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Dorothy Stimson, Scientists and Amateurs. a History of the Royal Society, New York 1948, Dann London 1961

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Dorothy Stimson, Scientists and Amateurs. a History of the Royal Society, New York 1948, Dann London 1961 Dorothy Stimson, Scientists and Amateurs. A History of the Royal Society, New York 1948, dann London 1961 Motto der RS: "Nullius in verba" 1. Um 1600 große Unzufriedenheit mit der Ausbildung an den beiden englischen Universitäten. Der Vorwurf geht dahin, daß lediglich überaltetes Wissen tradiert würde, nichts, was in der Gegenwart brauchbar sei; der Aufenthalt an den Universitäten sei reine Zeitverschwendung. Der als ungenügend empfundene Status konstrastiert - und wird wohl auch deshalb so unzulänglch empfunden - mit den neuen Entdeckungen: von Amerika ist weder bei Aristoteles noch bei Ptolemaios etwas zu lesen, Galilei erweist die aristotelischen Vorstellungen vom Kosmos als irrig etc. So entwickelt sich großes Interesse an der "new philosophy", der scienzia nuova. Und eine Reihe von hellen Köpfen hat auf Abhilfe gesonnen, es bildete sich eine Gruppe von Wissenschaftsamateuren und - fanatikern heraus, die nur zum Teil selbst tatsächlich Wissenschaftler waren, und die sich als "virtuosi" 2 bezeichneten und auch von anderen und in der Literatur so bezeichnet worden sind 3; die Liebhaberei in Richtung Wissenschaft, über ihre Förerung nachzudenken, ein bißchen zu sammeln und zu diskutieren, war zudem etwas, was einem Gentleman ziemte, stellte standesgemäße Beschäftigung dar 4. Diese Leute haben in London, in England ein eigenes Klima geschaffen, eine Vrdichtung wissenschaftlichen Interesses und der Einsatzbereitschaft für wissenschaftliche Forschung bewirkt, deren Bedeutung kaum zu unterschätzen ist. Herausragende Persönlichkeiten, weil auch mehr oder weniger beachtete Autoren, waren (in chronologischer Abfolge): Sir Humphrey Gilbert , ein Halbbruder von Sir Walter Raleigh, entwickelte bereits in der frühen Regierungszeit von Elisabeth I. (1558-1603) den Plan einer Akademie zur Ausbildung der Jugend in London, an der in englischer Sprache vorgetragen werden sollte, die jungen Leute sollten für Krieg und frieden ausgebildet werden, und zwar nicht nur durch Vorlesungen, sondern auch in praktischen Übungen; sie sollten selbst unmittelbar aus der Natur lernen und jährlich einen in klarem Englisch abgefaßten Bericht über ihre Experimente und deren Resultate der Krone vorlegen. Humphrey hat dies sehr eindrucksvoll am Beispiel der Medizin dargelegt, wobei er nicht verfehlte darauf hinzuweisen, daß es kaum, wenn überhaupt brauchbare Chirurgen gebe und daß die im Barbierladen lernten und nicht bei einem erfahrenen Mediziner. Bedeutender, weil letztlich einflußreicher waren die Vorstellungen, die Francis Bacon de verulam zu beginn des 17. Jhs entwickelte. Bacon propagierte mit allen Einsatz die Entwicklung der Erkenntnis um ihrer selbst willen und forderte dafür eine neue Art und Weise des Vorgehens und der Organisation - Bacon hat sich kaum inhaltlich mit den Wissenschaften seiner zeit beschäftigt, sondern trat gegen die überkommene deduktive Methode und das mehr oder weniger unkritische Tradieren alter antiker Weisheiten auf, wodurch nichts Neues gefunden würde, sondern immer nur ohnedies schon bekanntes (Hauptziel mußte natürlich der mittlerweile vielfach, besonders wirksam aber durch Pierre Ramée angegriffene Aristoteles sein, den Bacon gleichwohl hoch schätzte, aber eben richtigerweise als veraltet bezeichnete); Bacons Neue Logik - novum organon - forderte Arbeit direkt an der Natur durch Beobachtung und Experiment - "durch Wahrnehmungen und aus den Sinnen" - und auf dieser Grundlage erst mit Hilfe von Theorien, denen - wenn sie sorgfältig durchdacht seien - prognostischer Charakter zuzuerkennen sei und die zu neuen Entdeckungen führen würden; auf diese Weise nur würde wahres Wissen erlangt und die Kenntnis des Menschen erweitert. Bacon hat insbesondere mit seinen englischen Schriften enorme Wirkung entfaltet und er ist nicht nur "erschlossenermaßen" einer der indirekten Initiatoren der Royal Society, sondern ist von deren nachmaligen Mitgliedern früh schon tatsächlich eingehend reziepiert worden, Thomas Sprats History of the Royal Society von 1667 nimmt darauf eingehend Bezug und zeigt auf dem Frontispiz drei Personen: König Charles II., den ersten Präsidenten der RS und Bacon als "artium instaurator". 1 . Nach Horaz Epistel 1,1 14 - Nicht unter dem Zwang, der Authorität irgendeines Meisters treu bleiben zu müssen. 2 . Das Wort virtuoso bzeichnet heute noch im Englischen auch den Kunstkenner. 3 . Vgl. den Hymnus auf Grasham College. 4 . Bereits Sprats hat 1667 darauf hingewiesen! Im wesentlichen waren es drei Schriften Bacons: - Novum Organon mit der Erläuterung der Bedeutuung und der Methode des induktiven Schließens, des Voranschreitens vom feststellbaren Faktum und Detail zum Allgemeinen, - Advancement of Learning, gewissermaßen ein Überblick, was alles wie zu erforschen sei und in welcher Abfolge, - Nova Atlantis, seine unvollendete Wissenschaftsutopie mit dem berühtem Haus Salomonis, das natürlich unrealisierbar war: 36 fellows mit ihren Assietnten leben ausschließlich der Forschung, sammeln Material, sammeln Forschungsergebnisse, experimentieren, werten aus, fassen zusammen - all das wohl organisiert und mit aller nur erdenklichen materiellen Ausstattung. Zwischen 1626/27 und 1670 hat dieses Werk zehn Ausgaben erfahren. Eher unter dem Aspekt der Ausbildung und der Erziehung hat Jan Amos Comenius ähnliche utopische Vorstellungen verfolgt und 1641/42 mit seiner eben verfaßten Schrift "Via Lucis" in England propagiert, wohin ihn Interessenten eingeladen hatten, als sie von seiner "pansophischen Universität" gehört hatten. Als aber der Bürgerkrieg in England ausbrach, interessierte sich niemand mehr dafür und Comenius verließ England zutiefst entäuscht. Mit Comenius befreundet war Samuel Hartlib , einer jener Deutschen, die in der ersten Hälfte des 17. Jhs nach England gegangen waren (wie auch Haak und Oldenbourg); Haak war gewissermaßen eine Informationszentrale in England und mit jedermann bekannt und mit allen Fragen und Problemen vertraut - ein klassisches clearing-house. 1641, also praltisch zeigtleich mit seinem freund Comenius, veröffentlichte er seine "Description of the Famous Kingdom of Macaria", wo es zum Zecke der Förderung des Wohlstandes, der gesundheit der menschen, des Friedens und des Glücks ein allgemeines Zentrum zur Förderung aller Interessen der Menschheit geben sollte und insbesondere, zur Erweiterung des Wissens, ein College, das er "Antlantis" nannte und das er tatsächlich zu realisieren gedachte, und zwar zusammen mit Robert Boyle; ganze besonders hatte es Hartlib die Geschichte des Handels angetan (die auch bei Bacon eine große Rolle spielt und natürlich aus der besonderen bedeutung des Handels in England resultierte). Hartlib ist im jahr der Gründung der Royal Society gestorben. William Pretty war der Sohn eines armen Webers und Färbers, war zur See gefahren und hatte dann Förderung erfahren, die ihm die Entzwicklung seiner mechanischen und sprachlichen Fähigkeiten, ja Aufenthalte auf dem Kontinent ermöglichte, er studierte griechisch und Latein, erlenrte das Französische, studierte u.a. Medizin und wurde 1651 Professor der Anatomie in Oxford. 1648 verfaßte er ein Buch über Erziehung, dessen Inhalt sich um Bacons Forderung auch nach praktischer Anwendung von Forschung rankte; in diesem Werk stellte den Plan eines Ausbildungszentrums vor, in dem jeder für den bereich, der ihn interessierte erfahren sollte, was bislang getan worden sei, was gerade im gange sei und was geplant würde, also gewissermaßen ein allgemeiner Umschlagplatz für wissenschaftlich-roganisatorische Fragen. Auch bei ihmist das Spektrum denkbar weit, aber primär praxisorierntiert: Linsenschleifen, wissenschaftlicher Instrumentenbau, Musikinstrumentenbau etc. Pretty nahm mit anderen virtuosi verbindung auf und wurde eines der Gründungsmitglieder der der RS und hat sich in dieser maßgeblich für die Behandlung auch praktischer Probleme eingesetzt. John Evelyn war ebenfalls selbst kein Wissenschaftler, sondern ein höchst ideenreicher Amateur, der in Oxford studiert, Frankreich und Italien besucht bzw. als überzeugter Royalist in der Cromwellzeit in Frankreich gelebt hatte; nach der Restauration hat er eine Reihe relativ hoher Ämter bekleidet, aber auch nicht weniger als 25 Bücher verfaßt bzw. übersetzt, deren Themen seinen politischen, sozialen und Gartenbau-Interessen entsprachen. Evelyn war zutiefst und dauerhaft an der new philosophy interessiert; er war eng mit Robert Boyle befreundet. Unmittelbar vor der Restauration und als eben die RS langsam herankam, entwickelte Evelyn - da sich Bacons Haus Salomonis wohl nicht verwirklichen lasse - einen eigenen Plan für eine Wissenschaftsozietät: er wollte (gemeinsam mit Boyle) ein landgut kaufen, nicht weiter als 25 Meilen von London, dort einen zentralen Pavillon für die Bibliothek, Speisesaal, Küche, Kapelle, Garten zur Erholung etc. errichten, wo auch sechs Appartments, Zellen (Schlafraum, Arbeitsraum, Toillette und Privatgarten) für die Mitglieder eingerichtet werden sollten, weiters ein Laboratorium, Naturalienkabinett (Museum), Vogelhaus, Taubenschlag, Kräutergarten, Gemüsegarten, Obstgarten, Glashaus und Stall. Dorthin wollten Evelyn und seine Frau und sollte Boyle ziehen, die restlichen drei Zellen sollten die beiden Gründer - Evelyn und Boyle - vergeben. Damit die Ruhe nicht gestört würde, sollten Fremde nur zu bestimmten limitierten zeiten Zutritt erhalten und die Mitglieder sollten lediglich für die gesamtdauer eines Monats pro jahr nach London gehen dürfen. Zweck: " the promotion of natural knowledge ". - Was Boyle dazu gesagt hat, ist nicht überliefert. Die Restauration hat
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