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Smart Antenna Engineering for a Complete Listing of Recent Titles in the Artech House Mobile Communications Series,Turn to the Back of This Book Smart Antenna Engineering For a complete listing of recent titles in the Artech House Mobile Communications Series,turn to the back of this book. Smart Antenna Engineering Ahmed El Zooghby a r techhouse. com Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the U.S. Library of Congress. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data El Zooghby, Ahmed Smart antenna engineering.—(Artech House mobile communications series) 1. Antennas (Electronics) 2. Software radio I. Title 621.3’824 ISBN-10: 1-58053-515-1 Cover design by Yekaterina Ratner The material covered in this book represents the views of the author, and does not necessarily reflect those of QUALCOMM Incorporated unless it is so indicated. © 2005 ARTECH HOUSE, INC. 685 Canton Street Norwood, MA 02062 All rights reserved. Printed and bound in the United States of America. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including pho- tocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. All terms mentioned in this book that are known to be trademarks or service marks have been appropriately capitalized. Artech House cannot attest to the accuracy of this information. Use of a term in this book should not be regarded as affecting the validity of any trademark or service mark. International Standard Book Number: 1-58053-515-1 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Contents Preface xiii Acknowledgments xvii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Wireless Mobile Communications Systems 1 1.2 Global Mobile Market Growth 3 1.3 Alternatives for Meeting Data Demand 4 1.4 Technology Peak Rates and Throughput 6 1.5 Why Smart Antennas? 7 1.6 Benefits of Smart Antennas 7 1.7 Types of Smart Antennas 8 1.8 Switched and Fixed Beam Antennas 9 1.9 Adaptive Arrays 10 References 11 2 Multiple Access Techniques for 2G and 3G Systems 13 2.1 Introduction 13 2.2 Multiple Access Wireless Communications 14 2.2.1 FDMA Systems 14 2.2.2 TDMA Systems 15 v vi Smart Antenna Engineering 2.2.3 Frequency Reuse 16 2.2.4 Cochannel Interference 18 2.2.5 CDMA Systems 20 2.3 Fundamentals of CDMA 21 2.3.1 Isolated Cell Capacity 24 2.3.2 CDMA Codes 25 2.3.3 IS-95 CDMA Systems 29 2.4 Third Generation Systems 36 2.4.1 CDMA2000 37 2.4.2 WCDMA 43 2.4.3 HSDPA 45 2.5 Basic CDMA Procedures 49 2.5.1 Acquisition State 49 2.5.2 Idle State 52 2.5.3 Access State and Call Setup 52 2.5.4 Traffic or Dedicated State 53 2.6 CDMA Embedded Cell Capacity 53 2.6.1 Multipath Fading 55 2.7 Coverage Versus Capacity Trade-Off 55 2.7.1 Coverage-Capacity Trade-Off in the Uplink 56 2.8 Conclusion 57 References 57 Selected Bibliography 59 3 Spatial Channel Modeling 61 3.1 Introduction 61 3.2 Radio Environments and Cell Types 63 3.3 The Multipath Channel 64 3.4 Channel Characterization 65 3.5 Path Loss Models 66 3.5.1 Okumura-Hata Propagation Models 66 3.6 Spatial Channel Modeling 67 3.6.1 Spatial Channel Model Parameters 68 Contents vii 3.6.2 Number of Clusters 69 3.6.3 Spatial Distribution of Clusters and Scatterers 69 3.6.4 Base Station Azimuth Power Spectrum and Angle Spread 69 3.6.5 Mobile Station Azimuth Power Spectrum and Angle Spread 74 3.7 Spatial Channel Model Application in System Simulations 74 3.8 Angle Spread Impact 77 References 80 Selected Bibliography 81 4 Fixed Beam Smart Antenna Systems 83 4.1 Introduction 83 4.2 Conventional Sectorization 83 4.3 Limitations of Conventional Sectorization 88 4.4 Antenna Arrays Fundamentals 89 4.4.1 Broadside and End-Fire Arrays 91 4.4.2 Impact of Number of Elements 92 4.4.3 Impact of Element Spacing 93 4.4.4 First Null Beamwidth 96 4.4.5 Half-Power Beamwidth 97 4.4.6 Array Directivity 99 4.4.7 Array Gain 100 4.4.8 Trade-Off Analysis 100 4.4.9 Impact of Element Pattern 101 4.4.10 Planar Arrays 101 4.5 Beamforming 105 4.6 The Butler Matrix 107 4.7 Spatial Filtering with Beamformers 110 4.8 Switched Beam Systems 111 4.9 Multiple Fixed Beam Systems 113 4.10 Adaptive Cell Sectorization in CDMA Systems 114 References 116 viii Smart Antenna Engineering 5 Adaptive Array Systems 117 5.1 Uplink Processing 117 5.1.1 Diversity Techniques 117 5.1.2 Angle Diversity 118 5.1.3 Maximum Ratio Combining 121 5.1.4 Adaptive Beamforming 122 5.1.5 Fixed Multiple Beams Versus Adaptive Beamforming 130 5.2 Downlink Processing 132 5.2.1 Transmit Diversity Concepts 134 5.2.2 Transmit Diversity in 3G CDMA Standards 134 5.3 Downlink Beamforming 142 5.3.1 Spatial Signature-Based Beamforming 145 5.3.2 DOA-Based Beamforming 146 5.3.3 Maximum SNR 147 5.4 Conclusion 149 References 151 Selected Bibliography 152 6 Smart Antenna Receivers and Algorithms for Radio Base Stations 159 6.1 Reference Signal Methods 159 6.1.1 The Least Mean Square Algorithm 159 6.1.2 The Recursive Least Squares Algorithm 161 6.1.3 Blind Adaptive Beamforming 161 6.1.4 Least Squares 161 6.1.5 Constant Modulus Algorithm 162 6.1.6 Decision-Directed Algorithm 162 6.1.7 Cyclostationary Algorithms 163 6.1.8 Conjugate Gradient Algorithm 164 6.1.9 Lagrange Multiplier Method 167 6.1.10 Comparison of Adaptive Algorithms 169 6.2 Neural Network DOA-Based Beamforming 170 6.2.1 Generation of Training Data 174 6.2.2 Performance Phase of the RBFNN 174 Contents ix 6.3 Angle Spread Impact on Optimum Beamforming 175 6.4 Downlink Beamforming 181 6.5 Vector Rake Receivers 182 6.6 Channel Estimation 183 6.7 Beamforming 184 6.8 Conclusion 185 References 186 7 Coverage and Capacity Improvements in 3G Networks 191 7.1 Introduction 191 7.2 Link Budgets and Coverage 192 7.2.1 Mobile Station Parameters 192 7.2.2 Base Station Parameters 193 7.2.3 System Parameters 193 7.2.4 Margins 193 7.2.5 Other Parameters 193 7.2.6 Fade Margin 194 7.2.7 Confidence (Cell Area) 195 7.2.8 CDMA Traffic Loading 196 7.3 Voice Services 197 7.3.1 Uplink Budgets 198 7.3.2 Downlink Budgets 198 7.4 Data Applications 203 7.5 Limiting Links for Coverage and Capacity 209 7.5.1 Coverage Limited Scenarios 210 7.5.2 Capacity Limited Scenarios 211 7.6 Smart Antennas Impact on Uplink Coverage and Capacity 211 7.6.1 Smart Antenna Impact on Downlink Capacity 216 7.7 Conclusions 226 References 227 x Smart Antenna Engineering 8 Smart Antennas System Aspects 231 8.1 Introduction 231 8.2 Third Generation Air Interfaces and Protocol Stacks 232 8.3 Physical Layer 233 8.3.1 Data Multiplexing 233 8.3.2 Transmit Chain UL/RL PN Scrambling/Spreading 235 8.3.3 DL/FL Physical Channel Formatting 235 8.4 Mobile Call States 237 8.4.1 WCDMA 237 8.4.2 CDMA2000 237 8.5 Mobility Procedures to Support High-Speed Data Transfer 238 8.5.1 Cell_FACH State or Control Hold Mode 240 8.5.2 Idle, Cell_PCH, or URA_PCH States 240 8.6 Procedures to Reestablish High-Speed Data Transfer 240 8.6.1 Cell_FACH State or Control Hold Mode 240 8.6.2 Idle Mode, Cell_PCH, or URA_PCH States 240 8.7 Packet Data Services 240 8.7.1 WCDMA Approach 241 8.7.2 CDMA2000 Approach 241 8.8 Pilot Channels 241 8.8.1 CDMA2000 241 8.8.2 WCDMA 243 8.9 Channels Applicable for Downlink Beamforming 243 8.10 Overview of Major Radio Network Algorithms 244 8.10.1 Power Control 244 8.10.2 Initial Power Setting 245 8.10.3 Admission Control 246 8.10.4 Congestion Control 246 8.10.5 Soft/Softer Handoff 246 8.10.6 Hard Handoff 247 8.11 System Impact of Advanced Spatial Techniques 247 8.11.1 Transmit Diversity 247 Contents xi 8.11.2 Fixed Beam Approach 248 8.12 Beam Steering/Adaptive Beamforming 258 8.12.1 Channel Estimation at the Mobile 259 8.12.2 Advantages and Disadvantages 260 8.12.3 Uplink Beamforming 260 8.13 Conclusion 261 References 262 9 Mobile Stations’ Smart Antennas 265 9.1 Introduction 265 9.2 Multiple-Antenna MS Design 268 9.3 Combining Techniques 272 9.3.1 Selection (Switched) Diversity 272 9.3.2 Maximal Ratio Combining 272 9.4 Adaptive Beamforming or Optimum Combining 272 9.5 RAKE Receiver Size 278 9.6 Mutual Coupling Effects 279 9.7 Dual-Antenna Performance Improvements 280 9.8 Downlink Capacity Gains 284 9.9 Conclusions 286 References 287 10 MIMO Systems 289 10.1 Introduction 289 10.2 Principles of MIMO Systems 290 10.2.1 SISO 291 10.2.2 SIMO 291 10.2.3 MISO 292 10.2.4 MIMO 293 10.3 Transmission Strategies 295 10.3.1 Water Filling 296 10.3.2 Uniform Power Allocation 296 xii Smart Antenna Engineering 10.3.3 Beamforming 297 10.3.4 Beam Steering 297 10.4 MIMO Approaches 297 10.5 MIMO Advantages and Key Performance Issues 298 10.6 RF Propagation Characterization 299 10.7 SINR Environment 299 10.8 Spatial Multiplexing 300 10.9 Conclusion 302 References 303 List of Acronyms 305 About the Author 311 Index 313 Preface Mobile and wireless communications systems are becoming increasingly more complex in an effort to cope with the growing demand for more supportable peak data rates, coverage requirements, and capacity objectives, as well as excit- ing new applications such as wireless multimedia and anywhere-anytime mobile Internet access.
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