in shaping the shared culture is created, modified, message, a concept based on McLuhan's and transformed [Carey, 41-43]. (p. (1964) thesis that the medium is the 48) message, and establishes that the cultural studies approach is most appropriate and So do Vande Berg and Wenner most applicable to visual communication (1991) who point out the numerous other media arts criticism. areas covered under the bioader umbrella ( cultural approach to media criticism and The cultural studies critic challenges state that: the socio-cultural, political, and other such movements, and asks such questions as: Thisapproach assumesthat What are the various ideological forces that ideology, economic structures, and produced these movements? How does culture are inseparable. This critical the movement (such as the civil rights, perspective isrootedina feminism, or neo-nazism) influence the combination of neo-Marxist political- viewers? How do the media techniques economic theory, structuralism and employed assist in delivering the message? semiotics, and Freudian Examples of the application of this psychoanalytical theory. This approach to film and television criticism approach examines class, race, and are found in narrative films such as gender issues in television programs Saturday Night Fever (Bywater & by invoking ideology, hegemony, Sobchack, 1989) and in television such as and discourse as central critical The Late Night Talk Shows (Buxton, constructs. (p. 27) 1991), and TV Quiz Show.- (Fiskic, 1991). The wide range and application of thiscriticalapproachtovisual The Semiological Approach communication media arts of all genres is also confirmed by Rybacki and Rybacki Thebasicpremiseofthe (1991) who argue that: semiologicalapproachtovisual communication media arts criticism is that
IVLA - 291 12 the more we understand the signssystem requires well written, carefully thought- of our culture the more readilywe perceive out, and linguistically structured scripts. their meaning in society.It originates in (b) The lack of conventional iconic, semiotics, the scientific study of signs and indexical, and symbolic signs--in thevast examines how the laws and conditions land of television programming--doesnot, under which signs and symbols (including as yet, permit the use of semiotics to words) assume their meaning. It is purely evaluate them, as it is easily possible with ascientificapproachtovisual the conventional and well established signs communication media arts criticism and codes of the medium of film. (c) The becauseits main concernisthe across the board low quality of television development of knowledge about language programs, particularly network television to increase its influences in scientificas programs, destined to entertain the well as artistic works. Since allart forms masses, do not warrant, at this time, are symbolic, the semiological approach to evaluation standardsascomplex, visual communication media arts criticism scientific, and sophisticatedas those is fundamental for the development of proposed by the semiological approach. criticism of theparticularvisual An indication, perhaps, that television has communication media arts. matured as an art form, will be when such an approach is widely adopted and Developed first in film studiesas a commonly used by television critics. language of cinema (Metz, 1974), the semiological approachtovisual The visual communication mediaarts communication media arts criticism looks critics who use the semiological approach at the ways by which the programs' texts developed their argumentationon such (the scripts) are created (Silverman, 1983). questions as What is the ideology behind It examines the program's structure and the use of black and white, instead of discussesitseffectiveness,or color, in this film, or television program?. shortcomings, to communicate the What is the basic cinematic,or television intended meanings. The standards, language of the particular filmor television therefore, for this approach to criticismare program, and how does it work? Among the codes, metaphors, signs, and the the various film and televisiongenres most syntagmatic structures of theprograms, all suitable to a semiological criticism could of which derive their origins from the be Fellini's film Arnarcord or the television academicdiscourses knownas program Ihirtysomething (Porter, 1991). structuralism and semiotics. The symbolic representation of meaning inherent in the The Psychological Approach film or television pictures is analyzed by the semiological approach which Vande The psychological impact of thearts Berg and Wenner (1991) classifyas on individuals and their institutions was metacritical approaches due to its dual first pointed out by Plato in The Republic origin from structuralism and semiotics. and Aristotle in The Poetics; lateron it was established by the father of psychology Although its application in film and the founder of psychoanalysis studies and criticism is both extensive and Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) andit effective, when it is tried by television continued with Freud's pupils and critics the semiological approach turnsout followers, Carl Jung (1875-1961), Alfred to be limited and ineffective for the Adler (1870-1937), Otto Rank (1884- following reasons:(a) The development 1939), and Abraham Maslow (1954), to of the fictional film scripts exceeds, by far, mention only those directly related to the the development of fictional television present discussion. The powerful impact scripts.Thereto! e, the creation of the of the arts on individuals and society language or text of the commonly found alarmed, early on, the philosophers and television programs can not be readily the thinkers of the western world who achieved by a semiotic analysis which generated the ethical and the aesthetic
IVLA - 292 13 approaches to art criticism. Law (Parry-Giles & Trandt, 1991) are better analyzed by the psychological Stemming from thebehavioral approach to criticism. The questions the sciences, the psychological approach to critics of this approach ask are: What visual communication media arts criticism motivated the unusual behavior of the assumes different forms suchas protagonist of the film?How do the psychoanalysis(concerned with the personalities of the characters in the emotional state of the individual), social television programs contribute towards psychology (concerning the relationship of their popularity and consequently their theindividual withsociety),the economic success? Maslowean or motivational psychology (that centers on the basic human needs, Whereas the psychological approach wants, and desires the arts fulfill in to art criticism is one of the oldest and it is variousdegrees), andthe Jungian widely used infilm criticism,this psychoanalysis, (which equates films as approach is only sporadically used in dreams), perceptual psychology (which television program analyses. One would refers to receiving and organizing sensory have expected, for example, that the so- data), cognitive psychology (which refers called Jungian psychological analysis to the de codification of perceived data). (successfully adopted by film) which, The basic factors that concern all forms of according to Rybacki & Rybacki (1991): psychologicalapproach tovisual "...offers a system for analyzing and communication media arts criticism are evaluating the way a succession of images emotions, feelings, learning abilities, involve an audience and draw perceptua., perception, motivation, cognition, needs effective, and cognitive responses from and desires, memory, thinking, intuition, them" (p. 139), would have been also and sensation. These, and a great number adopted by television analysts who are of other similar factors constitute both the cognizant of the approach and its effective constructs upon which the various application to film. Some explanations for psychological theories are built, and the the delay of the wider application of this standards for the evaluation of the visual approach to criticism by television critics communication media arts criticism. are: (a) the lack of specific knowledge of the field of psychology and psychological In the case of film and television criticism, by the present critics of criticism, the critics of the psychological television programming, (b) the Freudian approach focus their attention on the psychoanalysis of the unidimensional, and program's effects on their viewers caused often shallow, characters of the great by such additional psychological factors as majority of regular television programs persuasion, change of attitude, morality, such as soap operas, situation comedies, and artistic appeal.Since any of these dramas, etc:, do not appeal to television factors can be found in almost all film and analysts who seem to be preoccupied with television genres, the psychological critics the role of the medium as an institution in a rely on the behavior, the attitudes, and the mass society, rather than its potentials as actions of the characters to develop the an art form, (c) the behavioral schools of argumentsfortheir analyses. thought that have been embraced by visual Consequently, those programs that have communication media arts criticism, such strong characters, well structured plots, asthe Freudian, the Jungian, the withemphasis onthe emotional Maslowean,andsuchadditional involvement of the viewers, are more approaches to criticism as semiological, suitable to psychological approach to dramatic, cultural, aesthetic, etc., are all visual communication media arts criticism. closely related to the psychological For example, films like Citizen Kane by approach. Consequently, they confuse Orson Wells and Psychoby Alfred rather than assist and hinder rather than Hitchcock, or television programs like contribute towards the development of an Magnum, P.I. (Flitterman, 1985 and LA autonomous psychological approach to
IVLA - 293 14 television criticism. relation to culture;seek answer to the basic question:What is Cinema?" The Ideological Approach (Bywater & Sobchack, p. 162). When used by media critics, the ideological The Ideological Approach to visual approach to criticism, accordingto communication media arts criticism isa RybackiandRybacki(1991), rather recent approach adopted by media "...emphasizes the truth standard of criticswhoanalyzethevisual evaluation, judging i hetorical acts bya communication media products, film and definition of truth that is derived from the television programs on the bases of their tenets of a particular ideology" (p. 148). philosophical, anthropological, political, These two concepts alone confirmhow economic, sociological contextsor diversified, multi-leveled, and, therefore, ideologies.Since the contents of the demanding, this approach is. various film and televisiongenres are numerous and diversified, the ideological Although the literary sourceson approach to criticism seems to be serving media criticism consider each of the all sorts of film and televisionprograms, a ideologies mentioned above to constitutea task that is demanding and thereforenot unique critical methodology, thevery always successfully performed. nature of this approach suggests that this is an ambition on the part of these scholars Built on the ideology inherent in the thatcannotbe documented. The visual media program'stexts,this shortcomings of the ideological approach approach draws its standardsto perform to visual communication mediaarts its critical task froma variety of issues criticism are as follows: (a)It is such as (a) neo-Marxist's ideology(with subjective and biased in its practice emphasis on hegemony of mediain because: "Ideological critics tendto society), (b) hermeneutic ideology (with assume that the truth has been revealed to emphasis on exegesis, or interpretation of them, and they may become disciplesof the issues in the programs' texts),(c) this truth" (Rybacki & Rybacki, 1991,p. structuralistic ideology (whichconcerns 149).(b) These various ideologiesare itself with the anthropologicaland readily applicable to literacy andto art philosophical codes inherent in the filmor criticism, including film, but cannotapply television programs), (d) gender ideology successfully to televisionprograms- (which deals with the treatment of gender particularly to commercial television mostly in feminist programs), (e) dialogic programming--since the texts are lacking ideology (which refers to the dialogic the depth stemming from such ideologies conflict that exist in the text ofthe and issues. (c) None of the above program), and (f) discourse ideology ideologies concern themselves with the (which refers to the social and ideological productionaspects,theartistic dimensions of the language of thetexts), conventions, and the aesthetic merits of the (Vande Berg & Wenner, 1991). particular te!evision program which needs such analysis the most. Some scholars believe that the ideologicalapproachtovisual The critical questions asked by the communication media arts criticism is ideologicalapproachto visual purely theoretical.It is a modernistic communication media artsare,for critical strategy that founds its application example: How have the historical, insuchadditional discoursesas political, social, feminist, and other semiology,structuralism, Marxism, movements influenced the culture, the feminism, and neo-Freudism. When used media, andtheirsubsequent by film critics, the ideological approach's programming? Examples of film and functions arc to "Describe and analyze television genres mostly suitableto film's properties;attempt to find the ideological criticism are such politically essential aspects of the medium and its oriented movies as Lawrence of Arabia,
IVLA - 294 15 and Dr. Zhivago, and television programs approach to visual communication media such as Abraham Lincoln and the Civil criticism is intertextual in its nature.Its War. analysis of one text is often based on and it makes reference to another.When it The Genre Approach applies to television programs it offers reliable, and much needed, information on The successful development of the scripts as a production variable of the scientific theories in film studies owe a television medium. great deal to the genre approach constructs upon which film theories 7 ere built. The The critical questions in the film and same is true of the development of the arts television programs most suitable to the and literature.Consequently, television genre approach to criticism are: How do studies can gain considerably from the the John Wayne westerns differ from application of the genre approach to those of Clint Eastwood? What do such criticism that is one of the best suited adventuretelevisionprograms as approaches for the analysis of the medium. Moonlighting have in common with such action programs as Miami Vice? The genre approach tovisual communication media arts criticism is The Producer's Approach defined as the inquiry, analysis, and interpr on of film and television This approach to visual programs whose formats bare the same communication media arts criticism is similarities, have the same central firmly established, developed, and characteristic, assume the same purposes recognized in film studies and criticism and objectives. The evaluative standards known as the auteurist approach.It is formed for the analysis and interpretation based on the fact that major film directors of various film and television genres are such as Alfred Hitchcock, Orson Wells, derived from the structural similarities Frederica Fellini, and Ingmar Bergman foundineachformat, from the have created a series of films that bear the comparisons of the program's texts, and, signature of the director's unique approach generally, from the identification of the and artistry.It is closely related to the common elements of each program such as genre approach in that the same authors the westerns, science fiction, adventure and/or directors have produced films with movies, soap operas, children's programs, similar themes and characteristics like situation comedies, action, horror, and Hitchcock's mystery film or John P. drama programs. Ford's westerns. The advantages offered by this This approach to criticismis approach to television criticism in general, applicable to television where we find and to television studies in particular, are common in theme and character programs asfollows:(a)Categorizing and produced or created by persons who classifying the great variety of television impose their own style such as Norman programs that are created and broadcasted Lear's and James Brook's spin-offs in yearly, helps the television genre critic to situation comedies (Newcomb & Alley, look more closely attheshared 1983), or the producers of the law and conventions of the programs which often courtroom series in American network arc indicators of trends, movements, television programming. This approach changes, that take place in society.(b) not only is applicable, but it is one of the Searching for commonalities among most successful and widely used by television programs the genre approach today'stelevision commentators, critic provides valuable information on the reviewers, and analysts. motives, beliefs, and objectives of the industry and the producer and/or director Bywater and Sobchack (1989) who created the program.(c) This suggest that the ultimate functions of the
IVLA - 295 16 author, producer, and/or director approach as an artist.(c) It provides standards for to film criticism are to:"Identify the the analysis of the program, whichare person most responsible for the creation of drawn heavily from production variables the film, usually the director; describe and such as producer's and/or director's style evaluate the work in terms of uniqueness and techniques of lighting, shootingor or consistency, style, or excellence of framing style, usage of sounds, and crItsmanship.." (p. 51). By doing so, editing.These variables, then, easily th' critics provide invaluable information become the constructs of film and ab gut the film's objectives and artistry. television production theories. Co:teeming the purpose of the producer's approach to television criticism, Vande The critics of the producer's Berg and Wenner (1991) believe that this approach to visual communication media approach goes beyond the semantic and arts criticism ask these basic questions: syntactic analysis of the similarities of the What are the unique traits of the producer texts of the television genre--a task of the film La Dolce Vita or the television performed by the genre approach of program All in the Family?Does the television criticism. It extends itspurpose producer and/or director usually favor to "...identify the formal stylistic and certain lighting, framing, editing,or audio thematic signature of a single creator artist techniques unconventional to other the director, the producer, the writer, the producers and/or directors? Examples of writer-producer" (p. 31). This, however, film and network televisionprograms that suggests that the producer's approach to are most suitable for the producer's media criticism must look for such approach to visual communication media additional traits as personality, political arts criticism are the films The Birds and ideology, social involvement, artistic Psycho(Alfred Hitchcock) and the competencies, and educational background television programs The Mary Tyler of the producer of the program. This task Moore Show and Rhoda (created by James isdemandingandfew visual Brooks). communication media analysts are willing to undertake it,particularly today's The Visual Literacy Approach television analysts, journalists and The Visual Literacy approach to film reporters of events who write, mainly to and television criticism has its origins in impress and entertain their readers. such traditional approaches to criticismas humanistic aesthetics (Bywater & The application of the producer's Sobchack, 1989), visual arts aesthetics approach to film and television criticism (Arnheim, 1969; Dondis, 1973), and has major advantages over the other media arts aesthetics (D'Agostino, 1985; approaches discussed so far and offersa Zettl, 1990).It examines the principles great service towards the development of governing the visual communication media film and television studies,some of which arts such as film and television programs are the following:(a) It provides what and deals, primarily, with the development Bywater and Sobchack (1989) call:". . .a of a language--and consequently the major source of insight into a largegroup building of a body of literature--with of single artist's creative production" (p. which individuals can communicate and 77). This collection of information has the discuss signs, symbols, images, pictures advantage that it centralizes information with sounds and motion, etc. (Debes & and makes it accessible for further film and Williams, 1978, 1970; Dondis, 1973). television studies.(b) The producers Individuals who learn to read and and/or authors of the media products understand visual images, who are able to critical approach is paradigmaticor communicate with visual images, or those exemplary in that it exposes the various who have developed the ability to search traits, the good and the bad ones, of the for and evaluate visual information in producer, something that brings close. the media artsproducts, are considered product, as an art form, with its prodJeer,
IVLA - 296 17 visually literate. obvious, and the contribution to the development of suitable theories of the The visual communication media arts study of television criticism and aesthetics critics draw their value judgments from a are warranted, as it is attested to by the variety of visual literacy related constructs. films critics that employ this approach The most prominent among them are light (Bywater & Sobchack, 1989). and color, depth and size, framing, focusing, zooming, dissolving, cutting, Summary and Conclusions editing, sounds, and motion rate of visual elements (Baggaley, Ferguson, & Brooks, The first part of this paper reviewed 1980; D'Agostino,985;Metallinos, the literary sources referring to visual 1973, 1985; Zettl, 1978). communication media arts criticism and underlined the standards for the evaluation The heavy emphasis on (a) the of the visual communication art form synthesis of visual images, (b) the detailed mostly produced by film and television. analysis of the visual image's production The second part introduced, discussed, techniques, and (c) the consideration of the and exemplified the various approaches to perceptual, cognitive, and aesthetic visual communication media arts criticism, variables involved in the study of film and particularly television, such asthe television media, all constitute the main journalistic, the sociological, the historical, characteristics of the visualliteracy the rhetorical, the semiological, the approach to media criticism. This approach cultural, the genre, the producer's, the brings the critique closer to what we have narrative,theideological, the termed the vertical approach,most psychological, and the visual literacy. appropriate and most desirable for t1,- From the proceeding discussions the analysis of visual communication medi following general conclusions are drawn: arts rather than the commonly practiced, in existence today, journalistic approach that 1. The lack of genuine critical we have termed the horizontal approach to methodologies in visual communication film andtelevisionmedia, most media arts--particularly television--is a inappropriate for the study of visual strong indication of the absence of communication media arts, and particularly scientific theories that govern the rapidly television. emerging new visual communication media products, such as computerized The analysts of the visual literacy television, holographic, three-dimensional, approach to film and television criticism high definition television images, and ask questions that cover all the areas of multimedia. (Metallinos, 1990a, 1990b, concern such as the message or content, 1987). the medium or form, and the audience or message's reception and impact upon its 2. This gap can be narrowed by the receivers.For example, in the film by creation of academically accepted critical Fellini, 8 1/2, or in Hitchcock's Psycho, approaches totheabovevisual the visual literacy critic will ask: In what communication media forms. Such ways did the filming techniques of these approaches should stem from well shows enhance the viewers suspense and developed fields of study as indicated in increase their attention? Whereas in the the discussion of the approaches above, television programs L.A. Law and Law and they should be the common practice in and Order, the most suitable question television critical analyses. would be: How did the construction of the set,assist the videotaping of these 3. Although the orthodox procedure programs and create their faithful and in the development of art criticism is to realistic courtroom atmosphere? base the analysis on existing theories, the establishment of critical standards for the The advantages of this approach are evaluation of the newly emerged visual
IVLA - 297 18 communication media art products could Wadsworth. result in the formation of constructson which these theories could be built. An Carey, J. (1988). Communication as culture: approach, rather than a method,seems to Essays on media and society.Boston, MA: be a more appropriate procedure to follow Unwin Hyman. to achieve this goal. Cater, D. & Adler, R. (Eds.). (1975). Television A more rigorous, systematic, and as a social force: New approaches to television selective application of the appropriate criticism. New York: Praeger Press. approach to visual communication media criticism, to the suitable media products, Cawelti, J. (1976). Adventure, mystery, and romance. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago warrants the development of visual Press. communication media programs in general and television in particular, as genuine Cawelti, J.(1971). The six-gun mystique. artistic forms. Bowling Green, OH: Popular Press.
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