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Founding Chymist RICHARD A Chemistry Chronicles Founding Chymist RICHARD A. PIZZI Religion, alchemy, and experimental science his comrades in what became known as the “Invisible College”, he confronted fused to create the mind of Robert Boyle. the work of the major continental philoso- phers of his time, such as Descartes and he English scientist and philosopher Chymical Concerns Gassendi. This informal group at Oxford is Robert Boyle is often called the In 1649, however, Boyle’s intellectual inter- often understood to be a precursor of the T“founder of modern chemistry”. This ests changed. While not retreating from Royal Society of London, which was estab- title may indeed be deserved, as his 1661 his religious commitment, Boyle built a lished in 1660 with Boyle as a founding text The Sceptical Chymist was the first to laboratory on his estate and began to fellow. encourage early modern “chymists” to adopt carry out experiments to test some of the During his Oxford years, Boyle made a more critical, philosophical approach in chemical and alchemical theories he had many important contributions to physics their studies. Boyle is also celebrated for been studying. He also constructed a and chemistry. With the assistance of his experimental technique and his affir- microscope that he used to collect data Robert Hooke, he devised a vacuum cham- mation of a mechanistic philosophy of ber, or “air pump”, in which he carried nature, a view that challenged the domi- out experiments designed to reveal the nant Aristotelian scholasticism of his era. nature of air. His air pump experiments led Boyle to challenge Descartes’ view of An English Gentleman the existence of a vacuum. The French Robert Boyle was born on January 25, 1627, philosopher had previously denied that at Lismore Castle in County Waterford, such a thing was possible in nature, but Ireland. His father was a wealthy English Boyle meant to demonstrate that it was. Protestant “adventurer”, an associate of This claim was controversial, and other Sir Walter Raleigh, and the appointed Lord philosophers (including Thomas Hobbes) High Treasurer of Ireland. Robert enjoyed disputed Boyle’s results. Boyle and Hooke a comfortable childhood and attended Eton also used the vacuum-producing appara- College in England until the age of 12, tus to show, among other things, that when he commenced study under a series sound did not travel in a vacuum, that of private tutors. While traveling in Italy flame required air to exist, and that living in the early 1640s, the young Boyle encoun- creatures could not survive without the tered the works of Galileo and quickly presence of air. became a strong supporter of the perse- Boyle may be best known in physics for cuted scientist’s philosophy. the law that carries his name. Boyle’s law This early enthusiasm for science, partic- appeared in a 1662 appendix to his text ularly mathematics and mechanics, was describing the results of the air pump exper- suggestive of Boyle’s later achievements, Robert Boyle, 1627–1691 iments, New Experiments . Touching the but during his continental travels Robert Spring of the Air. The law (sometimes called experienced another transformative event about “effluvia” (infinitesimal exudates of Mariotte’s law) describes the relationship that would shape his life, his philosophy, matter) and other natural phenomena. It between volume and pressure in an ideal even his science—a profound religious was in this period that Boyle wrote his gas (see box, “Boyle’s Law?”). conversion. As recounted in his autobiog- first essay on chemistry, a brief piece in raphy, it was a majestic thunderstorm that which he discussed ideas that would later Philosophy of Science occasioned the conversion, but his spiri- appear in his more famous The Sceptical Boyle’s work in chemistry was aimed at tual change was enduring and led him Chymist. establishing it as a mathematical science toward a strongly theistic perspective that Although he worked alone at home, based on a mechanistic theory of nature. informed his natural philosophy. Boyle was not the only natural philoso- Arguing against Aristotle’s view that the After his father died in 1643, Boyle pher in England. Indeed, in the mid-1650s universe was composed of only four basic inherited an estate in Dorset, England, and Boyle moved to Oxford to join a group of “elements”, Boyle termed his own version settled there to begin a career as a writer. like-minded thinkers gathered around John of the mechanical philosophy “corpuscu- These early years were not dedicated to Wilkins, the Warden of Wadham College at larianism”, avoiding the term “atomism” science. Instead, Boyle wrote primarily the University of Oxford. Boyle did not because of its irreligious overtones. He pious, moralistic tracts, inspired by his hold a university post, and he even refused claimed that matter was composed of ILLUSTRATION: NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE NATIONAL ILLUSTRATION: newfound Christian faith. Wilkins’ offer of accommodations, but with “corpuscles”, which were themselves ©2003 AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY AUGUST 2003 TODAY’S CHEMIST AT WORK 45 constructed of different configurations means by which to define the laws of nature of primary particles. Boyle’s ideas were Boyle’s Law? that God had created. Alchemy and chem- flexible, and he allowed that natural istry were both, in a sense, paths to reli- philosophers might have legitimate differ- What we call Boyle’s law in the English- gious truth. ences within the basic framework of the speaking world is mathematically Many alchemists believed that immense mechanical theory. expressed as PV=k, which indicates that financial gain would result from their Because he emphasized experimenta- the pressure times the volume of an efforts, yet Boyle did not. He was suspi- tion over a priori theorizing, Boyle was ideal gas equals a constant. Practical- cious of such claims and emphasized instead willing to draw on eclectic sources and ly speaking, this means that pressure that alchemy was a gift from God. The spir- concepts, so long as they were confirmed and volume vary inversely. According itual aspects of alchemy were inseparable by experimental results. He built on prece- to historian of science Douglas Alchin, from the practice generally, yet Boyle’s dents established by Francis Bacon, who Boyle himself would not have recog- beliefs took him even further. He claimed laid down the guidelines for the pursuit nized our modern version of his “law”, that possession of the philosopher’s stone of inductive science by controlled experi- which he referred to as “the Spring of would allow the alchemical adept not only ment. The experimental methods that led Air”, and would philosophically not to perform transmutation, but to commu- Boyle to his conclusions were representa- have agreed to such an empirical nicate with angels. tive of the techniques championed by phenomenon being given the status the Royal Society generally. of a law. In addition, although Boyle Chymical Crossroad came up with the original idea of the Our knowledge of Robert Boyle’s strong Alchemical Ideals reciprocal relationship of air pressure interest in alchemy better illuminates the In 1668, Boyle left Oxford and moved to and volume at greater than atmospheric life and thought of such a seminal figure London, where he lived with his sister. It pressures, his assistant, Richard Town- in the history of science. Most textbooks was here that he first met Isaac Newton ley, suggested extending the idea to only provide the iconic image of the in 1675. Although historians of science lower pressures. In addition, the math- “founder of modern chemistry”, without justly celebrate both men as icons of ematics and the experimental appara- explaining that the road that led through early modern science, Boyle and Newton tus used by Boyle appear to have been Boyle to modern chemistry was complex. each had an abiding interest in the prac- primarily the work of Robert Hooke. Boyle defended a mechanistic view of tice of alchemy. Since the European Enlight- As pointed out by Alchin, “Boyle, how- nature and developed an experimental enment, alchemy has been derided as super- ever, published the work and carried method that set the standard for early stition. The fact that two great European with him the credit.” Although the modern science. At the same time, he drew scientists were drawn to it is intriguing French cleric Edmé Mariotte published on the magical and religious strands in the and surprising. Yet the alchemical activi- later than Boyle, he named the rela- alchemical tradition. ty of Boyle and Newton has until recent- tionship an actual “law” that he had In 1680, Boyle declined an offer to serve ly been slighted by historians. extensively tested—thus his priority in as president of the Royal Society. He did In the early 17th century, alchemy was France. For more information, visit so for religious reasons: He would not swear not considered a joke. Indeed, the scien- www1.umn.edu/ships/updates/ to an oath. Many of Boyle’s later writings tific distinctions between chemistry and shadows.htm. were also informed by his faith. He wrote alchemy were not as sharp as we imagine about the relationship between theology them today. There is continuing debate and natural philosophy, defending the among historians about the terminology The Religious Chymist mechanistic worldview as an elucidation used to distinguish the two practices. Many The openness Boyle showed to alchemical of God’s laws. He even made provision in early modern experimentalists understood possibilities owes much to his sincere his will for a series of lectures for the alchemy and chemistry as two aspects of religious commitment. A devout Christian, defense of Christianity against atheism. the same work. One even wrote that chem- Boyle believed wholeheartedly in the exis- Boyle died on December 31, 1691.
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