FORAGERESOURCE SO FCHIN A

ShingTsung (Peter)H u BegingAgricultura lUniversit y

DavidB .Hannawa dHarol dW .Youngber g OregonStat eUniversit y

Pudoc Wageningen 1992

5 \AM - b }V ^ CIP-data Koninklijke Bibliotheek, Den Haag

ISBN 90-220-1063-5 NUGI 835

© Centre for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation (Pudoc), Wageningen, Netherlands, 1992

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Printed in the Netherlands TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

FOREWORDAN DACKNOWLEDGEMENT S 1 FOREWORD 1 REFERENCES 1 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 1 ABOUTTH E AUTHORS 3

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION 5 A BRIEFAGRICULTURA L HISTORY OFCHIN A 5 IMPORTANCE OFCHINA' S 6 HISTORICAL FORAGE EXPERIMENTS 8 RECENT EMPHASIS 8 CURRENTCONDITION S 8 CLASSIFYING CHINESE FORAGE RESOURCES 8 REFERENCES 9

Chapter2

GRAZING LANDS (GRASSLANDS) AND FORAGES OFCHIN A 11 TOPOGRAPHY OFCHIN A 11 GENERALENVIRONMENTA L CONDITIONS 11 DESTRUCTION OFNATURA LVEGETATIO N 12 REGIONS 12 TEMPERATURE AND CLIMATIC REGIONS 13 GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS 13 SOILTYPE S 13 CLASSIFICATION OFGRASSLAND S 13 GRASSLAND CLASSIFICATION OUTLINE 15 REFERENCES 16 Chapter 3

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COOLTEMPERAT ETAL LGRASSLAND S INTH ENORTHEAS T REGION 19 THEGREA TKHINGA N MOUNTAIN DIVISION 20 HISTORICAL AND CURRENT CONDITIONS 21 GRASSLANDS MIXED WITHMOUNTAINOU S MEADOWSAN D WOODLANDS 22 GRASSLANDSMIXE D WITHFARMLAN D ANDTREE SI NTH ECENTRA LPLAI N 27 GRASSLANDSAN D MEADOWSO FSAUN E AND ALKALINEAREA S 35 MEADOW GRASSLANDS OFTH ETHRE E RIVERSPLAI N 38 SUMMARY 40 LIST 41 REFERENCES 41

Chapter 4

COOLTEMPERAT ETAL LGRASSLAND S OFINNE R 45 GENERALENVIRONMENTA L CONDITIONS 46 TALL GRASSLAND MIXED WITH FORESTAN D MEADOWS ONTH E WESTERN FLANK OFTH EGREA TKHINGA NAN DWESTER NYANSHA N ANDYINSHA NRANGE S 47 TALLGRASSLAN D PLATEAU 55 ATRANSITIONA L ZONE BETWEEN THE COOLAN DWAR M TEMPERATE TALL GRASSLANDS 65 SUMMARY 67 SPECIES LIST 68 REFERENCES 69 Chapter 5

WARMTEMPERAT E TALLGRASSLAN D REGION OFNORT H AND THE PLATEAU 73 GENERALENVIRONMENTA L CONDITIONS 73 GRASSLANDS MIXED WITH SUMMER FOREST INNORT H CHINA 76 GRASSLANDS MIXED WITH FORESTAN D ONMOUNTAIN S 76 NATURAL FORAGES ONLOWLAND SAN D SANDLANDS 82 TALLGRASSLAND S OFTH E LOESSPLATEA U 83 SUMMARY 93 SPECIES LIST 94 REFERENCES 94 Chapter 6

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MOUNTAIN MEADOWS, GRASSLANDS,AN DALPIN EVEGETATIO N IN THE REGION 97 GENERALENVIRONMENTA L CONDITIONS 97 THE GORGE SUBREGION: FORESTS MIXED WITH SCRUB-GRASSLAND-MEADOW 100 THE OUTER TIBETAN PLATEAU SUBREGION: ALPINE MEADOW, GRASSLAND, AND SCRUB VEGETATION 116 THE INNER PLATEAU (CHANG TANG) SUBREGION: ALPINE MEADOW- AND DESERT 130 SUMMARY 133 RECOMMENDATIONS 136 SPECIES LIST 136 REFERENCES 137

Chapter7

COOLTEMPERAT E STEPPEAN D DESERTVEGETATIO N INTH ENORTHWES T 141 AREAAN D GEOLOGY 141 CLIMATE 142 SOILS 142 HISTORYAN D BOTANICAL EXPEDITIONS 143 FLORA 145 VEGETATIONAREA S 145 TERMINOLOGY OFSTEPP E 145 STEPPE, SEMI-STEPPE, AND MOUNTAIN VEGETATION IN WESTERN AND PARTSO FNINGXI A ANDGANS U 146 STEPPE AND SEMI-STEPPE INDZUNGARI A (NORTHERN ) AND OTHER PARTSO FXINJIAN G 154 STEPPE, SEMI-STEPPE, AND MOUNTAIN VEGETATION IN KASHGARIA(SOUTHER NTIANSHAN ) 166 THEPAMIRS ,SOUTHWES TO FKASHGA R 169 KARAKORUM, KUNLUN, ANDALTO N (ALTYMTAG) MOUNTAINS 170 WESTERNQUILIA NMOUNTAIN S 172 EASTERNQUILIA N MOUNTAINS 173 REFERENCES 175 Chapter 8

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THEDESER TVEGETATIO N INTH E NORTHWESTERN REGION 181 TERMINOLOGY 181 CLIMATE 182 VEGETATION 183 ALASHAN AND DESERTARE A 185 BEISHAN-MAZONG SHAN DESERTARE A 192 DZUNGARIANDESER TARE A 194 KASHGARIA(TAKLAMAKAN)DESER T 200 QAIDAMDESER TVEGETATIO N 208 THE OASES 210 SUMMARY 212 REFERENCES 214

Chapter 9

SUBTROPICALAN D TROPICALMOUNTAI N AND HILLY GRASSLANDS OF CENTRALAN D SOUTH CHINA 219 GENERALENVIRONMENTA L CONDITIONS 219 SUBTROPICAL GRASSLANDS OFCENTRA L CHINA 224 GRASSLANDS IN THE EASTERN PARTO FCENTRA LCHIN A 236 TROPICAL GRASSLANDS OFSOUT H CHINA 236 SUMMARY 250 SPECIES LIST 250 REFERENCES 251

Chapter 10

OTHER FORAGE CLASSIFICATIONS 255 SALINE-ALKALINE AND MARSHY VEGETATION INTH E SEACOASTAL AREAS 255 SAUNE AND ALKALINE VEGETATION INTH E INLAND AREAS 259 MARSHYAN D SWAMPY VEGETATION 262 CULTIVATED HYDROPHYTIC FORAGE 263 REFERENCES 265 Chapter1 1

Page

GENERALDISCUSSIO NAN DRECOMMENDATION S 267 CHARACTERISTICSAN DDISTRIBUTIO NO FCHINA' SGRASSLAND S 267 LIVESTOCKCONSIDERATION S 269 RECOMMENDATIONS 279 THEFUTUR E 283 REFERENCES 284

BIBLIOGRAPHY 285

INDEXO FGEOGRAPHI CNAME S 297

INDEXO FSCD2NTOT CPLAN TNAME S 305 FOREWORD

FOREWORD AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

FOREWORD improvement of grasslands in their own countries. It provides a valuable document for forage and range For almost two centuries, botanists from around scientists studying Chinese grasslands, preparing for the world have studied and published about China's survey trips for introduction, or other technical rich resource of botanical species. While gardeners reasons. cultivated Chinese ornamentals,vegetables , trees,an d in their own lands, plant specialists collected, The book also provides a basis for a scientific systematized, and introduced Chinese economic trees program ofgrasslan d improvementan derosio ncontro l and plants into many countries. During this time few for China. scientists studied China's equally rich forage species and theirdistribution . The first tod os owa sa n Ameri­ This work will help to promote the growth of can forage scientist, E.N. Hansen (1898), followed by agriculturean danima lhusbandr y throughoutth eworl d F.N.Meye r (1905-1918), C.V. Piper (1911),an d N.G. bymakin gavailabl ethi scomprehensiv eanalysi so fth e McMilliam and J.L.Stephe n(1934 )(cite db y Ryerson, grassland resourceso f China inth eEnglis h language. 1967an dCunningham , 1984).I n 1944,Dr .Johnso no f Oregon State College (now Oregon State University) REFERENCES madea genera lsurve yo frangelan d inth eare abetwee n Cunningham, LS. 1984.Fran k N.Meyer : Plant Hunter Sichuanan dTibe t(name dXikon gProvinc edurin gtha t in . Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames, Iowa. 317 time). In 1980 and 1983, D.R. Dewey (Utah State pp. University)twic etravele dt oChin at ostud yan dcollec t forage species. Ryerson, K.A. 1967. The history of plant exploration andintroductio n inth eUnite d StatesDepartmen to f Most of the currently cultivated forage species Agriculture, p. 1-19. Proc. Int. Symp. on Plant In­ found in theworl d alsoar e found among China's rich troduction. Tegucigola, Honduras, Escuela Agri- naturalgrasslands .Fo rexample ,man ystrain san deco - cola Panamericana. types of alfalfa have been grown in China for two thousand years.I n the early 1950's, Soviet forage sci­ ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS entistscollecte d strainso falfalf a inXinjian gan dNort h China for use in improving USSR alfalfa cultivars. The development of aboo k of this size and com­ plexity isa nenormou s tasktha t requiresth e assistance For the past two decades, Chinese botanists and ofman y scientistsan dassistants .W eacknowledg e the forage and range scientists have conducted extensive assistance supplied by the following individuals and surveysan dresearc ho nforag egrasslan dspecies .Thei r organizations: works are published in Chinese and are not available abroad. Oregon State University Thesenio rauthor ,S.T . (Peter)Hu ,ha sstudie dan d Dr. Thomas E. Bedell, Dept. of Rangeland Resources, taught forage and grassland sciencei n China for many for manuscript review. years. His experience, research, and knowledge of the Dr.Rober t E.Frenkel , Dept.o f Geosciences, for assis­ Chineseliteratur eha sbee nsupplemente d byhi srecen t tancewit h maps and manuscript review. studiesi nth eU.S .Now ,workin gtogethe rwit hDr .D.B . Hannawayan dDr .H.W .Youngber go fth eDepartmen t Dr. Dillard H.Gates ,Professo r Emeritus,Dept .o f An­ of Cropan d SoilScience , Oregon State University, he imal Science, for photographs and manuscript re­ has drawn extensively from his personal notes and view. surveys made in Inner Mongolia and other areas of Dr.Jame s Oldfield, Dept. of Animal Science, for pho­ China in preparing this book. tographsan d manuscript review. This book is a comprehensive, current work on Mrs. Jean Chudzik, former secretary, Dept. of Crop China'sgrasslan dan dforag eresources .I tstresse splan t Science,fo r typing of manydraft s and revisions. ecologyan dclassifie s Chinesegrassland saccordin g to forage species and practical utilization and provides a Mrs. Cheryl Drier, former secretary, Dept. of Crop basis for grassland improvement. It will be of help to Science, for typing many revisions. specialists in studies of types of world vegetation for FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Mr. Robert Gearheard, former graphieartist , Commu­ Williams, 1981,appearin gi nC.W .Pannel lan dC.L . nication Media Center, for original art and line Salter(eds.) ,1981 . drawings. Dr. Gerald W. Thomas, President Emeritus of New Mr. William Lanham, graphieartist , Communications MexicoStat eUniversity , for manuscript review. Media Center, for original art, line drawings, and Mrs.Ji n Zhou, Academy of Agriicultural Sci­ finalpag e pasteup. ences,Nan jing ,China, fo rcheckin gth espellin gan d Mrs.Teres a Laramee,Photographi eServices , Commu­ accuracy of Chinesename san d location and verifi­ nication Media Center, for preparing negatives for cation of source materials. photographie prints. Agencies and Publishers Mrs. Meiyu Mao, former graduate student, Dept. of Cropan d Soil Science, for checking thespellin go f The American Geographic Society, for permission to Chinese namesan d locations. reproducephotos . Mr. Craig Merkord, former student worker, Dept. of ArnoldArboretum , Harvard University, for permission CropScience ,fo rcheckin gth espellin go f scientific toreproduc e photos. namesan d preparing page drafts. Botanical Museum, Harvard University, Cambridge, Ms.Laur a Morrison, graduatestudent , Dept.o f Botany Massachusetts, for permission to reproduce photos and Plant Pathology, for checking the accuracy of from C.W. Wang, 1961, The forests of China with plant names. a survey of grassland and desert vegetation. Mrs. Barbara Reed, secretary, Dept. of Crop and Soil Central Intelligence Agency, for permission to repro­ Science, for typesetting and word processing con­ duce maps. sulting. China Pictorial, , for permission to reproduce Mr. Ted Rosenbalm, Photographic Services, Commu­ photos. nication Media Center, for photographic prints. McGraw-Hill, for permission to reproduce photos and Mrs.Barbar a Rossbacher, secretary, Dept.o f Cropan d figures from G.Cressey, 1934,China' s Geographi­ Soil Science, for editing, word processing, conver­ cal Foundations, and CM. Hsieh, 1973, Atlas of sion toVentura , and innumerable revisions. China. Mrs.Na nScott ,senio rinstructor ,Dept .o fCro pan dSoi l MissouriBotanical Garden ,fo rpermissio nt oreproduc e Science,fo rassistin gwit hconversio nt oW P5. 0an d photos. patient hardware and software consulting. National Geography Society, for permission to repro­ Mr. Wayne Tonack, clerical assistant, Photographic ducephotos . Services, Communications Media Center, for or­ Outlook Weekly, Beijing, for permission to reproduce ganizingan dconsultin go n photographicprin tjobs . photos. Mrs. Carla Westfall, graphic artist, Communications People's Daily, Beijing, for permission to reproduce Media Center, for final pagepasteup . phogos. Mr. Bill WettengeL cartographer, formerly Dept. of The Royal Geographical Society, for permission to Geosciences, for preparing regional maps. reproducephotos . Ms. Rebecca Wheeler (now Mrs. Rebecca Simmons), Science Press, Beijing, for permission to reproduce former student worker, Dept.o f Crop and SoilSci ­ photos. ence, for typing revisions. USDA,fo r permission toreproduc e photos. Mr. Greg White, cartographer, Dept. of Geosciences, for revisions toregiona l maps. Individuals Other Universities Mrs. Meredith Cornelius, for Ventura consulting. H.M. Chang, Y.F. Chang, S.C. Chao, C.T. Li, T. Liu, Dr. D.R. Dewey, USDA Crop Research Laboratory at F.T. Lu, Y.F.Tuan , Y. Wang, J.F. Williams, Y.S. Utah State University, for photographs and manu­ Yang, and J.P. Zhong, for permission to reproduce script review. photos. Dr.Car lHoveland ,Agronom y Department, University of Georgia, for manuscript review. C.W.Pannell ,Dept .o fGeography , Universityo f Geor­ gia, for permission to reproduce photo from J.F. FOREWORD

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Shing Tsung (Peter) Hu received his undergradu­ Dr. Harold W. Youngberg received his under­ atean d graduate degrees from the University of Nanj­ graduate and graduate degrees from Oregon State ing (Nanking) and University and Purdue currently holds the po­ University. He is a sition of Associate Professor Emeritus in Professor, Beijing theDepartmen to fCro p Agricultural Univer­ Science, Oregon State sity. During his career University. Recently he has worked at the he served as extension National Agricultural advisor for the Institute Research Bureau, ofPostgraduat eStudie s , and with the in Agriculture in Ministry of Agricul­ . His re­ ture.H eha sbee n active search interests are in in writing and translat­ forage grass and le­ ing several agricultural gume production. books into Chinese. ShingTsun g (Peter)H u Dr. Youngberg has HaroldW . Youngberg During 1981-1985,Mr . been involved in im­ Hu studied and conducted research on cool season proved cultivarintroductio n programsi nsevera l coun­ grasses in the U.S. During 1981-82 he studied agron­ tries,includin g the People's Republic of China. omy and conducted research on cool season grasses at Clemson University. From 1982-85 he was a visiting Associate Professor at Oregon State University where heals ostudie dforage san dbotany .I n 1985,h ereturne d to Beijing Agricultural University. He currently teaches classes on grassland ecology and conducts re­ search on forages and turf.

Dr. David B. Hannaway holds degrees from the University of Delaware, the University of Tennessee, and the University of Kentucky. He is cur­ rently an Associate Professor in the Department of Crop Science, Oregon State Grouppictur e of David Hannaway, PeterHu ,an dHarol d University. His re­ Youngbergwhil e Peterwa sa visitin g scholara tOrego n State Uni­ search interests are in versity. nitrogenfixatio no f for­ agelegumes , computer modeling of forages, and hypermedia teach­ ing applications. Dr. Hannaway teaches a course in Forage Pro­ David B. Hannaway duction and Manage­ ment. Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

A BRIEF AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF dynasty (221 to 207 B.C.) and (206 CHINA B.C. to 220 A.D.), China made rapid progress in agriculture, developing crop rotations and achieving China lies in the far eastern part of Asia, with highcro pyields .Th erura leconom ycontrolle d Chinese natural borders of the Yellow, East, and South-China culture and greatly influenced the development of seasi nth eeas t andsouth ; highmountain si nth enorth ­ civilization. west,southwest ,an dwest ; anda vas t desert land in the north(Figur e1.1) .Becaus eo fthi snatura lisolation ,fe w Theagricultura leconom y isstil lth efoundatio n of contacts were made with other countries before the Chinese culture, with the rural population 80% of its Industrial Revolution. more than one billion people. To support this popula­ tion, China has 1millio n km of cultivated land occu­ Chinai son eo fth eagricultura lcradle so fth eworl d pying 10.4%o f the total 9.6 million km of land area. with historical records dating to 4,000 B.C. China es­ Increasing agricultural production, to allow greater tablished farming systems using crops, farm tools, ir­ industrialdevelopment ,i scurrentl ya primar y objective rigation, and animal production more than 4,000 years of theChines e government. ago. Agriculture became the foundation from which Chinesecultur ean d philosophy developed. During the

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Figure 1.1. General map of China showing its location in the world. FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

In many respects,Chines eagricultura l production Table 1.2 Agricultural production in 1989 ascompare dt o 1988. depends on climate, soil, and other available land re­ (Adapted from Statisticso fChina' sAgriculture , 1989) sources. Mountains, hills, plateaus, basins, and plains constitute 30, 9, 36, 15, and 10 percent of the land, respectively (Wong, 1937). The elevation of China's Crop Total yieldi n 1989 Increaseove r 1988 land area isshow n inTabl e 1.1 (Chang, 1935). (10,000T) (%) Food crops 40,745 3.4

Table 1.1. Elevation of China 's landarea . (Adapted from H.C. Cotton 379 -8.2 Chang, 1935) Oilcrop s 1,291 -2.2

Elevation Area Landare a Sugarcan e 4,875 -1.0 (thousand meters) (thousand km ) (%) Sugarbee t 936 -27.0 0-0.5 1,344 14

0.5-1 1,728 18 Jutean dhem p 133 23.0 1-2 3,360 35 Tobacco 241 3.1 2-3 768 8 Silk 49 10.5 3-4 480 5 54 -0.5 4-5 384 4 1,837 103 >5 1,526 16 ity food and conserve the soil and water resources. Total 9,600 100 Therei sgrea topportunit yfo r improving China'sgrass -

Floods and droughts occur frequently in many feed for animals and increase human food and usable areas and have increased in recent centuries. Soil ero­ by-products. sion has increased during recent decades due to the Grazingan dpastur eland si nChin atota l40 0t o54 1 cutting of forests and cultivation of steep slopes, not million hectares (Hu, 1951; National Bureau of Statis­ only in theloes s plateau, but alsoi nth eYangtz e tics, 1989), representing 56% of the total land area. watershed. Exploitable grasslands represent 23%o f the total land Food crop production is the primary agricultural enterprise of China, although other cash crops are grown. According to a government document, food Table 13. Domestic animal production in 1989 ascompare d to 1988. (Adaptedfro mNationa l Bureauo f Statistics, 1989) crop production increased 3.4% during 1989ove r that of 1988 (Table 1.2). Livestock production is another Item 1989 Production Increaseove r 1988 important enterprise,particularl y for thenomadi cpeo ­ (10,000T) (%) ple, although most of the livestock are found in agri­ Meat(pork , beef 2,328 6.1 culturalareas .Cattle ,wate rbuffalo , andhorse sprovid e andmutton ,bu t farmers with cheaper power than tractors as well as mainly pork) by-products in the form of milk, meat, wool, manure, Milk 380 3.8 and hides. Although mechanization of agriculture is increasing, government reports for 1989 (Table 1.3) Wool 238 7.4 showed increases indomesti c animal production. Pigs (slaughtered) 28,900 5.0

Pigs(hea d number 35,200 Z9 IMPORTANCE OF CHINA'S GRASSLANDS at the end of 1989) Although grain production is important, it alone Sheepan dgoat s 21,100 64.8 cannot provideth equantit y orqualit y of food required (head numbera t the endo f 1989) for China's largepopulation . Grasslands mustb emor e effectively utilized for food production and for soil Large animals 12,800 21 conservation. Grazing lands can be put to wider and (head numbera t the end of 1989) more efficient use in developing China's animal agri­ culture.Thi swil lincreas e theavailabilit y ofhig h qual- CHAPTER 1

area.Thi s invaluable resource presents an opportunity sativa)stra w inth esout h forwate rbuffalo . Cultivated, for developing astron ganima l industry. well managed forages could be used in crop rotations toincreas esoi lfertilit y andprovid ehig hqualit yanima l Improvingth equalit yo fanima lfee d isals oimpor ­ feed. tant. In the farming areas there is very little use of cultivated forage crops,eve n though improved species Chinese farmers and agriculturalists have sucha salfalf a (Medicagosaliva) wer eintroduce d from traditionally focused on the most pressing need of two thousand years ago. Alfalfa cultivation was, humanfoo d cropproductio n andhav eneglecte d forage and still is,limite d toles s than one million hectareso f crops.Thi s has resulted in many problems. Balancing northwest, northeast,an d .Th e cultivation the ecological needs with economic needs requires of green manure crops (such as Astragalus sinicus, scientific management. In thepas t 60years ,Chin a has Vicia saliva, and Viciafaba) for soil improvement is developed its agricultural sciences and has made sig­ practiced in Central and South China, particularly in nificant progress, but the number of trained agricul­ Jiangsu, , and , and other provinces turalists,th eeducationa lsystem , facilities, and present (Figure 1.2).Th ecommo n roughagesgrow n arewhea t techniques cannot currently copewit h China's present (Triticumaestivum) straw in thenort h for cattle,mille t andgrowin g needs. ( glaucum and Setaria italica) straw and bean (Phaseolusspp. )stalk sfo rhorses ,an dric e(Oryza

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Figure 1.2. General mapo f China including province boundariesan dcapitals . FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

HISTORICAL FORAGE EXPERIMENTS inlowe r Mongolia under theAcadem y of Agricultural Sciences of China, with several departments teaching Forageexperiment shav ebee nconducte d inChin a RangeScienc ean dForage sa tAgricultura l Collegeso r since the 1930's at Gongzhuling, Province. In Universities. These include the Institute of Soil and 1940, a soil and water conservation station was es­ Water Conservation in Province, and the tablished by Professor P.C. Yeh at Tianshui, Northwest Institute of Biology, , , and Province, under the Ministry of Agriculture and For­ the Institute of Desert Research, , Gansu. estry.I n 1942,Professo r T.Wan gworke d atth eNorth ­ Manydistric tgrasslan d stationsan dvariou s provincial west AgriculturalCollege ,Wugong ,Shaanx i Province Academies of Agricultural Sciences have been estab­ on small forage experiments. S.T. Hu (1945) worked lished tostud y forages and grassland development. on alfalfa at the University of Nanjing (Nanking) and then at the National Agriculture Research Bureau The Association of Grassland Science of China (NARB), in Nanjing. In thebeginnin g of 1947,Dr . Y. wasestablishe d in198 0an da Journa lo fGrassland sha s S.Tsian g established forage experimental work at the been published bi-monthly since that time.Durin g re­ NARB.Durin gthi ssam etime ,Dr .O .McConke y(Uni ­ cent years,grasslan d short courses have been given in versity of Guelph), worked for the United Nations several provinces. Relief Agency (UNRA) and later with the Food and Agriculture Organization ofth eUnite d Nations(FAO ) Facilities and academic training are presently in cooperation with NARB. Dr. McConkey collected inadequate for Chinese forage and grassland research. forage from Great Britain, Denmark, Eastern Toservic eal lo f China (comparable in land area to the , the , , and New Zealand U.S.), there are only approximately 1500 forage and toconduc t forage experiments. These seeds were then grassland workers. This includes instructors, re­ distributed to field stations, such as Beijing (Peking), searchers,an dadministrativ epersonnel .Man yo f these Wugong, and some provincial agricultural institutes 1500 workers have not been well trained in research such as , , and Gansu. Concurrently, methods. the National Animal Industry Bureau and National Forest Research Bureau conduct forage research pro­ CURRENT CONDITIONS jects,wit h soilan dwate rconservatio n asthei r primary objective. Wind and water erosion caused by improper cultivation and use of hilly, mountainous lands and grasslandsdurin gth elas tfe wdecade sha scause d many RECENT GRASSLAND EMPHASIS floods and droughts in farming areas and has resulted inth edesertificatio n ofsom egrasslan d areas.Thi sha s Following the Chinese revolution (1949), culti­ stimulated interesti nforag ean dgrasslan d researchan d vated forages research workwa sreduce dan d attention cooperative associations with the United States, Can­ was focused on improving the grasslands. Since the ada, New Zealand, Australia, and other countries. A 1950's,botanist s have conducted investigations of the comprehensiveanalysi so fth egrazin glan dan d pasture vegetation in many regions. This work has been con­ resources of China is necessary, however, to assist in ductedunde rth eleadershi po fth eChines eAcade my o f formulating a plan for developing this resource. Sciences (CAS) and resulted in the establishment of a Grassland Ecosystem Research station in Xilingol, lowerMongolia , during the 1970's.A n integrated sur­ CLASSD7YING CfflNESE FORAGE vey on natural resources of the CAS focused particu­ RESOURCES larlyo ngrasslan d resources.Th eInstitut eo f Botanyo f the CAS also worked on vegetation surveys. These This project was undertaken to classify the vast surveys have resulted in several publications, some of forage resourceso fChina .Thi sha sbee n accomplished them dealing with grasslands. In the summer of 1957, by dividing the forage resources of China into six a training program of range research and management climatological and production regions. The rationale was held in Beijing by the Chinese Ministry of Agri­ for classification and a graphical description of this culture.Professo r CT. Lio fPekin gUniversit ywas the classification scheme are given in Chapter 2. Each principallecture ro fplan tecology .Followin gthi strain ­ grassland region is then described in Chapters 3 ingprogram ,rang eresearc h and management inChin a through 9. Other forages are described in Chapter 10. was placed on a morescientifi c foundation. Chapter 11 provides general conclusions and recom­ mendations for thedevelopmen t of China's grasslands During the early 1960's,bot h grassland and culti­ andforag e resources. vated forage research experiments were conducted on alarg escale .A nInstitut eo fGrassland swa sestablishe d CHAPTER 1

REFERENCES Chang,H.C . 1935.Lan d classification inChina .Geog . Mag. 2(4).(I n Chinese) Hu, S.T. 1945. Alfalfa investigations. B.S. Thesis. Univ.o f Nanking.8 5 pp.(I n Chinese) Hu,S.T . 1951.Grasslan dan dforag eproble ms o fChina . M.S.Thesis .Univ .o fNanking .33 0pp .(I nChinese ) National Bureau of Statistics. 1989. People's Daily, Feb. 21,1990. Statistics of China's Agriculture. 1989. Ministry of Agriculture,Anima l Husbandry, and Fishery, Beij­ ing. Wong, W.H. 1937. The geographic regions of China and theirrelationship .Wong' s Essays. Commercial Press, Shanghai.(I n Chinese) Chapter 2

GRAZING LANDS (GRASSLANDS) AND FORAGES OF CHINA

TOPOGRAPHY OF CHINA GENERAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS Ecological regionso fChin a rangefrom tropica li n Chinama yb edivide dint otw oregion so nth ebasi s the south to cool temperate in the north, and from oflan dform s andvegetation .A Un eca nb edraw n from oceanic in the east and south to very dry desert in the the Great Khingan Range in the northeast, southward west. The topography varies greatly from sea level, to through the northern border of the to lowland plains, and high mountains. The elevation of Lanzhou, and southward to the Daxue Mountains, theQinghai-Tibe t (Qingzang) Plateau isove r3,60 0m , south-western Sichuan, northwestern Yunnan and the and thealtitud eo f thelarg ealpin e desert area is5000 - national border in the southwest (see Figure 2.1). The 6000 m (Figure 2.1). This diversity of climate and northwestregio n isa pastora lregio ndominate db yhig h elevationresult si na complexit yo fvegetation .Bot hth e mountains,plateaus, an dbasin swit hgrasslan d vegeta­ geographic location and the topography greatly influ­ tiono fsteppe san ddeserts .Th esoutheas t isa nagricul ­ enceth enatura lresource san d thecultur eo f itspeople . tural region dominated by plains, basins, low mountains, and hills with various types of forests. These twogrea t regions havedistinctl y different land­ scapes and Chinesecultures .

Meters Feet above sea level 3048 / T \J? |g§|g7 ®

Figure 2.1.Bloc k relief diagram of China showing contrasting elevations. (Adapted from K.Buchanan , 1966an d CM. Hsieh, 1973)

11 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

DESTRUCTION OF NATURAL VEGETATION The disturbance of natural vegetation has caused repeateddisaster si nChina .Th eremova lo f vegetation China is an old agricultural country in which and improper land management in the Loess Plateau human activity has greatly influenced the natural veg­ caused serious soil erosion and resulted in floods and etation.Sinc eth eHsi a Dynasty (2205-1766 B.C.), for­ droughtsi nNort h China.Durin grecen tdecade sexces ­ estshav egraduall ybee nreplace di nsoutheas t Chinab y siveloggin go fforest s inwester n SichuanProvinc eha s farmlands with limited grazing and woodland areas. caused flooding. In the grassland areas, overgrazing Fire hasbee n used universally to clear forests for andimprope rreclamatio nhav eresulte di ndeterioratio n arablelan d and for hunting.A Chinesehistoria n Si-ma and desertification. At present, the conservation of Chien (145-87 B.C) inhi sboo k Shi Chidescribe d the water, soil, forests, and grassland areas is considered earlysparsel ysettle dYangtz e Valley asth elan d thati s oneo f the most important projects in China. "tilledwit hfir ean dhoe dwit hwater" .Eve ntoday ,ther e are many districts in thesouthwester n mountain areas PRECIPITATION REGIONS where people use fire to clear vegetation from slopes for farming and to drive away wild animals. China's Six precipitation regions have been described by vegetation has suffered much from theexigencie s of a Hou (1983) (Figure 2.2). Precipitation is greatest in densefarmin gpopulation .Unti lth eSun gdynast y(960 - southeastern China, with monsoon rainfall predomi­ 1279), most of the forests were routinely destroyed in nating. Because the Nanling in the eastern agricultural areas as more arable land and fuel were territoryar enot a shig ha sth eHimalaya n Mountainsi n needed. the southwest (see Figure 2.1), the monsoon rainfall continues into northeastern China. Rainfall decreases Industry and housing needs also placed great de­ onlygraduall y from south tonorth .Th eMonsoo n rains mand on the forest resources. In North China and the are stopped, however, by the high mountains in the Loess Plateau, timber was used in the construction of southwest,west , and northwest, with the northwestern palacesan d temples.Thi sregio n alsoha sbee nth esit e regionsclassifie d as arid. of dynasty capitals and largecities .

5emi-«rid Region

Figure 2.2. Precipitation regions of China: 1) humid region, 2) humidregion wit h distinct dry season, 3) semi humid region, 4) semi-arid region, 6) extremely arid region. (Adaptedfro m H.Y. Hon, 1983)

12 CHAPTER 2

TEMPERATURE AND CLIMATIC REGIONS SOIL TYPES Eight temperature and climatic regions were de­ Soil formation is determined by climate, vegeta­ scribed by Hou (1983) (Figure 2.3).Temperature s in­ tion, parent material, time, and human activity. Soil crease from northeast to southeast, and from west to types are associated closely with climate and vegeta­ east.Durin gth ewinte rmonths ,th eclimat eo fChin a is tion, with the latter often used as an indicator of soil influenced primarily by the cold, dry air flow from type.Eightee nsoi lregion shav ebee ndescribe db yHo u . Temperature and rainfall are the two main (1983) (Figure 2.5). factors which influence climaticregion san d thedistri ­ bution of vegetation, types of farming, and productiv­ Previous investigators reported seven soil zones ity.Generally , theclimat eo f theeaster n halfo f China, and 38 distinct regions (Chien et al., 1956). Chang from south to north, may be divided into tropical, (1948) conducted 156fertilize r trialswithi n the seven subtropical, warm temperate, and cold temperate soil groups; light chestnut earth, calcareous alluvial, zones.Th ewester n half of thecountr y may bedivide d noncalcareous alluvial, saline, red earth, yellow earth, intograssland s and desert in the northwest, and alpine and brown earth; under conditions of adequate mois­ forest,grasslan dmeado wan dalpin edeser ti nth esouth ­ ture.H efoun d nitrogen, phosphorus,an d potassium to west (theQinghai-Tibe t Plateau). be lackinga tal l locations,wit h nitrogen most limiting plant growth.

GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS CLASSIFICATION OF GRASSLANDS Theeigh t major geographical regionso f China are shown in Figure 2.4. Corresponding climatological Many Chinese and foreign botanists have classi­ characteristics areliste d inTabl e 2.1 (Wu, 1981). fied the vegetation of China since the 1900's. These

Figure 2.3.Temperatur e regionso f China: 1)col d temperate, 3)war m temperate,4 ) transitional subtropic, 5)subtropic , 6)transitiona l tropic, 7) tropic, 8)col d high-mountain plateau. (Adapted from H.Y. Hou, 1983)

13 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Figure 2.4. Geographical regions of China: 1) Northeast, 2) Northwest, 3) North China, 4) Loess Plateau, 5) Central China, 6) Southwesi China, 7)Sout h China,8 ) Qinghai- Plateau.(Adapte d from S.T. Lee, 1947)

Table 2.1. Climatic features of the geographical regions of China. (Adapted from C.C. Wu, 1981)

Region Annual mean Period of daily Accumulated temperature Aridity index Chief natural precipitation mean temp. > 2°C (daily mean temp. 2l0°C) (K) hazard (mm) (days)

1. Northeast 400-1,200 75-200 1,500-3,500 0.75-1.5 Low temperature in winter and spring and early frost

2. Northwest 25-500 25-175 1,500-5,500 2.0-16.0 Drought, strong (, Gansu, winds Xingjiang, and Inner Mongolia)

3. 400-800 150-225 3,500-4,500 0.75-1.0 Springdrough t

4. Loess Plateau 300-600 75-200 1,500-4,000 1.0-2.0 Spring drought, soil erosion

5. Central China 800-2,000 225-300 4,500-6,500 0.5-1.0 Bood, autumn (Middle and lower drought Valley)

6. Southwest 1,000-2,500 300-350 4,500-6,500 0.5-1.0 Low solar (Sichuan, Yunnan, radiation and )

7. South China 600-1,800 175-325 500-2,500 0.5-1.0 Typhoon

8. Qinghai-Tibet 100-1,000 0-150 100-250 0.75-4.0 Severe cold Plateau

14 CHAPTER 2

Figure 2.5.Soi lregion so fChina : 1)brow n conifer, 2)dar kbrown ,3 )brown ,4 )yellow-brown , 5)yello wan dre dearth ,purpl esoi lan d Rendzia, 6) red earth, 7) subalpine conifer, 8) latentie, 9) laterite, 10) chernozem, 11) serokorychnevye, 12) chestnut, 13) serozem 14) cold high-mountain meadow, 15)coldhigh-mountai nsteppe , 16)gray-browndesert , 17)brow n desert, 18)cold, high-mountain desertsoil .(Adapte d from H.Y.Hou , 1983) includeDiels , 1902(cite db yLi , 1944);Komarov , 1906 GRASSLAND CLASSIFICATION OUTLINE (citedb yLi , 1944);Chien , 1926(cite db yChie n etal. , Climatic conditions, particularly temperaturean d 1956);Handel-Mazzetti, 1930;Liu , 1934;Thorp ,1936 ; precipitation, influence vegetation dramatically. In Ward, 1936; Li, 1944; Huang, 1944; Walker, 1946 China,however ,topograph yi sth eprimar ydeterminan t (citedb yWalte re tal. , 1983);Ting , 1948;Chie ne tal. , of climate. Therefore, the terminology of grasslands 1956; Hou, 1960,1983 ; Wang, 1961;Grubov , 1969; usually islinke d with climate andrelief .Fo rexample , and Waltere tal. , 1983. Most classifications, however, cool,temperate ,mountainous ,tal lgrassland s indicates have dealt with forests rather than grasslands. Hu a northeastern mountainous region ofgrasslan d where (1948) classified Chinese grasslands based on soil theclimat e iscoo l temperate andwher egrasses ar eth e characteristics and compiled agrasslan d mapo fChin a dominant vegetation. ata scal e of 1:4,000,000.H u(1951 ) reporteda further detailed description of grasslands including informa­ The present classification anddescriptio n of Chi­ tiono nclimate ,relief ,soil ,vegetation ,an dlan duse ,b y nese grasslands is based primarily on their utilization a delimitation method, and classified China's grass­ butals o indicatesth enatura lenvironmenta l conditions lands intosevera lzones . and vegetation present in these regions. In this text, Chinese grasslands have been classified into types, Recently, Chinese grassland scientists (Li, 1979; regions,an dsubrogion si nterm so fclimate ,relief ,soil , Chia, 1980;Re ne tal. , 1980) havediscusse d the types, vegetation, andlan d usea s follows: characteristicsan dclassificatio n ofChines egrasslands ; 1.0 Tallgrassland s (Prairie) and other botanists have described certain localgrass ­ 1.1 Coolter nperat e tallgrassland s lands (Li, 1960;L ie t al., 1980). Generally, theclassi ­ 1.1.1 Northeast region fications have been simple and not based on classification byplan tcommunities ,zones ,o renviron ­ 1.1.1.1 Grasslands mixed with mountainous mead­ mental regions. owsan dwoodland s 1.1.1.2 Grasslands mixed with farmland andtree si n thecentra l plain

15 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

1.1.1.3 Grasslands and meadows of saline and alka­ Chang, N.F. 1948. Scope and work of the National linearea s Agric. Res.Bur. , NARB, Misc. Pub. No. 15,Nan ­ 1.1.1.4 Meadow grasslands ofth eThre eRiver s Plain king. 1.1.2 Inner Mongolian Plateau Chen,F.H . 1934.A preliminar y studyo nth evegetatio n 1.1.2.1 Grasslands mixed with woodlands on the ofth eChing-P oLak ean dit svicinit y innortheaster n mountains Kirin Province, . Bull., Fan Memorial 1.1.2.2 Grasslands on theplateau s Inst,o f Biol.(Bot . Series) 5:1-30. 1.2 Warm temperate tall grasslands 1.2.1 North China Chia, S.S. 1980. A discussion of the classification of 1.2.1.1 Grasslands and mixed woodlands (or trees) grassland types of China. Bull, of Grassl. Sei. (1) andshrub s on mountains and hills 1-11.(I n Chinese) 1.2.1.2 Grasslands of thelowlan d and sandland areas Chien, S.S., Y.C. Wu, and C.T. Cheng. 1956.A tenta­ 1.2.2 Loess Plateau tive scheme of phytogeographical regions, p. 83- 1.2.2.1 Grasslands of Province in the eastern 142.In: K.F .Lo u (ed.).A Tentative Scheme of the Loess Plateau Natural Regions of China. Science Press, Peking. 1.2.2.2 Grasslands of northern Shaanxi and eastern (In Chinese) Gansu in the western Loess Plateau and east­ ern Ordos Grubov,V.l .1969 .Flor aan dvegetation ,p .265-364 .In: 2.0 Cooltemperat e steppe and desert vegetation USSR Acad.Sei .Inst .Geog .Th ePhysica l Geogra­ 2.1 Steppe regions of western Inner Mongolia, phyo f China.Vol . 1.F.A .Praege r Publishers,Ne w eastern Gansu, and Ningxia York. 2.2 Steppe regions of Xinjiang in the West Handel-Mazzetti, H. 1930. The phytogeographical 2.3 Desertvegetatio n inwester n Ningxia, Gansu, Xinjiang, and Tsaidam structurean daffinitie s ofChina .5t hInt .Bot .Congr . 2.4 Oases Abstr. p.315-319 , Cambridge. 3.0 Alpine meadows and grasslands mixed with Hou,H.Y . 1983.Vegetatio n ofChin awit h reference to woodlands and shrubs in theTibe t Plateau its geographical distribution. Ann. Missouri Bot. 3.1 Alpine meadow grassland mixed with wood­ Gar.70:504-548 . lands in the gorge 3.2 Alpine meadows mixed with shrubs in the Hou, S.Y. 1960. The Vegetation of China. People's Outer Plateau Education Press,Peking .(I n Chinese) 3.3 Alpine desert vegetation of the Inner Plateau Hsieh,CM . 1973.Atla so f China. McGraw-Hill Book (ChangTang ) in the West Co.,Ne w York. 282 pp. 4.0 Subtropical and Tropical mountain and hilly grasslands Hu, S.T. 1948. A map of the grasslands of China. 4.1 Subtropical grasslands subregion in Central National Agric.Res .Bur. , Nanking.(I n Chinese) China Hu,S.T .1951 .Grasslan dan dforag eproblem so fChina . 4.2 Tropicalgrassland ssubregio ni nSouther nan d M.S.Thesis .Univ .o fNanking .33 0pp .(I nChinese ) Southwestern China 5.0 Otherforag e classifications Hwang, P.V. 1944. History and , 5.1 Aquatic forages Thought and Times. Chekiang University. (In Chi­ 5.2 Salinean d alkaline grasslands nese) Sixgeographica l grassland regionso f China have Lee, S.T. 1947. Delineation of geographic regions of been defined to describe the major forage classifica­ China. Ann. Assoc. Amer. Geographers 37:155- tions (Figure 2.6). 168. Li,H.L .1944 .Th ephytogeographica ldivisio no fChin a REFERENCES with specific reference to Araliaceae. Proc. Nat. Buchanan, K. 1966.Th e Chinese People and the Chi­ Acad,o f Sei.96:249-277 . neseEarth .G . Bellan d Sons, Ltd.,London .9 4pp . Li,P .1979 .Th egenera lcharacteristic so fth egrassland s Chang, H.C. 1935.Lan d classification inChina . Geog. of China. Bull,o f Grassl.Sei . 1:2-12.(I n Chinese) Mag.2(4) .(I n Chinese) Li,P. ,CL . Liu,an dS.P .Yong . 1980.Steppe si nChina . In: Y.Z. Wu (ed.).Vegetatio n of China. Academia

16 CHAPTER 2

Region Grassland Description Chapter I. Cool Temperate Tall Grasslands in the Northeast Region 3 II. Cool Temperate Tall Grasslands of Inner Mongolia 4 HI. Warm Temperate Tall Grassland Region of North China and the LoessPlatea u 5 IV. Mountain Meadows,Grasslands ,an d Alpine Vegetation in theTibeta n Plateau Region 6 V. Cool Temperate Steppe and Desert Vegetation in the Northwest 7 VI. The Desert Vegetation in the Northwestern Region 8 VII. Subtropical and Tropical Mountain and Hilly Grasslands in Central and South China 9

Figure 2.6.Grasslan d regions of China including chapter references.

Sink», Inst,o f Bot.Scienc ePress ,Beijing . (InChi - Li,S.Y . 1960.Th echaracteristic san dformation s ofth e nese) vegetation in relation to aridity of the northern T- n on v r,TT- TT TO joT^T slopes of the . Acta Bot. Sinica ' <;£; x3ong' u ; ; ^ ^? *i«i- a«chinese ) 1980.Th e geographical role of steppe of the v ' Sung-Liao Plain. Acta Bot. Sinica 22:270-299. (In Liu, T.N. 1934. The phytogeography of northwestern Chinese) China.Inst .Bot .Nat .Acad .2:423-451 .Peking .(I n Chinese)

17 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Uu, T.N., T.W. Feng, and T.C. Chao. 1959. On some problems of the classification of the vegetation of China.Act a Bot. Sinica 8:87-105. (In Chinese) Ma,Y.C. ,an d C.W. Wen. 1956.A tentativ e schemeo f pedogeographical regions, p. 63-83. In: K.F. Lou (ed.).A Tentativ eSchem eo fth eNatura lRegion so f China.Scienc ePress ,Peking . (In Chinese) Ren,J.Z. ,Z.Z .Hu , X.D.Mou , and P.J. Zhang. 1980.A complex-ordinal system of grassland classification and itssignificanc e togenesis . Bull, of Grassl. Sei. 1:12-25.(I n Chinese) Thorp,J . 1936.Geograph y of theSoil so f China.Com ­ mercial Press,Shanghai .55 2pp . Ting, S. 1948. The Vegetation of Sinkiang. (Unpub­ lished) Walter, H.,E.O .Box ,an d W.Hilbig . 1983.Th edesert s of . p. 193-236. In: N.E. West (ed.). Temperate Deserts and Semi-deserts. Elsevier Sei. Publishing Co.,Amsterdam , Oxford, New York. Wang, C.W. 1961. The forests of China with a survey of grassland and desert vegetation. Maria Moors Cabot Found. Pub. No. 5. Harvard Univ., Cam­ bridge,Mass .31 3pp . Ward, F.K. 1936. A sketch of the vegetation and ge­ ography of Tibet, p. 133-160; 193-235. In: Proc. Linn.Sec .o f London, Session 148. Wu, C.C. 1981. Delineation of China's agricultural resources,p .27-39 .In: C.W .Pannel lan dC.L .Salte r (eds.). China Geographer No. 11: Agriculture. Westview Press,Boulder , Colorado.

18 Chapter 3

COOL TEMPERATE TALL GRASSLANDS IN THE NORTHEAST REGION

Thetal lgrassland so fChin aar epredominan t inth e gion 1o f Figures 2.4 and 3.1).Thi s region is approxi­ region east of the Great Khingan Mountain Range in mately 1,800 km in length. Monsoon rainfall ranges (Manchuria), inth eeaster n and south­ from 350-800m m and temperatureso f thisregio nvar y ern part of Inner Mongolia to the Loess Plateau in from cool temperate in the north towar m temperate in Shanxian dShaanx iprovinces ,an dencompas sa par to f thesouth .Th evegetatio n iscomplex ,includin g forests, Gansu to the northern comer of eastern Qinghai (Re­ trees,tal lgrasses , herbs,an d shrubs.

Figure3.1 .Coo ltemperat e tallgrassland so fnortheas tChina :A .Grassland smixe dwit hmountainou smeadow san dwoodlands ,B .Grassland s mixedwit h treesan dfarmlan d in the central plain, C.Salin e meadow grasslands mixed with shrubsan dtrees ,an dD . Meadow grasslandsi n the Three Plain. Numbered locations are as follows: 1) , 2) Anda, 3) , 4) , 5) Nenjiang, 6) Yilan, 7) Fuyuan, 8) , 9) Gongzhuling, 10) , 11) , 12) , 13) , 14) , 15) Lindong (Bairin), 16) Fuyu, 17), 18) , 19)Keshiketen g(Jingpeng) .

19 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

THE GREAT KHINGAN MOUNTAIN type exists throughout Inner Mongolia and the north­ DIVISION east,formin g azon eo nbot hside so fth eGrea t Khingan Range.I tals oi sfoun d inth enorther nmountainou sare a The cool, tall grasslands may be subdivided into of northern China (Yen Mountains), in southern Inner Northeastern andInne rMongolia nsubrogion swit h the Mongolia (), in the northeastern Mon­ Great Khingan Rangebetween , creating differences in golian People's Republic, around Lake Baikal, and in climate, soil,an d vegetation. The Khingan Mountains thefa r eastern parto f the USSR. include both the Great and ranges (Figure3.1) .Th e Great Khingan Range rises in north­ Therear eman ydifference s invegetatio n between , between the Mongolian Plateau and the the eastern and western sides of the Great Khingan Central Northeast Plain. These mountains have peaks Range- eleve n associations ofFilifolium grassland are of 2,000m ,bu tth egenera lelevatio n is 1,000-1,500m , recognized. Three of these associations (Filifolium + lowerwher eth erange smerg ewit h theYe n Mountains herbs,Filifolium +Stipa baicalensis +herbs ,an d Fili­ in the south. The Khingan Mountains form a transi­ folium + + herbs) are found on both sides of tional zone from forest-grassland in the east to grass­ the Great Khingan Range. There are five associations land and steppe inth e west. [Filifolium +Lespedeza spp. (L. hedysaroides and L. daurica), Filifolium + Prunus sibirica, Filifolium + Viewed from the west, the Great Khingan Range sibiricus, Filifolium + Arundinella (A. consists of a series of high round hillso f 250m eleva­ hirta, A. anomala), and Filifolium + Cleistogenes tion in most districts. On theeastern slopes, however, squamosa], however, which are found only on the the relief is over 1,000 m with deep valleys. The to­ eastern side of the Great Khingan Range. The other pography contributes to the continental climate in three associations (Filifolium + Leymus chinense, on the Mongolian Plateau in the west, and Filifolium +Stipa, andFilifolium +herbs ) appear only toth e monsoon climate at in the east (Figure on thewester n side of the Khingan Range. 3.2).

meters 1000 750 500 •250 -0 Manzhouli Khingan Qiqihar Harbin Shihtowhotze Suifenhe

Figure 3.2. Profile across the northeast along the railway from Manzhouli in the west to Suifenhe in the east, showing the relation of the Mongolian Plateau and the Great Khingan Range to the Norheast Plain. (Adapted from G.B. Cresssey, 1934; reproduced with permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.)

The Lesser Khingan Range consists of a series of Theassociation so nth eeastern sid eo fth eKhinga n hills,generall yles stha n 1,000 melevation .I tlie salon g Rangear emor ecomplex ,hav emor especies ,an d have the south of the ( River), which warm speciesa sdominates .The y form different synu- flows to the southeast. Both the Great and Lesser sia (canopy layers), including: Khingan rangeswer e formerly heavily forested. 1. Arundinella hirta andSpodiopogon sibiricus, 2. Lespedeza daurica and Lespedeza hedysaroides Vegetation Differences var. subsericea,an d 3. Prunus sibirica, Lespedeza bicolor, Spiraea seri- Theclimat edifference s causedb yth eGrea t Khin­ cea and Oxytropis Davidi. gan Range result in several significant vegetative dif­ ferences on the twoside s of the mountains (Table 3.1) Thesespecies ar eabsen t onth ewester nside ,how ­ (, 1980;Li , 1980). ever, where Carexpediformis is an important element mixing with Filifolium and herbs, and Filifolium + The Filifolium sibiricum + Tanacetum sibiricum Stipabaicalensis +herbs .Carex pediformis dominates association is a specific mixed herbaceous type of onth ewester nsid ebu ti sreplace db yCarex lanceolata grassland which is found at theeaster n end of on theeaster n side. the Eurasia grassland region. This specific grassland

20 CHAPTER 3

Table 3.1.Compariso n of temperature and precipitation between thewester n andeaster n sideso f the northern andsouther n Great Khingan Range.(Adapte d from T.Y. Chn, 1980 andCT . Li, 1980)

Forest grassland(i n the north) Grassland (in thesouth )

Yakeshi Zalantun Xilinhot Tongliao (West flank (East flank (West side (East side of Khingan) of Khingan) Difference of Khingan) of Khingan) Difference

Annual Rainfall (mm) 421.0 513.0 92.0 346.0 440.0 94.0

Temperature (ann.avg . °C) -3.1 2.5 5.6 2.1 6.3 4.2

January -28.0 -18.2 9.8 -19.0 -13.9 5.1

July 18.4 20.5 Zl 20.5 23.9 3.4

Annual sumo f temperatures 1767 2352 585 2141 3053 912 above 10°C

The xerophytic species, cristatum, James(1888 ,cit .b y Wang, 1961)mentione d that these Cleistogenes squarrosa, sphondylodes, Stipa vast undulating plainsstretche d before atravele r as far grandis, Stipa krylovii, Caragana microphylla, and as the eye could see and were covered with luxuriant frigida areth edominan t specieso nth ewest ­ grasses. Wildlife also abounded, particularly antelope ern side. Cleistogenes squarrosa ismainl y distributed (gazelle) which galloped acrosshi spath . Native Man- on the western side, but Caraganapolyphylla is more chu people traded antelope hides to China proper and frequently found on theeaster n side. toJapa n for silk (Simpich, 1929). Broadleaf forests grow on the eastern side of the Since that time, however, the Qing government Khingan Mountains. The main species are Quercus encouraged farmers of Han nationality to cultivate the mongolica and shrubs of Corylus heterophylla, Les- northeastern region as a measure to resist Russian ag­ pedeza bicolor, Prunus sibirica, Prunus humilis, and gression and to preserve national integrity. Due to Ulmusmacrocarpa. On thewester n side, the treespe ­ floods anddrought s innorther n Chinaan dbette rtrans ­ cies are primarily and Populus portation facilities provided by the completion of the davidianawit h shrubs of theSalix spp. Russian-built railway to thenortheas t and Vladivostok in 1898,an dth ebranc h from Harbin toth esouther n tip In the Anda area of the eastern side of the Great of the , several hundred thousand KhinganRange ,th especie sinclud eMongolian ,Dahur - farmers migrated yearly to the northeast to farm. By ian, Manchurian and north Chinese floras, with per­ 1915,muc ho f thegoo d land inth esouther n parto f the centages of 15.2, 14.5, 12.7, and 4.1,respectively , in northeastern region was taken and people moved far­ addition to cosmopolitan and Eurasian common spe­ ther north,reachin g thesouther n and eastern border of cies.Yunato v (1950) stated that theeaster n end of the presentInne rMongoli a insearc ho ffertil eland .B yth e is at the western side of the Great 1920's, most of thecentra l plain was cultivated except Khingan Range. In addition, Mongolian species are for the mountains, hills, saline soil areas, and sandy only a minor part of the total, and the species of the dunes,whic h were unfavorable for crop production. Anda areaar emostl y mesophytes.Fo rthes ereasons ,i t ispreferabl e todivid eth ecoo ltemperat etal lgrassland s General Physical and Climatological Conditions intotw oparts , theNortheas t and Inner Mongolia. Environmental conditions vary greatly from the east to the west and from the south to the north. The HISTORICAL AND CURRENT CONDITIONS topographyo fth enortheas tresemble sa winnowin gfa n inwhic h the narrow mouth is in thesouth .Thre e sides Only a little more than a hundred years ago, the are bordered by mountains, with the northeastern region of China was a tallgrassland . The andth eChangba iRang et oth eeast ,th eLesse rKhinga n Emperorso f the Qingdynast y (1644-1911A.D. ) were Range to the north, the Great Khingan Range to the natives of the region and believed the land was too west,an d Nuluerhu Mountain toth e southwest. sacred for farming. West of the region was the home­ land of Mongolian nomads, known for their famous The northeast region, near Mongolia and Siberia, breed of horses.Durin gth emiddl eo fth e 19thcentury , is greatly influenced by high pressure systems which

21 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

create low temperatures during the five-month winter General Vegetative Characteristics season causing temperatures to drop below -13°C, while summer temperatures average 23°C. Rainfall The flora of the northeast has been extensively ranges from 450 mm in the west to 1,000 mm in the studied for almost 90 years due to its richness of land east,dependin g on thedistanc e from thesea . and plant species, theconvenienc e of communication, andth ehabitabl eclimate .Vegetativ eclassificatio n has The eastern and northern parts of the northeast, beenconducte d for onlya fe w decades,but good prog­ where the altitude ranges from 500 to 1500 m (the ress has been made (Liu, 1934; Kuchler and Take- summit of the Changbai Range is 2,744 m), are more nouchi, 1948;Gordeev , 1957;Chie n et al., 1956;Hou , complex.Averag e annual temperatures areabov e0°C , 1960; Kitagawa, 1979; Li et al., 1980; Chu and Li, rising to 6°C in the south. Average January tempera­ 1964).Th e flora of thenortheas t includesNort h China tures range from -13 to -17°C although the absolute elements, and Mongolian, Manchurian, and Dahurian minimum temperature may be -40°C or lower during specieswhic h createa complexity of vegetative types. the five-month winter season. Summer temperatures This classification, however, deals only with grass­ average 22 to 24°C with a growing season of 120-150 lands, grazing lands,an d forage related to agricultural days. Precipitation typically is 450-1,000 mm and de­ production and theanima l industry. creases from the south to the north, with most of the rainfall occurring in the summer season. Grassland Classifications Thecoo ltemperat e tallgrassland so f the northeast Soil Types mayb edivide dint ofou rcategorie s(a sshow ni nFigur e 3.1): Various types of soil are found in the northeast 1. Grasslandsmixe dwit hmountainou smeadow san d region (Figure2.3) .Th efores t podzolicsoi li sfoun d on woodlands, mountainso f theGrea t and LesserKhinga n rangesan d 2. Grasslands mixed with trees and farmland in the the on higher elevations with central plain, deciduous broadleaf forests or mixed with coniferous 3. Saline meadow grasslands mixed with shrubs and forests. Sod podzolic soil is distributed between 500 trees, and and 800 m. Alpine meadow soil is limited to areas above 2,000 mo n the Changbai Mountains and above 4. Meadow grasslands inth eThre eRiver s Plain. 1400 m in the northern regions of the Great Khingan Range where grasses, herbs, and shrubs are the domi­ nant species. Brown forest soil is found mostly on the GRASSLANDS MIXED WITH southern part of the Changbai Mountains and moun­ MOUNTAINOUS MEADOWS AND tainousarea so fsouthwester n ,wher eth eveg ­ WOODLANDS etation is dominated by deciduous forest. Chernozem This type of grassland exists from the mountains is widely distributed in the northern half of the north­ and hillso f thenortheaster n region toth ecentra l plain. eastern region with two sections: the leached cherno­ Higher precipitation (800 mm in the east and 450 mm zem in theeas t and thecarbonate-salin e chernozem in in the west), resulting from the topography, promotes thewest . Salinesoi l ismostl y scattered on lowlands in the vigorous growth of trees and grass and an abun­ the plains of the Songhua- and the Xi-Liao danceo f herbs.Th eheigh t of grasses and herbs ranges River. Brown soil is found in the southern part of the from 60 to8 0 cm. region. On the northern part of the Great Khingan Range Crops and Natural Resources is a cool temperate coniferous forest with Larix gmeliniia sth edominan tspecies .Fro m thisare atowar d The main agricultural crops traditionally are soy­ the eastern mountains (the Lesser Khingan Range), beans, sorghum, and millet. During recent decades, Quercusmongolica dominate s and isrepresentativ e of spring wheat and corn have predominated, and rice is the summer green, broadleaf forest which connects nowcultivate d inth eeaster n parto nlowlan dareas .Th e with the Changbai broadleaf forest. farming system consists of one harvest per year. Alarg eare ao ftal lgrasslan dexist si nthes eforests , Mountains of the area produce extensive forests particularly whereth eforest s werelogged , forming an and are rich in coal deposits, while the plains have a open forest meadow and grassland, and widely dis­ high agricultural productivity. In the north, the Song- tributed grazing land of shrubs, herbs, and grasses. hua (Soongaria) River flows east joining the Heilong Quercusmongolica i sth edominan tspecies ,wit h some (Amur)an d isseparate d bylo w hills(200-30 0m) . The Betula platyphylla and Betula dahurica. The under- flows south intoth ese a (-hai). story is composed of the Corylus heterophylla

22 CHAPTER 3

and thirty five species of herbs and grasses.Deyeuxia 1,000 m, the dominant association changes to Fili­ angustifolia is the dominant grass species. There are folium sibiricum +Festuca spp. several kinds of associations: open woodland mixed with grasses and herbs, herbaceous meadows, Central Great Khingan Range Area Deyeuxia + herbs, and Stipa + herbs. The valuable Anexampl eo fmountai ngrasslan d iso nth eto po f forages of thisare a include: theGrea tKhinga nRang ebetwee n47°30'-49 o30'Nan d Grasses Legumes 120°30'-122o30'Ewher eth eManzhouli-Suifenh e rail­ avinoides Hedysarum alpinum way passesfro m theeas t toth enorthwes t (Figure3.2) . alba Lathyrus komarovii This is a transitional zone from the northeast to the Deyeuxia angustifolia Lespedeza bicolor Mongolian Plateau with elevations of 1,000-1,700 m. Lespedeza The climate is severely cold with an annual mean schellianum quinquenervius temperatureo f -3°Can dmea ntemperature s inJanuar y Poa pratensis Trifolium lupinaster and July of -20 and 17°C, respectively. An absolute Spodiopogon Sibiriens Vicia cracca minimum temperature of -50°C at Mianduhe was re­ sibiricum Vicia unijuga corded in January of 1922.Th e severely cold climate aswel l asmor e than 60specie so f valuable herbs. limits the growing season to only 90-110 days. The annual rainfall is 400-500m m and decreases from the In these areas,th e grasses and herbsgro w 70-100 east to the west. Soils are mostly podzolic with acidic cm and are used as hay crops and grazing land where reaction (Cheoe t al., 1980). established livestock farms exist. The annual produc­ tivity isapproximatel y 2,000-3,500 kgo f hay/ha. Thespecies o f thenatura lforest s aremainl y Larix gmelinii,Betula platyphylla, andPopulus tremula var. Northeast Great Khingan Range Area davidiana.Mos tforest shav ebee ndisturbe db yloggin g On the eastern side of the Great Khingan Range, and fire, resulting inwidel y distributed secondary suc­ the grassland is mixed with some forest species and cessions of shrub grassland, meadow grassland, and meadowsi nth ewette rpar to fth esub-region ,bu to nth e swampy vegetation. sunny slopes grassland is the predominant vegetation. Shrub Grassland On some sites, Leymus chinense has formed a pure association. Other associations areLeymus +Agropy- The shrub grassland community is simple and ron, and Leymus + Stipa. On the highland, Filifolium composed of approximately 20 species. It is found on sibiricum + , and Filifolium sunny slopes at500-1,00 0m .Herbaceou s plantscove r sibiricum + Cleistogenes squarrosa associations are 60% of the area with an average height of 40 cm, and present with some Prunus sibirica dispersed in the areth emajo rvegetatio ntyp eo nungraze dsunn yslopes , grasslands. Common plants of the area include: frequently found south of the railway. Annual hay Achnatherum sibiricum, Allium temiissimum, Artemi­ yields exceed 1,000 kg/ha. Shrub species include: sia gmelinii, Arundinella hirta, Lespedeza daurica, Armeniaca sibirica, Corylus heterophylh, Lespedeza Platycodongrandiflorus, chinensis, Saposh- bicolor,Rubus arcticus, and Spiraea sericea. Inaddi ­ nikovia divaricata, and Scilla thunbergii. tion,som etree so f Ubnusmacrocarpa occasionally are found. The following species are found on both sides of the Great Khingan Range: Astragalus adsurgens, Bu- Theperennia l grassesan d herbsar e mainly: pleurum spp., Carexpediformis, Clematis hexapetala, Arenaria juncea, Artemisia sacrorum, Atractylis Clinelymus dahuricus, Galium verum, Hemerocallis chinensis, Bupleurum scorzonerifolium, Calamagros- minor,Milium effusum,Paeonia lactiflora, Polygonum tiskmgsdorfii, Caret spp.(mai n dominants),Eriopho- divaricatum, Sanguisorba officinalis, Scabiosa tschi- rum spp.,Festuca spp.,Filifolium sibiricum, liensis, Trifolium lupinaster, Viciaunijuga, and Vicia cristata, Polygonum sibiricum, Silene repens, Thymus villosavar . baicalensis. About 20species of herbsan d serphyllum, and Tripogon chinensis. grasses and more than 10 species of shrubs also are present in this subregion. Meadow Grasslands On the foothills of the mountains, an association Themeado wgrassland shav ea riche rflor a thanth e ofFilifolium sibiricum +Lespedezaspp. isfoun d mixed shrub grasslands, up to 50-60 species which cover with Prunus sibirica on light chernozem soil,whil e in 50-90%o f the area.Specie s havea naverag e height of somesites,Lespedeza spp.ma yb edominant .A t60 0m , 30-50 cm and a maximum height of 100 cm, with the the grassland area includes many herbs which form tallerspecie sgrowin g at lower elevations.Annua l hay Filifolium sibiricum +her b grassland associations. At yield is approximately 2,000 kg/ha,doubl e that of the

23 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

shrub grasslands.Th edominan t species include:Arte­ Southern Great Khingan Range Mountain Area misiascoparia, Carexulobasis, Cleistogenes epigeios, Festuca sulcata, Scabiosa comosa, Stellera chamae- Thisare a isfoun d on theeaster n sideo f thesouth - jasme, and Vicia baicalensis. The shrubs Lespedeza em part of theGrea t Khingan Rangewher e it connects bicolor andSpiraea spp.ar eals o found. withth eYe n Mountainsan d hillsi nth eJuu d districto f Inner Mongolia (Figure 3.1). The climate is cool and Wet Meadow dry because of the influence of the arid cold air mass from Mongolia and the lower elevation (1000 m). The The meadow is an azonal distribution. It is found components of vegetation in this area are more com­ at350-1,10 0m o rhighe ro nsite swit hgentl eslope san d plex, containing elements of floras of North China, good drainage. Soils are typically chernozems with Mongolia, and Dahuria. goodfertility .Th enumbe ro fspecie si nth ecommunit y mayreac h60 .Plan t coveri s8 5t o95 %wit ha heigh to f Formerly this area was a productive forest grass­ 30-120cm ,consistin go f2- 3layer so fstructure .Annua l land and tall grassland. It had been a natural preserve hay yield is2,00 0 kg/ha. for the emperors of the for hunting, but Bunch grasses, rhizomatous sod grasses, and since thefal l ofthat dynasty the forests and grasslands Carexar edominan tincludin gman yherb swit hbrillian t have been destroyed (Figures 3.3 and 3.4). Before . Shrubs include Spiraea salicifolia, Spiraea deforestation Quercus mongolica, Quercus liaotung- sericea, and Salix rosmarinifolia distributed only on ensis,an dothe rtre especie swer epresent .Tw ocitie si n lowland areas. The dominant species are Carex and the area were established by Han nationality farmers Calamagrostis angustifolia. The frequent species of and named Lin-Dong (east of the forest) and Lin-Xi herbs include:Artemisia japonica, Chamaenerionan- (west of the forest).Yaroshenk o (1958) stated that the gustifolium, Cimicifuga palmata, Clematis fusca var. area was a rich shrub-prairie. When the senior author violacea,Dianthus versicolor,Equisetum patens, Fili- (Hu) traveled in the area in 1953,however , there were pendula palmata, ruthenica, Lilium dauricum, no forests on the mountains and hills, only grasses, Lychnisfulgens, Polygonum divaricatum,Rumex gme- herbs,an d shrubswit h poor growth. linii,Scabiosa comosa, Sanguisorba officinalis, Trifo­ Denudedo fforests ,th eare abecam emor earid .Fo r liumspp. ,an d Trollius ledbourii. instance, the rainfall of Chifeng, and Wudan is now Swamp Meadows about 370 mm. This changed the vegetation to grass­ land, with some botanists placing the vegetation into Swampy meadows are found along river banks in the Mongolian category of steppe. When the forests valleys,th eperipher y ofswamps ,an di nlowland swit h weredestroyed ,shrub ssuc h asPopulus davidiana and poor drainage or seasonal flooding. In these meadows Oxytropisdavidiana develope d on thenorther nslopes . arefoun d 30o rmor eherbaceou sspecie san dsom etree s In areaswher e noshrub sdeveloped , grasses and herbs of Larix gmelinii and Betula platyphylla. Swampy formed grasslands. On the sunny slopes, Ulmus meadows are used for seasonal grazing and hay with macrocarpa or FHi folium and grasses grew to form annualha y yields lesstha n 1,000 kg/ha. grasslands with trees and shrubs. On the lower eleva­ tions,Cleistogenes squarrosa predominated, whileAr­ Shrubspecies are : Betulafruticosa, Ledum palus­ temisiagmelinii appeared as thedominan t species and tre,Rhododendron parvifolium, and Salix spp.Heme- formed variousassociation s infoothil l areas. rocallis minor and Carex schmidtii are the dominant species of the community. Species frequently found Grasslands in the area generally may be divided include:Bidens tripartita, Bolboschoenus compactas, into mountain meadow grassland, mountain forest Equisetum sylvaticum, Lilium spp.,Lythrum salicaria, grassland, mountain shrub grassland, hilly grassland, Polygonum sieboldi, Ranunculus chinensis, Sangui­ and lowland grassland (Hu, 1956;Ma , 1980). sorbaofficinalis, and Trollius ledbourii. Mountain Meadow and Mountain Forest Grassland Swampyvegetatio n isscattere d inlimite darea so n thevalle y floor and flooded lowlands. This vegetation Themountai n meadow grassland region islocate d is also used for hay. The dominant species include: on the top of mountains in a limited area. Species are Calamagrostis angustifolia, Calamagrostis langsdor- 60% herbs while important forage species include fii, Carex schmidtii, and Calamagrostis meyeriana. Calamagrostis epigeios, Spodiopogon sibiricus, and Frequent species include Eriophorum latifolium, Clinelymus dahuricus. Equisetum heleocharis, Menyanthes trifoliata, and ten Mountain Forest Grassland other species.Betulafruticosa, Salix brachypoda, and Chamaedaphnecalyculata shrubsals oar efoun d in the The mountain forest grassland is found at 1,000- swamp meadow areas. 1,900 m. The annual mean temperature ranges from

24 CHAPTER 3

Figure 33. Natural grassland production in the Weichang area of northern Province. (Photocourtes y of Dillard H. Gates, 1981)

Figure 3.4. Natural grassland with a flock of sheep in the Weichang area of northern Hebei Province. (Photo courtesy of Dillard H. Gates, 1981)

1-5°C with annual rainfall of 400-500 mm. Tree spe- cristatum, Artemisia sacrorum, Cleistogenes squar- ciesar emainl yQuercus mongolica, Betulaplatyphylla, rosa,Leymus chinoise, andStipa bungeana. Populusdavidiana, an dsom ePinus andPicea species. Annualha yyiel do fforag especie si s1,000-1,50 0kg/h a Mountain Shrub Grassland with30 %grasses .Majo rforag especies are: Agropyron Themountai n shrubgrasslan d islocate dbelo w the mountain forest grassland. The major shrub species

25 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

include: Campylotropis macrocarpa, Corylus davidi- megastachys, Medicago ruthenica, and Se- ana, Corylus heterophylla, Indigofera spp., Spiraea taria hitescens. spp.,an d Prunus sibirica. Lesser Khingan Range Mountain Area Grass and herb species are similar to those found Tung et al. (1980) stated that 340,000 hectares of in thefores t grassland. mountain forest meadow and grassland are under-uti­ Hilly Grassland lized in the northern Lesser Khingan Range mountain areao fHeilongjian g Province(Figur e3.1) .Fou rvege ­ Thehill ygrassland s includearea sbelo w theshru b tation typesca n bedescribe d in this area. grassland at 500-700m wit h an annual mean tempera­ tureo f5-6°Can d40 0m mo fannua lrainfall . Vegetation Parkland (Woodland)Mixed withShrubs and coversabou t50 %o f thearea ,o fwhic hvaluabl e forage Meadows species include: Thisvegetatio n type existswidel y in the northern Grasses Legumes and Herbs LesserKhinga nRange .I twa sforme dafte rforest s were Agropyron crislatum Artemisia arenaria removed, but it is not a climax vegetation. Parkland is Cleistogenes squarrosa found on the periphery of the forest and provides an Leymus chinense Artemisia sacrorum excellent grazingan d hay resource.I nth efirs t layero f Stipa baicalensis Filifolium sibiricum the synusia are trees of Quercus mongolica, Betula Stipa bungeana Lespedeza floribunda platyphylla, and Betula dahurica. The shrub layer in­ Medicago ruthenica cludesmostl yCorylus heterophylla. Ther ear eabou t3 5 Thymus serphyllum species of grasses and herbs in the third layer without Vicia amoena distinguishable dominants. Thecommo n and valuable Vicia cracca forages are Deyeuxia angustifolia, Carex spp., Tri­ folium lupinaster,Lespedeza spp.,an d Viciaspp . Theannua l yield of hay is 1,500-2,000kg/h awit h 40-60% grass and legumespecies . Herbaceous Meadows Lowland Grassland The local name of this vegetation type is "five- meadow", which means that brilliant colors of The grasslands of valleys, lowlands, and sand species appear throughout the seasons. This type of dunes are limited to certain areas. Important forage meadowgrasslan d includesalmos t6 0specie so fmeso - species include: phyticherb san dgrasse swhic h canb euse d for grazing Grasses Legumes and Herbs and hay crops. The common plants with good forage Artemisia frigida value include: Achnatherum splendens Artemisia halodendron Grasses Legumes Arundinella hirta Artemisia sacrorum Achnatherum avinoides Lathyrus komarovii Cleistogenes epigeios Caragana microphylla Agrostis alba Lathyrus quinquenervius brevisubulatum Carex spp. Deyeuxia angustifolia Vicia cracca Leymus chinense Helictotrichon schellianumVicia unijuga Phragmites communis Poa pratensis Poa spp. Trisetum sibiricum Stipa bungeana Deyeuxia angustifolia +Herb Meadow Grassland The annual yield of hay is 3700-6700 kg/ha mak­ More than 30 species of mesophytes and hy­ ing thisare a good for grazing and hay production. drophytes are found in this type of meadow grassland Because the natural vegetation was disturbed by which appears by thestream s and on terraces. It is the logging, cultivation, overgrazing, fires, and collection mostimportan tha yan d grazinglan d area ofth eregio n of fuel, much of the grassland of thisare a has deterio­ with hay yieldsexceedin g 2,000 kg/ha. rated toa lo wproductivit y levelwit h annualha y yields Stipa baicalensisand Herbaceous Meadow of lesstha n 1,000 kg/ha.Durin g recent years improve­ Grassland ment projects including seeding of Astragalus adsur- gens, Caragana microphylla, Lespedeza spp., and This grassland type is located on undulating land Melilotusofficinalis haveha dgoo d results.Som e other with highly fertile chernozem soil.Mos t of the species valuable forage plants found in thisare a include:Arte­ aregoo d forages. Common species include: misia spp., Calamagrostis epigeios, Diplachne squar­ Grasses Legumes and Herbs rosa, Echinochloa crusgalli, arenarius, Calamagrostis epigeios Filifolium sibiricum

26 CHAPTER 3

Cleistogenes squarrosa Geranium dahuricum Festuca (9 spp.) Melilotus (3 spp.) Deyeuxia angustifolia Lathyrus spp. aquatica Phaseolus (2 spp.) Leymus chinense Lespedeza dahurica Hordeum (2 spp.) Trifolium lupinaster Poa pratensis Lespedeza hedysaroides (3 spp.) Vicia (10 spp.) tenuiflora Saussurea spp. Poa (21 spp.) Vicia cracca Roegneria (8 spp.) Vicia unijuga Thealpin emeado w islocate d at2,000-7,00 0 mi n Changbai Mountain Range Area the Changbai Mountains. The plants are mainly heibs and grasses mixed with some shrubs of Juniperus The eastern part of the mountain forest-meadow sibirica, Rhododendron spp. and others (Figures 3.5, grassland iso n the Changbai Range,e.g . eastern parts 3.6,3.7, and 3.8). of Kirin and Liaoning provinces (Figure 3.1). The climatic conditions in this area are more favorable for plant growth than those of the Great Khingan Range, GRASSLANDS MIXED WITH FARMLAND with greater precipitation and warmer temperatures. AND TREES IN THE CENTRAL PLAIN Thegrassland sar efoun d betweenforest san do nslopes . Mosto fth egrasslan d inthi sare ai scultivate dwit h Yangan dCh u(1980 )an dKa o(1980 )reporte dtha t a few trees, mainly Ulmuspumila, andSalix spp.Cli ­ this type of grassland covered more than 1.3 million matic conditions are drier and warmer than in the hectares in Kirin Province alone, though it was in­ mountains: annual rainfall is from 450-600 mm with adequately utilized.Grasse san d herbsgro w toa heigh t mean temperatures of -5t o-26° Ci nJanuar y and 19t o of 1 man d produce anannua l hay yield of 3,000-4,500 25°C in July (Table 3.2). The growing season is 120 kg/ha. days in thenort h and 150day s in the south. Theare a hasa ric hassortmen t ofluxurian t grasses Theprimar ysoi ltyp ei schernoze m inth enort han d and legumes (Kitagawa, 1979) including: brown soil in the south. There is still a large area of Grasses Legumes nativegrasslan d in thenort h despiteth e predominance (5 spp.) Astralagus (21 spp.) of farmland. A few Chinese botanists have classified (4 spp.) Glycine (2 spp.) this type of grassland as meadow or steppe (Chien et Calamagrostis (13 spp.) Lathyrus (8 spp.) al., 1956; Hou, 1960; Li, 1980). This classification is Deyeuxia angustifolia Lespedeza (9 spp.) incorrect,however ,bot h interminolog y and classifica­ Elymus (5 spp.) Medicago (4 spp.) tion of vegetation. It is not a meadow because the soil

Afr 1**-*«t\

Figure 3.5. At the fool of Changbai Mountain at 200-500 m. Quercus mongolien forest is found on sonny slopes and meadows of lowland areas. (Reproduced from H.Y. Hou, 1983, with permission from Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden)

27 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

_.,*'•* '"SiHHf' r**^f*^. . ^**J*W^* -

wSr*l98«A1Pi"e me,ldOW °n ,te S00tl'en, SlOPe °f 'he Chi,I,gbai MounUills- Photo background is the Hmberline.(Phot ocourtes y of Y.

isno tsaturate d orwet ,an di ti snot a stepp ebecaus eth e Central Plain, should be distinguished from steppe climatei sno ta sdr yan dth evegetatio ni squit edifferen t Therear esevera l main characteristics of this region- from that in Mongolia. 1. In the northwestern part of the Central Plain, the Li(1980 ) and Chu (1980) suggested that this type dominantspecies ar emesoxerophyticrhizomatou s ofgrassland ,particularl y inth enorthwester n parto fth e grasses. Leymus chinense is dominant in many

/. 4££tafcft Figure3.7 .Cushio nvegetatio n onth eto po fth eChangba iMountains ,includin gVaeeinium, lichen ,an dmosses .(Phot ocourtes yo fY . Wang,

28 CHAPTER 3

Figur«3.8 .Tundr a vegetation at the topo fth eChangba i Mountains. Plantsar e mostly prostrate types,includin g Cloralia spp. andwhit e puff balls. (Photo courtesy of Y. Wang, 1985)

associationsan di swidel ydistributed ,formin g the land, but not of steppe. In the Mongolian Plateau, basiclandscap e of the area. 75% of the species are xerophytic species which The bunchgrass, Stipa baicalensis, is a dominant appear in theStipa grandis grassland. in this grassland. Filifolium sibiricum also is a 5. There are several species of trees in the Central dominant as Filifolium + herbs. Both are quite Plain, particularly Ulmuspumila, Ulmus propin- different from Mongolianxerophyti cgrasses ,suc h qua,an d Ulmusmacrocarpa, a swel la sth ePrunus as Stipa grandis, which is a dominant in other sibiricashrubs .Therefore ,som ebotanists ,suc ha s grasslands and especially instepp eareas . Gordeev (1957) named theplai n Ulmusgrasslan d There are 890 species of vascular plants in the or Ulmus tree grassland. In thecentra l part of the Central Plain which belong to Mongolian flora, plain, Quercus mongolica is seen on hills, as in Khingan (Dahurica) flora, and North China flora Chien-an County. Thisspecie s does not appear in (Li, 1980). There is no characteristic or theMongolia n steppe. specieso fplants ,bu tther ear eman yspecies i nthi s 6. Annual yield of nay per hectare in this area is plain similar to woodlands, such as: Arundinella 1,500-2,500 kg/ha. Grasses andArtemisia are the hirta, Hemerocallis minor, sacchari- main components of thisyiel d where rhizomatous florus, Polygonatum humile, Sanguisorba offi­ grassesar eabsolutel y dominant, representing less cinalis, Spodiopogon sibiricus, and Syneilesis than 40% of the species; Compositae constitute aconitifolia. In addition, Arundinella hirta may greater than 10%o f thespecies , and legumes less have been a dominant species in a Stipa associa­ than 10%o f thespecies . tion.Ver y few ofthes especie sappea r inth eMon ­ golian Plateau. This subregion is located primarily in the area of the Songhua-Nen River, which is a flat alluvial plain 4. Ona n ecological basis, the xerophytic grasses are with elevations of 100-150 m. Generally, the geo­ not widely distributed in the Central Plain. The xerophytic shrubs,suc h as Caraganamicrophylla graphicalboundarie s are42 °30'-48 °N an d 122°-127° and Caragana stenophylla are rarely found there. E (Figure 3.1). In its central part is a lowland forming The percentage of xerophytic species is less than a saline meadow grassland. This subregion also in­ that of the mesophytic species in the plain where cludesth ewester n parto fth eX iLia oRive r watershed. herbs such as Thalictrumsquarrosum, Astragalus This vast area is a level plain or basin with slight adsurgens, Oxytropismyriophylla, and many oth­ undulating dunes and gentle slopes which have been ers, are present. This is a characteristic of grass­ produced by erosion. There are many rivers, some

29 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Table 3.2.Th e temperature and precipitation of: selected places in the northeast. (Adapted from CT. Chu and CT. Li, 1964)

Altitude Temperature (*C) Precipitation

Place (m) Annual January July (mm)

North

Anla (Anda) 150 1.4 -22.2 23.6 457.0

Bokedu 690 1.2 -12.0 19.1 396.0

Fujin 60 0.7 -20.3 21.6 545.6

Harbin 145 1.5 -19.7 22.7 553.9

Mudanjiang 241 1.5 -18.8 21.7 565.9

Nenjiang 220 -2.7 -25.8 20.4 494.0

Qiqihar (Tsitsihar) 147 1.5 -19.6 22.6 451.0 Zalantun - 2.5 -18.0 20.5 513.0 Middle

Changchun 213 5.2 -17.0 23.7 683.3 Da-an - 3.6 -18.4 23.1 463.3 Gongzhuling 202 7.2 -15.6 25.2 627.4 Tao'an - 4.3 -16.4 23.6 444.5 South Chifeng - - - - 371.0 Dairen 15 10.0 -5.0 23.9 612.0

Dandong (Antung) 9 8.0 -9.6 23.9 1003.0

Shenyang 43 7.5 -12.7 25.2 675.6 having inner drainages forming saline soil.Th e lower Because of the variations of topography and soil, elevationan dth einfluenc eo fth ecol dSiberia nclimat e many scholars have given different names for this result in a mean January temperature range of -13 to grassland type such as: saline grassland (Gordeev, -16°C and a minimum temperature of -44°C (1915). 1957);we tgrasslan d (Rene tal. , 1980);meado wgrass ­ Mean July temperatures are 22 to 25°C with a maxi­ land (Chu and Ii, 1964); subregion of Mongolian mumo f 39°C.Precipitatio n is350-65 0 mm,wit h most steppe (Liu et al., 1959); and herbaceous meadow occurring in thesumme r months.Thus , high tempera­ grassland(Hou ,1960) .Kuchle ran dTakenouchi (1948 ) tures and abundant precipitation make a luxurious divided this subregion into two vegetation types, the growth of grasses, herbs, and trees. Soil in thisare a is medium height grasses with broadleaf deciduous trees a typical chernozem with the changes of topography scatteredsingl yo ri ngrove si nth enort han dsouth ,an d forming a meadow of leached chernozem, meadow theshor t grasses in thecentra l region. Each classifica­ soil,swamp y soil,an d salinesoil . tion indicatesonl y one typeo f grassland for each hab­ itat. From a utilization viewpoint, however, this area Accordingt oL ie tal .(1980) ,ther ear e61 0species can be classified asa tallgrassland , mixed with farm­ of spermatophytic plantsbelongin g to8 2 families and land and trees (Figure 3.9). This grassland may be 315 genera. The important families are dividedint otw odistricts ,th eSonghua-Ne n RiverPlai n (Gramineae) (64 species), Compositae (71 species), in the northan d thewester n XiLia o River Plain in the Fabaceae(Leguminosae ) (43species) ,an d Cyperaceae south. (83species ) making up 43% of thetota l species. Most of them are productive forages that form a rich grass­ Songhua-Nen River Plain land. TheSonghua-Ne n RiverPlai ni s 100-150m abov e sea level.I n thecentra l part of thissubregio n there are

30 CHAPTER 3

hundreds of lakes. Saline-tolerant species form a type phytes.Th elif e form spectrum reflects asemiari d tem­ ofsalin emeado w grassland, particularly inth eperiph ­ perate climate and indicates that theLeymus chinense eral belt along the lakes where soil pH values range grassland is a prairie. The area index (m /m ) of from 8.5-10. (Thesespecie s willb ediscusse d in more Leymus chinensedurin gth emiddl eo fAugus ti s0.8-1. 4 detail under the topico f saline meadow grassland.) to 2.0 on chestnut soil and chernozem soils, respec­ tively. Leymus chinense Grassland The mean yield of hay from 32sample so f a 1 m Leymus chinense is a highly productive perennial plot was 2264 kg/ha, of which Leymus chinense was grass with a weD developed rootstock that forms a 2016 kg/ha. The reproduction of Leymus chinense is compact mat. It forms a purestan d asgrasslan d or isa mainlyasexua ldu et osmal lsee dan dpoo rgermination . dominant species in many associations in this . It has a wide range of distribution in Eurasian grass­ Chu and Li (1964) investigated samples of this lands, including thenort h and northeastern portionso f grassland and reported 162specie si n 100m samples, the Outer Mongolian Baikal district, the Far Eastern with not more than 10specie s in 1m samples. Other area of , and the north and northern areas of frequent species include: Calamagrostis epigeios, China (Figure3.10) .Leymus chinensei snutritiou san d Carex duriuscula, virgata, Convolvulus am- istoleran to fcol d andtrampling .I ti sadapte d toa wid e manii,Polygonum sibiricum, Potentillaanserina, Puc- range of soils including chernozem and chestnut cinellia tenuiflora, Saussurea glomerata, and Vicia meadow soil, and does particularly well on slightly spp. salinesite swit h adequate soil water. Thisgrasslan d isth emai ntyp ei nth eSonghua-Ne n Plain and is used extensively for hay and grazing with Li et al. (1980) studied the ecology of Leymus high economic value. If overgrazed, the succession chinense. InAugus t the canopy structure is 20-40 cm. processi sfro m Leymus toChloris virgata.Unde r con­ Therati oo fbiomas sbetwee nunder -an d above-ground tinued overgrazing or other types of disturbance, the structures varies from 2:5 to 8:1 with a common ratio main species will be Puccinellia tenuiflora, followed of 5:2. The account for about 70% of the bySuaeda corniculata, Suaeda glauca, and then Arte­ underground biomass, forming a compact mat to pro­ misiaprio rt ocompletel ybarre nground .Ther ear e five tect from the invasion of other plants.Th espectru m of otherimportan t associations. life forms which make up the grassland is 1.6% nanophanerophytes, 5.0% chamaephytes, 58.3% Leymus chinense+Stipa bicalensis + Tanacetum hemicryptophytes, 29.7% geophytes, and 5.4% thero- sibiricum association. This association is distributed

Figure 3.9. A typical view of the Central Plain prairie mixed with elm (Ulmus pumila) trees. This is the upper terrace of a dried-up river bottom in the area of Qiqihar, Heilongjiang Province. (Photo by Dorsett & Dorset!, courtesy of USDA; reproduced from C.W. Wang, 1961)

31 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA nisyg

Figure 3.10.Leymus chinoise isa dominan t species in the cold temperate tall grassland of the Northeast and part of Eastern Inner Mongolia where theannua l rainfall is350-55 0 mm.(Reproduce d from H.Y Hou, 1983,wit h permission from Annalso f the Missouri Botanical Garden) on lower elevation table land, slopes, or on tops of Leymus chinense+ herb sassociation .Thi sasso ­ dunesan dfoothill swher ether ei sgoo ddrainage .Do m- ciation is found on both sodic meadow and on marshy inant and characteristic species are mostly meadowsoils ,whic hcontai nsmal lamount so fsal twit h mesoxerophytes, with bunchgrasses forming a large good fertility. Plants are mostly mesophytic with the proportion of the association. The important compo­ dominant speciesbein grootstoc kgrasse san ddicotyle ­ nent speciesare : donousherbs .Ther ema yb ea sman y as2 0species in1 2 Grasses Legumes and Herbs m samples. The frequently observed species include: Calamagrostis epigeios Anemarrhena Grasses and Legumes Herbs Calamagrostis chinensis asphodeloides Arundinella hirta Artemisia lactiflora Cleistogenes squarrosa Artemisia japonica Calamagrostis epigeios Artemisia integrifolia Festuca mongolica Aster altaicus Phragmites communis Galium verum Koeleria cristata Astragalus tenuis Lathyrus quinquenervius Hemerocallis minor Stipa baicalensis Lespedeza spp. Inula linearifolia Lespedeza dahurica Potentilla anserina Pulsatilla turczaninovii Potentilla flagellaris Rhaponticum uniflorum Sanguisorba tenuifolia Scabiosa comosa Scutellaria baicalensis In this association, Leymus chinense is always Serratula coronata var. replaced by Calamagrostis andArundinella, but when manshurica saltconcentration sar eincreased ,Leymus increasesan d Thymus serphyllum herbsdecrease . This is not a climax association. When the domi­ Stipa spp. association. This association is com­ nantspecie so fStipa o rTanacetum deteriorate ,th eare a monly named needlegrass grassland. It appears on the is often plowed. In the first 1-2 years, herbs grow and sunny, gentle slopes of lower hills with chestnut soil. gradually decrease,an drootstoc kgrasses increase ,e.g . Bycompariso n toth eLeymus grassland, this grassland Tanacetum followed by Leymus chinense and Calam­ favors adrie rsit e and grows luxuriously with a cover­ agrostis epigeios. A totalo f 20 years isneede d for the age of more than 60% and 20 species per m . The succession. In some cases, if theLeymus has deterio­ frequent species are similar to the Leymus grassland. rated, it may be plowed and will produce a regrowth Someothe rspecies include: hay yield of 1,500-2,000kg/ha . Legumes and Grasses Herbs Astralagus spp. Adenophora spp. Cleistogenes chinensis Artemisia spp.

32 CHAPTER 3

Glycyrrhiza uralensis Bupleurum stand grasslands, (Figures 3.11 and 3.12) including: Lespedeza dahurica scorzonerifolium Arundinella hirta,Calamagrostis epigeios, Care *spp. , Leymus chinense Platycodon grandiflorus Leymus chinense, Phragmites communis, Suaeda Potentilla chinensis glauca, and Tanacetum sibiricum. Saussurea spp. Since the first part of the century, particularly The coverage of this grassland averages 60-70%. during theearl y 1920's, dairy farming was introduced Needlegrasses start togro w in early spring and do not into the Songhua-Nen River Plain area along with the lodge during the summer, providing a good winter railway. Grassland utilization and improvement was grazing land. gradually putint opractice .Durin gth elas ttw odecade s scientific studies of the grasslands have increased, in­ Tanacetum sibiricum association. This associa­ cludingth eus eo ffir et obur nol dstalk san ddea dleave s tion is commonly called the Tanacetum grassland. of forage plantst ostimulat ene wgrowth ,an d thestud y Tanacetum is a perennial of the Compositae family. It of productivity and dynamics of the grassland. is a mesoxerophytic species which spreads on sunny slopeso flowe rhills .Plant sgro w8 0c mwit h2 0species Xi Liao River District perm .Coverag eo fthi sassociatio naverage s70% .Th e Themeado w grasslands of theX iLia oRive r Dis­ common plants in this association are: Arundinella trict are distributed on the lowland at the center of the hirta, Cleistogenes squarrosa, Clematis hexapetala, West Liao River District where several rivers merge, Leontopodium leontopodioides, Lespedeza hedysaroi- including the Xar Manor, the Laoha, the Xin Kai, and des var.subsericea, and Polygala tenuifolia. theJiaola irivers. Thes erivers for m afla t alluvialplai n Ulmuspurnila parkland association. Thisgrass ­ madeb y seasonal floods. Near the plain arelo w sandy land spreads on the left side of the Nen (Nun) River duneareas .Th emea n temperatureso fJanuar yan dJul y whereth elan d isundulate d with sandydunes ,an d also are -13an d 23°C,respectively . Annual rainfall is350 - spreads on sandy dunes along the West-Liao River. 500m mwit h a 140-150da ygrowin gseason .Th e flora Historically, thesespecies gro w luxuriously inth eare a consistso fNort hChinese ,Mongolian ,an d Manchurian but,disturbe db yhuma nactivities ,ar eonl yscattere d in elements. Soils are mostly saline and alkaline. This some places between sandy dunes. The main species meadow grassland iso f threetypes ,th esand y land and include: Cerasus humilis, Cleistogenes spp., Prunus dunes, semi-stable dunes,an d valleysan d plains. sibirica,an dStipa baicalensis. SandyLand andDune Meadow Grassland Other associations include: Thymus serphyllum, Thisgrasslan d isdistribute d inth enort han dsout h Phragmites communis, and others forming different of the West Liao and Xar Manor rivers in a large area kinds of grasslands. All of these associations are suit­ (Figure3.13) .Th e important species include: able for grazing livestock. Grasses Legumes and Herbs Therear etw otype so fmeadow swhic h are impor­ *Agropyron cristatum Artemisia frigida tant for hay production and good for grazing. Agrostis clavata Carex spp. *Agrostis halodendron "Caragana microphylla The Calamagrostis epigeios meadow. This Arundinella hirta Polgonum spp. meadow spreads on lower lands along rivers and be­ spp. Salix caspica tween sandy dunes. The sub-dominant species are *Cleistogenes squarrosa Salix florida mainly Leymus spp. and Arundinella spp. Frequent Clinelymus dahuricus Sanguisorba spp. species include:Artemisia laciniata, Carex spp.,Hie- compressa rochloe odorata, Potentilla spp., Plantago asiatica, var. fascicular and Sanguisorba spp. The growth of these species Leymus chinense averages 40-100 cm. *Phragmites communis Puccinellia disions ThePuccinellia tenuiflorameadow. Thi s meadow spreadso nth eperipher yo fsal tpond san do nsom esalt y *Dominant species incommunities . Many herbaceous soil types. The frequent species are chiefly Hordeum speciesar e found. brevisubulatum, Artemisia anethifolia, and Poly- gonatum odoratum. The height of these plants ranges Semi-stable Dunes Meadow Grassland from 20 to5 0c m with acoverag e of about 80%. Thisare a represents a largeproportio n of thetota l Dominant speciesi nth eSonghua-Ne n River Plain meadow grassland. On the land between the sand mayassociat ewit h otherspecie s tofor m various types dunes, the soil moisture is abundant and plants grow of communities (Table3.3) . Someals o may form pure luxuriantly. The coverage is 60-90%, providing good

33 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Table 3.3.Th eecologica l characteristicso f the dominant specieso f grassland in theSonghua-Ne n '. RiverPlain .(Adapte d from CT. Li, 1980)

HABITATTYP E

GrowthFor m Swampy Hydrophytic Hydro- Mesophyti c Meso- Xerophytic Mesophyti c Xerophyti c

Perennial Deyewda Puccinellia Stipa Stipa grandis bunchgrassand angustifolia tenuiflora baicalensis Koeleria cristata Carex Cleistogenes squarrosa Poa sphondylodes Agropyron cristatum

Perennial Phragmites com­ Calamagrostis Leymuschinense Carex rhizomaticgrasse s munis epigeios Arundinetlahirta duriuscula Hemarthria japonica Hordeum brevisubulatum

Perennial herba­ Typhea Bolboschoenus Artemisia Tanacetum ceous plants orientalis maritimus selengensis Poteniilla sibiricum Eriophorwn Triglochin Carex anserina Artemisia angusüfolium palustre orthostachys Potentilla anethifolia Scirpus Helochris flagellaris tabernae- intersita montani Helochris mamillata

Shrubs Salix mongolica Armenica sibirica Salixspp . Ulmus macrocarpa

Trees Ulmuspumila

Vegetation Type Swamp Swamp Meadow Meadow Grassland Steppe

grazing and more than 700 kg/ha hay annually with a Athighe relevations ,som etree so f Ulmusspp .ar e generousproportio no flegumes .Th eimportan t species found. include: Grasses Legumes and Herbs Valley, Plain, andMeadow Grassland Agrostis clavata Artemisia telodendron Arundinetla hirta Inula spp. These grasslands are distributed on the sides of Calamagrostis epigeios Lathyrus spp. rivers and are prone to floods. The dominant species Hemarthria compressa Sanguisorba spp. are:Arundinella hirta, Calamagrostis epigeios, Carex spp. Hordeum brevisubulatum, Leymus chinense, Iris var. fasciculata Vicia amoena lactea,an dPolygonum spp. Leymus chinense Important species on thetop so f sandy dunes are: The meadow grasslands on the saline soil of the Grasses Legumes and Others wet plain consist of two types: Carex spp. and grass Agropyron cristatum Artemisia macrocephala meadows. Plants found in this area are mostly hydro­ Imperata cylindrica Agriophyllum arenarium phytesan d mesophytes. Stipa grandis Corispermum spp. Hedysarum lignosum The frequently occurring species are: Achna- Oxytropis tungliaoensis therumsplendens, Arundinella hirta, Carex spp., Cli- Periploca sepium nelymusdahuricus, Hordeum brevisubulatum, Leymus Salix florida chinense, Phragmites communis, and Puccinellia dis- tons.

34 CHAPTER 3

Figure 3.11.Nativ e tall grassland of Kaoshan State Farm located inwester n Heilongjiang Province. Fence issolar-powered . (Photo courtesy ofDillardH. Gates, 1983)

Figure 3.12. Native grassland in the plain of western Heilongjiang Province.(Phot o courtesy of Dillard H.Gates , 1983)

Theannua l hay yield of meadow grasslandso f the GRASSLANDSAN DMEADOW SO FSAUN E valleys and plains is 1,000-2,000kg/h a and is suitable ANDALKALIN EAREA S for grazing and hay production (Figures 3.14, 3.15, 3.16, and 3.17). Thisgrasslan dtyp eappear st ob ea nazona lvegeta ­ tion.Accordin g to Gordeev (1957), this type of grass­ land isdistribute d inth ecentra lpar to fth e northeastern plain, connecting with the West Liao River. Many small salt lakes having poor outlet drainage form the saline-alkalinesoil so fthi sregion . Someland sals oar e subject to seasonal flooding, forming meadows or

35 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Figure 3.13. Meadow grassland in the lowlands between sand dunes in the area of Wonguite, West Liao Riverwatershed . (Photo courtesy of Dillard H. Gates, 1984)

grassland areas. This vegetation is typical grassland, Vegetational Associations havingth epreviousl ydescribe dgrasslan dspecies .(Se e section describing Grasslands Mixed with Trees and Owing to itsspecifi c natural landscape, agenera l Farmland in the Central Plain.) description of thistyp eo f vegetation waschosen .Gor - deev (1957), Chien (1956,1957), andL i (1979, 1980) describedth evegetatio no fthi sare ai nwhic h5 0specie s of 17 families are commonly found. Among them, Poaceae (Gramineae), Fabaceae (Leguminosae), and

Figure 3.14.A degrade d tall grassland area dominated byArtemisia frigida with sparse grassunderstor y in Bairin Youqi County in the Upper West Liao River watershed. (Photo courtesy of Dillard H.Gates , 1984)

36 CHAPTER 3

KÄMläfc

Figure 3.15. Irrigated native tall grassland in Bairin Youqi County in the Upper West Liao River watershed. (Photo courtesy of Dillard H. Gates, 1984)

Compositae are the most important, comprising 12%, Leymus chinense +Calamagrostis epigeios 10%, and 6% of the total. This grassland type is well suited to grazing and hay production. Three associa­ Thisassociatio n isdistribute d inth elowlan d areas tions of the saline meadow grassland include: \)Ley- of carbonate meadow soil and light, saline soil. The muschinense +Calamagrostis epigeios, 2 )Puccinellia primary areafo r thisassociatio n isi nAnda , Zhaozhou, tenuiflora,an d 3)Iris ensata. Qi-an, and Da'an counties. The important species in­ clude: Artemisia anethifolia, Hemarthria japonica, Inula britannica, Phragmites communis, Polygonum

-*fgk\

Figure 3.16. A seeding ofAgriophyllum squarrosum used for soil conservation, fuel, and forage. (Photo courtesy of Y.F.Chang , 1985)

37 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

i Yfftf »WA7

Figure3.17 . Wildplant sotHedysarum mongolicum,a ver y good foragespecie si nBairi nYouq iCount yi nEaster nMongolia .(Phot ocourtes y of Y.F.Chang , 1985)

salinum, Potentilla flagellaris, Puccinellia tenuiflora, wet. The main component species are:Artemisia an­ and Taraxacum sinicwn. ethifolia, Chloris virgata, Inula britannica, Leymus chinense, and Plantago asiatica. The coverage is30 - Thisassociatio n isabou t30 0m from th elake san d 40% with plant height of 30 cm. about 1-2 m higher than the lake water surface. Plant coverage is50-80 %an d plant height is60-7 0cm . Hay Therear esom eothe rassociation ssuc ha sCarex + yield is 2,000-2,500 kg/ha annually. Overgrazing or herbs, Phragmites communis +herbs , and also some heavycuttin gcause sth eplant so fth edominan t species swampy meadows (Figure 3.18). The structure of the to be replaced by annuals, such as Chloris virgata. associationsi ssimpl ewit h few specieshavin g grazing Continueddisturbanc ewil lfor m barrenland ,o rgrowth value. oiSuaeda followed by barren land. Flooding also may introduce succession species. Under a short period of flooding,Puccinellia spp.wil lb eth edo minan tspecies , MEADOW GRASSLANDS OF THE THREE while Phragmites spp. will dominate with continued RIVERS PLAIN flooding.Dependin go nenvironmenta lfactors , Leymus may differentiate into several associations such as Thisplai ni slocate da t44°60 't o48°3 1' Nan d 130° Leymus +Potentilla, Leymus + Calamagrostis,Leymus to 135°E (Figure 3.1). It is a marshy alluvial plain of +Chloris, andLeymus +herbs . 50-60m elevation . Fuyuan County hasa nelevatio n of 34m except for theWand a Mountains(500-100 0m )i n Puccinellia tenuiflora thesouthwes t and some lower hills dividing this plain The Puccinellia tenuiflora association tolerates into twosections :th eThree-River s Plain and theMul ­ ing River Plain. There are many rivers forming a par­ moresalin ean dalkalin esoil san di sdistribute do nleve l 2 lowlandan dfloode d landswit hfewe r numberso fcom ­ ticularlymarsh ylowlan do fmor etha n50,00 0km ,hal f of which is cultivated. ponent species,suc h as:Artemisia anethifolia, Suaeda glauca, Polygonum salinum, and Phragmites commu­ The mean monthly temperatures of January and nis. The coverage is 30-40%, with a height of 40 cm. July are -20 and 23°C, respectively, with a frost-free This association iswidel y distributed. period of 120-145day s at Fujin. Mean annual rainfall Iris ensata is500-65 0 mm,wit h 75-100% occurring from June to October. The soil type is mainly heavy clay with poor Iris ensata may form a small meadow grassland percolation, forming the necessary condition for association which is distributed on the lowlands of swampland and marshy meadows. Forests grow only heavy, alkaline soil where the surface soil is always ontablelan di nthi sregion .Th ewhol eare ao fth eUssuri

38 CHAPTER 3

Figure 3.18. A view of the saline meadow grassland in the Central Plain of the northeastern region. (Photocourtes y of CT. Li, 1980)

River and its was estimated to have a total Anemone udensis, Carex spp.,Filipendula intermedia, population of 700 during the 1840's (Brüniere, cit., Galium verum, Geranium vlassovianum, Geranium Wang, 1961). The natural vegetation remained until maximowiczii,Hemerocallis minor,Sanguisorba spp., very recently. Clearing of natural vegetation for culti­ Spiraea salicifolia, Trollius ledbourii, and Viciaspp . vation, however, coupled with microclimatic and soil Theseassociation s aredistribute d onhighe r elevations changeshav egraduall ydrie dth eare adurin gth elas t2 0 offloodin glan dwit h80-90 %coverag ean dplan theigh t years. of40-7 0cm .Th euppe rsoi li schernoze m witha fertile surface layer of 20-30cm . Vegetative Associations Betulaplatyphylla +Herbs Association The natural vegetation of thisare a wasstudie d by Skvortsov (1931a, 1931b), Chen (1934), and Yi et al. Betulaplatyphylla isa bushy plant of 90-150 cm. (1980). According to Yi et al. (1980), there are three Theco mponen tspecie sinclude :Deyeuxia angustifolia, types of vegetation: forests, meadow vegetation, and Lobelia sessilifolia, Patrinia intermedia, Pedicularis swampy vegetation. The forests are distributed on the spp., Salix brachypoda, Sanguisorba parviflora, and lowermountain s with brown soil.Quercus mongolka, Viciaspp .Thi sassociatio n isfoun d in areas with good Populus davidiana and Betulaplatyphylla axe. distrib­ soil fertility. utedo n5 %o fth ehighe rlan di nth enorther npar to fth e plain.Th e meadow vegetation, including severalasso ­ Alnus hirsuta +Herbs Association ciations (mainly Deyeuxia and Deyeuxia + herbs), is distributed on the higher flooding plain. The marshy TheAlnus hirsuta + herb sassociatio n isdistribute d vegetation isdistribute do nlowlan dan dlowe r flooding on lowlands in the northeastern region of this area to plain areas. form a marshy meadow.Th eshrub sar edominan t with herbs, such as Carex spp., Vicia spp., Sanguisorba Within these 3 types of vegetation there are 6 parvifolia, and Geraniumvlassovianum. Th ecoverag e primary associations. is70-80 %o nsoi lo f good fertility. Deyeuxia angustifoliaA ssociation Deyeuxia angustifolia +Carex Association Deyeuxia angustifolia pure stand and Deyeuxia TheDeyeuxiaangustifolia + Carex(C. meyeriana, angustifolia + herbs are the principal types of vegeta­ C. tato) association is distributed on higher elevation tion in thisarea .Deyeuxia spp.ma y form a pure stand flood lands. The component species are Phragmites or be mixed with herbs to form a brilliant flowering communis, Anemone dichotoma, Lythrum salicaria, meadow. The main species of this meadow include: and Stachys baicalensis, with 80-90% coverage and

39 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

60-80 cm plant height. In some low areas, the Carex Both Phragmites communisan d Carex pseudo- spp. may be dominant, mixing with Deyeuxia spp., curaica may form different associations. The other Siumsuave, and Salix brachypoda, with coverage of common muskeg (bog) plants include sedge species, 60-70%. Eriophorum latifolium and Eriophorum vaginatum, several species of Carex, Scirpus, and Cyperus, early Carexschmidtii +Calamagrostis hirsuta bloomingSanguisorba (S .tenuifolia an dS. parviflora), Association threespecie sollris, tallUmbelliferae ,Sium, Angelica, Cicuta, and moretha n 20othe r species. The Carex schmidtii + Calamagrostis hirsuta association includes many other species of Carex, Calamagrostis epigeios, and Calamagrostis langs- SUMMARY dorfiiwhic h aredistribute d on lowlands (Figure3.19) . Historically, the grasslands of Northeast China 2 provided abundant natural grasslands and virginal for­ Plants in higher spots cover 10-30 cm /plant and estsrich wit hvariou stype so f forages used for grazing are scattered in the meadow. The Wula grass Carex andha yproduction .Thes egrassland sstil lfor m thebas e meyeriana (not Calamagrostis) has been found com­ ofa significan t animalindustry .Sinc eth elatte rpar to f monly in the association and ishighl y esteemed for its the 19th century, however, they gradually deteriorated economic importance as ginseng (Panax ginseng) to duet oover-grazing ,imprope r management, collection the local settlement. The important components in­ offuel ,an dcultivatio nt oproduc esoybeans ,millet ,an d clude: Calthapalustris, Comarumpalustre, Deyeuxia sorghum, particularly in thewester n part of theNorth ­ angustifolia, Eriophorum vaginatum, Geranium spp., east.I nspit eo fthes eabuses ,ther estil lexis tman ylarg e , Parnassia palustris, Pedicularis spp, areas of productive grasslands inth eeastern mountain Sanguisorba parviflora, Sparganiumspp. , and Tria- area. deniumjaponicum. Thecoverag e of thisassociatio n is 80%,wit h an average plant height of 30-50 cm. Thegrasslan d typeso fth eNortheas tar evarie ddu e Carex Association to the variation in latitude, altitude, climate, and soil. Generally, therear efou r typeso r areas of grassland in TheCarex lasiocarpa marsh ymeado w association this region: is also distributed on wet lowlands with an average 1. grasslands (including meadows) mixed with for­ water depth of 15-30 cm. Coverage ranges from 80- estso n meadowsan d hills, 90%. The components include: , 2. grasslands mixed with trees and farmland on the Equisetumlimosum, Glyceria spiculosa, Menyanthes plain, trifoliata, andNeuburgia spp . 3. grasslands onlowlan d areaswit h sodicsoils , and

Figure3.19 . Marsh and meadow along the Baoqing River in the Northeastern Three Rivers Plain. (Photo courtesy of S.C.Chao , 1980)

40 CHAPTER 3

4. grasslands mixed with trees and shrubs on low­ Hierochloe odorata Vicia amoena lands. Helictotrichon Vicia baicalensis schellianum Vicia cracca These grasslands include floras of Manchurian, Hemarthria japonica Vicia pseudoorobus Dahurian, Mongolian, andNort h China descent, mak­ Hordeum brevisubulatum Vicia tenuifolia ing the species composition of Northeast grasslands Imperata cylindrica Vicia unijuga complex. Leymus chinense Vicia villosa Because the environmental conditions arc favor­ Leymus dasystachys able for thedevelopmen t of grassland agriculture,th e Phleum alpinum Northeast candevelo p intoon eo fth emos t productive Phragmites communis grassland areas in China. For theful l development of Poa sphondylodes thesegrasslands , thefollowin g suggestionsar emade : Puccinellia tenuiflora 1. Establish selection, breeding,an dfiel d evaluation Spodiopogon sibiricus programs ofpastur e and forage species. This will Spodiopogon viridis insuretha t thepotentia lo fth eloca lan d introduced Stipa spp. species canb eevaluated . Tripogon chinensis 2. Improve the management of grassland areas, in­ cluding implementing systemso f grazing and hay REFERENCES harvest.Th edevelopmen t of marginal lands must bepu ta sa hig h priority. Chen,F.H . 1934.A preliminar ystud yo nth evegetatio n 3. Develop irrigation and drainage systems. This ofth eChing-P oLak ean dit svicinit yi nnortheaster n must beanothe r priority for theful l development Kirin Province, Manchuria. Bull., Fan Memorial of grassland husbandry, particularly for the low­ Inst,o f Biol.(Bot . Series)5:1-30 . landsan dsalin e areas. 4. Develop an integrated rangeland, cropland, and Cheo,R.C. ,B.C .Ren , Z.S.Yang ,an dH .Li . 1980. The marshland improvement and management pro­ grassland typeso f thesouther n slopes of the Great gram. KhinganRange ,p .205-210 .In: Proc .3r dNortheast ­ Modify thestructur eo fherd san dflock st oincreas e ern Grassl. Conf., Soc.o f Bot. of Kirin andHei - the efficiency of productivity, according to the longjiang Prov., Changchun. (InChinese ) typesan dproductivit y of the rangeland. Chien, C.C. 1956.A preliminary study of reforesting grasslands around Sa-Erh-Tu. Plant Ecol.an d Phy- SPECIES LIST togeog.Res .Ser .No .6 .Peking .2 9pp .(I nChinese ) The following is a hst of valuable grasses and Chien,C.C .1957 .Th evegetatio no fTumenling ,Kiutai - legumes inth enortheas t area: Hsien, and Kirin. Plant Ecol. and Phytogeog.Res . Grasses Legumes Ser.No . 16.70 pp.(I nChinese ) Agropyron cristatum Astragalus adsurgens Agrostis alba Astragalus melilotoides Chien, S.S.,Y.C .Wu ,an dC.T .Cheng . 1956.A tenta­ Arundinella hirta Astragalus tive scheme of phytogeographical regions, p.83 - Bromus inermis membranaceus 142.In: K.F .Lo u(ed.) .A Tentativ e Scheme of the Beckmannia syzigachne Astragalus scaberrimus Natural Regions of China. Science Press, Peking, Calamagrostis epigeios Astragalus uliginosus (in Chinese) Calamagrostis Glycine ussuriensis pseudophragmites Hedysarum fruticosum Chu,T.Y . 1980.Th edifferentiatio n ofFilifolium grass ­ Cleistogenes chinensis Hedysarum alpinum land onbot h flanks ofth eGrea t Khingan Range,p . Cleistogenes squarrosa Lathyrus quinquenervius 62-71.In: Proc .3r dNortheaster n Grassl.Conf. ,Soc . Clinelymus dahuricus Lathyrus humilis ofBot .o fKiri nan dHeilongjian gProv. ,Changchun . Deyeuxia angustifolia Lespedeza dahurica (In Chinese) Digitaria ciliaris Lespedeza hedysaroides Chu, CT.,an dC.T .Li . 1964.A general review ofth e Echinochloa crusgalli Medicago sativa characteristics ofnortheaster n grasslands,p .50-61 . Eriochloa villosa Medicago falcata In: Proc.2n dNortheaster n Grassl.Conf. , Soc.Bot . Eragrostis pilosa Medicago lupulina of Kirin and Heilongjiang Prov., Changchun. (In Medicago ruthenica Chinese) Festuca jacutica Melilotus suaveolens Festuca rubra Melilotus dentata Chu,CT. ,an dC.T .Li . 1974.Th edynami cstatu so f the Festuca sulcata Trifolium lupinaster northeastern grassland, p. 1-120 In: Spec. Pub. of

41 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CIIINA

Grassl.Soc .o fBot .o fKiri nan dHeilongjian g Prov., Liu, T.N., T.W. Feng, and T.C. Chao. 1959. On some Changchun. (In Chinese) problems of the classification of the vegetation of China.Act a Bot. Sinica 8:87-105. (In Chinese) Chu,CT. , CT. Li,an dD. C Yang. 1981.A stud y ofth e ecology of Yang-Cao (Leymuschinoise) grassland Ma, H. 1980. Types of natural grassland in the Juud in North China, p. 429-431. In: Proc. 14th Int. District,p .84-89 .In: Proc .3r dNortheaster n Grassl. Grassl. Cong.,Lexington , Kentucky. Conf.,Soc .o f Bot.o fKiri nan dHeilongjian g Prov., Changchun. (In Chinese) Cressey, G.B. 1934. China's Geographical Founda­ tions.McGraw-Hil l Book Co.,Ne w York. 436pp . Ren,J.Z. , Z.Z.Hu ,X.D .Mou ,an d P.J. Zhang. 1980.A complex-ordinal system of grassland classification Dewey, D.R., and J.F. Yun. 1984. Application of the and its significance togenesis .Bull , of Grassl. Sei. genomicsyste m ofclassificatio n tocircumscriptio n 1:12-25.(I n Chinese) of the perennial genera of the tribe in China. (Unpublished) Simpich , F. 1929. Manchuria, promised land of Asia. Nat.Geog .Mag .56:379-428 . Gordeev,T.P .1957 .A genera ldescriptio no fvegetatio n of northeastern and eastern Inner Mongolia. Plant Skvortsov, B.V. 1931a. The vegetation of Manchuria. Ecol. and Phytogeog. Res. Ser., No. 12, Sei. Pub., Manch. Monit. 1:79-87.(I n Russian) Peking.3 0 pp.(I n Chinese) Skvortsov, B.V. 1931b. The vegetation of the Lesser Hou, H.Y. 1960. The Vegetation of China. People's Khingan in thenorther n Manchuria region. Manch. Education Press,Peking . (In Chinese) Monit. 7:43-46. (In Russian) Hu, S.T. 1956. The grasslands of Inner Mongolia and Tung, X.D., Y.X. Chen, and F.K. Yu. 1980.Th e basic their utilization. (Unpublished) (In Chinese) typesan dcharacteristic so f meadow inth e northern Lesser Khingan Range, p. 57-59. In: Proc. 3rd Kao, C.C. 1980. Some suggestions for the reconstruc­ Northeastern Grassl.Conf. ,Soc .o fBot .o fKiri nan d tion of grassland in Kirin Province, p. 227-230.In: Heilongjiang Prov., Changchun. (In Chinese) Proc. 3rd Northeastern Grassl. Conf., Soc. of Bot. of Kirin and Heilongjiang Prov., Changchun. (In Wang, C.W. 1961.Th e forests of China with a survey Chinese) of grassland and desert vegetation. Maria Moors Cabot Found. Pub. No. 5. Harvard Univ., Cam­ Kitagawa,M . 1979.Neo-Lineament a flora Man-churia. bridge,Mass .31 3pp . J. Cramer.71 5 pp.(I n German) Wu, C.C 1981. Delineation of China's agricultural Kuchler, A.W.,an d M. Takenouchi. 1948.A new veg­ resources,p .27-39 .In: C.W .Pannel lan dCL .Salte r etation map of Manchuria. Ecol. 29:513-516. (eds.). China Geographer No. 11: Agriculture. Li, CT. 1980. The classification of Aneurolepidium Westview Press,Boulder , Colorado. chinense(Transi. )Kitag .formatio n ofth eSonghua - Yang,D.C , andT.C .Chu . 1980.Som e suggestions for Nen River Plain, p.42-47 .In: Proc .3r d Northeast­ thereconstructio n ofgrasslan d inKiri n Province,p . ern Grassl. Conf., Soc. of Bot. of Kirin and Heilongjiang Prov., Changchun. (In Chinese) 218-223. In: Proc. 3rd Northeastern Grassl. Conf., Soc. of Bot. of Kirin and Heilongjiang Prov., Li,P .1979 .Th egenera lcharacteristic so fth egrassland s Changchun. (In Chinese) of China. Bull, of Grassl.Sei . 1:2-12.(I n Chinese) Yaroshenko,P.D . 1958.Th efores t steppeo f theSovie t Li, P., S.P. Yong, Z.L. Liu, H.L. Sun, and S.D. Zeng. FarEas tan d thenearb y regionso fNortheas t China. 1980.Th e geographical role of Stipa steppe of the In: Problems of Agriculture and Forest in the Far Sung-Liao Plain. Acta Bot. Sinica 22:270-299. (In East,No .2 .Maritim ePub .House , Vladivostok. (In Chinese) Russian) Li, T.K., F.X. Chen, C S. Yen, and I.K. Chao. 1980. Yi,F.K. ,T.H .Li ,Y.K .Chao ,N.Q .Ding ,an dS.F .Chen . Basictype s of grassland in theSonghua-Ne n River 1980.Vegetatio n typeso f theThre e RiversPlai n in Plain, p. 48-56.In: Proc. 3rd Northeastern Grassl. relationt olan dforms , p.70-75 .In: Proc .3r dNorth ­ Conf.,Soc .o fBot .o fKiri nan dHeilongjian g Prov., eastern Grassl. Conf., Soc. of Bot. of Kirin and Changchun. (In Chinese) Heilongjiang Prov., Changchun. (In Chinese) Liu, T.N. 1934. The phytogeography of northwestern Yunatov, A.A. 1950. The basic features of the plant China.Inst . Bot.Nat .Acad . 2:423-451.Peking . (In cover of the Mongolian People's Republic. Tr. Chinese) Mongol. Kom.39:223 ,USS R Acad. Sei., ,

42 CHAPTER 3

Leningrad. (Trans, from Russian, 1959). Science Press, Peking. (In Chinese) Yunatov, A.A. 1954. Forage Plants of Pasture and Meadow in the Mongolian People's Republic. (Trans, from Russian). Science Press, Peking. (In Chinese)

43 Chapter 4

COOL TEMPERATE TALL GRASSLANDS OF INNER MONGOLIA

The cool temperate tall grassland region of Inner This vast area is one of China's most productive Mongolia iswes to fth eGrea tKhinga nRang ean dnort h grassland regions.I tinclude sfou r districts:1 )th eeast ­ of the Yanshan and Yinshan ranges (Figure 4.1).Thi s ern and central part of the district in the region merges with forest and forest grassland in the north;2 )th eeastern part of Xilingol (Selengel) district east, warm temperate tall grassland in the south, and inth ecenter ;3 )Chaha ri nth esouth ;an d4 )Ulanqa bi n coolstepp e in the west. thesouthwest .

Figure 4.1.A mapshowin g thecoo ltemperate tal lgrassland s ofInne rMongolia . Locationsar ea sfollows : 1) , 2) Manzhouli, 3)Hailar , 4)Yakeshi , 5)Mianduhe ,6 )Dong-Ujimqin , 7)Xi-Ujimqin , 8)Xilinhot ,9 )Zhengxianba i (Qagan Nur), 10)Hiiade , 11)Dnolun , 12)Baochang , 13) Knyuan, 14) Zhangbei, 15) (Kalgan), 16) Jining, 17) , 18) Wulanhua (Siziwang), 19) Baoton.

45 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

GENERAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS Relief Climate and Vegetation The Great Khingan Range(1,500-2,00 0 m)lie si n anortheas t tosouthwes t directiono nth eeastern border Thisregio ni scoole ran ddrie rtha nnorther nChina . ofth eInne rMongolia nPlateau .Thi srang eprevent sth e The typically severe winters and cold springs of Inner penetration of moist winds from these a to the plateau Mongoliaar edu et oth emountain so nth eeas tan dsout h and farther inland toth eMongolia n People's Republic whichisolat ethi sregio nfro m monsoons,an dth e influ­ (Figure 4.1). Similarly, the Yanshan and Yinshan ence of Mongolian high pressuresystem swhic h dom­ (1,500 to 2,000 m), bordering this grassland on the inate winter weather patterns. The growing season is southeast and south, act as a wind shield. As a result, 100day s inth enort h and 120t o 140day s in thesouth . annualprecipitatio n decreasesfro m 450m m inth eeas t Annualprecipitatio ndecrease sfro m 450m mi nth eeas t to30 0m mi nth ewest ,a distanc eo f30 0k mi nth enort h to 300 mm in the west, affecting the productivity, and60 0k m inth esouth .Whil eprecipitatio n decreases coverage, and composition of the natural vegetation 0.3 to 0.6 mm per km from east to west, evaporation (Table4.1) . increasesdu et ohighe rtemperature san dlowe rrelativ e

Tabic 4.1.Location , elevation, annual precipitaiton, mean annual temperature, and growing season for various areas in the cool temperate tall grasslandso f Inner Mongolia. (Adapted from S.T. Hu, 1956)

Recording station Location Elev. Precip. Temp. Growing season (m) (mm) (oQ (days)

North

Genh e 50°4rN 121°57'E 720 427 -5.7 90

Hailar 49°44'N 119°43'E 609 325 -2.6 100

Middle Xi Ujimqin 44°40'N 117°40'E - 356 1.4 110 Xilinhot 43°57'N 116°04'E 990 294 1.8 127

South

Duolun (East) 42°11'N llô^'E 1245 374 1.5 120-140

Hohhot(Wesf) 40°49'N 111°41'E 1063 426 5.7 -

There is a gradual thinning of trees, stunting of humidity during the summer. herbaceous plants, and reduction of plant coverage Theplatea ui sth edo minan trelie fo fInne rMongo ­ from east to west. There is no clear dividing line be­ lia while mountains, hills, and rolling lands are found tween the tall grassland and the short grassland at 1,000 m in the northwest and 1,500 m in the south. (steppe),but rather a gradual transition. The best defi­ Drainage is internal except for most of the Hulunbuir nitiono fth etransitio nlin ei sth e30 0m misohye t (equal district andsouther n areas. rainfall line,Figur e4.2) . Grassland Classifications Areaswit hmor etha n30 0m mannua lprecipitatio n form a tallgrassland ; thosewit h less form short grass­ Plant explorations in Outer and Inner Mongolia lands or steppe. Both the tall and short grassland re­ began in the 18th century and increased during the gions,eac h with awidt h of 200t o40 0km ,ru n parallel mid-19th century. Many works, mostly Russian, were for 1,000 km from north to south (Figure 4.2). Areas published on their collections. During the last three withles stha n30 0m mprecipitatio nar earabl eonl ywit h decades there has been extensive study of the vegeta­ irrigation. The dividing line between the grassland tion of Inner Mongolia. The flora and vegetation have areas also follows the soil pattern, with the tall grass­ beenwel ldescribe d(Yunatov , 1950;Chie ne tal. ,1956 ; land thriving on thechernoze m anddar kchestnu t soils Yaroshenko, 1961;Grubov , 1963; Li, 1963;Liu ,1963 ; in theeas t and primarily chestnut soils in the west. Lavrenko, 1979; Wang et al., 1979; Yunatov et al., 1979;Anon. , 1980).

46 CHAPTER4

SCALE GANSU O 100 20030 0 40050 0 KM

Figure 4.2.Th e isohyets of Inner Mongolia are parallel toeac h other, with rainfall decreasing from east to west. Locations are as follows: 1) , 2) Hailar, 3) Manzhouli, 4) Xilinhot, 5)Tongliao , 6) Chifeng, 7) Baochang, 8)Jining , 9) Hohhot, 10) , 11) Dongsheng, 12) Uxin, 13)Alashan .(Adapte d from Anon., 1980)

Chinese botanists (Chien et al., 1956; Li, 1963, Vegetation zones, as determined by climax spe­ 1979; Liu, 1963; Wang et al., 1979) have used the cies,defin e theforest , meadow, and steppe.H u (1956) Russian term steppe or dry steppe to designate the reported, however, that thegrasslan d was best divided grassland vegetation found inth eextensiv eare awhic h into short and tall grassland regions. A summary of rangesfro m northeastern China inth eeas t toth e lower thesedat a isprovide d inTabl e4.2 . Danube in Hungary to the west. Some botanists (Roi, 1941; Wang, 1961) and geographers (Bishop, 1922; TALL GRASSLAND MIXED WITH FOREST Cressey, 1934)use dth eter mgrasslan d todesignat eth e AND MEADOWS ON THE WESTERN grassland vegetation from the northeastern border in FLANK OF THE GREAT KHINGAN AND the east to Xinjiang in the west. The area, however, is WESTERN YANSHAN AND YINSHAN toocomple xfo ra singl eterm .Precipitatio n rangesfro m RANGES 500m m toles stha n 200mm ,an d thevegetatio n varies from forest parkland tomargina ldeser t land.Soil svar y Northern Hulunbuir from mostly chernozem to chestnut and desert, with The Hulunbuir region is a part of the Mongolian limited areas of saline conditions. As a result of the Plateau including rolling lands, sandland, dunes, and widerang eo fconditions ,th etype so f grassland herba­ tablelands (Figure4.1) .Th egenera l elevation isabov e ceousspecies ,thei rheight ,coverage ,an dpercentag eo f 600m excep t for themountainou sarea si n theeas tan d flora are significantly different. Therefore, the term northeast. The central portion of this region isslightl y "steppe"o rgrasslan d isno tspecifi c enough todescrib e lower than the surrounding area. Rivers, lakes, and the two vegetation types.Th e terms tall grassland and valleys are distributed in this area, forming excellent short grassland (steppe) more clearly define the vege­ grasslands.Som esandlan d and dunesar eals ofoun d in tation subgroups. Recently, some Russian botanists thisarea .Th eHulunbui r isa traditiona lgrazin g landi n have delineated thenortheaster n grassland from Eura­ Chinaan di tproduce sa nabundanc eo fanima lproducts . sian steppe as an independent type of grassland or prairie(Yaroshenko , 1961).

47 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Table 4.2.Som e characteristic species of the eastern and western flanks of the Great Khingan Mountain Range.(Adapte d from S.T. Hu, 1956)

Vegetation Eastern Western

Forest Larixgmelinii Larixgmelinii Quercusmongolica Betulaplatypkylla and Populusdavidiana (thesuccesso ro f Larixgmelinii)

Shrub Lespedeza bicolor Salixspp . Corytus heterophylla Caragana microphylla

Grassland Leymuschinense Leymuschinense Arundinella hirta Stipa grandis Artemisia gmelinii Cleistogenes squarrosa Spodiopogon sibiricus Artemisia frigida Carex lanceolata Carexpediformis

Flora Dahurian Dahurian Manchurian Mongolian Mongolian North China

Tsao(1930 )classifie d theHulunbui rare a intotw o The Hulunbuir area has an abundance of wild sections, the mountain forest and the steppe. Larch is game:bear ,wolf , fox, moose,elk , reindeer, wild goat, thedominan t species inth emountai n forest of theeas t musk deer, and wild boar. In the early 1900's camels andoccupie s70 %o fth eland ,growin gt o3 0m inheigh t were used for transportation in this area (Figure 4.6). and 1 m in diameter (Figure 4.3). is Grassi sdominan ti nth estepp esectio nwit hlarg earea s found on sand areas which may be found in Hailar to of brilliant meadows, containing iris and lily, in the theeas tan dsoutheas t ofXilinho t(Figure s4. 4an d4.5) . rivervalley s (Figure4.7) . Gameanimal s includeante ­ The main species of the understory include: Malus lope,wil d goat,an d hare. baccata, Padus asiatica, Crataegus dahurica, Euony- mus maackii, Salix mongolica, and Calamagrostis TheGe n(Gan )Rive rare ai nth emos tnorther npar t epigeios. of Hulunbuir wasstudie d by Imanisha in 1950.I t isa n

Figure 43. Hilly grassland mixedwit h woodland oflarc h and birch on thewester n flank of theGrea t Khingan Range in the Hulunbuir District. (Photo courtesy of USDA; reproduced from C.W. Wang, 1961)

48 CHAPTER 4

Figure 4.4.A vie wo f thelandscap ei nth eHa il ar are awit h gentle,rollin glan do flo wsan ddune swher etree so fPinus sylvestris var.mongolica growwit h forage plantsi nth eunderstory .(Phot ocourtes y of USDA; reproduced from C.W. Wang, 1961)

1 . ' * Jt""'. *û 'ZJ:' •• • "" ••-**-

Figure 4.5.Coo l tall grassland with sandy soil inth eHaila rare awhere Pinus sylvestris var.mongolica formsa woodland. (Reproduced from H.Y. Hou, 1983,wit h permission from Annalso f the Missouri Botanical Garden) undulating plateau rising 200-300 m above the valley meadow, and gray forest with a pH value of 4 to 5.5. floor to an elevation of 1,000 m. The climate is cold The grassland reaches to the lower Gen where white with mean annual temperatures of -4 to -7°C, annual birch arefoun d insmal lgrove so n northern slopes;th e sum temperature above 10°Co f 1,334°C,annua l rain­ coverage increases until the trees grHui.ly expand to fall of38 4t o46 4mm ,an d afros t free periodo f 5days . form a forest grassland (Figure4.8) . Thesoil sar emainl ygra y podzolic,chernozem ,marsh y

49 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Figure 4.6. S»ndl»nd and sand dunes covered by shrubs and Artemisia in the Hailar area, Hulunbuir District. (Photo courtesy of USDA; reproduced from C.W. Wang, 1961,wit h permission from Botanical Museum, Harvard University)

Figure 4.7.A n improved breed of Sanhe cattle in the northern area of Hulunbuir District. (Reproduced from Haas, 1984)

The forest grassland contains only a few steppe lower and middle Gen River. In the upper valley, derivatives. The valley floor contains a variety of tall meadow and reed swamp species give way to sedge grasses and herbs, forming meadows. In addition to swamp,shru b swamp,an dbo g swampspecie s (Figure meadow reed swamp species, Calamagrostis langs- 4.9). Several species of Carex and Eriophorum dorfii occupies a large area in the wide valleys of the vaginatum make up the sedge swamp. Many types of

50 CHAPTER 4

:$«!'!

Figure 44t.A meadow in thevalle y of the lowerGe n River. (Photo by K. Imanishi, 1950; reproduced from Geog. Rev. by permission of the American Geographical Society)

Figure 4.9.Sedg e and swamp in the former watercourse of aree d swamp of Calamagrostis. (Photob y K.Imanishi , 1950; reproduced from Geog. Rev. by permission of the American Geographical Society) vegetationar epresent ,includin glarc han dpin e(Figur e kg/ha (Anon.., 1964). There are many good forage 4.10),thoug hgrasse sdominat e andgro w toa heigh to f species in thearea , including: 40t o 100cm . Grasses Legumesan d Others Agropyron cristatum Astragalus adsurgens Forage and herb species of different associations Calamagrostis langsdorfiiBolboschoenus grow from 40 to 140 cm, with plant cover of 90 to Elymus cylindricus maritimus 100%, 20-30 species per m2, and hay yield of 1,250 Festuca spp. Carex pediformis

51 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Figure 4.10. Characteristic scene nearth e tree lineshowin g isolated larches,a dwar f pine thicket,an da lichen-covere dbolde rbed .(Phot ob y K.Imanishi , 1950; reproduced from Geog. Rev. by permission of theAmerica n Geographical Society)

Helktotrichon spp. Trifolium lupinaster with herbs and grassesan d densecoverag e which may Leymus chinense Vicia cracca be used aspastur e or hayland (Figures 4.11an d 4.12). Eastern Hulunbuir and Eastern Xilingol Larix -Herbaceous Meadow The Xilingol District is in the eastern part of the Inth emiddl eo fth eGrea t KhinganRange ,th ecoo l Mongolian Plateau and is located west of the Great temperate summer green coniferous forest is widely Khingan Range(Figur e4.1) .Th eelevatio n isbetwee n distributed, forming aiarit-herbaceou s meadow. The 600an d 1,400m an d ishighe ri nth eeas t than thewest , forest isfoun d onshad ysite san dth eherbaceou smead ­ forminga ninterna ldrainag ewit hman ylakes .Thi sare a owso nsunn ysite san dslopes .Farthe r from theperiph ­ may bedivide d intothre esections ; 1)th e Ulanga low­ ery of the coniferous forest, the meadow is more land, 2) the Abagnar tableland, and 3) the Orindag widespread. sandland.Th eUlang alowlan do rbasi ni slocate d inth e north and is bordered by mountains in the north and Vaccinium+ Betula Meadow tablelandi nth esouth .Th eAbagna rtablelan d islocate d The Vaccinium uliginosum + Betula fruticosa in the central part with rolling land and hills forming meadow grassland borders the periphery of the forest. grassland.Th eOrinda gsandlan d with duneslie si n the Thedominan t speciesar emixe dwit h herbs,formin g a southern part of this region. Most of these dunes are meadow grassland that developed from logged sites fixed and are 15t o 20 m high. The sandland occurs in withunderstor y plants.Th emeado w grassland iscom ­ an east to west direction with a length of 250 km and posed of swamp areaswit h meadow chernozem soil. width of 20-30km .Th ecoverag e is4 0 to50 %an d iti s used for winter grazing. The main herbaceous plants include: Adenophora spp. Pedicularis resupinata From the north to the central part of this region, Calamagrostis spp. Pedicularis along the western flank of the Great Khingan Range, Equisetum sylvaticum sceptrumcarolinum arevariou stype so fgrassland swhic hhav ebee nclassi ­ Filipendula palmata Sanguisorba officinalis fied byH u (1956),Wan ge tal .(1979) ,an db yth eInne r Geranium maximowiczii Trollius ledbourii Mongolia-Ningxia Integrated Survey (Anon., 1980). Hemerocallis minor Vicia baicalensis This belt is found on the mountains and hills on the Lathyrus humilis western flank of the Great Khingan Range. This is a more complex vegetation region than the short grass­ On sites farther from the forest, the typical mead­ landarea ,wit h theelevatio nbetwee n 800an d 1,500 m. ows contain more than 40 species per m with distin­ Theclimat ei scold ,wit hth esu mo ftemperature sabov e guishableseasona l phases.Numerou scolorfu l flowers 10°Cbetween 1,400an d 1,800°C.Annua l precipitation form a beautiful landscape. Frequently occurring spe­ (400-450 mm) is enough to form a meadow grassland cies include:

52 CHAPTER 4

-Y ~j" J*

Figure 4.11.Grasslan d in HutunbuirDistrict , northeastern Inner Mongolia. (Reproduced with permission from People's Daily, 1983)

Figur» 4.12.Grasslan d in Hulunbuir District, northeastern Inner Mongolia. (Reproduced with permission from China Pictorial, 1984)

Artemisia laciniata Potentilla fragarioides Lilium concolor Thalictrum simplex Delphinium spp. Potentilla multifida Lilium dauricum Vicia amoena Galium verum Sanguis orba officinalis Paeonia lactiflora Vicia baicalensis Hemerocallis minor Thalictrum petaloideum Vicia unijuga

53 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Potentilla flagellaris landi sth edo minan tvegetatio nwit hlittl echang eo fth e Potentilla fragarioides speciescompositio n of associations. The proportion of grasses in this meadow is less Coniferousand Deciduous Forests (Larix and than herbs.Th e grassspecies include: Quercus) Agrostis trinii Leymus chinense Treespecie sinclud eQuercus mongolica, Quercus Calamagrostis Poa annua liaotungensis, and Larix species, forming coniferous- epigeios Stipa baicalensis deciduous forests at different levels of elevation on Calamagrostis shady slopes.I narea swher e broadleaved forests were gigantea disturbed, mesophytic shrubs are found, followed by The species of Carex include: the secondary forest of Betula, Filifolium + Festuca Carex arnellii Carex pallida association, Carex,an dSanguisorba meadow. Carex coriophora Carex pediformis Filifolium is the absolute dominant species of In some wet placesSalix brachypoda,Salix hsin- associationso nth eslope san dhilltop san dlowe rmoun ­ ganica, Rosa davurica,an d othershrub s are found. tains. Festuca and Leymus species, Carex pediformis, andSanguisorba officinalisar eabundan t and mixwit h Betula andPopulus Forest Grassland other herbs and grasses to fern meadow grasslands Still farther from theconiferou s forest,Betula and above 1,500 m.Thi sassociatio n producesha yyield so f Populus species form forests on shaded slopes with a 2,000 to 3,000 kg per ha. Where forests have been few Larix species found on steep slopes. On mid-to- logged, some Populus and Corylus species are found lower slopes, the grass-herbaceous meadow grassland on sunny slopes in addition toPrunus sibirica. In the predominates. Species density is high with various Ulmusmacrocarpa +Filifolium grassland association, synusia. Mesophytic herbs such asAnemone spp. and Artemisia andLeymus, Artemisia andCleistogenes, an d Aconitum spp. decrease, and grasses such as Agrostis Artemisia and Stipa species alsoar e found. trinii, Calamagrostis epigeios, and Leymus chinense increase to be the dominant species. Filifolium The Cleistogenes squarrosa grassland type is en­ sibiricum often forms a layer of the association. The counteredo nth efoothill so fmountains .Meado wgrass ­ herbaceous species are still the dominants of the landsma yoccu ri nth eabsenc eo ftree san dshrubs .Th e association.Gras sspecie s(Cleistogenes, Festuca, Koe- rich meadows are composed of numerous perennial leria,an dPod) form thelowe rlaye ro f theassociation . herbstha tcommonl yar eassociate dwit hth ewoodland . Sanguisorba is the dominant species with colorful South of Xilingol, Chahar, and flowering species of Aster, Delphinium, Gentiana, Hemerocallis, Hypericum, Iris, Lilium, Paeonia, and TheChaha ran dUlanqa bdistrict sar elocate d inth e Trollius.Th e components of the meadows include al­ southern parts of the Mongolian Plateau. This area most 80 species. The common forage grasses and le­ includes tablelands, hills,an d rolling land with an ele­ gumes include: vation of 900-1,500 m. The highest regions are in the Grasses Legumes south,formin g aninterna ldrainag efrom sout ht onorth . Agropyron cristatum Astragalus adsurgens A notable exception is the Shandian River watershed Bromus inermis Astragalus dahuricus (upper part of ), located in eastern Chahar, Poa palustris Lathyrus spp. which is externally drained. Three sides of this region Stipa capillata Melilotus ruthenica (the west, east, and south) are surrounded by moun­ Stipa sibirica Oxytropis coerulea tains. Trifolium flavescens Grassland areasar efoun d onth ewester n slopeso f Vicia amoena the Great Khingan Range, in the south (where the belt Vicia pseudoorobus joins thewester n parto f theYansha n Range),i n north­ Vicia unijuga ernHebe iProvince ,an di nth eYinsha n Rangei nsouth ­ There is another type of grassland of Artemisia ern Inner Mongolia (Figure 4.1). This area (currently gmelinii in the middleare a of Yinshan which includes classified as forest grassland or woodland grassland) Artemisia gmelinii + Leymus chinense, Artemisia should be classified as a tall grassland, since trees which formerly grew together with grasses have been gmelinii +Cleistogenes squarrosa, an dArtemisia gme­ removedb ylogging .Althoug h theproportio no f forests linii + Stipa klemenzii. These associations are widely and grasslands varies from place to place (forests in distributed on sunny slopes oro n the lower mountains shady slopes and grasslands on sunny slopes), grass­ of Yanshan and Yinshan, located on thesouther n bor­ der of Inner Mongolia. Specieso f thisare a include:

54 CHAPTER 4

Grasses Legumes TheLeymus chinense +herb scommunit y existsi n Agropyron spp. Lathyrus quinquenervius thedr y areas between hills. Herbsar e plentiful in this Arundinella hirta Lespedeza spp. association, with Filifolium sibiricum and Artemisia Clinelymus dahuricus Trifolium lup'master laciniataa sdominan t species. Festuca ovina Vicia amoena The grassspecie s include: Spodiopogon sibiricus Vicia unijuga Agropyron spp. Koeleria cristata Western Foothills of the Great Khingan and Cleistogenes squarrosa Poa spp. Yan-Ying Ranges In some places,Hierochloe odorata is the domi­ Thefoothil l areawes t ofth eGrea t Khingan Range nantspecie swit hStipa baicalensis asth e subdominant forms a grassland belt with an annual rainfall of 350 species, and Bromus inermis, Helictotrichon schel- mm.Thi sare aha sa nannua lsu mo ftemperature sabov e lianum,an dCalamagrostis epigeiosa soccasiona lspe ­ 10°Co f between 1,600 and 2,000°C. cies. Grasses constitute about 40% of this community which existso nchernoze m soiltype si ncultivate d and Betula platyphylla forests, found on the shady uncultivated areas. slopes of the foothill area, are mixed with islands of Populus davidiana. On the banks of rivers and in lowland meadow areas,Deyeuxia angustifolia and Carex spp.ar emixe d Pinussylvestris var.mongolica i sth eonl yspecies with denseshrubs . distributed on sand ordunes ,formin g islands of forest in thevicinit y of Hailar (Figure4.5) . The natural conditions of this cold mountainous forest-grassland include ample water resources, many Filifolium sibiricum is the absolute dominant in herbs and grasses, and high forage production which thisgrasslan d area and isdistribute d onhilltop san do n mayb euse d asgrazin g lando rharveste d ashay .Som e someslope si nassociatio nwit hothe rgrasses an dherbs . valley areas of these grasslands are planted tocereals . Severaldifferen t associations exist,suc has :Filifolium Thesegrasslan darea sar eth emos tproductiv eo f forage +Stipa, Filifolium +Leymus, andFilifolium +Festuca. for nomadic pasturage in Inner Mongolia. Due to the Thedominan t species include: abundanceo fgrasslan d withgoo dproductivity ,severa l Grasses Sedges breeds of horsesan d cattlear e produced inthi s region. Cleistogenes squarrosa Carex pediformis Festuca ovina TALL GRASSLAND PLATEAU Koeleria cristata Fartherwest , at the 300 to35 0 mm isohyet, is the Herbsi nthi sare aar eplentifu l andmainl yinclude : cool temperate tall grassland plateau zone which in­ Bupleurum Galium verum cludes four districts:centra l and western Hulunbuir in scorzonerifolium Potentilla tanacetifolia thenorth ;easter nXilingo li nth ecenter ;an dChaha ran d Clematis hexapetala Serratula hsingianensis Ulanqab in thesout h (Figures 4.1an d 4.2).Th e topog­ Thelegume sinclud eAstragalus adsurgens, Vicia raphy isvarie d with tableland, lowland, hills,an d roll­ spp.,an d Oxytropis myriophyllawher eth ecoverag e is ing land. This area was once a rich grassland. Over a 60% and species density exceeds 25 species per m . period of many decades, however, a large area of the The hay yield isbetwee n 1,000 and 1,500 kg/ha. southern part of Chahar and Ulanqab (both north of Yinshan) has been cultivated and the grassland has The Filifolium + Leymus community is widely beendestroye db ycultivatio no rdamage d byovergraz ­ distributed at the base of slopes. On the tops of hills ing.Accordin g to thedominan t species and frequently with rocks and on sunny slopes, theFilifolium +Fes­ occurring species, the vast area may be classified as a tucacommunit y includes: bunchgrass tall grassland. Grasses Legumes Cleistogenes squarrosa Lespedeza inschanica Central and Western Hulunbuir and Eastern Koeleria cristata Medicago falcata Xilingol Oxytropis myriophylla Tall bunchgrasses predominate in this district Herbs and others which is characterized by rolling land and hills. Soil Artemisia frigida Potentilla betonicaefolia types include chernozem and dark chestnut where the Bupleurum spp. Prunus sibirica humus layeri s30-5 0cm ,organi cmatte r is3-4.5 %an d Orostachys pmbriatus Thymus serphyllum a calcareous layer appears at 35-60 cm, resulting in a Polygonum ajanense Vernonia incana pH of 7-8.5.Leymus chinense and Stipa grandis, and Potentilla acaulis sometimesStipa baicalensisan dStipa kryhvii, are the

55 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

dominant species which are mixed with other grasses Accordingt oth ecompositio no fcommunities ,th e andherb st ofor m different communities.Ther ear etw o bunchgrass tall grassland may be classified into five obvious layerso f thecommunities ; the upper includes habitat types. thedominant swit h heighto f35-4 5c man dfewe r num­ berso fAstragalus melilotoides and some herbs, while Stipagrandis +Leymus chinense thelowe rlaye rinclude sa numbe ro fbunchgrasse swit h Thistyp e iswidel ydistribute d ongentl eslope so f a height of 10-15 cm mixed with herbs (Figures 4.13 hills and in the valleys. The soil is dark chestnut, the and 4.14). humuslaye ri s30-5 0cm ,an dth eorgani cmatte rconten t is3-4.5% . The bunchgrassesar e mainly: Agropyron cristatum Koeleria cristata Other grassesinclude : Cleistogenes squarrosa Poa botryoides Agropyron cristatum Koeleria cristata Thespecie s of herbsan d others include: Cleistogenes squarrosa Allium odorum Cymbaria dahwica The legumesinclude : Allium sacculiferum Galium verum Astragalus spp. Pococlda ruthenica Artemisia frigida Heteropappus altaicus Oxytropis spp. Vicia spp. (may be dominant Potentilla spp. Thespecie s of herbsan d otherspecie s include: species) Serratula centauroides Allium spp. Potentilla spp. Bupleurum spp. Thalictrum spp. Artemisia frigida Ptilotrichum canescens The legumes include: Bupleurum spp. Serratula centauroides Astragalus adsurgens PococJdaruthenica Dianthus chinensis Thalictrum squarrosum Oxytropis spp. Heteropappus altaicus Sometimes there is a third layer (lesstha n 10cm ) Thecoverag ei sabou t50 %an dspecie sgro w30-4 5 which consists of a lower growth of herbs and semi- cm.Th e percentages ofgrasses ,legumes , Compositae, shrubs such as Potentilla acaulis, Carex duriuscula, andmiscellaneou s herbsar eapproximatel y 71%,13% , andArtemisia frigida. The coverage of the vegetation 5%,an d 11%,respectively .Th eha yyiel di sabou t1,50 0 is40-70 %an d thespecie s density isapproximatel y 20 kg/ha (Figures 4.15an d 4.16). species perm . Van Dyne and Van Dyne (1981) traveled near Xilinhot in Xilingol and reported that the area is a

•' * IfcMBteUA-JWjw»»~ -

' »rfSalfc»""

m

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Figure 4.13. Tall grassland in the Xilinhot area of Xilingol, Inner Mongolia. (Photo courtesy of D. Dewey, 1980)

56 CHAPTER 4

Figure 4.14. A local breed of Ujimqin cows in eastern Xilingol. (Reproduced from Haas, 1984)

"typical steppe" grassland (a term used by Chinese author (Hu) traveled in the area in 1953 and observed botanists for the area) of which the dominant species that the area was a rich tall grassland from the low included Stipa, Leymus, Carex,Artemisia frigida, and plainst oth etop so fhills ,wit hman yspecie so fgrasses , inplace sth ethorn y shrubCaragana microphylla (Fig ­ shrubs,an d Ulmuswoodland on thehills . ure 4.17). There was also a considerable amount of Agropyron cristatum (orA. desertorum). The senior The change in vegetation from that previously reported hasbee n causedb yovergrazin gan d improper

ä?!"*-t'-"- '- ' ? *".

Figure 4.15. Mongolian tent near the Xilin River, Xilingol, Inner Mongolia. (Photo courtesy of D. Dewey, 1980)

57 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

'Wfil^a.*fty!

; *&i' •••. V4W*Ä^'$£~'

Figure 4.16. General view of the tall grasslands in Xilingol, Inner Mongolia. (Photo courtesy of J. Oldfield, 1981) management during the past three decades (Figures Gallium spp. Another meadow steppe habitat type in­ 4.17an d 4.18). cludesAgrostis, Bromus, Iris, and Potentilla, and nu­ merous other herbs includingAllium. The hay yield is Inth eXilinho t area,othe rtype so fvegetatio n have more than 2,250 kg/ha. Annuals of these and been reported (Van Dyne and Van Dyne, 1981). meadow steppes includeChloris setaria and Hordeum Meadow steppe (based on a number of palatable forbs spp.O nsandhills ,Artemisia spp.ar eth edominants ,th e and luxuriant growth of vegetation) includes the dom­ tall grassPsammochloa mongolica is found, and Car- inant speciesSanguisorba officinalis and Phlomis and

ÈKV. "v.,"- • ' Y*',.-.*- •4

Figure 4.17. Tall grassland with weeds near Xilinhot, Xilingol, Inner Mongolia. (Photo courtesy of J. Oldfield, 1981)

58 CHAPTER 4

^*^.-^*r'-qprW*

Figure 4.18.A deteriorated tall grassland nearXilinhot ,Xilingol , Inner Mongolia. (Photocourtes y of J. Oldfield, 1981) agana microphylla is common. Polygonum divari- Cleistogenes squarrosa + Lespedeza catumi sscattere do nth elowe rslope so fsandhills .Thi s Thisassociatio n isdistribute do nth esouther nhill y grassland is similar to the sandhill area in Nebraska land with darkchestnu t soil. (personal observation; Hu, 1982). On the northern slopes of active dunes, species of Ulmus and some The frequent species include: shrubs (primarilyJuniperus, Prunus, Rosa, Salix, and Allium spp. Leontopodium Spiraea species) are found. Other genera include Thy­ Artemisia frigida leontopodioides mus and Festuca. Artemisia spp. Leymus chinense Carex spp. Potentilla chinensis Stipa grandis +Cleistogenes squarrosa Cymbaria dahurica Silene jenisensis This grassland type is distributed on the gentle Digitaria ciliaris Spodiopogon sibiricus slopes of foothills. The soil is dark chestnut with a Heteropappus altaicus sandy loam texture.Stipa grandis isth edominan t spe­ Some legumes are also found in this association. cies. The subdominant is Cleistogenes squarrosa and The coverage is about 40% with a height of approxi­ sometimes Artemisia frigida. The species density is mately 25 cm. The percentages of grasses, Artemisia, about 10specie s per m . legumes, Carex, and herbs are 23, 38, 23, 13, and 3, Other common species include: respectively. The yield of hay is600-70 0kg/ha . Allium spp. Hypochoeris grandiflora Artemisia frigida Artemisia scoparia Koeleria cristata Carex duriuscula Lespedeza aahurica Thisassociatio n isdistribute d widely onslope so f Dontostemon dentatus Leymus chinense hillswit hchestnu tsoil .Pur estand sof Artemisia frigida Haplophyllum dauricum Serratula centauroides aresometime scalle dsag egrasslan d (Figure4.19) .Thi s Heteropappus altaicus Artemisia association issimila rt oa nare ao fsandhil li n northwestern Nebraska,whic hcontain sprimaril yArte­ Thecoverag eo fthi sassociatio n isabou t35 %wit h misia and herbs.Artemisia frigida is a prostrate semi- a height of 15-30 cm.Th e upper layer isStipa grandis shrub which tolerates grazing. The coverage varies while the lower layer includes Artemisia frigida, and from 20-80%wit hplan t heighto f 10-30cm ,dependin g others. The percentages of grasses,Artemisia, Allium, on annual rainfall. Hay yield varies from 300-800 Carex, and herbs are 61, 24, 8, 4, and 3, respectively. kg/ha.Th e percentages of grasses,legumes , Artemisia The hay yield is800-1,00 0 kg/ha. frigida, Artemisia other than Artemisia frigida, herbs

59 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Figure 4.19. Grazingcamel s on sandy dune in northern Chahar, Inner Mongolia. (Reproduced from Haas, 1984)

and Allium, and Carex are 42, 32, 6, 13, 3, and 2, Legumes respectively. Astragalus galactites Oxytropis myriophylla Astragalus melilotoides Thermopsis lanceolata Grassesinclude : Herbsan d others Agropyron cristatum Koeleria cristata Artemisia frigida Phlomis mongolica Achnatherum splendens Leymus chinense Cymbaria dahurica Potentilla acaulis Cleistogenes squarrosa ("not often) Heteropappus altaicus Saposhnikovia Stipa krylovii Hypochoeris grandiflora divaricata Artemisia species include: Ixeris denticulata Serratula centauroides Artemisia ordosica Thecoverag eo fthi styp eo fassociatio n is40-50 % Artemisia scoparia witha heigh t of 30cm .Th efirs t layerinclude s Leymus Legumes include: chinensean dStipa grandis. Thesecon d layer includes Astragalus spp. Koeleria cristata, Poa annua, and some herbs. The Oxytropis spp. third layer includes Cleistogenes squarrosa and Carex duriuscula. Yield analysis has shown that ap­ Herbsinclude : proximately 70%o f the total production is in the 0-10 Allium spp. Phlomis spp. cm layer. Analysis of root systems has shown that the Dontostemon dentatus Potentilla acaulis rhizomeso fLeymus chinense aredistribute d mainly in Gentiana squarrosa Sedum aizoon the area 6-7 cm below ground. The roots of bunch- Heteropappus altaicus Serratula centauroides grasses,i ncontrast , lie2 5c mbelo w thesurfac e and the Leymus chinensis +Stipa grandis + Herbs rootso fsom elarg eherb spenetrat e50-6 0cm , although 61% of root dry matter is concentrated in the0-2 5 cm This association is distributed not far from the zone. meadow grassland on the undulating plains.Ther e are a totalo f 35species ,wit h adensit yo f about 15species Thegenera lproductivit y ofsevera ltype so fgrass ­ per m . The frequency of Leymus chinense, Stipa land in the Hulunbuir region is summarized in Table grandis,Cleistogenes squarrosa, an dCarex duriuscula 4.3.Thes edat a mayals ob eindicativ eo f production in in theassociatio n is 100%.Th e main species include: theXilingo l region.Productivity , however, isdramati ­ Grasses cally influenced by the amount of rainfall during a Agropyron cristatum Poa annua particular growing season (Anon., 1964). Koeleria cristata

60 CHAPTER 4

Table 4.3.Th e productivity of several types of grassland in Hulunbuir District.(Adapte d from Anon., 1964)

Types Composition of species (%) Yield Environmental (kg/ha) factors

Grass Legume Herb Sage

Artemisia spp. + 28.1 4.2 65.9 1.8 1,216 Hilly land, Säpa baicatensis chernozem

Leymus + herbs 64.0 6.6 19.9 9.5 987 Undulate land, chernozem

Leymus +Sdpa 86.6 3.9 5.9 3.4 1,023 Undulate plain, baicatensis chestnut

Bunch grasses 62.0 1.2 21.8 15.0 404 Sand, chestnut

Shrubs + grasses 46.1 5.0 35.1 12.9 488 Stabilized sand dune, chestnut

Grasslands in Chahar and South Ulanqab According to Roi (1940), the complex vegetation of the area included forests, tallgrasslands , meadows, A large part of the southern cool temperate tall andsandlands . grassland in the Chahar and Ulanqab districtso f Inner Mongolia hasbee n cultivated for severaldecades .Th e Sandland andSand Dune Vegetation district covers an area 700 km long and 200 km wide The sandland, classified by Roi (1940) as desert, and includes the northern and southern slopes of the Yinshan Range (1,500-2,000 m)whic h hes in an east- and the sand dune vegetation of northern Chahar and west direction (Figure 4.1). southernXilingol ,for m acoverag eo f30-90 %(Walker , 1982). Due to the 350 mm rainfall, the landscape is Theelevatio no fthes emountain si sbetwee n 1,500 quite different from the sandland of western Inner and2,00 0m ,bein ghighe ri nth esout htha ni nth enorth . Mongolia.Th edominan t species in thesandlan d asso­ Theare a isinternall y drained, except for the Shandian ciation isAgriophyllum arenarutm. River in the east, and forms a rich area of prairie and meadow. Otherspecie s include: Artemisia frigida Eurotia ceratoides The Yinshan Range forms a barrier that prevents Chenolea mollis Olgaea leucophylla themonsoon s from reaching InnerMongoli a and gives Elymus arenarius Stance bicolor this area 300-400 mm annual precipitation, an annual Somebushe so fHaloxylon ammodendron alsoar e mean temperature of 2°C, and five months of winter. found. High summer temperaturesoccu rdurin g therain ysea ­ son forming a luxuriant growth of grassland. Soils are Norlindh(1949) ,wh otravele d inth enorther nare a chernozem, darkchestnut , and sahne. ofth esandlan di nth e 1920's,provide da nextensiv ehs t of plant species of southern Inner Mongolia. The veg­ Traditionally, this area was a nomadic grassland etation of the area was described as a flowering withmor etha ntw omillio nhectare si nsouther n Chahar meadow steppe (short grassland) with Paeonia laciti- (Figure 4.20). Approximately 68% of this region has folia,som etree so fUlmus, an dshrub sscattere do nsan d been cultivated in the last two decades (Mu, 1980) (Figure4.21) . This cultivation has had disastrous con­ dunes. Wild cherries also were found on the slopes of sequences on the local population through changes in hills. the plant population, soilerosion , and resulting reduc­ Wange t al. (1979) stated that thissan d area wasa tionsi ngrazin gcapacit y (Figure4.22) . typical warm temperate steppe whereArtemisia halo- aendron, Artemisia spp., Caragana litwinowii, Cara- North of the Yinshan Range, the grassland veg­ gana microphylla, and Salix flavida were dominant. etationha sbee nstudie db yBuxto n(1923) ,Hu e(1928) , Ulmusspp . were found on flat sand land areas which Roi (1940,1941),Bohli n (1949),Norlind h (1949), Hu may form parklands (grassland with scattered trees). (1956), and Wang et al.(1979) .Buxto n traveled in the area in 1921 and reported that "the grassland is a countryo flon ggrass, "especiall yeas to fth etraditiona l road from Zhangjiakou (Kalgan) toUla nBato r(Urga) .

61 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Figure 4.20. The chestnut earth soils in the ChaharDistric t of InnerMongoli a arecovere d by mixed tall andshor tgras svegetatio n forming good pasture,bu tthes e areasar eonl y marginal forcultivate d agriculture.(Phot o byJ .Thorp ;reproduce d from J.Thorp , 1936)

-*".*** VU- f" -.VÄ^. 'ƒ'' 'i^jjh; •?"<•."*•• •;

Figure 4.21.A goo d oatcro pan d tallgrasslan d on thedar kchestnu t earth soilso f theChaha rDistric to f InnerMongolia . (Photo byJ .Thorp ; reproduced fromJ .Thorp , 1936)

Short Grass Areas nus spp., (R. parvifolia, R. erythroxylon), Ulmus pumila, Ephedra spp., and Stipa spp. (S. capillata, S. Short grass (steppe) areas are located on rocky, mongolica, S. splendens, S. inebrious, and S. bunge- sunny slopes. The dominant species usually is Stipa, ana). mixed with thorny Caragana spp. (C. pygmaea, C. microphylla,C. spinosa), and stunted shrubs oïRhwn- Other species include:

62 CHAPTER 4

Figure 4.22. Soil erosion on the southern slope of the Yinshan near Hohhot caused by misuse and overgrazing. (Photo courtesy of H.W. Youngberg, 1982)

Grasses Legumes Grasses Legumes Agropyron cristatum Hedysarum gmelinii Agropyron Astragalus adsurgens Agropyron geniculatum Medicago ruthenica longearistatum Medicago ruthenica Agropyron Oxytropis oxyphylla Bromus inermis Medicago sativa pseudoagropyron Thermopsis lanceolata Stipa capillata Oxytropis coerulea Diplachne serotina Stipa sibirica Trifolium lupinaster Elymus dasystachys Trisetum flavescens Vicia amoena Poa attenuata Vicia pseudoorobus Setaria viridis Meadow Areas Kœleria gracilis Two types of meadow grassland are located on Plant species of the Compositae family include lowlandsan dtop so fmountains .O nth elowland swhic h Artemisia frigida andArtemisia capillaris. are free of drainage from saline soil, the dominant Plant cover is not more than 30-40% with varia­ species are Iris ensata and Achnatherum splendens. tions due toth e nature of thesoil s in this area. Each of these species may form an association mixed with some small grasses forming a dense cover of TallGrass Areas 2 40-70%,an dusuall yoccupyin ga nare ao fsevera lkm . Tall grasslands (prairie) are distributed on gentle Most species are suitable for forage, except the domi­ slopes, and along rivers with ample supplies of water nants, which are too coarse. Achnatherum splendens anddee psoi lformin g atransitiona lbel tbetwee n forest grows 1-2 m,providin g animal shelter during the cold and steppe (Figure 4.23). The dominant species form season. Some halophytic grasses are present, although brilliant colors of flowers during the growing season. growth is poor due to overgrazing and the content of More than 70 species form a plant cover of 100%. salt in thesoi l (Figure 4.24). Thedominant s are: On the lowlands, with good drainage, excellent Agropyron spp. Leontopodium meadow grassland is formed as in the Duolun (Dolon- Gentiana dahurica leontopodioides nur) area where thefirs t emperor of theYua n dynasty, Iris ensata Pedicularis spicata Kublai Khan, located his summer camp and northern (on saline meadows) Sanguisorba officinalis capital). Marco Polo visited the area and described in hisdiar y "fountains andrivers, an dbrooks ,an dbeauti ­ Frequent specieso f forage plants include: ful meadows with all kinds of wild animals" (Yule, 1903).

63 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

4

V*" '^A^? %Cr . Vv y*

Figure 4.23.Tal lgrasslan do nchernoze m andchestnu t earthsoil s makea nexcellen t pastore forherd so f Mongolian horses. Photowa s taken 115k m northo fJinin g(Pingtichuan) ,Inne rMongolia . (Photob y C.C.Ku , 1936;reproduce dfro mJ .Thorp , 1936)

Thedominan t species include: Hemerocallis minor Trifolium lupinaster Agrostis alba Carex spp. Polygonum divaricatum Stipa spp. Calamagrostis epigeios Poa annua Potentilla chinensis Vicia spp. Clinelymus dahuricus Sanguisorba officinalis Forest Grassland Areas Thesespecie sfor m variousassociation saccordin g On slopes which are denuded of forests, lush toloca l conditions. woodland meadows are found composed of numerous Otherspecie s include: perennial herbaceous plants. The main forest species Achillea acuminata Pulsatilla chinensis areBetula spp.an d Populus spp., with Larix gmelmii Galium verum Thalictrum spp. distributed on higherelevation s (1600-2000 m). Some

Figure4.24 .Camelsgrazingo n theroa dfro mZhangjiako u(Kalgaa )t oDolonnur .(Phot ob yF.G .Clapp , 1920;reproduced fro mGeog . Review by permission of the American Geographical Society)

64 CHAPTER 4

other species include Ulmus spp. and Quercus spp. thesea .Th evegetatio n isdefine d asxerophyti cshrub - When these forests were disturbed, Corylus mand- grassland. shurica and Spiraea pubescens developed. The eradi­ This transitional zone has historically been a rich cation of these shrubs results in Artemisia sacrorum grassland with great herds of cattle and horses "like becoming the dominant species with 50% coverage, waves of thesea, " asdescribe d by early travelers.Th e mixed with 20othe rspecie so n dry slopes, including: mountainswer ecovere dwit hfin eforests ,an d nomadic Artemisia anethifolia Potentilla heterophylla tents whitened the valleys amid rich pasture (Hue, Artemisia frigida Potentilla tanacetifolia 1928, cit. Wang, 1961).Thi s scene has now been re­ Artemisia fruticosa Potentilla viscosa placedb ycultivated field s producingwheat ,millet ,an d Artemisia sacrorum Saussurea eriolepis Irish potatoes.A number of botanists have studied the Artemisia sieversiana Rhamnus parvifolia flora of this region (Keng, 1921; Ren, 1934; Wang, monantha Setaria viridis 1936; Yang, 1937; Roi, 1940, 1941;Tsui , 1950; and Clematis aethusiaefolUi Spiraea pubescens Wen et al., 1956). Clematis angustifolia Stipa capillata Dracocephalum Tanacetum sibiricum Uncultivated slopes are grassy, while shrubs, moldavica mainly Corylus spp., and occasional groves of aspen Patrinia heterophylla andbirch , are found in sheltered valleys and on north­ gmelinii ern slopes.Mos t of the level land of theare a has been cultivated for more than ahundre d yearsbecaus eo f its Thesuccessio n ofvegetatio n in thisare a is: productivechestnu tsoil ;but ther ei sstil la larg eare ao f 1. Forest: Populus and Betula grazing land of natural vegetation which includes 2. First stageo fdegradation : Corylusan d Spiraea shrubs,mesophyti c and xerophytic herbs,grasses ,an d 3. With cultivation or overgrazing:Artemisia sacro­ legumes asliste d below. rum Shrubs 4. Last stage:bar e soil Berberis vulgaris Ulmus pumila The Chahar area was formerly a nomadic grass­ Caragana microphylla Vitex chinensis land with horse farms and a center for training troops Clematis angustifolia Wikstroemia ofth eQin gEmperors .Durin gth emiddl eo fth e 1950's, Ephedra sinica chamaedaphne sections of the grassland were still productive with Prunus mongolica Zizyphus spinosus plant coverage of 90% and a hay yield of 3,750kg/h a Rhamnus parvifolia (Mu, 1980). Cropping of part of the grassland and Herbs overgrazing on the other, however, have seriously de­ Anemorrhena Leontopodium spp. graded this grassland area. Both plant cover and hay asphodeloiàes Iris ensata yield havedecrease d 50%o r more sinceth e 1950's. Aster spp. Potentilla spp. Bupleurum spp. Saussurea spp. The cool tall grassland of Chahar and Ulanqab is Cymbaria dahwica Scutellaria crislatum locatednort ho fth eYinsha nRange ,fro m theBaochan g Filifolium sibiricum Stellera spp. areai n theeas t toth eSiziwan g (Dorbod) Qiare a in the Grasses west. Most grazing land has deteriorated due to over­ Agropyron cristatum Leymus chinense grazing,bu twit h protectionan dsom eirrigation ,recov ­ Agrostis alba Leymus dasystachys ery canoccu r (Figures4.2 5 and 4.26). Arundinella hirta Pennisetum flaccidum Bromus inermis Poa sphondylodes A TRANSITIONAL ZONE BETWEEN THE Elymus danuricus Roegneria turczaninovii COOL AND WARM TEMPERATE TALL Hordeum brevisubulatum Stipa capillata GRASSLANDS Koeleria cristata Stipa bungeana Legumes Aneas tt owes ttransitiona lzon eexist sbetwee nth e Astragalus melilotoides Melilotus officinalis northernborde ro fChin a andth eLoes sPlatea u (Figure Caragana microphylla Oxytropis spp. 4.1)(summe rgree nfores t andfores t grassland)an dth e Hedysarum spp. Trigonella ruthenica Yinshan Range. The area is about 500 km long and Lespedeza bicolor Trifolium lupinaster 40-80k mwide .Th erelie f of thisare ai smainl ybasins , Lespedeza dahwica Trifolium sibiricum valleys,hills ,an dpiedmont ,wit helevation so f600-70 0 Lespedeza floribunda Vicia spp. m to 1,100-1,200m . Mean annual temperatures range Medicago ruthenica from 6-9°C, with a growing season of more than 150 daysan d annual rainfall from 350m m to40 0mm .Th e Anumbe ro fComposita efamil y plants,especiall y soil is carbonate brown soil with external drainage to species of Artemisia, are important on sloping grass-

65 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Figure 4.25. Deteriorated tall grassland in Siziwang (Dorbod) Qi, Ulanqab District, Inner Mongolia,cause d by overgrazing. (Photo courtesy of H.W. Youngberg, 1982) lands where they may form a pure stand. Common cropsar esprin gwheat ,corn ,sorghum ,millet ,an dsom e speciesare :Artemisia capillaris,Artemisia frigida, Ar­ treespecies of Ubnuspumila and Thuja orientalis. temisia sacrorum, and Artemisia sieversiana. The The region from Zhangjiakou to the east through height of herbs and grasses is 30-60 cm with 60-80% Chongli (Xiwanzi) towher e Chichengjoin s withYan - coverage. This grassland is badly deteriorated due to shan is the predominate area of deforestation. On the overgrazingb y herdsan d flocks, improper cultivation, denudedslope sar epatche soiCorylus spp.thicket san d and collection of fuel by local people. The cultivated

Figure 4.26. A pasture from a deteriorated tall grassland in Siziwang (Dorbod) Qi, Ulanqab, Inner Mongolia, enclosed for two years with some irrigation, showing the growth of wheatgrass. (Photo courtesy of H.W. Youngberg, 1982)

66 CHAPTER 4

wide stretches of woodland meadow (Wang, 1961). and Ningxia Integrated Survey (Anon., 1980) stated The rich meadow is composed of numerous perennial that of the more than 2,238 spermatophytic species, herbsan dSanguisorba officinalis isa commo n species overhal f are forage plants.Mor e than 200o f these are of the meadows. Colorful species in the meadows in­ grassland forage species. cludeth efollowin g genera: Aster Iris Poaceae(Gramineae )i sth emos timportan t family consistingo f 132species ,amon gwhic hare, Agropyron Delphinium Lilium (4),Leymus (2),Bromus (4),Cleistogenes (5),Elymus Gentiana Poemecia (6),Festuca (2),Poa (6),Roegneria (3),an dStipa (8). Hemerocallis Trollius Somear edominan tspecie si ngrassland san d meadows Othervaluabl e grasses and legumes include: growing widely under various environmental con­ Grasses ditionsan d providing grazing and hay, or both. Agropyron cristatum Calamagrostis spp. The Fabaceae (Leguminosae) family is repre­ Arundinella hirta Poa palustris sented by 107 species. All of these species enhance Bromus inermis Stipa spp. grassland forage quality. One hundred and thirty spe­ Legumes cies of the Compositae family are found in the grass­ Astragalus adsurgens Oxytropis coerulea land, including 30 species of Artemisia and Ajania Lathyrus davidii Trifolium lupinaster which are nutritious forages. Allium is an important Melilotus ruthenica Vicia spp. genus in thegrassland , with many species found. Melilotus sativa In comparing the grasslands of Outer Mongolia From theeas t toth ewest ,th eelement so f northern (Mongolian People's Republic) tothos eo fInne r Mon­ China flora decrease gradually and are replaced by golia, the dry matter yields in Outer Mongolia are more Mongolian elements. From the Wanquan Basin higher. This is due to the more severe environmental (north of Zhangjiakou) to the southern border of the conditionso fInne rMongoli aan dbette rgrasslan dman ­ Mongolian Plateau, the relief rises abruptly to eleva­ agement inOute r Mongolia. tions of600-70 0m .Mos t of themountai n forests have been disturbed. Kloss and Succow (1977) divided Outer Mongo­ lian forage production estimates into five regions: Tree species include: 1. Grassstepp ewit hannua lrainfal lo fabou t25 0m m , Betula spp. Populus spp. yielding 500-1,000k gdr y matter per ha. Larix gmelinii Quercus mongolica 2. Forbstepp e(rubble-ston esteppe) ,yieldin g50 0k g Picea spp. dry matter per ha. Thesemountai n forests arefoun d onstee pslopes . 3. Mountain herbage lands with rainfall slightly When theforest s weredisturbed , xerophyticspecies o f above30 0mm ,yieldin g3,000-4,00 0k gdr ymatte r Artemisia and Stipa developed there, and areas of per ha. mountain meadows formed on the tops of the moun­ 4. Mountainsteppe ,yieldin g 2,000k gdr ymatte rpe r tains. ha. 5. Newly established pasture with rotational grazing DachingMountai ni slocate di nth ewester npar to f management and fertilization, yielding 10,000 kg the Yinshan Range, which varies in elevation from dry matter per ha. 2,000t o2,10 0m .Limite dforest so fBetula an dPopulus aredistribute d onshade d andsemi-shade d slopeswit h Thenutritive valu eo fpastur eforage sa scompare d elevations of 1,600-1,900 m. Pinus tabulaeformis is to oat units in Outer Mongolia is shown in Table 4.4 present at 1,400-1,700 m. Below 1,400 m Thuja ori- (Cerendulma, 1977). entalis is found. On the sunny slopes, the species are The mineral content of the native forages varies mainly shrubs, herbs, and grasses. On the top of the widely and is generally low in phosphorus. The Ca:P mountain, meadow areas predominate. ratiovarie sbetwee n 1.4an d 11.6an di sno tadequat et o meet animal requirements. The K:Na ratio varies be­ SUMMARY tween 1.0 and 19.5 depending on growing stage and Since 1949, many survey expeditions have been species. The concentration of trace elements (Co, Cu, made to the Inner Mongolian grassland area to inves­ Zn,an d Mn)i n pasture forage is insufficient in several tigate its vegetation, soil, livestock, and geography. regions. Many grassland stations have been established to in­ The general characteristics of the grasslands of troduce new grazing and hay making techniques to InnerMongoli a are listed inTabl e4.5 . assist in grassland improvement. The Inner Mongolia

67 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Table 4.4.Th e nutritive value of forages as compared tooat s (Oat units) (in kg/100 kg dry matter). (Adapted from R. Cerendulma, 1977)

Summer Autumn Winter anc 1 Spring

Oat units Digestible Oat units Digestible Oat units Digestible crude protein crude protein crude protein Alpine pasture with Agropyron, 82.3 11.2 - - - - Leymus, and forbs at blooming stage Alpine forest pasture 80.6 11.5 - - - - Mountain steppe meadows with 90.8 6.8 62.2 4.1 47.0 2.4 Koeleria, Poa, and forbs at the vegetative stage

Steppe pastures 72.3 6.4 65.9 4.4 31.6 1.6

Desert steppe pastures with 103.8 10.6 63.2 4.7 60.1 3.4 Stipa,Allium, and Artemisia before budding stage Desert pastures 113.2 12.1 - - 61.4 3.7 Haloxylon pasture 61.9 4.2 - - - - Valley meadows 84-4 9.6 51.2 5.2 87.1 2.1

Saline lowland pastures 66.5 8.6 76.5 3.5 48.0 2.9

Following experiments with Medicago falcata, 2. Preventing further deterioration of the grasslands Medicago media, Bromus inermis, Elymus sibiricus, by propergrasslan d management. andAgropyron cristatum, Erdenejav (1974) suggested 3. Developingsupplie s offeed , haystorage ,an d wa­ threemanagemen tpractice svaluabl et oth eMongolia n ter resources. People's Republic: 4. Increasing supplies of natural forages. 1. Early summer grazing (May 20-25 to June 5-10) and cutting the regrowth for hay at the end of SPECIES LIST August ora t thebeginnin g of September. A listo fcommo n forage plantsusefu l for thecool , 2. Cuttingalfalf a atth ebu dstag ean dcuttin gmeado w temperate, tallgrasslan d region: grasses at the heading stage for hay, with grazing Grasses of the regrowth. Cleistogenes squarrosa 3. Asingl e useo f ahayfield , cutting atth een d of the Achnatherum splendens (4 other species) blooming stage. Agropyron cristatum Clinelymus dahuricus Nomadic animal husbandry practices depend pri­ Agropyron mongolicum (3 other species) marily on grazing of grasslands, and are influenced Agropyron sibiricum Festuca ovina greatlyb yth ecol dan ddr yweathe ro fth ewinter-sprin g Agrostis alba Festuca rubra period. Forage plants start togro w in the beginning to Agrostis mongolica Koeleria cristata the middleo f May when temperatures are 5° to 10°C. Agrostis trinii Leymus chinense The grazing season is 140-180days . Nomadic people Alopecurus aequalis Poa annua grazethei rlivestoc kdurin gth elon g6- 7mont hcol dan d Alopecurus brachystachys (6 other species) windy winter-to-spring period. The forage available Alopecurus pratensis Puccinellia tenuiflora during this period is not adequate for animal needs. Aristida adscensionis Stipa grandis Therefore, the first problem of the grazing animal in Bromus inermis Stipa Krylovii thisregio n isth eavailabilit y of supplementary feeds. Bromus ircutensis Stipa baicalensis Calamagrostis epigeios (5 other species) Urgent problems facing Chinese herdsmen in the Calamagrostis gigantea cooltemperat e tallgrasslan d region of Inner Mongolia Calamagrostis are: pseudophragmites 1. Developing methods of restoring the denuded grasslands.

68 CHAPTER 4

Table 4.S.Th e characteristicso f the tall grasslandso f Inner Mongolia. (Adaptedfro m G. Erdenejav, 1974)

Vegetation

Type Annual Sum of Soil Height Coverage Species Hay yield Importantforag e rainfall temperature (cm) (%) perm (kg/ha) genera (mm) »10°

Mountain 450-500 1,400-2,200 Black soil 40-70 80-95 over3 0 1,500-2,500 Agrostis meadow Caiamagrostis Carex Gallium Poa Sanguisorba (more herbstha n grasses

Mountain 400-500 1,600,2400 Chernozem 30-50 60-85 25-30 1,200-2,000 Bromus grassland Medicago Vicia

Meadows 350-450 2,400-3,000 Chernozem 30-60 70-90 20-25 1,200-1,800 Achnalherum Agrosâs Caiamagrostis Carex Leymus Phragmites (andplent y of herbs)

Grassland 300-400 2,400-3,000 Dark 25-40 40-80 15-20 100-150 Agropyron chestnut Allium chernozem Artemisia Astragalus Bromus Carex Cleistogenes Festuca Koeleria Stipa Vicia

Legumes REFERENCES Astragalus adsurgens Medicago falcata Anon. 1980. Inner Mongolian and Ningxia integrated (8 other species) Medicago lupulina expedition ofAcademi a Sinica.Th enatura l pasture Caragana (8 species) Oxytropis (5 species) in Inner Mongolia and its neighboring areas. Sci­ Hedysarum scoparium Pococlda ruthenica encePress ,Beijing . (In Chinese) (4 other species) Trifolium lupinaster Lathyrus humilis Vicia (7 species) Anon. 1964.A stud yo fth eproductivit yo fsevera ltype s Lespedeza (5 species) ofgrasslan di nHulunbuir .Hulunbui rGrasslan dStn . Herbs and others (In Chinese) Allium polyrrhizum Artemisia scoparia Bishop, C.W. 1922. The geographical factor in the (8 other species) (many other species) development of Chinese civilization. Geog. Rev. Artemisia frigida Carex duriuscula 12:19-41. Artemisia gmelinii Carex pediformis Artemisia ordosica (and others) Bohlin,B . 1949.A contributio nt oou rknowledg eo fth e Potentilla (many species) distributiono fvegetatio ni nInne rMongolia ,Kansu , andChinghai .A repor to fth eSino-Swedis h Exped. Publ.No .33 ,Bot .Sec. , Stockholm. Buxton,L.H.D . 1923.Presen tcondition si nInne rMon ­ golia.J . Geog. 61:393-413.

69 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Cerendulma, R. 1977. Chemical composition and nu­ Li,P .1979 .Th egenera lcharacteristic so fth egrassland s tritive value of pasture forage in the Mongolian of China. BulLo f Grassl.Sei . 1:2-12.(I n Chinese) People's Republic,p . 1501-1503.In: Proc.XII I Int. Liu,C.L . 1963.A genera ldescriptio n ofstepp ei nInne r Grassland Cong., Berlin. Mongolia. J. Univ. of Inner Mongolia (Science), Chien, S.S., Y.C. Wu, and C.T. Cheng. 1956.A tenta­ No. 2. (In Chinese) tive scheme of phytogeographical regions, p. 83- Mu, Y.T. 1980. On the problems of utilization, con­ 142.In: K.F .Lo u (ed.).A Tentative Scheme of the Natural Regions of China. Science Press, Peking. servation, and reconstruction of grassland in Cha- (In Chinese) har. p. 121-125.In: Proc.3r d Northeastern Grassl. Conf.,Soc .o fBot .o fKiri nan dHeilongjian g Prov., Cressey, G.B. 1934. China's Geographical Founda­ Changchun. (In Chinese) tions.McGraw-Hil l Book Co., New York.43 6pp . Norlindh, T. 1949.Flor a of the Mongolian steppe and Erdenejav, G. 1974. Cultivation of perennial forage desert area. A report of the Sino-Swedish Exped. grassesi nth eMongolia nPeople' sRepublic ,p .660 - Publ.No .31 . Bot.Sec .4:1-157 . Stockholm. 664.In: Proc.XI I Int.Grassl .Cong. , Moscow. Ren, C.T. 1934.Th e forest of Suiynan. J. Agr. Assoc. Grubov, V.l. 1963. Plants of Central Asia. (Chinese China 129:206-218.(I n Chinese) edition)Translation so f Biology No.3 .Peking . Roi,J . 1940.Souther n Chahar vegetation. Peking Nat. Grubov,V.l .1969 .Flor aan dvegetation ,p .265-364 .In: Hist.Bull . 14:221-224. USSR Acad.Sei .Inst . Geog.Th ePhysica l Geogra­ Roi,J .1941 .Phytogeograph yo fCentra lAsia .Bull .Fa n phyo f China.Vol . 1. F.A.Praege r Publishers,Ne w York. MemorialInstitut eo fBiolog y(Bot .series ) 11:1-36. Thorp,J . 1936.Geograph y ofth eSoil so f China.Com ­ Grubov,V.l . 1972.Th e relationship between the floras mercial Press,Shanghai .55 2pp . of CentralAsi a and Eastern Asia. USSR Acad. Sei. Inst.Bot .24:86-93 .(I n Russian) Tsao, L.E. 1930. In the steppe of Barga. China J. 12:138-145. Haas. 1984. Animal Husbandry of Inner Mongolia. Bureau of Animal Husbandry, Inner Mongolia. Tsui,Y.W . 1950.Soi lconservatio n survey inth e upper Yuntinghe(river )valley .J .Bot .Soc .o fChin a5:29 - Hou,H.Y . 1983.Vegetatio n of Chinawit h reference to 32. (In Chinese) its geographical distribution. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gar.70:504-548 . Van Dyne, G.M., and S.H. Van Dyne. 1981.Observa ­ tions of the Chinese grazing lands, ecology, man­ Hu, S.T. 1956. The grasslands of Inner Mongolia and agement, research, and peoples. Colorado State theirutilization . (Unpublished).(I n Chinese) Univ., Fort Collins, Colorado.9 5pp . Hue, E.R. 1928.Travel s in Tartary, Tibet, and China, Walker, A.S. 1982.Desert s of China.Amer . Scientist. 1844-1886.2 Vols.Harper , New York. 70:366-376. Imanishi,K .1950 .Ecologica lobservation so nth eGrea t Walter,H .1979 .Vegetatio no fth eEarth an dEcologica l Khingan Expedition. Geog. Rev.40:236-253 . Systems of the Gee-Biosphere. Springer-Verlag, Keng, T.L. 1921. Natural forests of Ningwu, Shansi. New York,2n ded . 274pp . Forestry 1(3):19-26 .(I n Chinese) Wang, C.W. 1961.Th e forests of China with a survey Kloss, K., and M. Succow. 1977. Grassland site types of grassland and desert vegetation. Maria Moors of the North Mongolian forest steppe zone and Cabot Found. Pub. No. 5. Harvard Univ., Cam­ possibilitieso nintensification , p.6-13 .In: Proc .Int . bridge,Mass .31 3pp . Grassl.Cong. , Berlin. Wang, Y.F., S.P. Yong, and C.L. Liu. 1979. Charac­ Lavrenko, F.M. (ed.) 1979. Vegetation Map of the teristicso fth eveget ationa lzone si nth eNe iMongol Mongolian People's Republic. USSR Acad. Sei. AutonomousRegion .Act a Bot.Sinic a21:274-284 . Inst.Bot. , Leningrad. (In Chinese) Li, P. 1963.Th e zonality, primary types, and ecogeo- Wen, C.W., C. Hsu, J. Li, and W.C. Tsai. 1956. The graphic roles of vegetation in Inner Mongolia. J. soil-vegetation zones of western Inner Mongolia. Univ.o f Inner Mongolia (Science), No.2 . (In Chi­ (Unpublished) (In Chinese) nese)

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Yang, C.Y. 1937.Th e forest vegetation of Xishan and Lesser Wutai Shan. Bull. Chinese Bot. Soc. 3:97- 118.(I n Chinese) Yaroshenko, P.D. 1961. Geobotany. Science Press, Beijing. (In Chinese) Yule, H. 1903. The Book of Sir Marco Polo the Vene­ tian Concerning the Kingdoms and Marvels of the East.3r d ed.Revise d by Condin, 2vols. , London. Yunatov, A.A. 1950. The basic features of the plant cover of the Mongolian People's Republic. Tr. Mongol.Kom .39:223 .USS RAcad . Sei., Moscow, Leningrad. (Trans, from Russian, 1959). Science Press, Peking.(I n Chinese) Yunatov, A.A., B.Dashnyan , and A.A.Helbich . 1979. In: F.M. Lavrenko (ed.). Vegetation Map of the Mongolian People's Republic. USSR Acad. Sei. Inst.Bot. , Leningrad.

71 Chapter 5

WARM TEMPERATE TALL GRASSLAND REGION OF NORTH CHINA AND THE LOESS PLATEAU

The warm temperate tall grassland region is lo­ GENERAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS cated south of Northeast China and Inner Mongolia, easto fth eshor tgrasslan d area(steppe )an dnort ho fth e Relief subtropical area. This area of grassland mixed with Atth enorther nborde ro fth eregio ni sth eYansha n summer green forest is divided into two areas by the Range. The northern border also includes Yunwu 1,500-2,000 m Taihang Mountain Range, with the Mountain(1,200-2,00 0m) ;th eXia oWuta i Mountains LoessPlatea u in thewes t and theNort h China Plaini n (2,817 m) in northwestern Hebei Province; the Heng- theEas t(Figur e5.1) .Th eYello wSe aform sth eeastern shan (2,993m) ,includin g Wutai Mountain (3,058 m); bordero fth eregio nwhil emountain sse tth eothe rthre e the Guancen Mountains (2,000m ) in the northern part boundaries. of Shanxi Province; and the eastern part of the Ordos

Figure 5.1. General mapo f thewan n temperate tall grasslands of NorthChin a andth e Loess Plateau. Locations area sfollows : 1) , 2)Jina n(Tsinan) ,3 )Xuzho u (Hsuehow), 4)Dongta i (Huyin),5 )Nanjing ,6 )Shanghai ,7 ) , 8) ,9 ) , 10) , 11)Yan-an , 12)Xian , 13)Lanzhou , 14) .

73 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Plateau, which lies at the northwestern border of the InnerMongolia ,centra lan d eastern Gansu, and north- region. em and central Shaanxi.Th e Loess Plateau has a gen­ eral elevation of 1,000-1,500 m, with some areas of The western border of the region is the 300 mm loess deposit reaching 100m depth . isohyet,whic hinclude sLupa n Mountain(2,96 0m )an d other mountains. Climate Thesouther nborde ri sforme d byth emountain si n The climateo f the region isgreatl y influenced by southeastern Gansuan dth eQinlin gRang ei nth esouth ­ monsoonsdurin gth esumme ran dearl ypar to fautumn . ern part of Shaanxi Province. The central southern Thisperio d ischaracterize d by high temperatures (25- border is formed by the Funiu and Tongbai mountains 35°C)an d themajorit y of annualrainfall .Th eMongo ­ (1,200-2,000 m). The southeastern border of lian Continental Current dominates during winter, Province is formed by the Huaiyang Mountains, in­ spring,an dlat eautumn ,formin ga col dan ddr yclimate . cluding theDabi e Mountain,wit h lower hillsi ncentra l The climate of the region may be classified as princi­ Province, which gradually merge into the plain pally semi-arid. in northern Jiangsu Province. TheLoes sPlatea uwa sa rich forest-grasslan d area Inth esouther nportio no fthi sregion ,th eLiaodon g during the Hsia-Shang-Chou dynasties (2,205-225 and peninsulasju t into theYello w Sea. The B.C.). Since that time, especially since the Yuan dy­ topography is dominated by 500 m hills, except for nasty (1206A.D.) , deforestation and reclamation have Taishan which has an elevation of 1,524 m. gradually changed the vegetation and climate to one characterized by drought and soil erosion. Therelie fo fth eeastern par to fth eregio ni ssimple , includingth evas talluvia n plaino fNort hChin aan d the There are four seasons in the region, including a hillsi neastern Shandong .Th ewester npar to fth eLoes s brief spring and fall. The mean annual temperature of Plateau is mixed with mountains, particularly in theentir eregio ni s10-16°C .Th enorther npar taverage s Shanxi. In this province, the are 8°C, with an average of 0°C and 28°C in January and located inth eeast , theZhongtia oMountain s(2,32 2m ) July, respectively, but somewhat lower in the plateau inth esouth ,th eLulian g Mountains(2,000-2,83 1m )i n and mountains. thewest , and theHengshan-Guance n Mountains in the north. These mountains form the complex topography Precipitation in the western Loess Plateau aver­ of the province and account for more than 70% of the ages 300-500 mm, with the southeastern areas of the land area.Th e remaindero f the provincei smad eu po f NorthChin aPlai nreceivin g80 0mm .Th enorthwester n the valley of the in the middle and small parto f thePlatea u has thelowes t rainfall, 300mm ;th e plainsi nth esout h( )an dnort h() .Th e minimum needed for dryland fanning. Since the rain entire area is covered with loess soil of varying thick­ falls mostly during thesumme rgrowin g season,vege ­ ness. tation thrives. However, the annual precipitation fluc­ tuates greatly. A wet season may receive 1,000 mm, Thearea so fcentra l and northern Shaanxi, eastern with downpours detrimental to both agricultural Gansu,an d southern Ningxia provinces form thewest ­ production and soil conservation. One downpour re­ ern part of the Loess Plateau with a general elevation corded 450m m (18.75 inches) of rain in 24hours . of 1,500 m.Thi s loessare a isa dissected landform due Tu (1936) classified the climate of the region as to innumerable gullies and ravines caused by years of soilerosion .Th eerode d area isestimate d tob e80 %o f North-China type.H efurthe r subdivided itint oeastern thetota llan darea ,generatin g2,00 0t o3,50 0ton so fsil t plain climate (a temperate broadleaf forest-grassland per km per year. The maximum value of silt content type), and western plateau climate (a temperate, semi- in eroded water was recorded to be 666 kg/m by the arid monsoon grassland type). The demarcation line Shanmenxia Hydrograph Station at the between the two is the Taihang Mountain Range. The onJul y27,1971 .Th eslop eo fthi slan dvarie sfro m less meteorological data of selected locations of the region than 5°t ogreate r than 25°wit h 10%i n the0-5 ° range, isprovide d inTabl e 5.1. 58% from 6-25°,an d32 %wit hslope sgreate rtha n25° . Soil This highly erodible land is not suitable for cropland and would benefit greatly from the development of The soil of the plateau is soft and friable. Due to grassland agriculture and forest systems. disturbance of natural vegetation, and extensive culti­ vation without proper management, the soil has been The Loess Plateau is reported to have been de­ exposedt oerosio nb yth enumerou storrentia lrain stha t posited in the middle Pleistocene (Tuan, 1969) and is fall during theshor tsumme rseason .Th eheatin go f the widelysprea di nnorther nHebei ,th esouther nborde ro f bare soil surface produces powerful convection cur-

74 CHAPTER 5

Table 5.1. Temperature and rainfall of selected locations in the North China Plain and the Loess Plateau (1950-1970). (Adapted from C.W. Tu, 1936)

Location Latitude/ Altitude Temperature fC) Annual Crowing Longitude rainfall season

(m) Annual January July (mm) (days)

North China Plain

Beijing 39°48',116"29' 31 11.6 -4.7 26.1 632 190

Jinan 36"44', 117°08' 51 14.6 -1.7 27.9 672 240 34°18', 117°19' - 14.5 -1.2 27.9 683 260 Dongtai 32°51', 120°18' 7 15.6 3.9 27.1 895 280

Loess Plateau

Taiyuan 37°53', 112°20' 781 9.3 -7.0 23.9 466 220

Xian 34°15', 108°55' 396 13.0 -1.3 26.7 604 260

Lanzhou 36o03', 103°48' 1517 9.1 -7.3 22.4 331 187 rentswhic hlea dt otorrentia lrain swhic hcu tth esurfac e Lee (1947) used climate, drainage, soil, natural of the Loess Plateau by gully erosion. The result is a regions,vegetation , land utilization, and agriculture to maze of ravines, most of which lack any substantial delineate several geographical regions of China. Ac­ plant cover.Th edrough t and flooding has accelerated, cordingt othi sclassification , twosubrogion swer eiden ­ especially during recent centuries. tified, northern China and the middle Yellow River Valley in the west. According to agricultural types, Pedologists describe the region as mostly moun­ Buck (1937) described thevas t area as awinte r wheat tainbrow nfores t soil,wit hloes swidel ydistributed ,an d region with sorghum and millet assubdominan t crops alluvial soili n the North China Plain.Th e soilsca n be in theplai n and Loess Plateau, respectively. characterized as follows: 1. Brown forest calcareous soil.Thi ssoi li sfoun d in Vegetation thenorther n parto f theNort h China Plain, includ­ Natural vegetation in the region includes decidu­ ingsouther n Shanxi,wester n Shaanxi,an d eastern ous broadleaf forests, forest grassland, and grassland Gansu.Mos t of thissoi lzon eha sbee n cultivated. zones. These zones are parallel from east to west, 2. Alluvial calcareous soil in the North China Plain. particularly in the north.Th e forest zone encompasses Study of the soil profile has shown this area was the Liaodong and Shandong peninsulas, and the Yan formerly atemperat e forest-grassland. and Shanxi mountains.Th e most important forest type 3. Loesssoi l of the Loess Plateau. This soil contains isoa k (Quercus).Favore db yth emaritim eclimate ,oa k coarseparticles ,loos estructure ,an dhig h porosity. forests grow with a diversity of trees and shrubs. Spe­ It iseasil y eroded. ciesofLarix, however, arefavore d by thedr yan d cool 4. Saline soil. This soil is found in the lowland of winterso fth eYansha nan dth eShanx imountains .Mos t southernHebei ,wester nShandong ,an dth ecoasta l of the forests havebee n disturbed and extensive shrub area. formations haveformed , mixedwit hgrasse san dherbs . 5. Mountain sod-brown earth andmountai n meadow Asrainfal ldecrease ssharpl ywes t ofth eShanx i moun­ soil. These soils are found above elevations of tains, the vegetation changes to forest-grassland and 1,500 and 2,000 m, respectively. grassland. Geographical Region Accordingt oVa n Dynean dVa n Dyne(1981) ,th e Cressey (1934) divided the region geographically areao f intensivegrazin g land in thisregio n is 254,000 intoth eYello w RiverPlai n (North China Plain) in the km . This includes the provinces of Hebei, Henan, east and the Loess Plateau in the west. Loess deposits Shandong, Shanxi, Shaanxi, and the eastern part of exist, however, in both the plain and the plateau, al­ Gansu Province. The grazing lands of this region rep­ though only in the plateau does the thickness of accu­ resent a tremendous potential resource. Presently this mulation exceed 100m . potential is not being realized, however, due to over­ grazing and collection of fuel. With proper manage-

75 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

ment this region could generate a tremendous agricul­ of the land is 10-50 m above sea level, with some tural production. Since this subject has received little lowlandsan d sandlandsscattere d throughout. attention during thepas t few decades,fe w studies have Climate and Soil beenconducted .Thus ,dat aar eno tavailabl ean dw eca n describe the grazing land only in general terms and Theclimat eo f theNort h China Plain is character­ indicate its potential. ized by dry-cool winters, dry springs influenced by Mongolianhig hpressur esystem san dhot-we tsummer s Formation of the North China Plain influenced bymonsoo nrains .Th emea n temperatureo f The formation of the North China Plain resulted the coldest (January) and hottest (July) months are from erosiono fth eLoes sPlateau ,a proces si nprogres s mostlybelo w 0°Can d around 28°C,respectively , with for thousandso fyears ,involvin g theYello w Riveran d mean annual temperatures ranging from 10 to 15°C. others. In ancient times, the Loess Plateau was a rich Annual rainfall ranges from 600 to 800 mm, being forest area, but deforestation has caused serious ero­ higheri nth esout han dlowe ri nth enorth .Ther ei sgrea t sion.Th erivers carrie d silt depositst oth eswamp s and variation in theannua l rainfall. For example, the max­ lakes of the lowlands, forming the North China Plain imum and minimum recorded rainfall at Beijing (Pe­ (Ting, 1956; cit. Hsu, 1981). The plain has a mean king)i s 1,084an d 242 mm, respectively. elevation of 10-50m .Ther e are some districts of low­ land with a high water table forming saline soil, e.g. The soil is mostly alluvial on the plain with some southern Hebei Province, northwestern Shandong areaso fsand-lan d andsalin econditions .Th emountai n Province,an d thesandlan d ineaster n Henan Province. soil ismostl y brown forest earth. Vegetation TheYello w River originates in the northern Tibet Plateau andflow s through theLoes sPlatea ucarryin ga The vegetation of the North China Plain was de­ large quantity of silt, e.g. 22 billion cubic feet (623 fined byChie ne tal .(1956 )an dWan g(1961 )a ssteppe , million m ) per year. The river has changed its course woodland steppe, woodland, or summer green forest. about 20 times since 2297 B.C. (Chin, 1705; cit. The forests are dominated by species of Quercus and Cressey, 1934).Th eJi nRiver ,a tributar yo fth eYello w mixed with species of Betula, Pimis tabulaeformis, Riverwhic h arises from thehear to f theLoes s Plateau, Thuja orientalis, and other xerophytic coniferous spe­ also transports loess to the North China Plain. The cies. The common cultivated tree species are of the River was documented in 1931-1932 to carry mud Salix, Populus, and Ulmusgener a (Figure 5.2). loads of 48% by weight in solids (Todd, 1949). In winter and early spring, the silt content is reduced to North China (particularly the western part of lesstha n 1%.Mos to fthi ssil ti scarrie d intoth eYello w Henan Province and the Valley of Shaanxi Sea, but a significant amount is deposited in the river Province) was the cradle of Chinese culture. A devel­ channel, making the channel bed higher and con­ oped agriculture hasexiste d inth eplai n for more than tributing tofloodin g of the surrounding plain. For this 4,000years .Forest shav ebee nvirtuall ydestroyed ,wit h reason, the river was formerly called "The Sorrow of only 2.3% of the Shandong mountains now covered China." with forests (Kao, 1952, cit. Kazakova, 1969). This figure isgenerall y indicativeo f theproportio n of forest Based on natural conditions and vegetation, the inth emountai narea so f North China.A tpresent ,mos t regionma yb edivide d intotw osubregion s( 1 ) th ewar m of the mountains are covered with grasses and xero­ temperate tall grassland mixed with forest in North phyticthorn y shrubs,o rcombination s of the two. China,an d(2 )th ewar m temperatetal lgrasslan dmixe d withwoodlan d andshrub si nth eLoes sPlatea u (Figure GRASSLANDS MIXED WITH FOREST AND 5.1). SHRUBS ON MOUNTAINS Mountain Grassland Mixed with Forest GRASSLANDS MIXED WITH SUMMER FOREST IN NORTH CHINA Whereth eforest s weredisturbed ,secondar y plant successions have occurred. Species of shrubs are North China is circled by mountains and hills on mostly Vitex chinensis and Choerospondias spp. with three sides. Some mountains and hills are found in the grasses Themeda triandra and Bothriochloa is- Shandong, Henan, and northern Jiangsu and Anhui chaemuma s the dominants. provinces. This area was formed by deposits of the Yellow River, the , and several smaller Forestso f Quercus,a typical deciduous broadleaf rivers. It is usually called the North China Plain. Most treegenus ,ar ewidel y distributed inmountainou sarea s of North China (Figures 5.3 and 5.4). These forests

76 CHAPTER 5

Mountainmeado w Meadow 2100 soil

Mountain sod- 1800 browneart h

- 1500 3 Mountainbrow n 2. earth - 1200 w

900 Mountainleachin g korichnevylsoi l

600

Figure5.2 .Th evertica l distribution ofsoi l andvegetatio n beltso nWillin gMountains ,wester n part ofth eYansha nRang e(40°27'N) . northern Hebei. (Adapted from CM. Hsieh, 1973) occur from the south of Liaodong and Shandong pen­ Larixprincipis-rupprechtii Forest insulas to western Henan and northern Jiangsu and The Larix principis-rupprechtii forest is widely Anhui provinces. Most are secondary forests of pure distributed inth emountai narea so fnorther nHebe ian d stands,o rmixe dwit hothe rtre especies .Leave so fsom e western Shanxi provinces (loess area) on shady slopes Quercus species are used to feed silkworms. Many above 1,600 m. Shrubsgrowin g under trees include: species of shrubs, herbs,an d grasses grow luxuriantly Abelia biflora Rosa bella in the understory or between the forests. Grass cover, mainly Themeda triandra and Bothriochloa is- Lonicera hispida Sorbus pohuashanensis chaemum, is60-80 %an d grows30-10 0cm .Growt h is Lonicera microphylla Spiraea spp. greatly influenced byenvironmenta l conditions. Some Carex is the dominant species in the herbaceous valuable grass,Carex, an d legume forages include: layer. Grasses Carex Other species include: Agropyron spp. Carex ciliatomarginata Agrimonia pilosa Potentilla fragarioides Carex humilis Geranium wilfordii Thalictrum baicalense Arundinella hirta Carex lanceolata Meadowsar e found above the forest zone. Bothriochloa Carex siderosticha Bromus inermis Carex subpediformis Pinustabidaeformis Forest Cynodon dactylon Pinus tabulaeformisi sa typica lfores t inth emoun ­ Deyeuxia arundinacea Legumes tain areas of North China from the Great Khingan Festuca ovina Lespedeza spp. Mountains in the north to the Funiu Mountains in the Miscanthus sinensis Vicia amoena southwestern portion of Henan Province.Ordinarily ,i t Poa spp. Vicia unijuga forms a pure stand forest, but it is sometimes mixed Spodiopogon sibiricus with other tree species. Few of these stands are old Stipa bungeana forests. Secondary forests of young to middle ages Themeda triandra provide an open canopy for shrubs and herbs in the var. japonica understory, forming agoo d forage resource. Zoysia japonica Themai n shrubspecie sare : In addition, there are almost 30 species of shrubs Elaeagnus pungens Oxytropis Davidi and 30specie so f herbs used as forages. Lespedeza bicolor Spiraea cantoniensis Several types of Larix and Pinus forests exist in Lespedeza formosa Spiraea trilobata northern China. The common include: Arundinella hirta Stipa spp.

77 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

-""5= Sk .^i» '*«*•.

A o; ' '*&° l

^*^"«»C'

' «KM» *'»••••-* ; ** i'i,"/*"

Figure 5.3. A general view of the deciduous broad-leaved forest on Dongling Mountain in northern Hebei Province. The lower slopes are occupied principally by oaks and Pinus tabulaeformis. Mixed northern hardwoods (Betula, Acer, Tilia, and Sorbus) cover the upper belt. Coniferous forests of Abies and Larix are on the top of mountains. Most of the forests have been logged and have resulted in grassland development. (Photo by F.N. Meyer, courtesy of USDA; reproduced from C.W. Wang, 1961)

Figure 5.4. An apple orchard on non-calcareous brown alluvium near Beijing. Note the barren eroded hill in the background. (Photo by J. Thorp; reproduced from J. Thorp, 1936)

Bothriochloa ischaemum Themeda triandra In the north, Leytnus chinoise and Cleistogenes Melica scabrosa var. japonica serotina are found, and Themeda floridula may be Poa spp. Zoysia macrostachys added in the south. Some common herb species are Artemisia spp. andAstilbe chinensis.

78 CHAPTER 5

Pinus densiflora Forest Lespedeza bicolor Malus spp. Lespedeza dahurica The Pinus densiflora forest is distributed on the mountains of theeaster n portion of North China, from Typical plant cover is 40% with plant height of Iiaodong Peninsula toShandon g Peninsula and farther 1.5-2m .Importan t herbsan dgrasse sgro w luxuriantly south to the Yuntai Mountains of northern Jiangsu. with anabundan t number ofspecies , including: Usually, other tree species are mixed with the forests. Anemone tomentosa Impatiens textori In the understory, shrubs and herbs grow luxuriantly, Arundinella hirta Potentilla spp. especiallyo nth efoothill san dshade dslopes ,providin g Atractylodes chinensis Roegneria kamoji a sourceo f forages and shrubs. Carex lanceolata Themeda triandra var. japonica Thecommo n species ofshrub s include: Corylus heterophylla Vitex negundo Cotoneaster acutifolius Formation Indigofera macrostachys var. heterophylla This shrub formation is distributed in the moun­ Lespedeza spp. Zizyphus jujuba tainous areas of Henan Province, where it isfoun d on The common grasses and grasslike species in­ slopes without forests or along the border of forests. clude: Plant cover is 25-30% with plant height of 1.5-2.5m . Arundinella hirta Eriophorum spp. Someimportan t genera include: Bothriochloa ischaemum Imperata cylindrica Indigofera Rhamnus Carex subpediformis Zoysia macrostachys Lespedeza Spiraea tortilis Grassesdominat e in the herbaceous layer. Digitaria sanguinalis Lespedeza bicolor Formation Herbs include: Thisformatio n isver ycommo no nhill san dmoun ­ Artemisia spp. tains of North China. Plant cover is often 40-50% but Gypsophila oldhamiana mayincreas et o90-95 %an dfor m goodgrazin glan di n Thymus serphyllum anassociatio n withman yvaluabl eforag e plants.Thes e Although several types of forests havebee n men­ include: tionedhere ,on enotice s intravelin g inthes e mountain­ Arundinella hirta Spiraea spp. ous areas,tha t most of them are covered with grasses, Cleistogenes squarrosa Vicia amoena shrubsan dherbs ,a sar eth emountain swher eth e Great Roegneria kamoji Wall is located, north of Beijing. Plant cover ranges Prunus armeniaca Formation from 40-80%, with plant height of 30-100 cm. In the southern part of the North China region, however, This formation is distributed on mountains and where rainfall is abundant and temperature higher, in hillswit ha nelevatio no f60 0m i nnorther nan dwester n addition to a thicker soil and more soil water, plants Hebei and extends to Shanxi and northern Shaanxi grow talleran d in lavish profusion. Thevertica l distri­ where the soil fertility is low.Prunus armeniaca may butiono fvegetatio n typeso fWuta iMountain ,i sshow n grow 2 to 3 m, with plant coverage of 50-70%. The inTabl e 5.2. frequent species of shrubs include Prunus davidiana and Ulmusmacrocarpa. The grasses and some herbs Secondary Formations include: After the deciduous broadleaf forests were de­ Artemisia sacrorum Potentilla discolor stroyed,variou sshru bformation s mixedwit hherb san d Arundinella hirta Scorzonera ruprechtiana grassesdeveloped ,providin ggoo dgrazin gland .Seve n Bothriochloa ischaemum Spodiopogon cotulifer formations aredescribe d below. Cleistogenes spp. Themeda triandra Spiraea chinensis Formation Myripnois dioica Formation This formation is distributed on the middle and This formation is distributed on the Taihang lowerslope so f mountains inHebei , Shanxi,an d Liao- Mountains between 300 and 700 m in western Hebei. ning provinces. The dominant species is Spiraea chi­ The frequent species of shrubs include: nensis. Sometimes it is associated with Spiraea Deutzia grandiflora Spiraea trilobata pubescens and Spiraea trilobata as the dominants. Spiraea pubescens Vitex spp. Otherimportan t speciesare : Caragana rosea Lespedeza floribunda Other species include: Artemisia gmelinii Dianthus amurensis Cotinus coggyria Lespedeza formosa Deyeuxia sylvatica Spodiopogon sibiricus

79 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Table 5.2. Grassland types,altitude s of location, main species, productivity, and coverage of species found on Wutai Mountain in Shanxi Province. (Adapted from H. Smith, 1926an d F.C. Ku, 1980)

Type Altitude Main Species Productivity Coverage (m) kg/ha (fresh weight)

Mountain grassland 1,500 On dry, sunny slopes 50 Stipa + Artemisia Stipa grandis Stipa bungeana Artemisia sacrorum Cleistogenes squarrosa

Mountain shrub grassland 1,300-1,700 Common in Shanxi 12,000 Shrubs + Bothriochloa Artemisia sacrorum (denuded broadleaf forest) Bothriochloa ischaemum Lespedeza dahurica Spiraea spp. Themeda triandra

Forest grassland 1,600-2,300 Bromus inermis 15,000 95 (less forest) Deyeuxia langsdorfii Elymus dahuricus Elymus sibiricus PotentUlaspp . Sanguisorba officinalis Vicia amoena Vicia unijuga

Subalpine meadow grassland 2,100-2,700 Common in Shanxi 10,500-21,000 70-90 Carex + Oxytropis Aster ageratoides Carex spp. (high proportion Fragaria spp. of legumes) Iris lactea PotentUlaspp . Vicia amoena

Meadow grassland 2,400-2,70 0 Bromus inermis 15,000 Carex + grasses Carex spp. (mesophytic ) Helictotrichon schellianum Koeleria cristata Phalaris arundhtacea Poa pratensis Roegneria breviglumis

Meadow grassland 2,400-2,700 Festuca ovina limited areas Festuca + Stipa Festuca rubra Stipa spp.

Herb-meadow grassland 2,500-2,800 Allium spp. 13,500-16,500 Aster spp Carex spp. Chrysanthemum spp. Duchesnea indiea Fragaria spp. Hemiscepta lyrata Leontopodium leontopodioides Ligularia sibinca PeScularis sinensis PotentUlaspp . Sanguisorba officinalis Vicia unijuga

Alpine meadow 2,800 Kobresia bellardi good pasture 100 Kobresia Carex lanceolata (overgrazing) Koeleria cristata Polygonum viviparum CHAPTER 5

Corylus heterophylla Formation andannua lrainfal lo f800-1,00 0mm .Th esoi li smainl y yellow-brown earth and brown earth, mountain pod- This formation isdistribute d in mountain areaso f zolicbrow n earth, and mountain soil. Hebei Province between 300 and 500 m and may ex­ tend tonorther n Shaanxian d thenorther nslope so f the Shrubs and bunchgrasses grow widely, particu­ Qinling Rangewit h elevations of 1,000-2,000m .Thi s larly on the lower hills. Imperata cylindrica is the shrub grows 1.5 m and may cover 50-70% of the dominant species. Onhighe r elevations the dominants surface. Otherdominan t species include: include: Lespedeza bicolor Lespedeza tomentosa Arundinella hirta Miscanthus sinensis Lespedeza formosa Spiraea trilobata Miscanthusfloridulus Themeda triandra Shrubs and herbs may grow 20-30 cm with 30% Thecit y of Luohei ncentra lHena n(locate d onth e plant cover with species of Carex as the dominant bank of the Sha and Li rivers, and on the north-south species. Other species includeArtemisia gmelinii and rail line) continues tob e thecattl e trading center. Tra­ Deyeuxia arundinacea. ditionally, a local strain of Nanyang cattle has been produced.Cattl ehav ebeen ,an dstil lar ei nsom eareas , Sophora vicifolia Formation the main energy source for farming the fertile land of This formation iswidel y distributed in the moun­ Henan. tainous areas of western Henan, southeastern Shanxi, South of the North China Plain, the Dabie moun­ thesouther nTaihan gMountains ,an dnorther n Shaanxi tains and hills have more rainfall and a warmer tem­ Province. The plants of the formation grow 1.5-2 m perature than areas to the north. This area has with coverage of 30-70%.Othe rspecies include: traditionallyproduce dworkin gcattl ean dwate r buffalo Bothriochloa ischaemum Sanguisorba officinalis for farmers inth eplain .Th e forest area hereha sabun ­ Bupleurum chinensis Stipa bungeana dantgrasses an dherbs .Th emai ngras sspecies include : Carex lanceolata Themeda triandra Arundinella setosa Miscanthus sinensis Potentilla discolor Cymbopogon goeringii Themeda triandra Someothe rspecie s include: Imperata cylindrica Elaeagnus umbellata Lespedeza cuneata Herbsinclude : Forsythia suspenso Lespedeza formosa Artemisia japonica Lespedeza cyrtobotrya Dendranthema indicum South of the North China Plain Lespedeza buergeri The relief of western Henan Province includes Hu (1953)examine d theecolog y of grasses in the loess terraces, tableland, hillswit h a general elevation Nanjing areawhic hencompasse s thesoutheaster n por­ of 300-500 m, and mountains (Funiu, Xionger, Xiao) tion of the subregion, including Changbaling and with an elevation of 1,000-2,000 m. The Luo and Yi Chuxian (county). This is an area of hills with eroded rivers and their tributaries dissect the land. No forests slopesan d anelevatio n of 200-400m .Thi s land struc­ exist in this area. Shrubs, herbs, and grasses grow on ture is typical of some areas in northern Anhui and steep slopes, field ridges, beaches, and some waste­ Jiangsu provinces. Luxuriant grasses and herbs form lands.Th ecommo n species include: good pastures in this area. Traditionally, these areas Agropyron capillaris Heteropappus altaicus were major centers for cattle and water buffalo in Artemisia anethifolia Lespedeza dahurica Anhui. Artemisia vulgaris Lycium chinensis More than 80 species of 68 genera of Poaceae Bidens parviflora Setaria viridis (Gramineae) are found in this area. Plant cover is65 - Bromus japonicus Vitex chinensis 85% with plant height of 60-100cm .Th e most impor­ Cynodon dactylon Zizyphus jujuba tant species include: Dendranthema indicum Arundinella anomala Pennisetum Dkranosrigma Arundinella hirta alopecuroides leptopodum Bothriochloa ischaemum narenga The Tongbai and the and their Calamagrostis epigeios Schizachyrium foothills (400-1,200 m,wit h theexceptio no f the 1,774 speciosa brevifolium m Dabie peak), which are located south of the North Festuca parvigluma Sorghum nitidum China Plain, mark the transition from the temperate to Ischaemum Spodiopogon cotulifer thesubtropica lclimat ei ncentra l China.Ther ear e four imbricatum Themeda triandra distinct seasons, a mean annual temperature of 16°C, Miscanthus japonicus

81 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

AUo f thesespecie sar etoleran t of thedr y habitat. Onstabilize dsan ddunes ,a numbe ro fspecie shav e Farmers graze their cattle in the spring and summer increased and some woody plants have appeared. season,an d cut thegrasse si n lateautum n for thatch or In the Chenopodium acuminatum association, the fuel. Many good species of grasses grow in the fertile accompanying species include: and moist soilarea so f thisarea . Amorpha fruticosa Ixeris chinensis Recently a state sheep farm, set up in Chuxian, Conyza canadensis Lappula echinata Anhui Province, has worked to improve the natural Corispermum Lespedeza dahurica pasture.Ha y yield wasincrease d four- tosixfol d com­ hyssopifolium Salix matsudana pared toforme r practices.Yiel d of hayo n hilltops was The species of Zizyphus jujuba var. spinosus + 2,800kg/h a and on gentleslope s 4,700-5,600 kg/ha. Chenopodium acuminatum association include: Conyza canadensis Lappula echinata NATURAL FORAGES ON LOWLANDS AND Cudrania tricuspidata Setaria viridis SANDLANDS Cynodon aactylon Vitex chinensis Digitaria sanguinalis On the plain north of the Yellow River, e.g. in southern Hebei Province and northwestern Shandong Onth efla tsandland swit ha highe rwate rtabl ean d Province, thecommo n grasses and herbs include: saline soil, therear e two associations ofMesserschmi- Aster spp. Paspalum spp. diasibirica and Tribulus terrestris. Poa spp. Chenopodium album Thespecie so f thelate rassociatio n include: Chloris spp. Polygonum aviculare Chenopodium Lapula echinata Digitaria sanguinalis Portulaca oleracea acuminatum Setaria viridis Echinochloa crusgalli Setaria viridis Corispermum Xanthium sibiricum indica Taraxacum mongolicum hyssopifolium Eragrostis cilianensis Higher moisture areas have meadows, including On the lowland with saline soils, the common species of: species include: Carex spp. Fimbristylis dichotoma Aeluropus littoralis Imperata cylindrica Cynodon aactylon Inula britannica Aeluropus scoparia Salicornia herbacea Digitaria sanguinalis Iris spp. Artemisia capillaris Eragrostis pilosa Setaria viridis Onsand y soils,th ecommo n species include: Ferruginea spp. Crotalaria juncea Medicago spp. Therei sa larg eare ao flowlan dnea rth efres h water Imperata cylindrica Sesbania cannabina lakes, e.g. Gaoyou, Hongze, and Luoma in northern All of these species provide a good forage re­ Jiangsuan dNanyang-Choayan gan dWeisha ni nsouth ­ source. ern Shandong Province.Excellen t meadowso fPhrag- mites communis and other hydrophytic grasses exist On the border between Henan, Shandong, and here. north of Jiangsu, is an area of sandy and saline soils. Formerly, there were natural pastures of abundant Common species include: grasses and herbs interspersed with cultivated land. Alopecurus spp. Imperata cylindrica Local people traditionally harvested wild forage and Chloris virgata Phragmites communis as feed for livestock. Local cattle were Cynodon dactylon monspeliensis exported as meat toJapa n and Hong Kong. Grasses on Echinochloa crusgalli Puccinellia distans theshiftin g sanddune smixin gwit hherb sinclud ethes e Eleusine indica Setaria viridis main species: Speciesothe r thangrasse s include: Agriophyllum Digitaria ischaemum Carex spp. Polygonum aviculare squarrosum Lespedeza dahurica Equisetum Scirpus maritimus Corispermum ramosissimum hyssopifolium Lespedeza spp. On semi-stable sand dunes, Corispermum spp. is In the farmland, the main species of forages in­ dominant mixed with: clude: Chenopodium Lappula echinata Agropyron semicostatum Imperata cylindrica acuminatum Lespedeza dahurica Chloris virgata Lespedeza spp. Imperata cylindrica Xanthuun sibiricum

82 CHAPTER 5

Cynodon dactylon Paspalum spp. The elevation is generally below 1,800 m, with Digitaria sanguinalis Pennisetum areas in valleys 500 m, and the loess covered areas Eleusine indica alopecuroides below 1,500 m.Th eLoes sPlatea uha sbee ndeepl ycu t Eragrostis spp. Polygonum aviculare by erosion, resulting in ravinesan d gullies. Echinochloa crusgalli Setaria viridis Grasslands of the Eastern Part of the Loess Zoysia spp. Plateau Allo f thesespecie sar esuitabl e for makingha y or The total area of Shanxi Province is 159,000k m using asfres h feed. of which 72,16.5, and 11.5%ar e mountains and hills, TheNort h ChinaPlai n isth emajo r areao fproduc ­ basins and plains, and loess tableland, respectively. tion of winter wheat, corn, sorghum, millet, soybean, Wide gullies and deep ravines reduce by one-half the cotton, and peanuts in China. In the northern area, the amount of tillable land. The soil pinnacles, cliffs with croppingsyste m generatesthre eharvest si na perio do f sharpfaces ,an dvertica lshearin go fth euppe rsoi llaye r twoyears ,whil ei nth esouther n parts,tw oharvest sar e givea distinctive appearance toapproximatel y 20%o f taken eachyear .Stra w isth emai n fodder for livestock. the total area of the province (Moyer, 1936). Land is classified byus ea scultivated , forest,grass y slope,an d miscellaneous (25,11, 52.5, and 11.4%, respectively; TALL GRASSLANDS OF THE LOESS Ku, 1980).Annua lrainfal l ranges from 400m m in the PLATEAU northwest to 650 mm in the southeast and it occurs According tohistorica l records,th eLoes s Plateau mostly in summer as downpours. The natural vegeta­ was a forest-grassland. During the Han (206 B.C-220 tion is primarily forest-shrub-grassland. This area can A.D.) and the Tang (618-907 A.D.) dynasties, the beclassifie d asa grassland , ashal f of theare a consists southeastern portiono f Ordoswa sa ric hgrasslan d and of grassy slopeland. The area of grazing land of the woodland. As early as 407 A.D., the tribal Hsia king­ province isestimate d tob eabou t 5.3 million hectares. dom (Pei-Chengtze) hadbuil t itscapita li nth enorther n Disturbance of naturalvegetatio n hasreduce d the part of the present Loess Plateau. Since that time, numbero fplan tspecies ,particularl y onlowe rhill san d improperreclamation ,overgrazing ,an dloggin ggradu ­ plains.Soi lan dorgani cmatte ri sles stha n 1%(Figure s ally destroyed the vegetation and pasture, forming an 5.5 and 5.6). Smith (1926) madea botanica l investiga­ activesandland . Sinceth e 17thcentury ,th efertil e land tion in central and southern Shanxi Province. He col­ hasbee nexploite d foragricultura ldevelopment .Farm ­ lected more than 1,150 species of spermatophytes and ing practices havedeplete d thelan d and the topsoil . reported that shrub-grasslands on the high mountains Shanxi Province, in the eastern part of the Loess above1,90 0m loo klik eflowe rgarden sdu et oth eman y Plateau,wa sa luxurian tmountainou sfores tare adurin g herbsan d abundanceo f iris. theHa nan dTan gdynasties ,wit hproductiv egrassland s Classification and Description and water resources. Agricultural productivity was high and theare a was famous for raising horses during Thegrassland s of Shanxi Province may beclassi ­ theTan gdynasty .Durin gth eMin gdynast y(1368-164 4 fied intosi x types (Smith, 1926;Chen , 1980a). A.D.)an d the Qingdynast y (1644-1911A.D.) ,exploi ­ Alpine meadows. This grassland type is distrib­ tation of the land intensified. Most forests and grass­ uted on top of Wutai Mountain (3,058 m) and above lands were disturbed, causing increased soil erosion elevations of 2,500 m. Meadows and grasslands are and frequent droughts, especially during the last few mixed or occur in separate areas when slope aspects decades. According to Ku (1980), drought occurred causedifferen t soilwate rconditions .Th esoi li sa blac k every 97 years between 155 B.C. and 618 A.D. and alpinemeado wsoil .Th especies compositio n issimple . every3 4year sbetwee n61 8an d 1264.Th ecycl eshort ­ ened to7. 4 years between 1264an d 1368,t o2. 5 years Thedominan t species include: between 1368 and 1911,2. 2 years between 1911 and Carex spp. Poa pratensis 1949, and to 1.2 years between 1949 and 1979. This Kobresia bellardii Polygonum viviparum shortening of thecycl e of drought hasbee n caused by Koeleria crislata soil erosion. Soil erosion caused runoff of water and The plant cover may approach 100% with hay soil, and has resulted in floods and poor crop yields yield of 1,500 kg/ha. The grazing period is about 75 (Lowdermilk,1926,1932,1953 ;Moyer , 1936).Huma n daysi n summer. activity hasseriousl y disturbed thevegetatio n and rad­ ically changed the environmental conditions of this Subalpinemeado wgrasslands .Ther ear esevera l region. habitat typeso fth esubalpin ezon ewithi n theelevatio n

83 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Figure 5.5.Terrace si n the Loess Plateauo f Shanxi Province. (Reproduced from Chinese Magazine, 1984)

Figure5.6 . Deforestation hasresulte di nth edestructio n ofgoo dgrazin gland san dcreate dseriou ssoi lerosio n problemsi nth eWuta iMountai n area of Shanxi Province. (Photo by F.N. Meyer, 1913;courtes y of USDA, reproduced from D. Fairchild, 1919) of 1,800t o2,80 0m ,includin gwoodland san dmargina l Elymus dahuricus Spodiopogon sibiricus forest lands. The area of subalpine meadows is about Festuca ovina 600,000 hectares.Th egrazin g period isapproximatel y Legumes and Carex 120days .Th emai n species include: Carex spp. Vicia amoena Grasses Oxytropis coerulea Vicia unijuga Bromus inermis Koeleria cristata Trigonella ruthenica Deyeuxia sylvatica Poa pratensis Three habitat types may be distinguished:

84 CHAPTER 5

Subalpine herbaceous meadow. The species Lowland and valley grassland. This grassland compositioninclude sCompositae , ,Fabacea e typei slimite d tosom esmal lareas .Th eheigh to fplant s (Leguminosae),an dsom eothe r families without dom­ in thistyp e of grassland is 20-40 cm and the coverage inant species. The most frequently occurring species isusuall y greater than 80%.Th e main speciesare : are: Agrostis alba Clinelymus dahuricus Allium senescens Hemisteptia lyrata Calamagrostis epigeios Glycine soja Aster spp. Leontopodium Carex spp. Medicago lupulina Carex spp. leontopodioides Hill grasslands mixed with shrubs. This grass­ Chrysanthemum Ligularia sibirica land typeoccur s on hillsan d lower mountains in most rotundifolium Potentilla chinensis partso fth eprovince ,coverin gabou t2 millio nhectares . Duchesnea indica Sanguisorba officinalis Thecoverag e of shrubs isusuall y less than40% . Fragaria corymbosa Thedominan t grassesan d legumes include: Subalpine Carex+Oxytropis meadow-grassland. Agropyron spp. Lespedeza hedysaroides This habitat typeoccur swidel y in thisprovinc e and is Bothriochloa ischaemum Lespedeza dahurica distributed on the mountains with elevationso f 2,100- Carex spp. Spodiopogon cotulifer 2,700m . Coveragema y beabov e85% . Clinelymus dahuricus Themeda japonica Themai n speciesare : Shrubs include: Aster ageratoides Potentilla spp. Artemisia sacrorum Hippophae rhamnoides Bupleurum Vicia amoena var. Campylotropis Vitex chinensis scorzonerifolium oblongifolia macrocarpa Zizyphus jujuba Iris lactea var. chinensis Lespedeza bicolor Subalpine Carex-grass meadow grassland. This This grassland isa n important grazing land in the habitattyp ei sdistribute do nth eslope san dvalley swit h province, butovergrazin g hascause d deterioration. elevations of 2,400-2,700m . Another habitat type of this grassland is mixed Thespecie s most commonly occurring are: with taller and more numerous shrubs. Generally, it is Agropyron breviglumis Koeleria cristata distributed below the timber line, particularly on Bromus inermis var. Phalaris arundinacea shaded slopes.Shoot s of shrubs and grasses and herbs longiflorus Poa pratensis occurring in under-story areasar e good forages. Helictotrichon schellianum Themai n species are: Agropyron cristatum Elymus dahuricus Woodland-grasslands mixed with meadows. Campylotropis Lespedeza bicolor This vegetation zone is distributed on the mountains macrocarpa Spodiopogon sibiricus between 1,600 and 2,400 m. A large array of grasses, Carex spp. herbs, shrubs, and trees are found in these areas. The plentiful rainfall and soil moisture in the higher eleva­ Mountain steppe grassland. The Stipa spp. + tionsmake svegetatio n dense.Coverag ema yb ea shig h Artemisia sacrorum +Cleistogenes squarrosa associa­ as95 %wit hgoo dyields .Th eplant sar emesoph yti can d tion is distributed mainly in the northern and western include: parts of the province, below 1,500 m in areas of steep Agrimonia pilosa Sanguisorba officinalis slopes,particularl y withsunn yexposure .Th esoi llaye r Bromus inermis Spodiopogon sibiricus is thin, with some gravel and rocky areas.Th e annual Deyeuxia sylvatica Vicia amoena mean temperature is not above 10°C, and the growing Elymus dahuricus var. oblongifolia season isles stha n 150days .Th ecoverag e isgenerall y Elymus sibiricus Vicia unijuga 50%. Potentilla spp. The main speciesare : Becausethi sare ai sno wenclose dfo rreforestation, Artemisia sacrorum Stipa bungeana utilization isminimal . Cleistogenes squarrosa Thymus spp. Another habitat typei sdistribute d onth eridges o f Stipa grandis mountains. Most plants in this habitat are xerophytic, In the area of Yuncheng, in southwest Shanxi, including: alkalinesoi lan d salt waterpool s are numerous. Festuca ovina Stipa grandis Theplan t species include: Festuca rubra Stipa spp. spp. Potamogeton spp.

85 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Agrostis stolonifera Salicornia spp. temperaturei s-4.2°C ,th erainfal l is96 6mm ,an d there Atriplex roseum Salsola spp. is a 75 day growing season at the top of the mountain. Chenopodium spp. Scirpus maritimus At the base of the mountain, 1,300 m elevation, the Kochia spp. Suaeda spp. mean annual temperature is 6.8°C, annual rainfall is Phragmites communis Tamarix sinensis 566 mm, and there is a 140 day growing season. The grassland types, main species, and productivity, ac­ This grassland area is useful for grazing and har­ cording toelevation ,ar eshow n inTabl e 5.2. vest of hay (Smith, 1926). Agriculture in Shanxi Province may be classified Somewil dforag e plantswer eteste db y theShanx i intotw omai nareas ,th enort han dsouth .I nth enorther n Animal Institute and the Shanxi Water and Soil Con­ area, oats, potatoes, and corn are the principal crops servation Station (Chen, 1980b).Th efollowin g species with one harvest per year. In thesouther n area, wheat, were found tob e satisfactory forage: corn, millet, and cotton are produced with three har­ Grasses vests in twoyears . Agropyron crislatum Elymus sibiricus Bromus inermis Festuca arundinacea Traditionally,farmer so fShanx iProvinc euse d the Bromus inermis var. Festuca ovina large areao f grazinglan d for grazingshee pan d goats. longiflorus Festuca rubra During the last decade, the grazing land has deterio­ Elymus dahuricus Phleum pratense ratedextensivel y due toreclamation , overgrazing, and Legumes collection of fuel. Recently, some grassland and soil Astragalus Melilotus alba conservation stations have been established for im­ adsurgens Melilotus provement of thegrazinglan d anddevelopmen t of ani­ Astragalus officinalis mal husbandry. Many good resultsar ebein g achieved dahuricus Pocockia ruthenica by thiswor k (Figures 5.7 and 5.8). Lathyrus sativus Grasslands of the Western Part of the Loess Lespedeza bicolor Trifolium repens Plateau Medicago falcata Vicia amoena Medicago sativa The western part of the Loess Plateau includes mosto fShaanxi ,eastern Gansu,a corne ro f northwest­ Wutai Mountain is a good example of Shanxi ernQinghai ,souther n Ningxia,an deastern Ordos(Fig ­ Province grasslands. It is located at 39°02' N and ure 5.1). According to present vegetation, annual 113°32' E and is 3,050 m high. The mean annual rainfall (300-600 mm), and agricultural productivity,

Figure 5.7. An improved mountain pasture in Shanxi Province showing the difference between fenced and unfenced pastures. (Reproduced with permission from People's Daily, 1984)

86 CHAPTER 5

Figure5.8 .A n introduced forage specieso fCoronilla varia i si ntercroppe dwit hcor n forsoi lan d waterconservatio n and increasedsoi l fertility in the Loess area of Shanxi Province.(Phot o courtesy of Y.F. Zhang, 1985)

the types of grassland may be may be classified as Within these two types of topography, five grassland forest-grassland on mountains in the southern partso f areas mayb e distinguished. Yan-an, Shaanxi, and most of eastern Gansu Province anda stal lgrasslan d onth eplateau ,especiall yi nnorth ­ Sandland Areas ern Yan-an District. Most geographers have classified Sandland areas are found mostly in the eastern the asa deser t (Cressey, 1934;Chie n et Ordos Plateau. There are two districts described as al., 1956).Historically , therewer eric hgrassland swit h desertorsandland :th eHob qDeser ti nth enort han dth e some forests; however, due to misuse of the land and Maowusu Desert in the south. These areas were pre­ resulting erosion, what was once a rich grassland in viously rich grasslands with forest but have deterio­ easternOrdo sha sno wbecom ea man-mad eactiv esan d rated during the past several centuries due to land and sand dunes. mismanagement. Verylittl evegetatio n currently exists onth eactiv esan d dunes.O n thestabl esan d dunesan d Theare ao f northern Shaanxi Provincei sth emai n lowlands, however, there are several habitat types. sourceo f silt inth eYello w Riverwhic h contains more Plantcove rvarie sgreatl yaccordin gt odegre eo fstabil ­ than30 %sil t init swate rdurin g therain yseason . Loss ity,wind ,degre eo fgrazing ,an dwate r table. Coverage of 15,000ton so f surface soilpe r hectare has made the isgenerall y lesstha n 50%.Th e height usually is 20-40 general crop yield only 400kg/h a during the 1970's. cm, but some semi-shrubs such asArtemisia spp. may Thedisturbanc eo fvegetatio n and theinfluenc e of grow 50-100cm . heavy summer downpours have resulted in the friable loess deposits being broken by rills and ravines. This Four typicalhabita t types are found. has caused the loss of the plateau-like feature of this 1. Agropyron cristatum +Artemisia mongolica +Ar­ area and formed a combination of loess hills, ravines, temisia ordoska + Agriophyllum arenarium, and ridges of different shapes, with an elevation of which spreads to northern Shaanxi and northwest 100-150 m(Figur e 5.9). Shanxi Province. 2. Convolvulus tragacanthoides +Artemisia frigida Two types of topography are widely found, the + Potentilla acaulis, which spreads to northwest extended spurs ("liang"), which make up the interflux Shaanxi and part of adjacent Ningxia Province. of ravines, and hills with a rounded shape ("mao") 3. Kalidiumgracile +Bassia dasyphylla +Artemisia which stand individually. They form the typical land­ anethifol'iaan dsom eothe rhalophyti cplants .Thi s scapeo fnorther nShaanx ian deaster n Gansu Province. typespread s on the lowlandswit h salinesoil .

87 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Figure 5.9. Disected landscape of the Loess Plateau in northern Shaanxi. (Photo courtesy of CIA; reproduced from Atlas of the People's Republic of China, 1971) 4. Suaeda glauca + Phragmites communis + Ach- of windbreaks are to restore vegetation to the pasture natherum splendens with some good stands of land. These practices have achieved good results in Leymus dasystachys, Swainsona salsula, Bassia some districts (Wushen-chao County) (Biswas and dasyphylla,an dKalUtium spp . Biswas, 1980) (Figures 5.12 and 5.13). The following plants occur frequently: Hills and Gullied Areas Alhagi pseudoalhagi Peganum nigellastrum Thehill san dgullie d areasar elocate dbetwee n the Allium spp. Pappophorum spp. sandland inth enort han d forest grasslandsi nth esouth , Aristida adscensionis Pugionium cornutum where the Yan-an district is located. The area west of Artemisia halodendron Pugionium dolabratum Huajialing (Tongwei) is the driest. The rainfall de­ Artemisia salsoloides Salix mongolica creases to 331 mm at Lanzhow and the relief is more Caragana spp. Stipa spp. broken. The acreage of grassland was about 2 million Oxytropis oxyphylla Timouria villosa hectares in the 1950's, but has now decreased to 0.9 In thisdistrict , there isalway sstron gwin d erosion million hectares.Th enatura lvegetatio n hasbee n com­ and desertification iscommon . pletelydisturbe d throughsoi lerosio n(Figure s5.1 4an d 5.15).Gras scoverag ei sminimal .Fou rhabita ttype sar e The Yulin district of northern Shaanxi Province found. was formerly a grassland area but has deteriorated 1. Stipaprzewalsldi +Calamagrostis epigeios +Ar­ badlydu et oreclamatio n andovergrazin g (Figures5.1 0 temisia sacrorum. and 5.11). It now forms a large area of sandland with 2. Stipa bungeana + Bothriochloa ischaemum + lowproductivity .Durin gth eperio do f 1950t oth eearl y Arundinella hirta +Lespedeza dahurica. 1970's,th edeser tha sexpande d from thenort ht osout h 3. Stipa bungeana +Artemisia giraldii + Artemisia approximately 10 km. Fortunately, in recent years a sacrorum. long line of windbreak has been established from the 4. Artemisia salsoloides +Stipa bungeana +Bothri­ northeast through the northern border of the region to ochloa, mixed with Lespedeza bicolor, Wikstroe- thenorthwes t for protection from desertification. Inth e mia chamaedaphne,an d Caraganaspp . sandland area, the measures of enclosure and planting

88 CHAPTER 5

Figure 5.10. In the e«rly 1900's, some parts of the Yan-an area in northern Shaanxi Province were grassland areaswit h abundant wildlife, such asboar . (Reproduced from R.S.Clar k and A.C.Sowerby , 1912)

Figure 5.11. Eroded Loessan d red clay hills,Qingl o County, Shaanxi Province. (Photo by J. Thorp; reproduced from J. Thorp, 1936)

TallGrasslands Scattered inAgricultural Districts 3. Stipa spp. +Artemisia spp. +Cleistogenes seroa- in Valleys,Basins, andAlluvial Plains tina. This grassland type is limited by farmland. The Additional important species include: Artemisia important habitat types are: capillarisan dArtemisia argyi. 1. Imperata cylindrica + Calamagrostis epigeios + Carexsp p Other species include: 2. Phragmitescommunis +Calamagrostis epigeios + ASropyron spp. Lespedem dahurica Cyperus rotundas. Bromus inermis Polygonum aviculare Cirsium spp. Stipa bungeana

89 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Figure 5.12.Artemisia ordosica strips were planted on the windward slopes of shifting sand dunes in Wushen County, Inner Mongolia for protection from wind erosion. (Reproduced from Anon., 1980b)

Figure5.13 .Trees ,shrubsan d grassesar e plantedo n shifting sanddune sfo r revegetation tobuil d uppasture .(Reproduce d from Anon., 1980a)

TallGrasslands Scattered inthe Loess Plateau 2. Stipa bungeana+ Lespedeza dahurica +Artemisia Thesegrassland s are distributed mainly in eastern giraldii +Artemisia sacroruman dsom eshrub so f Gansu (such as and Pingliang districts), and Syringa microphylla. Luochuan and Changwu districts in Shaanxi.Th e land TallGrasslands Scattered onHigh Mountains surface hasbee n cut in thecentra l part of the Jing-Luo Riverwatershe d by land erosion intogullie sa sdee pa s This areaha sa n elevation of approximately 2,000 200 m. Two main habitat types are found. m, mainly on Lupan Mountain. The species composi­ 1. Stipa bungeana + Bothriochloa ischaemum + tion contains grasses, Compositae, and Carex with Arundinella hirta +Lespedeza dahurica. Cotoneasterspp .an d Syringa microphylla shrubs.

90 CHAPTER 5

Figure 5.14. Terraced and stepped pyramids in northern Shaanxi Province. (Reproduced with permission from Y.F.Tuan , 1969)

«53&V..-t

: ^iip^^fv'^''1''' -'ïKS'A^-"'"

Figure 5.15. Village in Qingning County, eastern Gansu Province. Here the loess forms a thick blanket over the land. Note the background iswithou t vegetation. (Photob y J. Thorp; reproduced from J. Thorp, 1936)

Important species include: Shrubs are also important in central and northern Artemisia sacrorum Lathyrus spp. Shaanxi Province where forests once existed. Grass­ Bothriochloa ischaemum Lespedeza bicolor lands now occur where forests were completely dis­ Bromus inermis Medicago lupulina turbed many years ago and shrub-brush vegetation is Caragana spp. Stipa bungeana alwaysth edominan tspecies .Zo ue tal .(1980 )reporte d Carex spp. Stipa mongolica that thistyp e ofvegetatio n may beclassifie d intothre e Cleistogenes squarrosa

91 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

types:xerophyti c deciduous, mountain mesophyte de­ Oxytropis Davidi Syringa spp. ciduous,an d meso-hydrophytictypes . Prinsepia uniflora Vitex chinensis Prunus armeniaca Xanthoceras sorbifolia The xerophytic deciduous shrub subtype. This subtype is located in areas 1,050-1,450 m above sea Whenon eo fthes especie si si nfavorabl e environ­ level on sunny and semi-sunny aspects with 20°-40° mentalconditions ,i tma ydominat eth eother san d form slopes.Ther ear e twoassociation s found. a pure stand or it may be mixed with other shrubs. Frequently therear eman y herbaceousspecie sgrowin g Sophora vicifolia + Vitex chinensis + Xantho- inth e understory. cerassorbifolia association. Otherspecies i nthi sasso ­ ciation include: Themeso-hydrophyti cshru bsubtype .Thi ssub ­ Buddleja alternifolia Syringa pekinensis typeinclude stw oassociation swhic h aredistribute d on Caragana microphylla Ulmus japonica shaded slopes,roadsides ,an d waterways. Prunus spp. Zhyphus spp. The Hippophae rhamnoides association. This Rosa hugonis association usually forms purestand sbecaus e itsroot s Inthi sassociation ,th eheigh to fshrub si sabou t 1.5 growshoot srapidl yan dsprea dwidely .Sometime si ti s m and coverage is60% .Ther e are several grasses and mixed with Rosa hugonis and Rubusparvifolius. The herbaceous species in the understory. height of the shrubs ranges between 1.5 and 3 m. Coverage may be 60%, and Hippophae rhamnoides Thedominan t species are: dominates.Th e coverage of the herbaceous and semi- Artemisia giraldii shrub layer may be70 %wit h a height of 20-60 cm. Bothriochloa ischaemum Stipa bungeana The main species of herbs of this association in­ clude: Thesubdominan t species are: Artemisia sacrorum Lysimachia barystachys Artemisia sacrorum Bothriochloa ischaemum Poa spp. Arthraxon hispidus Carex spp. Potentilla tanacetifolia Lespedeza dahurica Leontopodium Stipa bungeana Others which occur occasionally include: leontopodioides Themeda japonica Aster altaicus Roegneria ciliaris Lespedeza dahurica Carex lanceolata Stipa sibirica On the roadsides of valleys, this shrub stand is Kengia serotina somewhat different from other areas. Soil, water, and The height of herbs is 20-60 cm and coverage is organic matter are greater than in the farmed area and approximately 50%.Thi s association isgoo d for graz­ morespecies occur including: ing.See d productivityo fSophora vicifolia i sampl e for Acanthopanax giraldü Lonicera maackii natural regeneration. Euonymus phellomanes Caraganakorshinskii association with additional The herbsinclude : shrubs and herbs. This association is similar to the Inula britannica Plantago depressa Sophora vicifolia association but is found on steeper Medicago lupulina Trollius japonicus slopes.Th e height of the shrub layer is typically 0.8-2 Medicago ruthenica m. Coverage is 20-60%, with most of these species having been planted. The herbaceous and semi-shrub All thesespecie s require more water. layer is 10-20c m high,wit h coverage of 20-50%. The The Salix purpurea association. Thisassociatio n speciesar e similar to the former association, but more is distributed mainly along planted waterways. The xericspecies ,suc h as Thymusmongolicus an d Artemi­ height ranges from 1-3 m. siafrigida, alsooccur .Thi sassociatio n isals ogoo d for grazing, fuel, and making farm tools. The herbsinclude : Carex spp. Juncus gracillimus The mountain mesophytic deciduous subtype. Inula britannica This subtype includes shrub and herb associations. The Loess Plateau contains many types of grass­ There are several associations in this area due to the landswit h poor forage growth and productivity (Table difference of habitats. Most of these associations con­ 5.3).Deterioratio no fth egrasslan do nth eLoes sPlatea u tain the following species: has caused a decrease in the livestock-carrying capac­ Corylus heterophylla Prunus davidiana ity. Between 1976 and 1978, livestock numbers Lespedeza bicolor Rosa hugonis

92 CHAPTER 5

TabI t 5.3.Growt h and production characteristics of grassland forages of northern Shaanxi Province '.(Adapte d from H.Y. Zou et al., 1980)

Type of grassland Height (cm) Coverage (%) Yield (kg/ha)

Mean Range Mean Range (fresh weight)

Hilly-gully 10 5-80 34 30-40 1,030

Broad valley 9 2-70 50 40-60 1,110

Highland 15 3-80 50 0-30 1,917

Saline land 15 50 30-80 3,255 2 Slems/m

Semi-stable sand- 176 120-352 25 10-30 939 land

Stable sandland 242 99-335 45 35-60 2,595 dropped by 60,000cattle ,715,00 0goats , and 150,000 Allium prattii Kobresia spp. sheep.Th equalit y of livestock also decreased. Carex kansuensis Poa malaca Carexparva Ptilagrostis mongolka Duringth epas tfe wdecade sth eagricultura lpolic y littoralis montana in the Loess Plateau has pressured farmers to reclaim Gentiana tsinglingensis theslopeland sonl y for productiono ffoo d cropsan d to increase livestock numbers on the already overgrazed The vertical distribution of soil and vegetation of landresource .Thes echanges ,however ,hav edecrease d Taibai Mountain isshow n in Figure 5.16. the yield of food crops, grazing capacity per unit area, and the number and quality of livestock, and have The primary problem of the Loess Plateau is soil caused thedeterioratio n of agricultural resources. erosion. The loess isa loose, friable soilwit h well-de­ veloped vertical structure which is easily eroded by The Wei River Valley summerdownpours .I ti sestimate d thateac hhectar ei n thedissecte dtablelan dwit ha ninclinatio nangl egreate r TheWe iRive rValle y ofcentra lShaanx i Province than20 °losse s12 0ton so fsoi lever yyear .Nearl y1,60 0 isa richagricultura l area.Alfalf a hasbee n grown here million tons of silt are transported annually by the since the Han Dynasty, 2,000 years ago, when it was Yellow Riveran d itstributarie s (Wu, 1981). first put into crop rotation. The local people believed thati twa sdu et oth ealfalf a thatthe ywer eabl et obree d The most important changes needed in the Loess a local strain of cattle and donkeys and produce good Plateau are to improve the grasslands, reestablish for­ cropharvests . ests, and use shrubs to increase fodder, manure, and firewood for the farmers. This program will provide a South of the Wei River Valley is the Qinling more balanced ecosystem, improve the quality of life (Chinling) Range where forests abound. Between 600 for the farmers, and reduce the threat of drought and and 2,600 m, deciduous forests grow. Quercus is the floods in theentir e sub-region. predominant genus with abundant undergrowth of herbsan d grasses. SUMMARY Themajo r forage species include: The warm temperate tall grassland region is di­ sytvaùcum Lespedeza buergeri vided into the North China Plain in the east and the Carex spp. Lespedeza floribunda Loess Plateau in thewest .Thi s region containsa large Lespedeza formosa Deyeuxia arundinacea area of forest-shrub-grassland associations on moun­ Pueraria lobata Deyeuxia arundinacea tains and hills and an abundance of wild forage, indi­ Spodiopogon sibiricus var. laxiflora catinga grea tpotentia lfo r theproductio n offorag ean d Eriophorum comosum thedevelopmen t of animal husbandry. Between 2,400 and 4,000 m, coniferous forests Thedisturbanc eo fnatura lvegetatio n and themis ­ mixed withAbies fabri dominate.Ther ear efe w herbs. use of land in mountain areas (especially in the Loess Subalpineshrub san dmeadow sexis tfro m 3,300-3,760 Plateau) are the most important factors which have m.Mai n meadow species include: caused soil erosion and have limited agricultural pro-

93 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

M 8 10 Km _i i

Mountain meadow soil / Shrubs '& meadow Mountain meadow soil and mountain podzolic soil Larix Mountain podzolic soil> 'Coniferous forest mixed with deciduous trees Mountain brown earth.

Meadow korichnevyi soil. Calcareous alluvial soil, Paddy soil

Calcareous korichnevyi soil, Alluvial soil, Paddy soil

Figure 5.16. Vertical distribution of soil andvegetatio n ofTaiba i Mountain,33°55 'Ni n Shaanxi Province.(Adapte d from CM. Hsieh, 1973) ductivity and economic development for the people in SPECIES LIST thoseareas .I t hasbee n apainfu l lesson. The following forage species are well adapted to Revegetationi nth eregio nmus tb eth efirs t priority the region: for theus eo f land and for soilan dwate r conservation. Grasses Legumes Trees, shrubs, and forage plants must be planted for Agropyron spp. Astragalus adsurgens these purposes according to localconditions . Ecologi­ Arrhenatherwn elatius Astragalus cicer callysoun dmanagemen t systemsfo rcrops ,forest s and Bromus inermis Coronilla varia pastures should be established. glomerata Hedysarum mongolicum Elymus junceus Lespedeza spp. There isa potential for forage crops tob e utilized Festuca rubra Medicago saliva on farm landseithe ri nth eplai no ri nth eLoes s Plateau Phalaris tuberosa Melilotus officinalis for restoration ofsoi lfertilit y andi mprovemen t of feed Onobrychis viciaefolia quality. Vicia spp. The current new rural policy stipulates that individual peasant households mayleas ebarre n moun­ tain slopes gratuitously for ten or more years to plant trees and grasseswit h all proceeds going to thelessee . REFERENCES Apparently the need has been recognized to develop Anon. 1980a. Combating desertification in China. adapted forage plants for different areas, improve soil fertility and water conservation, and at the same time Lanchow Institute of Glaciology, Cryopedology, strengthen theanima l industry for higher quality food and Desert Research, p. 109-145.In : M.R. Biswas and prosperity of thepeople . and A.K .Biswa s (eds.).Desertification . Pergamon Press, Oxford, New York. In recent years, the national policy of agriculture Anon. 1980b. Control the deserts and create pastures, haschange d toprotec tth egrasslan d areaan dretur n the Wushenchao Commune, Inner Mongolia Autono­ steep farmland to forage production. Farmers are now permitted to manage the grazinglands by themselves, mousRegion ,p . 145-162.In: M.R .Biswa san dA.K . following recentredistributio n ofth elan d tothem .Th e Biswas (eds.). Desertification. Vol. 12. Environ­ government has recognized the need of subsidies for mentalScience san dApplications .Pergamo nPress , forage seeds, fertilizers, and improved techniques for Oxford, New York. forage establishment and management. Air seeding of Anon. 1980c. Desertification. Academia Sinica, Beij­ forage seeds has been practiced in certain districts in ing.(I n Chinese) theLoes s Plateau and has achieved good results.

94 CHAPTER 5

AÜaso f the People's Republic of China. 1971. Central Lee, S.T. 1947. Delineation of geographic regions of Intelligence Agency, , D.C.8 2pp . China.Annals .Assoc .Amer . Geographers37:155 - 168. Biswas, M.R., and A.K. Biswas (eds.). 1980. Deser­ tification.Vol .12 .Environmenta l Sciencesan dAp ­ Lowdermilk, W.C. 1926. The changing evaporation- plications.Pergamo nPress ,Oxford , NewYork .52 3 precipitation cycle of North China. J. Engineering pp. Soc.o f China 25:29. Buck, LJ. 1937. Land Utilization in China. Univ. of Lowdermilk, W.C. 1932. Forestry in denuded China. ChicagoPress .49 4pp . Ann.Amer .Acad . Pout. &Soc .Sei . 152:98-104. Chen, A.R. 1980a. The significance of the proper use Lowdermilk,W.C . 1953. Conquest of the land through and improvement of grasslands in the moderniza­ 7,000years .Agric .Infor . Bull.No .99 ,USDA . tiono f theanima lindustr y ofShanx iProvince .Inst , Moyer, R.T. 1936.Agricultura l soil in a loess plateau. of Animal Science, Academy of Agric. Sciences, Geog.Rev .26:414-425 . Shanxi Province.(I n Chinese) Smith, H. 1926.A preliminary report on botanical in­ Chen,A.R . 1980b.A general discussion on the devel­ vestigation in South and Central Shansi. China J. opment and perspective of forage cultivation in the Sei.an d Art 3:449-454; 503-509. Loess Area. Inst, of Animal Science, Academy of Agric.Sciences , Shanxi Province.(I n Chinese) Thorp,J . 1936.Geograph y of theSoil so f China.Com ­ mercialPress ,Shanghai .55 2pp . Chien, S.S., Y.C. Wu, and C.T. Cheng. 1956.A tenta­ tive scheme of phytogeographical regions, p. 83- Ting, W.K. 1935.Note so n the records of drought and 142.In: K.F . Lou (ed.).A Tentative Scheme of the floods in Shensi and Northwestern China. Geog. Natural Regions of China. Science Press, Peking. Ann.Specia l Publ., Stockholm. (In Chinese) Ting, W.S. 1965. The geomorphology of the North Chin,H u Wei. 1705.Yunkungchuchi , Peking.(I n Chi­ Chinaplai nan dth ehistor yo fearl yChina .Bull .Inst , nese) ofEthnology ,Academi aSinica ,Taibei ,No .20:155 - 162. Clark, R.S., and A.C. Sowerby. 1912.Throug h Shen- Kan.T . Fisher UNWIN, London. 247pp . Todd,O.J . 1949.Th eYello wRive rreharnessed . Geog. Rev.39:38-56 . Cressey, G.B. 1934. China's Geographical Founda­ tions.McGraw-Hil l Book Co.,Ne w York.43 6pp . Tu, C.W. 1936. Climatic , a new map.Meteorolog . Mag. 10:487-518.(I n Chinese) Fairchild,D . 1919. Ahunte ro fplants .Nat .Geog .Mag . 36:57-77. Tuan,Y.F .1969 .China .Aldin ePubl .Co. ,Chicago .22 5 pp. Hsieh, CM. 1973.Atla so f China. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York. 282pp . Van Dyne,G.M. , and S.H. Van Dyne. 1981.Observa ­ tionso fChines e Grazing Lands:Ecology ,Manage ­ Hsu, S.Y. 1981. The ecology of Chinese Neolithic ment, Research, and People. Range Science Dept., cultural expansion, p. 1-26. In: C.W. Pannell and ColoradoStat eUniversity . 95p . CL. Salter (eds.).Chin a Geographer No. 11: Agri­ culture.Westvie w Press,Boulder , Colorado. Wen, C.W., C Hsu, J. Li, and W.C. Tsai. 1956. The soil-vegetation zones of western Inner Mongolia. Hu, S.T. 1953. A preliminary ecological study of (Unpublished) (In Chinese) grasses in the Nanking area. Acta Bot. Sinica. 2:159-163. (In Chinesewit h English summary) Wang, C.W. 1961. The forests of China with a survey of grassland and desert vegetation. Maria Moors Kazakova, N.M. 1969. North China, p. 115-135. In: Cabot Found. Pub. No. 5. Harvard Univ., Cam­ USSR Acad.Sei .Inst .Geog .Th ePhysica l Geogra­ bridge,Mass .31 3pp . phy of China.Vol .2 .F.A .Praege rPublishers ,Ne w York. Wu, C.C. 1981. Delineation of China's agricultural resources,p .27-39 .In: C.W .Pannel lan dCL .Salte r Ku, F.C 1980. On the proper utilization and devel­ (eds.). China Geographer No. 11: Agriculture. opment of the land resource of Shanxi Province. Westview Press,Boulder , Colorado. Acad, of Agric. Sciences of Shanxi Province. (In Chinese)

95 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Wu, Y.Z. (ed.). 1980. Vegetation of China. Academia Sinica, Inst. Bot. Science Press, Beijing. (In Chi­ nese) Zou, H.Y., Y.M. Liang, and G.T. Sun. 1980. A pre­ liminary study on vegetation regionalism in the LoessPlatea uo fnorther nShaanxi .Acta .Bot .Sinic a 22:399-401.(I n Chinese)

96 Chapter 6

MOUNTAIN MEADOWS, GRASSLANDS, AND ALPINE VEGETATION IN THE TIBETAN PLATEAU REGION

The Tibetan Plateau includes Tibet proper, On thesouther n border of theTibeta n Plateau, the Qinghai, western Sichuan, southeastern Gansu, and Himalayan Mountain Range rises to an average of northwestern Yunnan provinces (Figure 6.1). These 6,000-7,000 m,wit h a peak of 8,848m .Th erang e has areas are inhabitated mostly by nomadicTibetans , ex­ alengt ho f3,00 0k mfro m northernPakista ni nth ewes t cept for some areas in the borderlands and valleys of tosoutheaster n Tibet in theeast .Thi slon grang e forms thePlateau . a barrier preventing the southwest monsoon from reaching the Plateau. The Pamir, Kunlun, Altun (Al- tyntag),Qilia n(Chilien) ,Nanshan ,an dMinsha nrange s GENERAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS lie on the western and northern borders. Here they Relief adjoin the dry continent of Central Asia. To the east, therear eman ymountai n rangeswit ha naverag eeleva ­ The altitude of the Plateau ranges from 4,000- tion of about 4,000 m. These ranges run parallel from 5,000 m with a small area 2,000-3,000 m above sea north to south, forming a barrier which prevents the level. The Plateau lies between 28° and 38° northern southeast monsoon from reaching the Plateau. High latitude. The altitude creates a climate too severe for mountain ranges within the Plateau also run parallel, agricultural cropping systems,bein g favorable only to but from west to east. These are the Bayan Har, Tan- thenomadi clifestyle .Thi svas tplatea ui sa grazin glan d ggula,Nyainqentanglha ,an dGandis emountain s (from and willb econsidere d here asa geographical unit. north tosouth , respectively).Geologically, throughout

Figure 6.1. Grasslands, meadows, and alpine desert vegetation of the Tibetan Plateau: A) the gorge, B) the Outer Plateau, and C) the Inner Plateau. Numbered locations are as follows: 1) , 2) Songpan, 3) Labrang, 4) Zoige, 5) Aba, 6) Barkam, 7) Carze, 8) Kangding, 9) Batang, 10) Zhongdian, 11) Muli, 12) Lijiang, 13) Bomi (Bowo), 14) Zaynl, 15) Medog, 16) Menyuan, 17) Xi-' .g, iJ) Lanzhou, 19) Xinghai, 20) Golmud, 21)Tuotu o Heyan, 22) Yushu, 23) Qamdo, 24) Amdo, 25) Nagqu, 26) Damxung, 27) Lhasa, 28) Xigaze, 29) Butong, 30) Gar, 31) Gerze.

97 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

the Cretaceous period, the Plateau was beneath the and Kunlun ranges, at more than 5,000m Tethys Sea. It did not become dry land until long after elevation, the weather is cold and dry year-round, and thebeginnin go f theTertiar y period.B y the geological thevegetatio n isa nalpin edeser t type. time scale,Tibe t is considered tob ea new land. Since Temperature and precipitation decrease with in­ formation, however, the forces of nature have been creasing altitude from east to west and from south to violently reshaping it. north. The climate of the Plateau is characterized by Climate tremendous variation (Table 6.1). Although it may be verywar m duringth eday ,nocturna ltemperature s may Theclimat eo fth eTibeta n Plateau isgreatl y influ­ fall far below freezing. The winds are often violent, enced by the mountain systems. The mountains form blowing clouds of dust or rain, snow, and ice pellets. sharply distinct climatic types,rangin g from a tropical Thunder stormsofte n bring sleet and hail. climate at the southern edge of the range to an alpine cold desert climate in inland Tibet. The vast Tibetan The Tibetan alpine montane climate is generally Plateau forms the "roof of the world" with elevation characterized by low temperatures and strong winds generally 4,000-5,000m . resulting in few species and low biomass production. Consequently, the formation and development of soil The land form influences the climate by causing isa slo wproces sresultin gi na thi nsoi llaye rwit h plant air currents over the gradients of slope and altitude, roots reaching the parent material. influencing thesola r radiation, rainfall, daylength ,an d temperature. Schweinfurth (1972) described the day­ Soil Types time ascending flow of air, particularly on the high Plateau, as a "heating engine." The flow in the south­ Mountain meadow soil is the primary type, but eastern part of the Plateau, during summer, he de­ soils vary with locality. The Inner Plateau (Chang scribed as "an enormous, continuously convective Tang) in the northwestern area is a cold desert with chimney" where heat is continuously carried upward many lakes and basins with internal water drainage intoth etroposphere .Ther eals oar emarke d localwin d forming high mountain deserts and skeletal soil types. systems which add to the large-scale diurnal and sea­ In the northeastern part of the region, meadow soil is sonalcirculation .Therefore , wind andth evariation so f distributed on the top of mountains, mountain steppe temperature play the most important part in plant soil on dry slopes,an d chestnut soil in valleys, includ­ growth, life-forms, distribution, and vegetative struc­ ing the Tsangpo Valley. Mountain grass podzolic, turei n theTibeta n Plateau region. brown forest, and meadow soils are distributed in the southeastern area. Local gradients in solar ultraviolet and visible Vegetation radiation, soil and air temperatures, snow, steepness and aspect of slope, growing season length, types of The complex mountain landforms of the Tibetan rock, and soil characteristics also are important Plateau are thought to have been caused by glacial determinants of plant patterns (Billings, 1972). erosion during thecol d period of the Pleistocene Age (Troll, 1972b). Thus, very few relic species remain, Thedifferentiatio n ofclimat ean dvegetatio n types indicating that most plant species now present have occurs according to three dimensions: from south to north, from southeast to northwest, and vertically immigrated from surrounding areas. (Troll, 1972a). These dimensions create numerous The principal high altitude floras of the Tibetan types of climate and vegetation, even in one area. Plateauinclud eIndo-Malaya nflor a mixingwit hHima ­ layanflor a found ineaster nTibe tan dnort h ofth egrea t Inth esoutheast ,th eclimati ctype svar yfro m tropi­ . This vegetation extends westward along cal and subtropical to temperate and alpine, forming thewoode dsouther nslope so fth eHimalaya n Ranget o vegetativetype so frain-forest , montaneconiferou s for­ west ofAssam .Th eMiddl eAsia namphitheater ,corre ­ est(spruc ean dfir) ,grassland ,an dalpin emeadow .Th e sponding to Palaearctic species mixing with Mediter­ climate in the eastern one-third of the Plateau varies ranean types in the western Himalayas, extends from subtropical toalpin ewit h a mean annual temper­ eastward toth eeaster n Himalayaswes t of theTsangp o atureo f 10°Can da nannua l precipitation of 500-1,500 bend at elevations above the timberline (Mani, 1978). mm.Th evegetatio n rangesfro m forest tograsslan dan d To thenort h of the Plateau the flora is Central Asian. alpine meadow. In the remainder of the region, with elevation of4,000-5,00 0 m,th eclimat ei smor esevere , Themountai n ecosystem of theTibeta n Plateau is forming scrub-grassland and alpine meadow. The acomple xo f topoclimate,soi lmaturit yan dsoi lwater , northwestern parto fth eTibeta n Plateaui s"th ehear to f and mountain ridges and crests on which forest and aridity" and is particularly severe. Between the grassland depend.I ngeneral ,forest s orwoodland s rise

98 CHAPTER 6

Table 6.1.Meteorologica l data from seven locationsi n theTibet a n Plateau. (Adapted from C.Troll , 1972a)

Temperatures(°C )

Location Latitude/ Altitude Annualrainf ; •11 Mean Absolute Absolute Longitude (m) (mm) annual minimum maximum

Menyuang 37"29', 10112' 531 531.0 0.6 -31.5 27.5

Qamdo 3ril',96°09' 3,240 499.2 7.4 -18.7 31.5

Nagqu 31°29', 92°03' 4,507 427.3 -2.2 -41.2 20.8

Baingon Lake 31°48\ 89°40' 4,380 272.8 -2.5 ^»2.9 22.9

Lhasa 29"42', 91°08' 3,658 463.3 7.1 -16.5 27.0

Bomi 29°52', 95°46' 2,750 854.0 8.3 -1.4 20.2

Gar 32"30', 80° 05' 4,278 60.4 0.2 -33.4 25.7 Yadong 27"26', 88°53 ' - 936.6 7.7 -0.2* 14.4*

* Mean temperatures > of coldest andwarmes t months. tohig h elevations in dampan dwind-protecte d valleys anists have made integrated surveys of the Plateau with well watered soil. Other areas form grasslands. vegetation.Fro m thesereports ,i ti spossibl et odescrib e Thus,th edistributio n ofvegetatio n typesca nb edistin ­ thegrasslan d vegetation of the Plateau. guished according to the gradient of climatic factors, latitude,an d altitude. Handel-Mazzetti (1930) described the vegetation in eastern Tibet and western Sichuan as a grassland. Inth evalley so feaster nTibe tan dwester n Sichuan Ward (1935, 1936,1947) divided thevegetatio n types Province (the Gorge area) the vegetation is composed into three areas; the gorge, the Outer Plateau, and the of luxuriant mountain forests of dense spruce and fir InnerPlatea u (ChangTang) ,an ddefine d thePlatea u as which extend to4,50 0m (Shafer , 1938;cite d by Troll, a grazing land. Recently, a similar classification of 1972b).Scrub , meadow, and grassland are distributed vegetation zones was given by Liou (1980) according atth ehig helevations .Th ecentra lportio no fth ePlatea u toth edistributio n of grasses. is generally arid-cold with only three to five humid Accordingt oth eestimat eo f Li (1979)th e flora of months, forming alpine meadow and scrub grassy Tibetinclude sove r4,50 0species o fhighe rplants ,wit h steppeabov e4,00 0m .I nth ewester n and northwestern most distributed in the southern part. The following partso f theTibeta n Plateau, thenumbe ro fspecie san d families are most abundant, in order of frequency: plants is very small due to the extreme dryness and Poaceae (Gramineae), Compositae, Cyperaceae, severecold .A nalpin edesert-stepp ean ddeser t vegeta­ Fabaceae (Leguminosae), Cruciferae, Ranunculaceae, tion is formed, characterized by xerophylization and Ericaceae, Gentianaceae, Scrophulariaceae, and Sax- ephemerization of types which existed previously, in ifragaceae. theearl y phase of the mountain uplift. Therear emor etha n30 0specie so fgrasslan dvege ­ Since the middle of the last century, many bota­ tation.Member so fth ePoacea efamil y aremor eimpor - nists, geographers and geologists have traveled and tant than those of Compositae, Fabaceae (Legu­ collected plant specimens in the Tibetan Plateau, minosae),Cyperaceae ,Rosaceae ,Cruciferae ,an dsom e particularly in eastern Tibet and western Sichuan. other families. Among the grasses, Stipa and Orinus Explorers, with their dates of exploration in parenthe­ speciesar emor ecommo n thanAristida triseta,Festuca ses,include :Jea nAnar eSou )(1858-1905) , N.M.Prze - ovina, Littledalea przewalsldi, and Pennisetum flac- walski (1870-1885), G. Forrest (1902-1932), E.H. cidum.Artemisia species are common among herbs as Wilson (1899-1911), F.K.War d (1911-1955),Handel - well as species of Allium, Astragalus, Leontopodium, Mazzetti (1913-1918), and J. Rock (1920-1949). In Oxytropis,Potentilla, and Saussurea. recent decades, Schweinfurth (1972), Troll (1972a), Mani(1978) ,Walte re tal .(1983) ,an dman yother sals o Since the relief and climate play the fundamental have studied thevegetatio n of Tibet, and in particular, rolei ndeterminin g theplan tgrowth anddistributio n in the Himalayan region. Since 1950,man y Chinese bot­ the Plateau, using these factors and other available

99 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

information, a general grassland classification can be subtropical to cold temperate and alpine types. With made dividing the area into three subrogions and sev­ increasing latitude and altitude, the precipitation and eralsection san d areas in the Plateau (Figure 6.1). temperaturedecrease .Fo rexample ,th eprecipitatio no f 1,500 mmi nth esout hdecrease st o40 0m mi nth enort h and the mean annual temperature of 14°Ci n the south THE GORGE SUBREGION: FORESTS decreasest o5° Ci nth enorth .Th ealtitud eals ochange s MIXED WITH SCRUB-GRASSLAND- theclimat edistinctly .Th evegetatio nconsist so f differ­ MEADOW ent typesdu et oclimati cvariation . Border and Rivers Soil Types TheGorg esubregio n includeseastern Tibet ,west ­ Soilsvar ywit helevation , climate,an d vegetation. ern Sichuan, northwestern Yunnan, southeastern Generally, brown forest soil is found in the warmer, Gansu,an dnortheaster n Qinghaiprovinces .Geograph ­ lowerelevations .I nuppe relevation swit hcol dclimate , ically, thissubregio n isa comple x ofparalle l mountain thesoil sar emountai ngrass ypodzoli can dgrasslan d or ranges with north to south direction (except the Min meadow soil types.Chestnu t soili sdistribute d in most Shan Range, which runs west to east), and five rivers valleys. (theTsangpo , Nujiang [Salween],Lancan g[] , Changjiang [Yangtze],an d Huang He [Yellow]), and Vegetation and Types theirtributarie swhic h flow through thesubregion . The altitudei sgenerall y3,000-4,00 0m abov ese aleve lwit h Since the relief, climate, and other environmental some peakso f 6,000-7,000m (Figure 6.2). conditionsvar y greatly and thesefactor s greatly influ­ enceth eplan tdistribution ,th evegetatio no fth esub-re ­ Climate gioni scomplex .Thi ssub-regio n isrich i nplan tspecie s and one of the most beautiful places of the world, Theclimat eo fth eTibeta n Plateaui sinfluence d by particularly in the lower gorge area, e.g. northwestern monsoons,suc h asth esoutheaster n monsoon from the Yunnan and southwestern Sichuan provinces, and Pacific Ocean and thesouthwester n monsoon from the southeasternTibet .Fo rthi sreason ,almos ton ehundre d Indian Ocean (which reaches toth ewester n part of the botanists and geographers have traveled in this gorge subregion). The continental climate influence from area since thebeginnin g of this century. central Asia makes the northern portion dry and cold. From south to north, the climate varies from warm

*3S

Figure 6.Î. Topography of thehig h mountain passo f theSichua n -Tibetan border(formerl y called EastTibet )a t7,00 0m ,wit hsno wo npeak s inAugust . (Reproduced from E.H.M. Cox, 1945;courtes y of Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University Photograph Archives)

100 CHAPTER 6

Handel-Mazzetti (1930) described the vegetation HighA Ipine Zone distribution, the phytogeographical structures, and af­ In thisarea , winters are not very cold and there is finities of Yunnan and western Sichuan as a region of littlesnow .Al lth ealpin etype so fformation s are found highlands and high mountains with five vertical zones here with many dwarf shrubs mixing with luxuriant of vegetation. He described eastern Tibet as a grass­ shrubs up to 4,730 m. This zone contains a wealth of land.Th emountain sexten dnorthwar d asa narro wstri p speciesan dshare sa stron gaffinit y with theHimalayas . to the frontier of Gansu Province and to the west in a Handel-Mazzetti (1930)als oclassifie d easternTibe ta s similar way, almost to Lhasa. It is relatively dry, but a grassland. The natural meadow is characterized by each altitudinalzon ei sdistinct . Vegetation inthi sare a lowgrowt hwit hscru bvegetation .Forest so fPicea and has been classified into five zones according to its Abies are limited to certain slopes and along rivulets. vertical distribution. Endemicspecies ar eabundant , forming themajorit y of Subtropical Zone the grassland with some Siberian species.Th e flora is otherwise mostly related to that of the Yunnan high­ This is the driest zone in the south, including land. grass-steppe and savannah forest and containing, be­ side endemic types,man y western Himalayan species. Wilson'schar t (Cox, 1945)(Figur e6.3 ) illustrates Indam p sites,ther ear e large-leaved forests with some the various vertical zones of vegetation found in this elementsoiPinus Khasiaan dMiddl eChin afloras .Th e sub-region, particularly in and Sichuan prov­ upper limit of the Plateau is about 1,800 m, while the inces.Thes edivision s are also generally true for allo f high mountain elevation is 2,400 to 2,900 m. In the the western provinces, unless conditions cause local­ lowerbelt ,succulent s and otherspecies ar eofte n pres­ ized exceptions. ent. According to Handel-Mazzetti (1930), Walker WarmTemperate Zone (1944), and Ward (1930a, 1947), the areas of eastern Tibet and Qinghai, western Sichuan, northwestern Theabsolut eminimu m temperatureo fthi szon ei s Yunnan, and southeastern Gansu include grasslands -6°C and precipitation is 1,000 mm, increasing with and meadows of low growth.Th evegetatio n is almost altitude. The species are steppe, sclerophyllous trees entirelycompose d ofgrasse san dgrass-lik eplant swit h and shrubs, thorny scrub, and pine forests. In places, abundant herbs.Thes especies ar e remarkable for their oaksan doak-allie so flaurel-typ ear efound . Numerous ability togro wearl y inth eshor t growing season,ripen endemics consist equally of eastern and western ele­ quickly,an db edorman tbefor e theearl ywinter .Shrub s ments. and trees exist in sheltered valleys but are scarce or TemperateZone absent on thehighlands .Th evegetatio n ofthes egrass ­ lands is related to that of Central Asia, with alpine Thiszon ereache salmos t 3,800m i nth esout han d elements.Th efe wwood y plantsar elargel yo fnorther n 3,000m i n the north. It contains the largest number of affinities, otherwise they are mostly related tothos eo f formations.Thi szon e mayb edivide d intotw ogroups : theYunna n highland. a) xerophilous pine and oak-woods with under­ growth of heath-meadows; According to relief, climate and vegetation, the b) mesophilous mixed forests, partly evergreen, cities Kangding(Tatsienlu) , Batang (30°N), and Qam- joined by bush meadows and tall perennials. do (Chamdo) may be used todra w a line to divide the gorgesubregio n intotw osections ,th euppe rgorg ean d This area is rich in species, many of which are thelowe rgorg e(A l andA 2o fFigur e6. 1) .I nth enorth , endemic, while others are common to Central China the relief is somewhat higher (3,500-4,000 m), with and theHimalayas . extensive rolling grassland and meadows, containing Cold Temperate Zone streams flowing in shallow, swampy valleys. Mean annual temperature and annual precipitation are lower Fir forests are found in the area which rises to thanthos eo fth esouther nsectio nan dther ei sles ssno w 4,150-4,350 m in the south and 3,600-3,700 m in the cover. The southern section is a frequently dissected north (Wilson, 1913). Gnarled rhododendron forests, plateau with higher temperature and precipitation. The tall herbaceous perennials, and "leaf mould mats" are vegetation ismostl y forest-grassland-meadow. alsofound ,alon gwit hlus hmeadows .Specie s affinities arestronges t with Himalayan types. The striking feature of the landscape near Batang illustrates the importance of exposure as a factor in plant distribution. The forest is found only on slopes withnorther nexposur ean dgrasslan di sfoun do nsouth ­ ern slopes. This vegetation pattern is due to snowfall

101 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

VII 7,800 m

Eternal Snow Zone

Snow line 5,156 m VI 5,500 m

Glacier Zone Alpine desert Moraines 5,000 m Cushion Herbs

4,800 m Limit of Alpine Zone lingeous Moorlandsan dGrasslands , vegetation Meadowscarpete dwit h herbs, Primula, Gentiana, Meconopsis Tree line 3,750 m Small-leaved rhododendrons Berberis, Spiraea

3,500 m VI

Larch Sub-alpine Zone Magnificent coniferous forests Headwaterso f spruce family Many rhododendrons

3,120 m III

Forests Covl-TtrnperaieZon e 2,650 m Mixed deciduoustree san dshrubs , rhododendrons andconifers , tallherb s

1,560 m II

Teapera|e Zong Rainforest, evergreen region: Chiefly oaks, Laurineae, hollies, Cunninghamiapines , ferns, etc., cultivated rice, maize, sweet potato

620 m I

Warm-Temperate Zone Cultivated anddensel y populated, Rice (principal summercrop) , winterwheat , cypress, pine,woo d oil, , palms,oranges , vegetable tallow, insect-white wax

Riverleve l

Figure 63. Vegetation zones on mountains in Hubei (Hupeh) and Sichuan (Szechuan) provinces. (Adapted from RR Wilson, cit. E.H.M. Cox, 1945)

102 CHAPTER 6

distribution.Durin gwinte rth esno wmelt saway , often (Hordeum vulgare var. nudum), rapeseed (Brassica daily,o n thesouther n slopesbut remainso n the north­ campestris var. Rapa), buckwheat (Fagopyrum escu- ernslope sthroug hth ewinter .Th eunprotecte dsouther n lentum), andoat s (Avenasauva) arecultivate d on gen­ slopes are continuously exposed to extreme diurnal tle slopes. In the 3,000-3,800 m elevation zone, temperature changes. Kobresia capillifolia and Kobresia bifurca may grow tofor m apur estan do rfor m ameado wwit h Potenulla, Thevegetatio n forms in thevalley sar e influenced Leontopodium,Anaphalis, Gentiana,an dS'tipa species . by thegeologica l formations ofth evalley .Th evalley s Onslope s of 14-25°,wher e there is lesssoi l moisture, inth euppe rgorge ,i nth enorth ,ar ebroa dan d U-shaped many grassesgrow , including Calamagrostis, Spodio­ as a result of glacial action, while those of the lower pogon, Themeda,Elymus,Agropyron, Pennisetum,an d valley have a steep V-shape, as a result of alluvial Stipa species,an d some speciesof Artemisia. erosion. Ward (1935,1936,1947) compared thevege ­ tation inth euppe r and lowergorge s (Table 6.2). Between 3,500 and 4,000 m, Kobresia species dominate and may be mixed with many species of The Upper Gorge Section Polygonum,Potenulla, andsom erepresentative so fth e TheSouthern Area of the UpperGorge Section Compositae family to form a complex meadow com­ munity. Meadows and grasslands in the upper gorge The grasslands and meadows of thesouther n part area are extensive and provide good grazing (Tsui, of the upper gorge are distributed at elevations of 1956). 3,000-4,500 m (Figures 6.4, 6.5, and 6.6). Between 3,000an d 3,500m ,Agropyron spp.,Elymus, and Bro- The alpine vegetation zone, consisting of scrub mus are found among the farmlands. Pennisetum grasslands and alpine meadows, lies at elevations be­ flaccidum, Spodiopogonspp. , Themedaspp .an dCala- tween 3,800 and 4,800 m. Kobresia pygmaea is the magrostis grow on grassy slopes.I n valleyswher e the most important species,increasin g toa pur estan dwit h topography is flat, some farm crops such as barley increased elevation.Th eassociate d species include:

Tabic 6.2.Compariso n of thevegetatio n inth euppe ran d lowergorg eregions .(Adapte d from F.K.Ward , 1935,1936,1947)

Elévation Lower gorge Upper gorge

Below 1,500 m PinusKhasia only.

1,500-2,500 m Temperate evergreen forest, Pinusspp . with maples, oaksan dIlex. Temperate rainforest: Magnolia andMichelia.

2,500-3,100m Rhododendron-conifer forest withbroadlea ftrees , Aridriver gorg e (2,800-3,700 m). Shrubflor a witha Rhododendron invariety ;Picea and Taxus,Abies, few treesaroun dth evillages , Picea,juniper ,poplar , andMagnolia globosa. shrubs:Papilionaceae ,Aster, etc. and herbs: Primula, ,Amphicome, etc .

3,100-3,700m Firforest ,Abies webbianawit hRhododendron an d Aridriver gorge . deciduousshrub sa sundergrowth .

3,700-4,400m Rhododendron shrub:gregariou sspecie sbu tsom e Subalpine shrubbelt : Rhododendron in limitedvari ­ variety. ety;Berberis, Lonicera, Ribes, Clematis, Rosa. Alpine meadow withNomocharis, Primula an d Alpine flora: Incarvillea, andStellera\ Compositae in Meconopsis. vast numbersan dgrea tvariety ; Cruciferae and Ranunculaceae;grea tnumber so f Pedicularis. la moist placesPrimula tibetica.

Above 4,400m Alpine turf,screes ,cliffs , andice ,wor n rock slopes, Alpine: herbaceouszone ;asters , larkspurs, Meconop­ Primula. sis, scrub beltwit hRhododendron anddwar f Hippophae. Inmois t placesCremanthodium.

4,700-5,300m High alpine region. Scree, alpine turf: glaciersan d flats; boulderslopes . Dwarf alpine plants,Primula; rosette plants, Crépis, Gentiana, Lagotis.

5,300-5,600m High alpine region, afe w specialized plants- Delphin­ ium,Saussurea, Primula spp .

103 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Figure6.4 .Meado wgrasslan do f theSichua n -Tibetanborde rwit hPrimula inolucrata amon ggrasse si nth eforegroun dan dRheum alexandre in the middle. (Photo by EH. Wilson, reproduced from E.D. Merrill and EH. Walker, 1938; courtesy of Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University Photograph Archives)

Figure 6.5.A vie wo f thegrasslan dwit hRheum alexandre inbloom , theroot sar ecollecte d andtransporte ddow n toChengd u fordistribution . The species on the slopes in the background arespruc e and deciduous shrubs.(Phot o reproduced from E.D. Merrill and EH. Walker, 1938; courtesy of Arnold Arboretum of HarvardUniversit y Photograph Archives)

Anaphalis spp. Polygonum viviparum Pedicularis spp. Spiraea spp. Berberis spp. Primula spp. Phleum pratense Gentiana spp. Stipa mongolica Meconopsis horridula Rhododendron (small leaved)

104 CHAPTER 6

Figure 6.6. A view of an alpine meadow of the Sichuan-Tibetan border in a depressed flat with dormant Cypripedium tibeticum (Tibetan Lady'sslipper) .(Phot oreproduce d from E.D.Merril lan dEH . Walker, 1938;courtes y ofArnol dArboretu m ofHarvar d University Photograph Archives) TheMiddle Area ofthe UpperGorge Section Subalpine meadow grassland. This meadow grassland is distributed from 3,300-4,200 m and in­ In the Songpan and Aba area and extending to cludes many important species. Garze (Karze) of northwestern Sichuan Province, the generalelevatio n is3,200-4,50 0 m.Her e theclimat e is They are: influenced by the eastern monsoon. The mean annual Anaphalis spp. Helictotrichon tibeticum temperature range is6.9° C to 11°C,an d the precipita­ Anemone obtusiloba Kobresia spp. tion range is474-81 5 mm (at Barkam).Chian g (1960) Carex spp. Polygonum viviparum identified two types of vegetation, the plateau (broad, Clinefymus sibiricus Polygonum plain,meado w grassland),an ddee pvalle y forests.Be ­ Clinelymus nutans sphaerostachyum cause of the strong winds, winter drought, and high Festuca ovina Potentilla spp. elevation (factors that do not favor tree growth) the Somescattere d shrubsinclude : forests aredistribute d only oncertai n shaded slopeso f Lonicera tibetica Sibiraea laevigata thevalleys . The main vegetation ismesophyti c peren­ Lonicera hispida Spiraea schneideriana nial grasses and herbs which form meadow grassland. Rhododendron var. amphidox Chiang (1960) mentioned three types of meadow- (3 species) grassland. These plants form a brilliant plant world. Grasses Alpine meadows. This grassland is distributed andherb sgro w 40-60c m andfor m arich grazin g land. from 4,200-4,500 m. The dominant species are Carex spp. and Kobresia spp. without shrubs and annuals. Mountain swampy meadow. This meadow type Plants are less than 10 cm, forming a compact sod is commonly distributed in the Zoige area, which is without a distinct layer. located in the corner between Sichuan, Gansu, and Qinghaiprovince s(Figur e6.7) .Th esoi lcondition sar e The typicalalpin e plants are: acidic peat swampy soil,wit h a water table 1m belo w Arenaria kansuensis Ranunculus brotherusii thesoi lsurfac e andpoo rsoi lporosity .Th echaracteris ­ Meconopsis horridula Saussurea spp. ticso f theswamp y meadow include: 1)dominatio n by Pedicularis oederi Soroseris spp. species of Carex and Cyperus, 2) frequent species of var. sinensis Thylacospermum Cremanthodium, Saxifraga, Primula (maximowiczii), Pedicularis siphonantha caespitosum and Triglochin, and3 )absenc eo fobviou s plantlayers .

105 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Thefou r plantassociation sfoun d inthi sare aar edeter ­ Anaphalis spp. Clinelymus nutans mined by water depth. Artemisia spp. Festuca ovina 1. Carex+ Cremanthodium +Pedicularisassociatio n Carex spp. Polygonumviviparum in deepsubmergen t water with simple structure. Clinelymus sibiricus Roegneria spp. 2. Carex +Caltha +J uncus association scattered on Grasses and herbs grow tomor etha n 40 cm, have the high spots without submergent water, with good density, and distinct structure with brilliant ap­ Potamogeton spp. and Halerpestes sarmentosa pearance.I n contrast, in the Zoigearea , the dominants scattered on the lowerspots . of meadow grassland are Helictotrichon tibeticum, 3. Potamogeton +Halerpestes association in lower Carex spp.,Anemone obtusiloba, Ranunculus broth- spotsbelo w thewate r surface. erusii, andLigularia spp. The grasses and herbs grow 4. Carex + Aster + Pedicularis association distrib­ toles stha n4 0cm ,wit hhighe rdensit yan dles sobviou s utedwher eth ewate r tablei smor etha n 1 mbelo w structure. the soil surface and mixed with Saxifraga spp., Primula vitata, Primula maximowiczii, Ligularia Teichman (1922) and Johnson (1945) mentioned spp., and otherspecies . that the area is a vast and rich grassland of heavily sodded grasseswit h high grazing capacity, comparing Mountain meadow-grasslands vary from place to favorably with areas in the Rocky Mountains of the placedu et oth eenvironmenta lconditions .I nth eGarz e U.S.Th egrassland sar eecologicall y sound but arenot area, the meadow grassland is different from that of fully used. Generally, the grasslands are distributed Zoige,du et ovariatio n inclimat ean dsoil ,eve n though above 3,000 m. Johnson mentioned many valuable they are in close proximity in the western part of the forages, including prostrate alfalfas, tree sweetclover, upper gorge. In the Garze area, the mean annual tem­ spreading trefoil-like plants, peculiarAstragalus spp., perature is 6°C, the mean monthly temperature is vetches, stipas, sod-forming wheatgrasses, and many greater than 10°Cfo r five months,an d annual precipi­ herbsan dshrubs .Belo wth eelevatio no fth egrasslands , tation is 650 mm. Both areas have the same precipita­ sprucean djunipe r are spread, with fir and oakso n the tionbut the temperature in the Zoige area isquit e low, valley floor. with a meanannua ltemperatur e of -0.8°Cwit h strong, cold winds.Th e mountain meadow-grassland associa­ TheNorthern Area ofthe UpperGorge Section tioni nth eGarz eare aha smor egrasses wit hman y more specieso f herbs. In the northern part of theuppe r gorge is a moun­ taincountr ylocate di nsoutheas tGans uan da smal lpar t The dominant species are: of northeast Qinghai. The Xiqing (Anyemaqen), Min,

Figure 6.7. Alpine mountain swampy meadow is found at 4,000 m in the eastern Tibetan Plateau. (Reproduced from H.Y. Hou, 1983,wit h permission from Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden)

106 CHAPTER 6

Niaoshu, and Laji mountains delimit this area. The Innortheas tQingha i Province,vegetatio n is found mountains have awes t to east and northwest tosouth ­ with some characteristics of grassland. The main spe­ east orientation inwhic h the minimum elevation in the ciesar exerophyte s including: valleys is 2,500 m ranging to 4,000 m, with peaks of Artemisia capillaris Artemisia sieversiana 7,000m o r more. var. acaulis Sltipa breviflora Artemisia dalai-lamae Stipa krylovii Theclimat e isinfluence d by thecontinenta lmass , Artemisia moorcroftiana Stipa glareosa so that the vegetation has some characteristics of the continent.Th eare ai sa blea kplateau ,traverse db yhigh , Some mesophyticspecie s include: rocky, wooded, limestone mountain ranges forming Carex atrofiisca Kobresia minhsienica parto f thewatershe d between theYangtz ean d Yellow Carex lanceolata Polygonum viviparum River systems. Kobresia capillifolia Ranunculus tricuspis var. nenella Theare a iscovere d mainlywit h grassesan d herbs which form a rich grazing country. The area also in­ Both Piceapurpurea and Sabina przewalskii for­ cludes coniferous and broadleaf forests on the ranges, estsar edistribute d inth eare ao fnorthwester n Sichuan, and a fairly rich alpine flora. The principal rivers (the easternQingha ian dsouther n Gansu,a t2,880-3,80 0m . Tao,Yellow ,an dBailong ;th euppe rpar to fth eChiali n In Picea purpurea forests, the coverage of the herba­ [a of Yangtze]) form an areao f gorges. ceous layer is 20-70%. The main forage species in­ clude: Coniferous forests, particularly Pinus tabulae- Grasses: formis, fir, and spruce, are distributed from 3,000 to Achnatherum Deyeuxia scabrescens 4,000 m. There are numerous meadow grasslands and extremiorientale Poa chalarantha alpinemeadow sformin gexcellen tgrazin glan dsuc ha s Legume: theJone-Xiah e (Labrang) area (Rock, 1930,1933). Vicia unijuga The most important grasses include: In the forest ofSabina przewalskii, three layerso f Agropyron spp. Stipa aliéna trees, shrubs, and herbs are distinguishable. The cov­ Bromus spp. Stipa capillacea erage of shrubs is 20-40%,includin g most of Berberis Clinelymus nutans Stipa przewalskii spp. and Caragana jubata. The coverage of herbs is Themai n herbs and shrubsinclude : 20-50%, mostly of alpinemeado w elements.Th emai n Anemone spp. Paeonia spp. species include: Berberis thunbergii Pedicularis spp. Artemisia spp. Kobresia bellardii Buddleja spp. Physalis spp. Carex filiformis Roegneria breviglumis Delphinium spp. Potentilla fruticosa Clinelymus nutans Stipa penicillata Incarvillea spp. Primula spp. Lower Gorge Section Leontopodium spp. Rhododendron spp. Meconopsis spp. Rosa spp. The lower gorge section is generally limited to (especially Senecio spp. 26°30'-30°N and 94-103°E including the Hi­ Meconopsis integrifolia) Viola tricolor malayanzon eo fTibet ,th esoutheaster ncome ro fTibet , northwestern Yunnan, andsouthwester n Sichuan.Thi s Atelevation so f4,10 0t o4,60 0m ,alpin emeadow s section hasa diverse topography. arewidespread . They consist of many species of: Aconitum Meconopsis The Himalayan Range runs from west toeas t and Aster Potentilla joins many south-north mountain systems, forming a Clematis Primula largesectio n of massive mountains.A serie so f gorges Deliphinium Saussurea andvalley sar earrange dfro m westt oeast :th eTsangpo , Gentiana Saxifraga Lohit, Irrawaddy, Salween (Nu), Mekong (Lancang), Iris Syringa andYangtz erivers, an d gorgeso f their tributaries.Th e Kobresia direction and position of thesemountains ,valleys ,an d gorges profoundly influence the climate and vegeta­ There are also large areas of swampy alpine tion, providing a unique landscape. meadow which consist mainly of: Blymus sinocompressus Deschampsia caespitosa The lower gorge is a dissected plateau which was Carex lanceolata Kobresia spp. formed primarily by alluvial erosion. The generalele ­ Carex meyeriana vation is 3,000-4,000 m with high peaks, including 7,756 m south of the Tsangpo bend and 7,556 m at Gongga (Minya Gongkar), in southwestern Sichuan.

107 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

The elevation increases from south to north, creating Calamus Garcinia variations of climate and vegetation. Caryota Hiptage Climate Dipterocarpus Musa Engelhardia Pandanus Theclimat eo fth elowe rgorg ei sinfluence d byth e Ficus Indian monsoon, with a wet season from March to andspecie so f thefollowin g families: October anda dr yseaso n from Novembert o February. Acanthaceae Gesneriaceae Because of the position of the mountain barriers, both Araliaceae Zingiberaceae temperature and rainfall vary greatly from west toeas t and from south tonorth .I nth eben d areao f theeaster n Numerousepiphyti cferns ,orchids ,an dspecie so f Himalayasan dth eLohi t Valley (particularly thesouth ­ Aeschynanthus areals o found. ern slope of the Himalayas) is a type of Assam Hima­ The specieso f Yunnan Province (east of the Me­ layan (Troll 1972a), characterized by tropical climate kong) include: withhig hrainfall . TheKakarporaz i Mountaini nnorth ­ Ceratostigmagriffithii Jasminum multiflorum ern Burma is a rain screen which prevents the Indian Chionanthus chinensis Sophora vicifolia monsoon from entering the eastern gorge area. Other mountains, including the Kenchiyumpo (Irrawaddy- Thevertica ldistributio no fvegetatio n corresponds Salweendivide) ,Taniantaweng , (Salween-Mekongdi ­ to climate, particularly in the southern portion of the vide), and Ningjing (Mekong-Yangtze divide), also lowergorg esectio nwhic h mayb edivide d intosevera l providea rai nscree nt oth eIndia nmonsoon ,decreasin g communities:tropica lrai nforest , withsecondar y com­ rainfall to about 1,000 mm in northwestern Yunnan munities of savannas or bamboo on dry and poor soil Province.Althoug h thedistanc efro m theIndia n Ocean from 400-800 m; evergreen subtropical forest, from to the outer boundary of the lower gorge is 700-1,000 800 to 1,200-1,500 m; moss forest, from 2,000-3,000 km,th e rain screens createa subtropical climate in the m;coniferou s forest,fro m 3,000t o3,50 0m ;an d alpine bottoms of those valleys with annual rainfall mostly vegetation (includingsubalpin e scrub-meadow and al­ below 1,000 mm. pinemeadow) ,fro m 3,500t o4,00 0 mo r more. Thelowe rgorg esectio nma yb eseparate d intotw o The climate changes generally with altitude and areas, 1)th eare awes to fth eSalwee ndivid e (including latitude.Fro m thesout h andlowe raltitude st oth enort h upperIrrawadd yan dth esouther n portiono fth eeastern and higheraltitudes , theclimati ctype sma yb e divided Himalayas),an d 2) theare a east of the Salween divide intotropical ,subtropical , warm tocoo l temperate, and (including northeastern Yunnan and western Sichuan alpine.Sno wma yfal ldurin gal lseason so nhig hmoun ­ provinces). tains due toth e humid atmosphere. Deepsno w occurs atelevation s above3,20 0m fo r half of theyear ,wit ha The Lower Gorge Area West of Salween permanent snow line at 5,000m . TheLower TsangpoGorge Subarea Vegetation Troll (1972a), described the vegetation of the Thevegetatio n of thelowe r gorgewa sstudie d for lower Tsangpo area as a type of Assam Himalayan, more than forty years by F.K. Ward, starting in 1911. comprising the southern bend of the Tsangpo Gorge Since then, most vegetation studieso f the lower gorge and Dingba (Dihang) River. This area has a very wet havebee nbase do nhi sliterature .Schweinfurt h (1972), climate which is profoundly influenced by the Indian Troll(1972a) ,Man i(1978) ,an dother shav e confirmed monsoon.Ther ei sa distinc twe tseaso n from March to Ward'sdivisio n ofvegetatio n typeso fth elowe rgorge . October anda dr yseaso n from Novembert o February. Thevertica ldistributio no fvegetatio nwa sdescribe db y Ward (1920) stated that the flora boundary be­ Troll (1972a) and Zhengan d Chang (1981): tween Tsangpo bend (about 95°E) and 105°E is the lesstha n 600m Wetevergree n rainforest palearctic-oriental boundary which divided the area 600-1,100m Tropical semi-evergreen intoa Himalayan portion and a Chinese portion, grad­ rainforest uallymergin gtowar dth ecente ro fth eboundary ,wher e 1,100-2,000m Tropical lower montane the two types are indistinguishable. In the same way, 2,200-2,800m Tropical upper montane the boundary of the floras of Indian and Chinese ele­ coniferous forest ments is located at the Mekong-Salween divide in 2,800-3,800 m Forest subalpine oak which Indo-Malayan flora is found in the west and 3,800-4,000m Subalpinedar k coniferous eastern Asian flora isfoun d in the east. (rhododendron) The plants in the west (Irrawaddy Basin) include 4,000-4,200m Alpinedar k scrub the following genera: meadows

108 CHAPTER 6

Thealpin e scrub meadow includes species of: Carex lactea Oxytropis polypetala Shrubs Gentiana phyllocalyx Polygonum viviparum Cassiope wardii Rhododendron nivale Kobresia angusta Potenülla stenophylla Rhododendron Salix oreophila Kobresia lehmanii Thalictrum alpinum calostrotum Thespecies of Kobresia ar edominant .Th especies Rhododendron density is 13/m2 with 80% coverage and a simple campylogynum structureo f communities without obvious layers. Herbs Carex spp. Koenigia islandica Thecommo n grasses in the subarea include: Diapensia himalaica Polygonum viviparum Agrostis sikkimensis Deyeuxia sylvatica Juncus bracteatus Andropogon spp. Diandranthus libeticus hookeri Eremopogon spp. TheBond Subarea Arundinella spp. Festuca leptopogon The northern side of the Himalayas includes the Calamagrostis emodensis Miscanthus southern portion of Bomi (Bowo).Th e climateo f this Cymbopogon spp. szechuanensis areai sstil linfluence d byth eIndia nmonsoon , although Thevertica ldistributio no fgrasse si ssi mila rt otha t iti s 1,000 km from theIndia n Ocean.Th emea nannua l of thefores t beltwit h anelevatio n of 3,000m .Specie s temperature is8.2° Cwit h annualrainfal l of85 5m ma t 2,530m ,increasin g to 1,972 mm at 3,949m . include: Asperella duthiei Phaenosperma spp. Thevertica ldistributio no fvegetatio no fth eBom i Festuca parvigluma subarea is illustrated in Figure 6.8. The subarea in­ and some others. cludes 215 species of spermatophytes, 20 species of Above the upper limit of the forest belt (3,500- ferns, and 44specie so f lichens. 4,000m) , thegrasse s includespecie s of: The meadow vegetation is distributed between Deschampsia Poa 4,200an d 4,400m ,wit h cold,stron gwinds ,lon g peri­ Elymus Trisetum ods of snow cover, and a thin layer of soil. The main Festuca speciesinclude : andparticularl y Deyeuxia tibetica andDeyeuxia zang- Anaphalis nepalensis Meconopsis horridula xiensis.

meters meters 10000 -1 10000 Legend

1. Seasonalrai n forest 2. Evergreen broad leaved forest 3. Mixed forest of conifers and broadleaves 4. Subalpine coniferous forest mixed with rhododendron 5. Shrubs,mainl y rhododendron 6. Alpine meadow 7. Lichen 5000 - - 5000 8. Snowline

Figure 6.8. Vertical distribution of vegetation atNyala m on thesouther n slope of the Himalayan Range.(Adapte d from D. Zhengan dW.L . Chang, 1981)

109 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

TheZayul Subarea Anemone Primula Astragalus Rhododendron In the south, the Zayul (Gyigang) subarea lies in Draba Salvia theuppe rLohi tValle ywit ha nelevatio no f 1,200-1,600 Gentiana Trollius m. In the Tibetan language, Zayul means "the hot and many others. country," "the grass country," or "the green forested country."Th eclimat eo fZayu li sintermediat ebetwee n The area of the Tsangpo-Salween divide is an the hills and the Plateau, with more similarity to the excellent grazinglan dwit hsom ecultivatio n invalley s Plateau. The summers are hot with fierce, dry winds and awealt h of wildlife. blowing up through the gorge creating periods of drought, in spite of a moderately heavy precipitation. TheMishmi Subarea The winters are cold with night frosts and occasional In the southern part of the region of southeastern snow, with two or three months of dry weather from Tibet, is an Indian Assam plain with an elevation of October to December. Eastward and northward, the 100-200 m. Toward the north, the Himalayan Moun­ climate becomes gradually drier, with an increasing tains rise to 3,000-5,000 m. This subarea includes the period ofwinte r drought. areafro m theDele iRive ri nth eeas tt oth eDihan gRive r in thewest ,a nare acalle d theMishm i Hills in English The vegetation of Zayul is almost totally pine literature. forestwit htemperat eforest sfoun d inhighe relevations . Forests of pure Pinus Khasia are found in this valley. The mountains are terrifically steep, with large The most common oak appears tob e Quercus glauca. slabs of bare rock and long bare cliffs. The monsoons, Management includes the burning of hillsides every sweeping up from the west, strike against the first winter. This has a marked effect on the vegetation, mountain hillranges ,creatin ga larg ebu tver y irregular forming a fire climax. Grassesgro w 50-100cm , form­ annual rainfall (from 5,425 mm to 7,828 mm during inga savanna hgrasslan d(Ward ,1923,1934 ;Kaulback , 1925-1927a tDenning) .Th eclimat eo fth esubare aals o 1924).Specie so f grasses include (Liou, 1980): hasa shor tdr yseason ,wit h thewe tseaso n forming the Cyrtococcum accrescens Saccharum border of the tropical rainforest. Snow is abundant on spp. arundinaceum thesurroundin g peaks. Pseudochinolaena Themeda villosa The vegetation of the upper Delei Valley at Peti polystachya (4,500 m) marks the boundary between the temperate Between 1,600 and 3,500m , the vegetation grad­ forest and the Indo-Malayan hilljungle . North of Peti, ually changes from semi-deciduous to deciduous, specieso f thefollowin g genera are found: coniferous, and sub-alpine vegetation. Alpine mead­ Acrocarpus Ficus ows are present above3,50 0m . Bauhinia Pandanus Derris Ulmus In thenorther n part of theRon g Tochu River (the and some others. western tributary of the Zayul River), Ward (1934) described the vegetation as similar to that of north­ Thevegetatio n ranges widely from subtropical to westernYunna na tth esam eelevatio n (1,500-2,700m) . alpine. There are strong Himalayan elements from Tibet and western China. The following species are found: TheIndia nmonsoo ngreatl yinfluence s theclimat e Anemone rupicola Paraquilegia in this district, with dry and wet seasons forming the border of the tropical rain forest. The timberline is Cassiope myoswoides microphylla generally at 3,800m . Cremanthodium spp. Primula spp. Meconopsis horridula Rhododendron repens Scrub-meadows are common at 3,800-4,300 m, with thefollowin g species represented: Alpine meadows are distributed above 3,500 m Carex spp. Poa spp. and arecovere d with turf and scattered bushes. Cassiope wardii Polygonum viviparum Farther to the north of the Zayul subarea is Shug- Juncus braeteams Rhododendron spp. den (about 29° 30' N and 97°E), with severe cold Kobresia pygmaea Salix areophila winters.Ther ei sn ofores t inthi sarea ,bu ttree so fPicea Theflora s ofth esubare a includealpin eflor a belts lUdangensis grow in more sheltered valleys. A wealth in the north (Sino-Himalayan) and south (Indo-Ma­ of alpine meadows carpet the area at 4,000-5,000 m, layan)whic hexten deas tan dwes tindependentl yo f the with some shrubs. The following genera are repre­ apparent north-south Burma-Yunnan ranges (Ward, sented: 1930a). Allium Incarvillea

110 CHAPTER 6

Cultivation mayexten dt oabou t 1,800m .Th efar m jungle.Th eflank s ofth erange sar ecovere dwit h dense crops include corn, buckwheat, sweet potato, barley, forest of spruce and fir climbing up to4,500-4,70 0m , andEleusine. Vegetable cropso f spinach, peas,beans , with thewhol e country a paradise of flowers. and Colocasia, and fruit trees of peach and soapy Inth edrie rcountr yo fth eeast ,th eloft y rangesar e banana are found in thesubtropica l valley. richwit h herbaceous alpineflor a includingRhododen­ The main forage grasses includespecies of: dron. Over4 0specie sof Primula, fiv e ofMeconopsis, Isachne Saccharum many species of Gentiana and Campanula, and lilies Pseudochinolaena Themeda are present, but woody plants are poorly represented (Ward, 1924). In high elevation areas, Deyeuxia and Poa are found withspecie soiKobresia widelysprea d inalpin e According to Ward (1920), Gregor and Gregor meadow areas. (1923), and others, therear e several differences in the geology, climate, vegetation, flora, and people of the Tibetan's flocks graze the alpine meadows at area.Th eYangtze-Mekon g Rivervalle y area has high elevations of 3,600 m. The principal game animals peaks of the Baima Mountains (6,000-6,300 m), with include musk deeran d bear. the snowline at about 5,700 m. Coniferous forests of TheWestern Subarea ofthe Southeastern Abies and Tsuga, mixed with broadleaf forests, are Himalayas located below the subalpine scrub meadow. There are few deciduous leafed forests orbamboo ,an d nomead ­ In the western subarea of the southeastern Hi­ owsar efoun d in thisarea . malayas (e.g. Dirangzong, Yadong [Chomo]), a dry climate produces scrub-grassland and grassland at The Mekong-Salween divide has high peaks of 4,000-4,700 m and alpine meadows from 4,700 to 6,000m ,wit h asnowlin e of5,20 0m .Alpin e meadows 5,200 m. According to Mani (1978), the main species arefoun d above the forest line.Coniferou s forests and include: thickets of bamboo are found at high elevations, with Aristida spp. Polygonumspp . mixed forests (inwhic h deciduous-leaf trees predomi­ Artemisia spp. Sophora moorcroftiana nate) found at lower elevations. Kobresia pygmaea Stipa capillacea The Salween-Irrawaddy divide has high peaks of Orinus thoroldii Stipa purpurea 5,400-5,700m an da continuou ssno wcovering .Mead ­ The Lower Gorge Area of East Salween owsar edistribute d belowth esnowlin ean dforest s may reacht oth erive rvalleys ,mixe dwit h meadows (Figure ThreeRivers Gorge Subarea 6.9). The gorges of the Nu (Salween), Lancang (Me­ A comprehensive diagram showing the vertical kong), and Jinsha (upper part of Yangtze) rivers liei n distributiono fvegetatio ntype so fth ethre erivers gorg e southeastern Tibetan d northwestern Yunnan.Th e nar­ area isshow n in Figure 6.10. rowestplac ewher eth ethre erivers flo w isabou t 80k m wide.Th e elevation is3,000-5,00 0 m. This tremendous range in altitude, the extremely dissected character of the land, and the variations of Ecologically, this area is complex in relief, cli­ climate(particularl y thelowe rgorge )greatl y affect the mate, and vegetation. Because of the south to north type of vegetation found in the area. The rich flora arrangement of the mountain ranges, air currents de­ contains over 6,500species resulting from the diverse velop, creating wind channels and localwin d systems. floral regions, as well as remnants of the early flora Thesewind sad d toth elarg escal ediurna lan d seasonal developed in earlier geological times. circulationeffect s inth evalleys ,acceleratin gth espee d of air currentsan d forming typically severe funnels in Because of the high altitude and dissected land­ the bottom of the valleys. Schweinfurth (1972) de­ scapewit hstee pslopes ,thi ssubare ai sno tfavorabl e for scribed the area as a climatic-dry area enclosed by agriculture except for thelowe rvalley san dsmal lallu ­ humid or wet vegetation. vial fans. Grazing is limited to a few gentle slopes. Tibetan, Drung,an d Nu people graze their animals on This is an area of lofty parallel mountain ranges the Mekong-Salween divide and the Salween-Ir­ with south to north direction and snow capped peaks rawaddy divide. The species of alpine meadows in­ separating the deep river gorges. The climate is drier clude: and colder east of the Yangtze than west of the moist Aster frutescens Meconopsis impedita fertile breadth of the Irrawady River. Beyond is a Campanulagrandiflorum Pedicularis spp. seemingly endless expanse of smooth ranges covered Cassiope palpebrata Primula spp. with the soft green vegetation of the Indo-Malayan Incarvillea spp. Saxifragaspp .

Ill FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Figure 6.9. Alpine vegetation of the northeastern mountains above 4,000 m. Thebashe s inth eforegroun d areRhododendron spp.(Phot ob y J.F.Rock , 1923;courtes y of theNationa l Geographical Magazine)

Isopyrum grandiflorum At the lower elevations, the alpine carpets and and many species of Rhododendron. meadows contain numerous species from common holarctic genera: TheLijiang Subarea Allium Pedicularis TheLijian g (Likiang) district in theYangtz eben d Anemone Potentilla of northwest Yunnan Province contains many lovely Carex Polygonum alpinemeadows ,distribute dbetwee n thesnowlin ean d Dracocephalum Primula 3,300m (Figure s6.1 1 and6.12) .Nax i(Nashi ,a minor ­ Festuca Saxifraga ity) shepherds bring their herds of cattle and yak and Geranium Thalictrum flocks of sheepan dgoat s tothi sare a for early summer Juncus Veronica grazing on alpine meadows. Later in the year they Kobresia return to the plain at the foot of the range where the Some species of tropic origin are also present, climatei swar man dwher egoo dcro pfield sar elocated . including: Zongdian (Chongtein, not far from Lijiang) islo ­ Arisaema Wilsonii Roscoea chamaeleon cated in northwest Yunnan Province. The climate is Incarvillea spp. Strobilanthes versicolor alpinewit hcol d andwe t characteristicsdu et oth ehig h The lower gorge section is a forest climatic area elevation.A rollin gmoorlan d iscovere dwit ha heather ­ with distinguishable forest belts determined by eleva­ like growth of dwarf Rhododendron, and numerous tion, including broadleaved forest, mixed forest, and herbs and grasses, forming a rich grazingland used by coniferous forest. Meadowsan dgrassland sar edistrib ­ Tibetans. utedwidel ya thighe relevations .Smal lalluvia lfan san d Chuan dTcho u (1947)reporte d thatth evegetatio n terraced fields are located at the bottom of the valley of the Yulongxue mountains (6,000 m) in the Lijiang with some farm crops including rice, com, and barley area of northwestern Yunnan contained the following at higher elevations. species at 4,200 m: TheMali Subarea inSouthwestern Sichuan (North Draba oreades Sedum fastigiatum of Likiang) Meconopsis lancifolia Sedum leucoma Saussurea eriocephala In the Muli valley the climate is warm with dry seasons. Because of heavy rainfall, forests of Abies- In addition, therewer e representatives of: Rhododendron,Picea, oak, and pinear eforme d on the Cremanthodium Primula mountain flanks. Distribution of species is determined Loxostemon Rhododendron

112 CHAPTER 6

GnoligongShi n (Mts.) 2rN, 98"25'E

Yun Ling(MB. ) 26"2,N, 99tf28'E

Flgiire 6.10. Vertical distribution of vegetation of the Three Rivers Lower Gorge area. (Adapted from H.Y. Hou, 1960) by the altitude. There are bogs and rich meadows in­ Agrostis perlaxa Poa chalarantha cluding abundant herbsan d shrubs.Specie s include: Festuca modesta Poa planata Aster frutescens Meconopsis speciosa TheDa Hsueh Shan Subarea Campanula sacicola Pedicularis spp. Cassiope palpebrata Primula (many species) From Da Hsueh Shan (the Great Snow Mountain) Cyananthus incanus Rhododendron spp. southward tonorthwes tYunna n isth euppe rpar to f the Incarvillea spp. Rosa cautloides lower gorge area. It is a dissected plateau with an Isopyrum grandiflorum Saxifraga spp. average elevation of 3,000 m, ranging from 2,500 to Meconopsis impedita 3,500 m,wit h some peaks of 6,000-7,000 m. Because of theman y mountains,relie f playsa fundamental role Extensive green pastures on lower slopes (about in plant distribution. In the valleys, the mean annual 4,500m )ar egraze db yTibeta nnoma dherd so fyak .O n temperatures are 10-14°C and annual precipitation is the northern slopes, forests are distributed. On the more than 1,000 mm, forming asubtropica l and warm southern slopes,becaus eo falternatio n ofcol d and hot, temperateclimate .Thi sare ai srich wit hforest so fman y and wet and dry, vegetation is highly variable, with tree species spreading on all mountain flanks from forests of Pinu san d Quercus,grassland so rsteppe ,an d 2,200-4,200 m. On the valley floor, farmlands are terraced fields at thebotto m of valleys. widely distributed, growing rice, corn, tea, and fruit Abies georgei forests are distributed in northwest trees. From the timberline to 3,500-5,000 m, there are Yunnanan dsouthwes t Sichuan provinces.I nth e forest many large areas of shrubs, meadows, and grasslands sites, the chief shrub is Rhododendron with cover of witha rich assortmen to fspecies ,particularl y flowering 20-40%. Herbs andgrasses areabundan t with covero f plants. 60%, growing to 1m . The grasses include: Achnatherum chingii Orthoraphium roylei

113 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

sî'«•>i••^iB•5.'•• 'V

Figure 6.11.Alpin e meadow densely covered wilh Primulapseudosikkinensis in the Chidain Valley on the Yunnan-Sichuan border with an elevation of 4,900 m. (Photo byJ.F . Rock, 1923;courtes y of the National Geographical Magazine)

'-*&:•

i.âm»*

Figure6.12 .Alpin emeado wgrasslan di nth eare abetwee n northeastern Yunnan andsouthwester n Sichuanprovinces .Not eth egrazin g animals are Yaks.(Reproduce d with permission from Outlook Weekly, 1985)

The Eastern Subarea dominated by Tibetan nomadics, except for the lower valleys where agriculture predominates. There are In theeaster n Jinsha River area (the upper part of some forests east of theYalon g River area. theYangtz e River valley) is a lofty limestone plateau. This area includes two rivers (the Iitang, and Yalong) Themeadow sar ecomplex ,withou tobviou sdomi ­ which cut this region into blocks, with the eastern and nant species, except for small areas where micro- western flanks bordered by high escarpments.Th e pla­ topography and microclimate createdominan t species. teau isa wide ,windy , undulating moorland with wide, The succession is obvious due to the short growing shallow, boggy, ice-worn valleys and rounded hills season, forming a beautiful landscape during a short (Ward, 1923). This subarea is a grazingland and is period.

114 CHAPTER 6

Theprimar y genera include: There arevas t moorlands along theLitan g River. Grasslike Thesearea s consist of herbaceous plants which form a Carex perfect gardeno fflowers ,glowin gwit hal lcolor so fth e Eriophorum rainbow.Th emai n speciesinclude : Kobresia Iris chrysographes Meconopsis lancifolia Grasses Meconopsis integrifolia Primula spp. Deschampsia Helictotrichon Region Westofthejinsha (Yangtze) Festuca Poa West of the Jinsha (Yangtze) is a region which In wetter areas, meadow species are widespread includes the area east of Qamdo to just north of the fromnorthwes t Yunnan tosoutheas t Gansu and north­ Three Gorgessubarea .Th eelevatio n of thelowe r val­ west Sichuan, forming luxuriant meadows.Th e meso- leysi sabou t 2,500m ,wit ha genera lelevatio no f4,00 0 phyteso f the top layer include: m.Th e mean annual temperature of Qamdo(3,91 0m ) Aconitum Rheum is7.6° Can d the annual rainfall is 496 mm, with a dry Delphinium Salvia winter.I nth edr yvalleys ,th emea nannua l temperature Ligularia is 16°Can d theannua l rainfall decreases to30 0mm . and somemember s of theUmbellifera e family. The flora is closely related, with eastern Chinese The mesophyteso f themiddl elaye r include: elementsan dIndo-Burm aelement s(Liou ,1980) .Som e Aster Leontopodium forests are distributed in sheltered valleys at about Anaphalis Primula 3,000 m. This subarea contains abundant grasslands Anemone Ranunculus andalpin e meadows. Grassspecie s include: Caltha Saussurea Asperella duthiei Phaenosperma globosa Cremanthodium Trollius Festuca parvigluma Crépis These species are distributed in the forest zone Otherfamilie s represented include: with an elevation of 3,000m . Cruciferae Rosaceae Fabaceae (Leguminosae) Saxifragaceae Alpine meadows are found in the 3,500-4,000m Gentianaceae Umbelliferae area aboveth e forest zonean d include many grasses: Polypodiaceae Deschampsia Festuca Deyeuxia Poa The flora is complex and has spread from the Elymus Trisetum surrounding regions.Owin gt oth esever eclimati c fac­ tors (a thick layer of snow, and cold winds), mostly Forested Regions geophyticspecie sar e present. Forestsof Picea likiangensis var. balfouriana are The scrub-meadows are also widespread. The widespread from south of Yushu (Qinghai Province) dominant element is Rhododendron, forming a vast through the border area of Tibet-Sichuan to the Three Rhododendron meadowland. The common species in­ Gorges area between 3,000an d 4,000 m. Herbaceous clude: and grass species of more than 100 species of 30 Caragana jubala Potentilla arbuscula families are found along the forest sites.Th e height of Caragana tibetica Ribes alpestre thoseplant si sgenerall y 10-30cm ,wit hcove ro f 50%. Cotoneaster horizontalis Rosa sericea The main species include: Ephedra arbuscula Salix spp. Grasses Achnatherum chingii Festuca ovina This typeo f vegetation isals odistribute d tosout h Anthoxanthum hookeri Ptilagrostis dichotoma of Qamdoan d isseldo m used for grazing. Arundinella chenii Roegneria spp. The production of phytomass varies from 750 to Deyeuxia spp. 1,880 kgAiaan d thenutrien tcompositio n ishighe rtha n Grasslike species: that ofothe rtype so f herbaceousvegetatio n inTibe t or Carex spp. Kobresia setchwanensis inInne rMongolia .Th eforag ecrud eprotei nan d N-free Many other herbaceous species are found in this extract content are 16.8%an d 46.3% respectively,an d crude fiber content islo w (Li, 1979).Thi s is generally area. true for the areas of the outer portion of the Tibetan Theforest sotSabina (S. komarowii,S. tibetica, S. Plateau. With the abundance of high quality forage, saltuaria) also are distributed in western Sichuan and further development of the animal industry is possible easternTibet .I nhig helevations ,shrub san dherb shav e in this subarea.

115 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

developed well on forested sites. The cover of shrubs theYangtze) ,Lancan g (MeKong),Nujian g (Salween), is 10-40%, including the main species of Caragana, and Tsangpo, all of which drain into the Pacific or Spiraea mongolica, and Rhododendron. The cover of Indian Oceans. herbaceous alpine meadows may reach 50-90%, of which the grass and grass-like species include the fol­ Climate lowing: The climateo f the Tibetan Plateau ismor e severe than theGorg esubregion . Annual rainfall ranges from In thesouther n area: 350-500 mm except in the western Tsangpo Valley Andropogon yunnanensis Koeleria litwinowii (150 mm).Th e mean annual temperature ranges from Deyeuxia scabrescens Koeleria setchwanensis 9.8°C in the Lhasa area to -3°C in the Nagqu area, Festuca ovina Medicago varying with elevation. The eastern part of the region Helictotrichon altius archiducis-nicolai isgenerall y warmer and more moist than the west. Helictotrichon tibeticwn (legume) Kobresia pygmaea Theclimat ei scharacterized by violent winds that with a large proportion of cover. bringabrup tdiurna ltemperatur echanges ,couple dwit h intense insolation and radiation which cause seasonal In the northern area: and diurnal temperature variations as great as 30°C. Astragalus tanguticus Roegneria nutans Theatmospheri cpressur eo f thissub-regio n isonl y 2/3 (legume) (dominant) to 1/2 that of sea level due to the high elevation. The Orinus kokonorica Stipa bungeana winterseaso n islong ,an dther ei sn orea lsummer .Lo w It is important to point out that in the southwest temperature and violent winds are the limiting factors corner of Sichuan Province (e.g. Derong Basin) the for tree growth. The subregion is generally an alpine climate is dry and warm. The 310 mm annual rainfall climax vegetation zone; a transitional zone between results ina dry grassland (Lu, 1947;Ward , 1947). tundralclima x (alpinedesert ) and forest-grassland cli­ max. Summary Soil Inth egorg esubregion ,alpin emeadow san dgrass ­ lands have provided the basic forage needs of the The main soil on the upper part of the mountains Tibetan nomads. The forage resource isabundan t and is alpine meadow.which is rich in organic matter. the environmental conditions are favorable to support Chestnut soil is distributed on the lower part of the thedevelopmen t ofa stabl eanima lindustry .Th egorg e mountains or dry valleys below 3,500 m with neutral areai sa ver yrich meado wgrasslan d withsom e forests or slightly alkaline reaction. Some gravel deposits or and limited cultivated areas in valleys populated by sand dunes arefoun d in theCentra lTsangp o Valley. nomadicTibetans . Vegetation and Division Into Sections According to natural conditions and vegetation, THE OUTER TIBETAN PLATEAU thisvas t subregion may bedivide d into three sections: SUBREGION: ALPINE MEADOW, 1. the northern section (the upper watershed of the GRASSLAND, AND SCRUB VEGETATION Yellow River in northern Qinghai), This subregion includes central portions of the 2. the central section (the upper watersheds of the Tibetan Plateau, central and western parts of the three rivers), and TsangpoValley ,an dmuc h ofQingha i Province.Thes e 3. thesouther nsectio n (Tsangpo Valley). sub-regions are true Tibetan Plateau and are the most TheNorthern Section important grazing lands for nomadicTibeta n people. Thissectio n iseas t ofTsaidam , northo f theBaya n The naturalenvironmenta l conditions and vegeta­ HarMountai n Range,an dsout h ofth eQilia n (Chilien) tion of this subregion are simpler than those of the Mountains.Th eeastern edg eo f thissectio nadjoin s the gorges even though there are many mountains, in­ upper gorge section without a clear borderline. The cluding the Burhan-Budai, Anyemaqen, Bayan Har, general elevation of the area is 3,000-3,500 m while Tanggula, Nyainqentanglha, and Gandise. These somemountain shav eelevation so f4,500-5,50 0m .Th e mountain ranges are parallel to each other from north climate is influenced by the proximity of the Central to south in a general east-west direction. The average Asian deserts to the north, creating a near continental elevation of this subregion is 4,000 m, appearing as a climate. According to meteorological records, the an­ rollinglan d except for several mountainswhic h rise to nualprecipitatio ni saroun d35 0mm ,rising t o450-50 0 5,000-6,000 m.Thi ssub-regio n isth eheadwate ro f five mm at high elevations. Temperatures vary 30°C be- rivers:th e Yellow (Huanghe), Tongtian (upper part of

116 CHAPTER 6

tween warm and cold seasons,an d 20°C between day Artemisia capillaris Phlomismongolica and night.Th etypica l alpineclimat eca n be illustrated Carex spp. Poa sphondylodes byusin g Menyuan asa n example.Menyua n is located Convolvulus ammanii Potentilla acaulis on the southern side of Qilian Shan between 37°29'- Gypsophilaacutifolia Potentilla bifiirca 37°45', and 101°12'-101o33'. The elevations range Dracocephalum Torularia humilis from 3,200m t o3,40 0m .Th emeteorologica ldat aare : heterophyllum mean annual temperature, 0°C, Jan., -13°C; July, 11.2°C; days below 0°C in a year, 196; and annual Most of these plants grow vigorously with a leaf- precipitationi s53 1mm ,70 %o fwhic hi srecorde d from layer height of 30 cm. Stipa dominates this area with June to September. 40% of the total coverage. On sunny slopes of the eastern , Alpine meadow grassland in the north section. alpinemeadow sar ewidel y distributed atelevation so f Alpine meadow soil is widely distributed on high 3,000-3,400m .Th etopograph yo fthi sare ai scomplex , mountains and loess soil is distributed to the east of with different types of vegetation according toaltitud e QinghaiLak e(Kuk uNor) .Thi sare awas formerl y ase a (Figure6.13) . of grassland, rich with wildlife, but since the last cen­ tury mostgrasslan d areashav ebee n cultivated.O n the An Alpine Ecosystem Study Station is located in QilianMountains ,particularl yo nth eeaster npart ,ther e Menyuan on the southern slopes of the Qilian Moun­ are many kinds of forests including species of Betula, tains at 3,000 m. Yang (1980) reported four associa­ Picea, andPopulus. tions ofKobresia meadowsi n this area. Shrubswhic hgro wa tlowe relevation so ra sunder - Kobresiapygmaea meadows. Thesemeadow sar e story treestratu m include: distributed above3,20 0m o n sunny slopes.The y have Acer Rhododendron asimpl estructur eo f 15species per m ,a heigh t of 2-5 Corylus Ribes cm, and 90%coverage . Rosa Thefrequen t species include: Theherbaceou slaye ri s20-30 %wit hgoo d forages Gentianastraminea Ptilagrostis Schotoma ofgrasse s and legumes. Leontopodiumnanum Stipa purpurea Potentilla bifiirca Above theshru b line,grasslan d and alpine mead­ ows are distributed. There are also expanses of rich Kobresia humilis meadows. These meadows are grassland or steppe, especially in the Nanshan area found at3,200-3,40 0m o n partiallysunn yslopes .Spe ­ (Chen et al., 1981) with two main associations; the cies are found at 20-30 per m , forming a cover of Stipa breviflora + Agropyron cristatum + Artemisia 80-90% and making good grazing land. Stipa aliéna, frigida association,an dth eStipa krylovii + Stipa brevi­ Festuca ovina, Koeleria cristata, and Clinelymus flora +Leymus dasystachysassociation .Th eimportan t nutans are sub-dominants in different conditions. associate plantsinclude : The important speciesare : Allium spp. Gentiana Astragalus spp. Medicagolupulina Androsace spp. pseudoaquatica Carex moorcroftii Oxytropisochrocephala Artemisia altaica Oxytropis bicolor Iris potaninii Poa spp. meters Lenglong Ling 4500- Daban Shan 4000- Apine shrub, meadow />v zone 3500- / ^N. Datung Ho Temperate / \.l^- -^^ 3000- steppe region/ ^^ Haungshui / VTemperate desert Valley / 2500- \ region onnn. x Hexi Zoulana

Figure 6.13.Th e vegetational distribution on Qilian Shan. (Adapted from F.T. Yang, 1979)

117 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Kobresia pygmaea Thermopsis lanceolata Plantso fthi smeado wgro wvigorousl ywit ha coverag e Koeleria cristata Trigonella ruthenica exceeding 95%. Dominant species grow 15-25cm . Leontopodium spp. Themai n species include: Kobresia capillifolia meadows. KobresiacapUli- Gentiana leucomelaena Scirpus distingmaticus folia meadows are present at 3,000-3,100 m on sunny Pedicularis longifolia Swertia przewalsldi slopes,wit h 75-80% coverage.Th e height of thedom ­ Saussurea Stella inant species is 15-20 cm. The associated species in­ cludeal lspecie so fth eKobresia pygmaea meadowan d Zhouan dL i(1980 )reporte dothe rplan t formations others including: in the'area.Thes e aresummarize d inTabl e6.3 . Bupleurum condensation Polygonum The hay yield per hectare of three kinds of mead­ Pedicularis kansuensis sphaerostachyum owsan d cultivated pasture isliste d as follows: Polygonatum spp. Swampy meadow 1,875 kg/ha Typical meadow 1,500 kg/ha Kobresia tibetica meadow. Thistyp e isa swampy Steppemeado w 1,125kg/h a meadow which spreads locally along foothill alluvial Cultivated pastures fans, head waters of streams, and in wet lowlands. (Elymussibiricus) 4,920kg/ha .

Table 63. Vegetation typesan dformation s in the areao f theAlpin e Ecosystem Study Station, Menyuan,Qinghai . (Adapted from K.M. Zhou andJ.H .Li , 1980)

Vegetation Formation Habitat Coverage Density Dominant Frequent species type (%) (Species/nQ species Alpine scrubo r 1. Dasiphora Shady slopes, 90 15-25 Kobresia Caraganajubata, Helictotrichon brush fruticosa alluvial fanan d capillifolia and âbeticum, Hippophae tibetica, bankso f Festucarubra munroi, Pedicularis streams from oederi, Poapratensis, Potent'dla lowland toele ­ nivea, PtUagrostis dichotomy vation of 3,800 Ranunculusnephrogenes, Salix m. oritrepha, Spiraea alpina, Thalictrumalpinum

2.Salix Shady slopes 100 15-20 Carex spp. Festuca ovina, Kobresia oritrepha with elevations capUlifolia, Pedicularis oederi, of 3,400t o Polygonumsphaerostachyum, 3,500m . Polygonum viviparum, PtUagrostis Schotoma, Rheum pumilum,Saussurea nigrescens

3. Sibiraea Shady slopes in 70 15 Kobresia Anaphalis spp-, Kobresia angustata low elevation capUlifoliaan d humUis,Helictotrichon areas;goo dpas ­ Dasiphora tibeticum, Pedicularis kansuen- ture. fruticosa sis, Polygonum viviparum, Scirpus distigmaticus, Spiraea al­ pina, Stipa aliéna, Thalictrumal­ pinum

Alpine 4.Elymus Commono n 60-80 Elymusnutans Aconitumgymanandrum, Carex meadow nutans goodsoil , asec ­ with aheigh t spp.,Kobresia humilis, Kobresia ondary succes­ of3 0 cm pygmaea, Geranium pyzo- sion. wianum,Glaux maritima, Pedi­ culariskansuensis, Poa spp.

Swamp-fed 5.Blymus Lowland areas sino- 95 15-20 Blymussino- Aster (Splostrephiouks, Coluria meadow compressus with high compressus longifolia, Coluriatenellum, and Carex watertable ; andCarex Comostomapulmanaria, Genti­ moorcroftü uniform forma­ moorcroftü anaaristata, Pedicularis tiono f good longiflora,Primula sibirica, pasture. SaussureaStella

Swampy vege­ 6. Carex Wetcondition s 80 usually pure Carexpamiren­ Pedicularis spp. tation pamirensis with alaye ro f stand sis Carex atrofusca water.

118 CHAPTER 6

The net photosynthetic production rate (g/m /yr) most common association is Artemisia + Festuca andth etota lutilizatio n rateo fsola renerg yb yplan tpe r Stipa with some frequent species of: year (%) were measured at the Menyuan Ecological Artemisia desertorum Poa bulbosa Study Station. These results are shown in Table 6.4 Artemisia macrocephala Stipa capillata (Chang and Ma, 1982). Astragalus spp. Stipa purpurea Festuca rubra Stipa sibirica Xinghai Hsein (County) in the south. Xinghai Hordeum pratense Triticum strigosum Hsein is located between Kokonor (Qinghai) Lake in Oxytropis spp. the north and the in the south. Thevegetatio n varies with topography and climate.I n The southeastern area. The southeastern area of higherelevations ,th eannua l precipitation isabou t 400 thissectio ni sa transitio nzon et oth euppe rgorg ewher e mman dmea nannua ltemperatur ei sbelo w0° Cwithou t the topography is fairly uniform and is drained by the a frost-free period. The vertically distributed vegeta- Yellow River. The climate is favorable to form a rich tionaltype sar emeadow-grassland ,subalpin emeadow , grassland and meadow according to elevation and the andalpin e meadow. soilwate r table.Th e main genera include: Kobresia Themai n species include: Carex Poa Kobresia (4 species) Ptilagrosris dichotoma Deschampsia Stipa Polygonum Roegneria nutans Festuca sphaerostachyum and some herbs. Inth evalle y andbasins ,th eclimat e isdr ywit ha n Thefores t rangesof Piceapurpurea aredistribute d annualprecipitatio n of200-30 0mm ,mea nannua ltem ­ in eastern Qinghai and on the southern Qilian Moun­ peratureo f 3-6°C, anda three-month frost free period. tains,betwee n2,00 0an d3,80 0m ,formin g anabundan t Thevegetationa l types aregrasslan d and meadow. grazingland. The main forage species include: Themai n species include: Achnatherum Deyeuxia scabrescens Achnatherum splendens Kobresia spp. extremiorientale Poa chalarantha Artemisia pectinata Orinus kokonorica with the legume; Carex inanona Poa spp. Vicia unijuga Carex scabriostis Stipa krylovii This section is a good grazing land for nomadic Deschampsia spp. Stipa purpurea Tibetans and is rich inwildlif e (Figure 6.16). Festuca spp. TheCentral Section Most lands around (3,200 m) are grasslands with chernozem and chestnut earth soils Thissectio n issout h of the Bayan Har Mountains (Hao, 1938) (Figures 6.14 and 6.15). Almost half of and north of the Nyainqentanglha Mountains. The these grasslands were'cultivated, particularly the east­ Nyainquentanglha Mountainsar csituate di nth emiddl e ern part where theclimat e isfavorabl e for dry farming ofth eare awit hfrequen t snowclad elevationso f 6,000- of spring wheat and some other summer crops. The 7,000 m and broad valleys. This section is comprised

Tabic 6.4. Net photosynthesis rate and utilization of solar energy by different plant communities in the area of the Alpine Meadow Ecosys- tem Study Station, Menyuan, Qinghai. (Adapted from S.Y. Chang and Z.Y.Ma , 1982)

Rangeland type Kind of community Net photosynthetic Total utilization rate of solar production rate energy/year (g/m2 yr) (%)

Natural rangeland 1.Potentilla fruticosa 176.1 0.04-0.05 (alpine brush)

2.Blymus sinocompressus + 275.6 0.07-0.08 Carex spp. (Alpine meadow)

3.Kobresia humilis 193.3 0.05-0.06 (Alpine meadow)

4.Elymus nutans 258.2 0.06-0.07

Cultivated pasture 5.Elymus nutans 515.0 0.13-0.15

119 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

4* *dbf?

riiiiitii ^&.

Figure 6.14. Landscape between Kokonor(Qingha i Lake) and Tangar. (Photob yJ . Thorp; reproduced from J. Thorp, 1936) largelyo frollin gplain so f4,000-4,60 0m .Th eheadwa ­ Thevegetation ,whic h isalmos t entirely thealpin e ters of the large freshwater rivers (Yangtze, Lancang, type, is scanty at the higher levels (unlike that of the andNujiang )ris efro m thisarea .Th ewester nborde ro f InnerPlateau) ,bu tbecome s morevarie d and abundant theare a ismos t easily defined bya slight mitigation of at the habitable levels, particularly in the southeast. climatean d fresh-water from theInne r Plateau (Chang Here scrub appears, mixed with alpine pasture. In the Tang).Th e climate, although severe,i sles s harsh than villages,ther ear ea fe w trees(elm ,willow ,an d poplar) that of the Inner Plateau. Annual precipitation is be­ which havebee n plantedan d protected.Th e beginning tween30 0m m inth ewes tt o50 0m m inth eeast .A t the of the true coniferous forest marks the boundary be­ lower elevations the summers are mild and several tween the Outer Plateau and the Gorge region. This cropsar ecultivated , primarily barley,a s in Chamdo. section is still predominantly grazing land with a no-

Figure 6.15. Sheet and gully erosion caused by overgrazing on hills atJekund u (Qinghai). (Photo by C.C. Ku; reproduced from J.Thorp , 1936)

120 CHAPTER 6

Figure 6.16. Adeteriorate d mountain «rassland innorther n Qinghai. (Reproduced with permission from People's Daily, 1983) madic population. Two principal towns, Qamdo The coverage of the association is 75-95% and (Chamdo) and Yushu (Jye-Kundo), are situated at the production of hay is 400-1,100 kg/ha. When the eastern border of the section. meadow deteriorates, thespecie s include: Androsace alashanica Polygonum sibiricum Qumarleb area. This area is located at 33°40'- Arenaria polytrichoides Potentilla bifurca 35°42' N, and 92°50'-97°19' E with the Bayan Har Artemisia spp. Saussurea spp. Mountains in the north.Th egenera l elevation is 4,000 Leontopodium spp. to 5,500m .Th e topography isope n and gentle except for the mountains and the valleyso f headwaters of the Deterioration alsoresult s in thecoverag edecreas ­ Yangtze (this part of the Yangtze River is named the ingt o30-50 %an da nincreas ei npoisonou splant ssuc h Tongtian River).Th emeteorologica l data (1960-1970) as Aconitum spp., Delphinium spp., Euphorbia spp., are as follows: a mean temperature of -2.6°C, annual andMeconopsis spp. precipitation of 396.5 mm, violent winds, 8 days per yearwit htemperature s inexces so f38°C ,annua laccu ­ On thebeache so frivers an d valleys,alpin egrass ­ mulated temperature (10°C or higher) of 732°C, and land is found between 4,000 and 4,300 m. The domi­ 2,649annua l sunshine hours. nant species include: Festuca sinensis Stipa purpurea Peng et al. (1980) described several types of Poa spp. meadow according to topography; alpine grassland, Other frequently occurring species include: alpine meadow, marshy meadow, scrub meadow, and Artemisia desertorum Kobresia humilis alpinedesert . Alpine meadow isth e most important in Aster altaicus Potentilla spp. this area. Kobresia pygmaea, Kobresia humilis, and Astragalus spp. Saussurea spp. Kobresia capillifolia are thedominan t species. Carex stenophylla Tanacetum tanuifolia The main associate species include: The plant coverage of the grassland ranges from Astragalus spp. Koeleria litwinowii 50-85%an dth eyiel do fha yi s240-70 0kg/ha .Th egoo d Clinelymus nutans Oxytropis spp. forage species make up 70-90%o f the total weight. Festuca ovina Poa spp. The hay per hectareo fcultivated grassi s 1,800 kg of oats and 3,000 kg of Phalaris arundinacea. The

121 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

introduced grasses in the area include Agropyron The Kobresia pygmaea + Kobresia humilis sibiricum,Bromus inermis, RoegneriaIcokonorica, an d association. Thistyp ei sdistribute d primarily on foot­ someothers . hills with meadow soil with good porosity. Plants ap­ pearyellowish-gree n incolo ran dd ono tgro wwel ldu e Naquarea .Th eNaq u (Na-chu) area lies between , todr y and freezing soil.Th e associated speciesare : 31°29'an d32°50 Nan d92°E ,almos ta tth esouthwest ­ Leontopodiumnanum Potentilla multifida erncorne ro f the Inner Plateau.Th eelevatio n is4,000 - Poa spp. Potentilla nivea 4,500 m and the climate is severe. The mean annual temperature isbelo w -3°C, the warmest monthly tem­ TheKobresia pygmaea association. Thisassocia ­ peraturei s5-12°C ,th eannua lfros t free period isabou t tioni sfoun d onhig helevation s(5,00 0m )wher ei tma y 90days ,an dannua lprecipitatio n ismor etha n40 0mm . form a pure stand. It is distributed on sunny slopes of Becauseo fth estron gweatherin gaction ,wate rerosio n gravel and sand deposits. The plant coverage is low, anddesertification , many different sizeso fbasins ,val ­ about 30%.Th eheigh to fth edominan t speciesi sabou t leys,an d lakes formed (Figure 6.17). 3 cm.Th eassociat e species include: Artemisia spp. Potentilla bifurca Zhoue ta L(1978 )classifie d thevegetatio n accord­ Astragaluspolycladus Sausswea arenaria ing to local variation of topography and noted four Leontopodiumspp . Stipa purpurea associations. Due to the elevation, the cushion plant Arenaria TheKobresia littledalei +Blymus sinocompress- musciformis ispresen t in this association. us association. This association is distributed along streamso nbeache swit h highwate r table (1-15m )an d Amdo area. The Amdo Ecological Study Station wet soil.Blymus spp. grow toa height of 2-5 cm. The islocate da t32°40 ' and91°34' ,wher eth emea nannua l associatespecie sinclud eCatabrosa aquatica, an dPri­ temperature is -5.2°C, and the highest temperature is mulaspp . 5.9°Ci nJuly .Annua l precipitation is31 9 mm. The Kobresia littledalei + Kobresia pygmaea TheStipa purpurea +Kobresia pygmaea associ­ association. This association is distributed about 100 ation. This vegetation spreads on flood deposits with mfro m streamsi narea swher eth ewate r tablei sbelo w loose soil. The coverage is 30-50%. The associated 1.5 m. Plants grow vigorously with coverage of 90%. species include: Kobresia littledalei grows as high as 18cm .Th easso ­ Carex scabriostris Potentilla bifurca ciatespecie s include: Festuca ovina Saussurea arenaria Gentiana spp. Primula spp. Leontopodium nanum Potentilla anserina Ranunculus spp. Potentilla nivea Taraxacum spp.

Figure 6.17. Tibetan nomads camp near Nagqu (Na-chu) on the high plateau north of Lhasa; elevation above 4,000 m. (Photo courtesy of CIA; reproduced from Atlas of the People's Republic of China, 1971)

122 CHAPTER 6

TheAndrosace tapete +Arenaria musciformis+ may be divided into two types, meadow and scrub Thylacospermumcaespitosumassociation. Thisasso ­ grassland.Th emeado wtyp ei sdistribute da televation s ciationi sfoun d at4,92 0m an di sa typica lalpin etundr a above 3,900 m, containing many species without a vegetation with low grazing value. distinctdominan tspecies .However ,owin gt oth e influ­ ence of local topography and microclimate (particu­ Thevegetatio n typei nth ewester n parto f theare a larly during the May to September growing season is that of a transition zone to alpine tundra (Chang when temperaturesvar ygreatl ywithi na fe w days),th e Tang)du et oviolen twinds ,sever ecold ,coars esoil ,an d dominant species may appear indistinc t seasonal suc­ high elevation. The dominant species are Kobresia cessions.Specie sinclude : (particularly K. royleana), and Carex spp., with very few broadleaf plants.Th e plants arecushio n and pros­ Carex spp. Kobresia pygmaea trate form, such as Thylacospermum rupifragum, and Deschampsia spp. Poa litvinoviana Androsace tapete.Specie so f somebulbou s and tuber­ Eriophorumspp. Ptilagrostis ous plants alsoar e found: Festucanitidula concinna Allium Potentilla anserina Helictotrichonspp . Sinochasea trigyna Hierochloe odorata Stipa aliéna Gentiana Rheum Small hairy leaf plant species include: Some herbs also are found, particularly Polygo­ Astragalus Saussurea num sphaerostachyum and Polygonum viviparum Meconopsis Thermopsis mixed into Carex grassland or forming a pure stand. Oxytropis Thesespecie sfor m aspars egrazin glan d(Figur e6.18) . Atelevation so f4,500-5,30 0m ,Stipa purpurea mayb e All of these species are able to endure cold, found mixed with other species, forming meadows drought, and wind. (Figure6.19) . Central andeaster nportion so fth ecentra l sec­ Scrub grasslands are found below the meadow- tion. Inth ecentra lportio no fth ecentra lsection ,includ ­ grassland on mountains at elevations from 3,500 to ing the area east of Naqu to west of Dengqen, the 4,000m .Th emai nshrub sinclud eth efollowin g genera: climatei sno ta ssever ea stha to f theAmd oarea .Mea n Juniperus Salix annual temperatures of this area range from 0 to 3°C, with annual rainfall above40 0 mm (insom ewe t years Rhododendron Spiraea precipitation may exceed 700 mm). The vegetation Potentilla

~j • •'•'••jf .-*;•*t f *n-.;••*! •" **.*v "*• V""

Figure 6.18. Sparse vegetation in the arid interior of the Sitsang Plateau near the Indian border. (Photo by H.d e Terra; reproduced from H. de Terra, 1934,wit h permission of the American Geographical Society)

123 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Figure 6.19. An alpine mountain meadow in the central Tibetan Plateau. Dominant species include Stipapurpurea and Stipa subsessiflora var.plumosa. (Reproduced from H.Y. Hou, 1983,wit h permission from Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden)

These species are distributed on shady slopes, The rangelands of some of these areas have been forming a dense canopy of 1m . The understory plants damaged by overgrazing, as seen in Figure 6.15 and are mostly Polygonum spp., and Leontopodium alpi- Figure 6.20. The central portion of the central section num, with grasses including Deschampsia, Festuca, isa rich grasslan d whichstretche sfro m thesout ht oth e and Poa. northeast extending almost 1,000 km to the grassland Meadow grasslands are spread on sunny slopes, in southeast Gansu. There are many big game species varying in steepness and soil water. The main species inthi sare a(Teichman , 1922),includin gantelop e(Chi ­ are mentioned above. Scrub grasslands are also dis­ neseChitze) ,burhe l(wil dsheep) ,an dgora l(wil dgoat) . tributed inth esoutheaster n parto f theare a (e.g.south ­ Therear ea t leasttw okind so fdeer ,on ewit hspreadin g west of Chamdo)wher e theclimat e is warm. wapiti-like antlers found in the grassland country, and anotherwit hsingl eantler swit h onebro wtin efoun d in

Figure 6.20. Damage caused to scrub grassland by rodent burrows and pasturing yaks. (Photob y C.C. Ku; reproduced from J. Thorp, 1936)

124 CHAPTER 6

the forests. On the grasslands around Yushu (Jye Asdescribe d in the lowergorg esection ,th evege ­ Kundo) there are large herds of wild ass. Yak and tation of Bomi (the top of theTsangp o bend) is a type long-horned antelope are found in the same country a of Assam Himalayan. Alongth evalle y from 94°30' to little farther north. The Serow and Takin are found in 93°E and from the valley to 31°N, the vegetation is a the section of steep forest-cap mountains. Teichman type of Tsangpo Himalayan. From 93°E to the water- (1922) also reported bears, leopards, and snow leop­ headso f theSutle j andIndu s rivers, thevegetatio n isa ards.Thes eanimal softe n aretam ebecaus eth emonas ­ typeo fTibeta n Himalayan.Base d onclimate ,th eveg ­ teriesd o not permit shooting or hunting of any kind in etation may be divided into three areas: the eastern, their vicinity. middle,an d western. TheSouthern Section (Tsangpo Valley) Easternare ao fth eTsangp oValley .Th eeaster n areainclude sth eare a from westo f Bomia t94°30' Et o Thesouther nsectio no fth eOute rPlatea ui sa broa d Xigaze at 89°E. Although the elevation of the Hi­ valley located between the Great Himalayan Range in malayan Range is 5,000-6,000 m, the latitude in this thesout h andth eGandis ean dNyainqentanglh a moun­ o , area is lower (28 30 -29°30'N). The Indian monsoon tainsi nth enort h(where th eTsangp oRive rflow st oth e influences the eastern area, where the Tsangpo River east and turns to the south at Bomi (Bowo)). It also turnst oa north tosout h direction. Annual rainfall and includes the area south of Karakoram, where the temperaturedecreas e from 854m m and8.3° Ca t Bomi sources of the Indus and rivers and their tribu­ (2,545 m) to 750 mm and 6.7°C at Lhasa (3,650 m). taries flow intoth edee pvalley s toKashmi r and India. The climate is characterized by a relatively warm and Theelevatio ngenerall yincrease sfro m eastt owes t dry winter. The vegetation in the valley, which is the (Lhasa 3,650 m, Xigaze [Shigatze] 3,850 m, to more most important agricultural area for the Tibetans, is than4,50 0m i nth ewes t [Mapam Yumco(Lake ) 4,505 mostly scrub-grassland with trees. Some forests with m],wit h peakso f 6,700m t o8,84 8m) .Thi s isa large , alpinemeadow sar edistribute d onth enorther nflan ko f hilly valley including manylake s(suc ha sYanzh oan d theHimalaya n Range.Nort h of thevalley , the vegeta­ Puma Yumco in the east and Mapam Yumco in the tion is mostly meadow grassland at lower and alpine west),an dsom ebasins .Grave lsoil san dsan ddune sar e meadow at higher elevations. distributed in somelocation so f thisbroa d valley. Onthe bottom of the Tsangpo Valley. I nth evalle y Theclimat ei sinfluence d byth eHimalaya nMoun ­ where gravel and sand are distributed widely some tain Rangea s a rainscreen and theGandis ea sa barrier communities of xerophytic plants are found, mainly to the cold from the Inner Plateau (Chang Tang). The Sophoramoorcroftiana,Hippophaerhamnoides, Ther- climatei sno ta shars ha sth ecentra lOute rPlateau .Th e mopsisinflata, an d someherb san d grassesincluding : mean annual temperature ranges from 8.3°C at Bomi Agropyron spp. Orinus spp. and 7.5°C at Lhasa and Xigaze in the east to 3°C at Aristida triseta Pennisetum flaccidum Burangan d0.2° Ca tGa ri nth ewest .Minimu m temper­ Festuca ovina Rheum palmatum atures of the region are -1.4°C at Bomi, -16.5°C at Imperata cylindrica Stipa inebrians Lhasa,an d -33.4°C at Gar. It is colder in the west due tohig h elevation.Th eannua l precipitation isgreate ri n Onth erubble ,som eothe rspecie so f communities theeast ,fro m 854m ma t Bomit o46 3m ma tLhas aan d include: 372m m at Xigaze, gradually decreasing in thewes t to Aristida tsangqoensis Oxytropis aciphylla 150-200 mm at Burang. In the west, Gar (Gortok) is Aristida brevissima Poa bomiensis locateda t32°30'N ,80°05'E ,wit ha nelevatio no f4,27 8 Aristida triseta Stellera spp. m, annual rainfall of 60.4 mm, and a mean annual Artemisia salsoloides Taraxacum spp. temperature of 0.2°C. Both temperature and precipita­ Astragalus tibetanus Thermopsis alpina tion vary with elevation and local conditions. Violent Deyeuxia linshensis winds prevail in all seasons. Generally, the climate of Common specieso n dry slopes include: the section is humid to arid with a distinct summer Andropogon spp. Cymbopogon spp. monsoon and dry, mild winters. Arundinella hookeri Eremopogon spp. Calamagrostis The soil is mainly a meadow soil type, rich in emodensis organic matter, which is distributed on the upper part of the mountains. Chestnut or brown earth soils are Twospecie so f thegenu sDiandranthus (D.tibeti- found onth elowe rpar to fth emountains .Som ealkalin e cusan d D. taylorii)ar e common. soilsar edistribute d along thelak eshores . Some small forests or groves of trees are distrib­ uted on the bottom of the valley or on theban k of the

125 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

river and sand slopes including Cupressus gigantea, dranthus (8 species) as the dominant species of the Pinus, Ulmus,an dwillow s (Bailey, 1925). scrub grassland at 3,000 m (Nangxian, Gyemdong), whileAristida alpinai sdominan tabov e4,50 0m .Som e Forests on the northern flank of the Himalayan otherspecie sinclude : Range. In the eastern portion of the area, forests of brachypodium Stephanachne monandra conifers mixed with broadleafed trees are distributed Eleusine coracana Trikeraia hookeri between 2,800 and 3,000m (Zheng and Chang, 1981; (cultivated) Ward, 1935,1936;Mani , 1978).Dwar fforest so fQuer- eusaquifolioides occu r on thesunn y slopes,an d Pinus Othercharacteristi cspecie so fgrasse si nth evalle y densataappear so nth eshad yslopes .Th emixe d forests area include: aresprea d ongentl eslopes . Andropogon spp. Littledalea przewalskii Arundinella hookeri Orinus thoroldii Subalpine forests are distributed between 3,200 Calamagrostis emodensis Poa spp. and 3,600 m; Picea lUdangensis prevails in the lower Cymbopogon spp. Sinochasea trigyna part andAbies georgei var.smithii in the upper part. Deyeuxia linshensis Themeda spp. Alpinescru bmeadow sar elocate dabov eth e forest Eremopogon spp. belts. Alpine scrub-meadow grasslands are distributed At high elevations, the alpine meadow has devel­ at elevations between 3,600 and 4,200 m, with abun­ oped, though not as well as in the Qamdo (Chamdo) dant China-Himalayan elements (Ward, 1935, 1936; area due toth edrie ran d moregravel y soil. Mani 1978;Zhen gan dChang , 1981).Th emai nspecie s are: Damxungalpin e vegetation subarea. Damxung Carex spp. Polygonum viviparum is a little town located on the southern side of the Cassiope wardii Polygonum NyainqentanglhaMountain sa ta nelevatio no f4,27 0m . Cirsium bolocephalum sphaerostachyum TheDamxun gsubare ai sa transitional bel tbetwee n the Corydalis sikkimensis Rhododendron Tsangpo Valley and the southern border of the Inner Juncus bracteatus (many species) Plateau. It is located on the western part of the Koenigia islandica Salix oreophila Nyainqentanglha Mountains between 29°38'-31°03'N and90°0'-91 o54'Ean dha sa genera lelevatio no f4,00 0 In the western portion of mountains of the area, m,wit hth ehighes tpea k7,16 2m .I tha sa typica lalpin e (e.g. Gongbo Gyamda and Nang Xian), the climate is climate and a mean annual temperature of 1.4°C.Th e drier than in theeaster n portion. The montane vegeta­ warmest and coldest monthly temperatures are 10.7° tion changes to montane scrub grassland and then to and -9.9°C.Annua l precipitation is48 3 mm, and there alpine meadows. are 72-120 days of violent winds annually. Soils in­ Montane scrub grasslands are distributed below clude alpine meadow soil, alpine grassland soil, and 4,000 m. Themai n species include: mixtures of thesetypes . Aristida triseta Orinus thoroldii Thevegetatio no fth esubare ai salpin ei ncharacte r Ceratostigma minus Sophora moorcroftiana and varies according to topography and elevation Montane grasslands (or steppes) are distributed (Tung, 1980): from 4,000 m to 4,700 m. The main species include Alpine grassland on the bottom of the broad Artemisia spp., Stipa capillacea, and Stipa purpurea, valley. This is an area with elevation below 4,400 m. with someshru b plantso fSabinapingii var. Wilsonii. Thespecie s aremainl y grasses, including: Alpine meadows are distributed above 4,700 to Aristida triseta Roegneria spp. 5,200m . Themai n speciesar eKobresia pygmaea and Orinus thoroldii Stipa capillacea Polygonumsphaerostachyum wit hsom ecushio n plants Pennisetum flaccidum Stipa purpurea ofAndrosace tapete andArenaria musciformis. Poa spp. Some nival plants are distributed between 5,200 Otherspecie s include: and5,50 0m . Anisodus tanguticus Pedicularis alaschanica Artemisia Wellbyi Potentilla bifurca Lhasasubarea. Thi ssubare ai sth esecondar y cen­ Arenaria przewalskii Stellera chamaejasme ter of Hordeum. Five species and three varieties are Carex spp. Thlaspi avense distributed on the valleys of the Lhasa, Nygang, and Lepiduim spp. Urtica tangularis Tsangpo rivers, similar to the ancient Mediterranean. Specieso f importance on thedr y valleys includeAris­ Grasses are 3-15 cm with a coverage of 30-40%. tida( 4species ,particularl yA .tsangpoensis) and Dian- The hay yield is 75-150 kg/ha, although this type of grassland ismos t often useda swinte rpasture .Becaus e

126 CHAPTER 6

ofth evariatio no ftopograph yan dsoil ,th ecompositio n speciesinclud eStipa purpurea, Stipa capillacea,Arte­ ofspecie s isvaried . misia, and some plants of Sabina, forming an alpine steppe. Alpine meadows. This area occurs from 4,400m to5,20 0m .Th especies includemainl yKobresia spp. , At 5,000-5,700m ,Carex atrata var.glacialis and Carex atrofusca, and grasses of Poa spp., and Ptila- Kobresia pygmaea meadows are mixed with cushion grostis dichotoma. Otherspecie s include: plantssuc h as: Androsace tapete Pedicularis spp. Androsace selago Arenaria Anemone imbricata Polygonum viviparum Arenariapulvinata polytrichoides Aster spp. Polygonum Arenaria monticola Oxytropischiliophylla Astragalus sphaerostachyum yunnanensis Potentilla spp. and someplant so f Chrysanthemum Primula spp. Polygonum sphaerostachyum tatsienense Saussureaspp . Rhodiola spp. Gentianaalgida Saxifraga melanocentra Saussureaspp . Leontopodium nanum Taraxacum spp. Abovethi selevatio n isliche nvegetatio n and then Meconopsis spp. Triglochin maritimum. the snowline. On the southern side of the Himalayas, Nardostachys chinensis Kobresia and Carex meadows are spread between Plants are 18-30c m with acoverag e of 60%.Thi s 4,500-5,200 m(Figur e 6.21). typeo fmeado wi suse dprincipall yfo rha yharvest ,wit h Swan (1961) stated that the alpine zone of the a yield of 1,200 kg/ha. Himalayas reaches 5,312 m. The plant cover is domi­ Middleare ao fth eTsanygp oValley .Th emiddl e nated by dwarf Rhododendron (2 species); Juniperus areao fth esouther nsectio no f theOute rPlatea uregion squamata and various herbs and shrubs, Artemisia, isa nare ao f higherelevatio nwit hdr yan dcol dclimate . Ephedra, Gentiana, small Primula, Arenaria, and Tingri lies at 28°35'N and 86°37'E with an elevation Leontopodium. of4,30 0m ,annua lprecipitatio no f22 4mm ,an da mea n annual temperature of 0.7°C. Rabgola is located at Nyalamsubarea south of the Himalayas. Nyalam 5,000m a t28°13' Nan d86°49'E ,wit hprecipitatio n of is located on the southern slope of the Himalayas at 324 mm and a mean annual temperature of -0.5°.Th e 4,300 m and has a mean annual temperature of 2.9-C increase in rainfall with the increase of altitude is due anda nannua lprecipitatio no f43 3mm .Th ealpin ezon e to thedecreas e in temperature.Th e vegetation typeo f hes between the timberline (upper limits 3,900-4,100 the area is a mountain scrub-steppe without forest. m) and the snowline (5,500-5,600 m), where natural Severalvegetatio n regionsma yb e distinguished: conditions are severe for plant growth. In the alpine zone,alpin eRhododendron (3species )gro wo nshade d Tingrisubarea. Chang and Chiang (1976) stated slopes. schneiden meadows and two spe­ that there are several types of vegetation in the Tingri cies of Sabina are also found. Alpine meadows grow subarea, which includes the northern flank of the Hi­ extensively above4,50 0 m and up to 5,200 m (Figure malayan Range. The Pennisetumflaccidum stepp e is 6.22). distributed on thesouther n bank of theTsangp o River Themai n species include: at3,900-4,40 0m ,includin g mainly xerophytic species Carex atrata var. glacialis of: Kobresia (3 species) Aristida triseta Orinusthoroldii herbs: Ceratostigma minus Sophora moorcrofüana Anaphalisxylorhiza Leontopodiumpusillum The Orinus thoroldii steppe is distributed on the Anemonenarcissiflora Saussurea wemerioides heavy sand soil. Someothe r speciesare : Callianthemum Thalictrum alpinum Aristida spp. Sinochaseatrigyna pimpinelloides Hordeumspp . Stephanachne monandra and some cushion plants: Littledalea Trikeraia hookeri Androsace spp. Arenaria spp. przewalskii Tripogonspp . Kobresia alpine meadows are distributed mainly On the lakeshore s orbeaches , the main meadow- onfla tarea swit hstabl esubstratu mformin ga dens ean d forming species include Carex moorcrofdi and Lasia- luxuriant association with rich organic matter of 6c m grostis longearistata. depth. On inclined areas, the dominant species is mainly Carexatrata var .glacialis, with plant coverage On the slopes and in valleys with good drainage, of 20%. atelevation sbetwee n4,40 0an d5,10 0 m,th edominan t

127 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CIIINA

wJ<*

Figure 6.21. Alpine mountain meadow found on the Himalayan Range near Qomolonqma (Everest) peak in Tibet. Dominant species of Kobresia (particularly K. pygmaea and K. libellea) occur at 4,500-5,200 m on southern slopes and 5,200-5,700 m on northern slopes. (Reproduced from H.Y. Hou, 1983,wit h permission from Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden)

Burangsubarea.I nth ewester nportio no fth eare a 1. Caraganaversicolor + Artemisia mattfeldii decid ­ isth eBuran gsubare a andMapa mYumc o(Manasaro - uousscru b association. Thedominan t specieso f war)Lake . Pane tal .(1977 )reported tha televation so f thisassociatio n (Caraganä) growst o2 5c mwit h thedistric t werebetwee n 4,500an d6,12 4m ,wit ha n 30% coverage. The height of Artemisia spp. is annual precipitation of 177m m (Burang). They col­ about5 0cm ,wit ha coverag eo f 15%.Th eassoci ­ lectedflowerin g plantso f 111 speciesan dreporte dsi x ationspecie sinclude : plantcommunitie si nth edistrict .

Figure (.22.Alpin e meadowo n the Himalayas nearQomolonqm a (Everest) peak inTibet .(Reproduce d with permission from China Pictorial, 1984)

128 CHAPTER 6

Carexoxyleuca Roegnerianutans TheBlymus compressus+ Potentilla anserinaas ­ Kobresia spp. Stipa glareosa sociation is a swampy meadow. The coverage of Orinusspp . this association is about 95%. The main associa­ and about 20specie so f other herbs. tion species include: 2. Caragana versicolor + Potentilla arbuscula + Eleocharis Pedicularislongiflora Thylacospermum caespitosum association. The pauciflora Poa tibetica dominantspecie s(Caragana) grow st o2 0c mwit h Euphrasiaregelii Taraxacum coverageo f 25%.Potentilla an d Thylacospermum Gentiana spp. dealbatum are IS cm and 3 cm, respectively, and their cov­ Juncus thomsonii Triglochin eragei sabou t 19%.Abou t2 0associat especie sar e Kobresiahumilis maritimum found. Kobresia royleana Triglochin 3. The Thylacospermum +Arenaria association isa Lomatogonium palustre cushion type of vegetation. There is no distinct thomsonii dominantspecies .Tota lplan tcoverag ei s20% ,an d Western area of the Tsangpo Valley. The far heights range from 2 to 11 cm. The number of western area of the southern section of the Outer Pla­ species in thisassociatio n isabou t 16. teausubregio n isth eGa r(Nagri ,Gartok )Distric t (Fig­ 4. TheStipa glareosa +Stipa purpurea associatio ni s ure6.23) .Thi s area forms theheadwater s of the Indus a steppe vegetation. The dominant species (Stipa andSutle jrivers. Thes eriver san dthei rtributarie s flow glareosa) growst o2 5c mwit h 20%coverage .Th e in deep gorges, comparable to those of the eastern subdominantspecie s(Stipapurpurea) growst o3 8 rivers. This area lies between the Himalayas in the cm with a coverage of 8%. The total coverage of south and the Karakoram Range in the north, forming theassociatio n is 35%.Th e important association a plateau with some valleys and external drainage. In species include: the southern part, the elevation of the valley is about Alliumspp . Potentillabifurca 2,800 m, while in the northern part it rises to about Astragalus Ptilotrichum 4,300m .Th emea n temperature of thewarmes t month tanguticus canescens (July) may be 15°C, but winters are very cold and Oxytropis Stiparoborowskyi annualprecipitatio n is50-7 5m mo rless ,makin gthi sa microphylla Stracheyatibetica subtropical semidesert (south of 32°N) and desert cli­ 5. TheStipa spp. +Caragana versicolor association mate.Th eclimat ei sver ydry ,henc ether ei sn o forest. is a scrub grassland with coverage of about55% . Cultivation in these gorges is confined to alluvial fans Fewer associate species are present than in the Stipa glareosa +Stipa purpurea association.

Figure 6.23. A view of the landscape of Gar (Gartok) on the high plateau in the southwestern corner of Tibet. (Photo reproduced from R.Hammond, 1942; courtesy of the Royal Geographical Society)

129 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

whichca nb eirrigate deasily .Thes earea shav eth eonl y with a number of herbs to form a coverage of 30-60% trees,chiefl y willow,walnut , and poplar. (Hou, 1960).Th e main species include: Allium spp. Carex moorcroftii The elevation of the valley of the Sutlej River is Artemisia minor Clinelymus nutans about2,90 0m .Thi sare aenjoy s awar mclimate .I nthi s Artemisia salsoloides Leymus dasystachys valley, some Mediterranean subtropical elements ap­ Carex atrata pear,suc has Ajaniafruticulosa, Ceratoidesla tens, an d var. glacialis Colutea arborescens. The dominant species include Orinus thoroldiian d Pennisetum flaccidum. There are The hay yield is 100-150 kg/ha. West of the area, many elementary specieso f thedeser t vegetation: themai n species include: Artemisia sacrorum Kochia spp. Ajania fruticulosa Artemisia salsoloides Melica canescens Ceratoides latens Astragalus strictus Oxytropis thomsonii Stipa glareosa Bromus gracillimus Oxytropis chiliophylla Other species include: Capparis spinosa Polygonum Allium spp. Kobresia spp. Carex lactea paronychoides Astragalus Potentilla Carex moorcroftii Potentilla bifurca tribulifolium microphylla Ceratoides latens Scorzonera spp. Carex spp. Salsola monoptera Cymbopogon oliveri Stipa stapfii Corispermum tibeticum Some short-lived plants also are found, such as Shrubs(Capparis spinosa an d Tamarix)ar e found Tauscherialasiocarpa an dth esmal lsemishru bspecie s onrive rbank s(Troll , 1972a),whil ei nth edee pvalley s ofArtemisia Wellbyian dArtemisia younghusbandii. (below2,00 0m )ar edesert-steppe swit hsom escattere d The desert vegetation also is mixed with Stipa trees (Pistacid). glareosa, Stipa subsessiliflora var. basiplumosa, and Summary Stipa breviflora. The vegetation of the Tsangpo Valley may be Mani (1978) mentioned several formations in the summarized intoth e following 3groups : northwestern Himalayan districts including the fol­ 1. warm, temperate, humid-semi arid vegetation of lowingplants : theforest-grassland-alpin e meadow, Dracocephalum Gentiana spp. 2. cool,ter nperate ,sem iari dvegetatio no fth esteppe - diversifolium Phlomis spp. alpinemeadow , and Festuca spp. Polygonum spp. 3. cold, temperate, arid vegetation of the alpinedes ­ ThePhlomis formation includesth e genera: ert. Caragana Leontopodium This subregion is a traditional grazing land of the Festuca Phlomis Tibetan nomads and has good potential for the devel­ Geranium Senecio opment of an extensive grazinganima l industry. Kobresia Stipa Hamond (1942) mentioned that the vegetation in TheGeranium formatio n hasth efollowin g associ­ theGa rare a isver yspars ean d isgraze d byonl y a few ate genera: flocks during thesummer . Some fine pasturelands are Alchemilla Poa located near Gar and a few willow trees grow around Bromus Scabiosa monasteries. There are a few small villages between Phlomis Garan d Zanda (Tolling)wit h smallfield s of cropsan d Some other formations of alpine zone grassy black poplars. meadow are found, including genera of: Alchemilla Ligularia Leontopodium Taraxacum THE INNER PLATEAU (CHANG TANG) SUBREGION: ALPINE MEADOW-STEPPE Thecryophyt e meadow formation includes: AND DESERT Acantholimon Oxytropis Chang Tang in the Tibetan language means "the lycopodioides Saussurea greatest plain in the world". This is a vast area from Potentilla southo f theKunlu n Mountains tonort h of the Gandise The Caragana versicolor formation is distributed Mountains,fro m the30 0m m isohyeti nth eeas tt owes t incertai nlocation sbetwee n4,50 0an d5,00 0m ,mixin g of China'sborder .Thi ssubregio n is physiographically

130 CHAPTER 6

indistinguishable from theOute rPlatea ut oth eeast ,no r Despite the severe physical weathering which is there any change in scattered vegetation that will formed the area, the land surface is primarily rocks, enableu st odra wa precis edividin gline .Nevertheless , gravel and coarse sand, with very little fine soil and theeastern borde ro fth eInne rPlatea u isdefine d by the mostly brackish conditions. externaloute rdrainag eare awher eth efou r rivers(Yel ­ Vegetation low, Yangtze, Lancang, and Nujiang) and their tribu­ tariesris ean dwate rbegin st oflo w toth eeas tint olakes . The flora of the Inner Plateau, particularly in the northwestern portion,i smostl yrelate dt oth ePami ran d Relief middleTiansha n (Russian) affinities. It isvaried , with TheInne rPlatea ui sa vast, flat ,o rslightl y undulat­ alpine steppe, alpine desert, alpine tundra, and arctic ingsauce rwit h anaverag eelevatio n of5,000-6,00 0 m. vegetations. This high altitude mountain vegetation The drainage is internal. Some large and numerous generally is characterized by xerophylization and small lakes are fed by short rivers, which flow down ephemerization,wit hmos to fth especie sbein ggrasses , from the edges of the Plateau. Water in these lakes is annualherbs ,an dcushio n plants.Becaus eo f theactio n saltyo rbrackish .Severa lmountai n rangesru nparallel , of glaciers, most species of the Inner Plateau have risingsevera l hundred meters aboveth egenera l eleva­ immigrated from adjacent areas.Th e structure of veg­ tion. These mountains diverge from the Pamir and etation is simple due to its severe environmental con­ extend to the east. These mountains are separated by ditions.Th e plant cover isver y low (5 to 10%) except wide,shallo w troughsan d plainswhic hcontai na larg e in lowland areas along rivers and lakes. The most amount of friable deposits and gravel-rocks. Owing to important species include various types of bunch- thechang eo fclimate ,mos to f thelake shav ecollapse d grasses, cushion-plants, shrubs, meadow-plants, and and many salt lakes, salt marshes, and meadows have small trees likeJuniperus squamata. formed. The relief was formed by glaciation and frost weathering, leaving rocky slopes and rubble scattered Sinceth elatte rpar to fth enineteent hcentury ,ther e widely invalleys ,dominatin g thelandscap e (deTerra , have been many explorers and travelers who have 1934;Trinkler , 1930a). traveled in this plateau, but they provided little in­ formation on plants. Ward (1935) made a list of 53 Climate species which were collected by those explorers. Re­ cently, there were more than 300 species collected Theclimat ei smostl y harsh continental with cold, (Wang et al., 1980). The vegetation generally is too dry,violen t winds,stron g insolationan d radiation,an d scanty tosuppor t permanent settlement. greatvariation so fda yan dnigh ttemperatures .Winter s are long, with extremely severe periods during ten According to Chien et al. (1956), Wang (1961), monthsan d lowest temperatures of -30t o -40°C.Eve n Chang (1978), Wang et al. (1981), and others, the insumme rth etemperatur erarel yrises abov e3°C ,thu s vegetation may be classified into two main types; the mean annual temperature ranges from 0° to -5°C (1)alpin e scrub desert and alpine desert (on the rubble (Wange t al., 1981).Walte re tal .(1983 )an d Kazakova plains and slopes where thedrainag e isgood) ,an d (2) (1969)reporte d thatth eda ytemperature so fJul ysome ­ meadows of the lowlands and marshes (around the times may riset o30°C ,wit h night temperatures below rivers and lakes). 0°C. Li (1979) reported the mean temperature of July to be 12°C. Annual precipitation ranges from 50-100 1. Alpine desert vegetation. The common plants are mm inth ewes t (Chang, 1978)increasin gt o28 9m mi n Ceratoidespapposa, Ephedra gerardiana, Ephe­ the east (Baingoin). Annual precipitation of Gerze, dra distachya, Eurotia spp, Myricaria prostrata, locateda tth ecente ro fInne rPlateau ,ha sbee n recorded Reaumuria trigyna, and Tanacetum tibeticum, at 166 mm. growingles stha n 10cm tall.Th eonl ytalle rwood y plant isJuniperus squamata which isobserve d on Thedrynes so fth eatmospher ei sintensifie d byth e thehill snea r thebac k ofTengr i Lake.Othe r plant fiercewind swit hspeed so f2 0m/se cwhic h perpetually species are 4 species of Astragalus, Taraxacum sweep the Plateau. The winds are even more inimical bicolor, Thermopsis inflata, Cochlearia hi- tovegetatio n than thecold .Th emor eari d region isth e malaica, Capsella spp., and Microula spp. Some area between the Karakoram and Kunlun mountains, of these have woody rootstocks. There is a great with 12ari dmonth sreachin gt omor etha n5,00 0m .Th e abundance of wild onions with Allium senescens, snow line in the western area is recorded at 6,400 m, Allium semenovii, andAllium jacquemontii being whichcreate sa nextremel y dryclimate .Sal t lakesma y the most common species. Thylacospermum exist to5,30 0m .Thi s isa n arid coreland of high Asia, rupifragum is a striking example of the cushion which,du et oit sdrynes san daltitude ,i scompletel y free plantso f thealpin e desert. of any woody vegetation.

131 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Among thecommo n grasses of thisare a are: Allium spp. Eurotia ceratoides Agropyron Festuca valesiaca Artemisia Wellbyi Microula tibetica thoroldianum Glyceriadistorts Astragalus arnoldii Pedicularis Avena subspicata Poa alpina Astragalus malcolmii cheilanthifolia Elymus junceus Stipa purpurea Capsella thomsoni Elymus lanuginosus Stipa sabulosa Thebiomas s production inth esouther n portion is generallyabou t16 0kg/h aan dth enutritiv evalu ei slow . 2. On thelowland san d marshesaroun d thelake s are meadowsolKobresia andCarex an dth e following Northern Area Subdivision species: North of 32°N thevegetatio n rises to 4,900-5,300 Carex moorcroftii Puccinelliadistorts m and in some cases to5,40 0 m. Large areas of Stipa Juncus thomsonii Ranunculus tricuspis purpurea and of Carex moorcroftii are found in pure Kobresia royleana Triglochinpalustre standswhic hsprea d alongth egentl eslope so f foothills On the lowland where thedrainag e isgood , there and basins, where some other species may mix with arepur estand so f Carexspp .suc h asCarex moor­ them. croftii. Thecommo n speciesare : Southern Area Subdivision Astragalus spp. Poa spp. Artemisia minor Stipa subsessiliflora The Inner Plateau (Chang Tang) is a vast area Oxytropis spp. var. basiplumosa which may be divided into 2 areas according to relief along the 32°N line. The southern area is little influ­ Some cushion plants of Saussurea (3 species), enced by the Indian monsoon, with annual rainfall of Arenaria musciformis,an dArenaria monticolaals oar e about30 0m man dvegetatio nsimila rt oth esemi-stepp e found (Cheo et al., 1980). The coverage isscant y and (Kazakova, 1969). thenumbe r of species is few. Themai n species include: In the north, Carex moorcroftii is the absolute Agropyron Stephanachne dominant species with a wide range of distribution. thoroldianum busiplumosa Other species include some plants of Ceratoides com­ Festuca ovina Stephanachne monandra pacta andStipa glareosa. Poa alpina Stipa pennata The western and northwestern parts of the Inner Poa nemoralis Plateauar elocate dbetwee nth eKunlu nan dKarakora m Thesealpin esemi-steppe sma yrise t o5,80 0m ,th e mountainswit helevation so f5,000-6,00 0m .Th emea n eternal snowline, forming good pastures for summer annual temperature varies from -8 to -10°C, mean grazing for nomads. monthly temperatures are below 0°C for 9 to 10 months, and the annual rainfall varies from 20 to 50 Some herbs include: mm.Owin gt oth esever eenvironmenta lconditions ,th e Arenaria holosteoides Saussurea number of species is quite small and the structure of Artemisia spp. glandulifera communities issimple . Delphinium Saussurea brunonianum tridactilis The basic plant species include Ceratoides com­ Delphinium glacialis pacta, Ceratoides latens,Ajania fruticulosa, and some in addition to species of sage and Astragalus. otherplant sof Poa an dStipa glareosa formin ga typica l alpine desert, such as in the Bangong Lake District. The southern area has many lakes, particularly in Plants of Ceratoides may reach 20-30cm , with cover­ the southeastern part, where the Orinus thoroldii + ageles stha n 5% (Chang, 1978). Trikeraia hookeri association dominates on lake shores, hillsides,an d broad, sandy valleys.Som e pure Otherplan tspecie sinclud eMelandrium apetalum, stands ofArtemisia salsoloides var. Wellbyi and Puc­ Saussurea gnaphalodes, and some cushion plants cinellia multiflora are distributed on the periphery of which may reach 6,000 m. The species are few in lakes and gravel lands of alluvial fans along foothills. number and percent coverage is very low. Plants of Stipapurpurea isth echaracteristi cspecie si nth esouth ­ Ceratoidescompacta, Ajania fruticulosa, and Ephedra ern area. spp. grow on thegrave l desert. Thecommo n species are: Someothe rspecies i nth enorther nportio ninclude : Acantholimon Cheiranthus Astragalus hendersonii Oxytropis tatarica diapensioides himalayensis Astragalus heydei Saussurea glandulifera

132 CHAPTER 6

Hedinia tibetica Saussurea gnaphalodes InnerPlatea uals oprovid ea seasona lsumme rpastur e Heracleum millefolium Thylacospermum forherdsmen . Leontopodium spp. caespitosum SUMMARY Sinceth e 1850's,ther ehav ebee na fewgeologist s and travelers (Schlagintweits, 1850; Younghusband, Recentlysom eChines ebotanist s(Li , 1979; Zhou, 1889-90;Stein ,Crosby ,an dHedin , 1907-48; Trinkler 1979; Wang et aL, 1981) have described the Inner and deTerra , 1927-28;an d someothers )wh ovisite d Plateau(Chan gTan gsubregion )a s a steppe,includin g the area between Karakorum and the Kunlun moun­ theare asout ho f36° Nt onort h of the Himalayas, and tains.Trinkle r (1930b)state d that theare a wasa bar e between80° Ean d 91°E. Theydescribe d a narrowbel t land with small plants and grasses here and there from Lanzhouan dXinin gi nth e easttowar d the north­ supporting numerous kinds of wildlife such as wild easterncorne ro fthi splatea uan d treated thevas tare a yaks,herd so fantelopes ,wil ddonkeys , and wildgeese . ason esubregio no fthre eEurasia nsteppes .Justificatio n The areaals osupporte dsmal lnomadi cvillage sbesid e forthi sclassificatio n wastha tth eflora s and the struc­ the northernbeac ho fBangon gLak e(Figure s 6.24 and tures of associations of this great plateau and Inner 6.25). Mongolia areth esam ean dtha t thedominan t species of edificators isStipa purpurea. Wesugges t that this Inth e easternpar to fth e InnerPlateau , the vegeta­ classification isincorrec t becauseth etw oregion sar e tion is similart o the westernpar to f the OuterPlateau , clearly distinguishable by vegetation types. The cli­ such as in Nagqu and Amdo. Stipa purpurea is the mate, soil, and altitude of this area are significantly dominant specieswit hsimpl estructure ,an dcoverag e different from Inner Mongolia. The Inner Plateau of ismor etha n 20%. Tibet isuninhabitabl eb yman ,wit hver y littlepastur e Theclima xformatio no fth e InnerPlatea ui sgener ­ productiondu e to limitedspecie snumber ,scant yplan t ally cold-dry highland desert which iscomprise do f a cover,an dver ylo w biomassyield scompare dt o steppe simpi estructur eo nopen ,cold ,xerophyticcommunitie s vegetation. with low productivity.Physiographically , it is an alpine desert or tundra. Although it is not inhabited by hu­ In another classification description (Grubov, mans,i t is rich in wildlifesuc ha s the wild ass, Tibetan 1959, cit. Waltere t al.,1983) ,th ewhol eregio no fTibe t antelope, gazelle, snow leopard, and small animals was classified as adeser to fCentra lAsi aexcep tfo rth e (Figure 6.26). The southern and eastern parts of the southeasterncorne ro fth e lowergorg earea . The Phys- iographicalAtla so fth e World(1964 , cit. Petrov,1976 )

!?•*'¥:

Figure 6.24. Shyok-Harong River Valley between Tangtse and Durbuk. In the background is the Panggong Range, looking toward Shakya La.(Phot ob y H.d e Terra; reproduced from H.d e Terra, 1934,wit h permission of the American Geographical Society)

133 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

•* i.

Figure (.25. View from Lamak Lao n the plateau (4,848 m)nort ho f KhyagarTso . Inth e background is the ZanskarRange . (Photo by H.d e Terra;reproduce d from H. de Terra, 1934,wit h permission of theAmerica n Geographical Society) described Tibet as acontinenta l desert. Thesedescrip ­ cieso f Phalaridinae,4 specie so fArundinoidea e (inth e tions also are incorrect. There are several different lower elevation areas of southern Tibet),2 2specie so f typeso f vegetation in theTibeta n Plateau, particularly Eragrosteae (mostly in the gorge region); 180 species thesoutheaster n and eastern parts,whic h are rich with of (in the entire region of Tibet), 39 species forests and grassland. ofStipoda e(mos tlocate d inth egorg esubregio n of the eastern part and of 12 species among them in north­ Liou(1980) ,state dtha tth etota lnumbe ro fspecie s western Tibet); and 71 species of (mostly in of Poaceae (Gramineae) in Tibet is 335,belongin g to southeastern Tibet).Accordin g tothes edata ,Tibe tUfa threesubfamilies : 18species i nBambusoidea e (mostly richare ao fgrasses du et oth emigratio n from itsneigh ­ insoutheaster n Tibet),24 6species o f Pooideae: 1 spe­ boring areas.

Figure 6.26.A her do fwil dyak so nth eKunlu nMountains ,nort ho fth enorther nTibeta nPlateau .(Phot ob yQinghai-Tibeta nPlatea uResearc h Team,Academi a Sinica; reproduced with permission from X.M. Zhou, 1982)

134 CHAPTER 6

In Tibet, the topography is the primary factor in too severe for plant growth, habitability, and ordinary determining climate and the distribution of vegetation forage production. In the southern area, nomads graze (owing to its high elevations, severe cold and strong their animals on alpine meadows during the summer winds, which are not favorable to tree growth, except ando nth efores t rangedurin gwinter ;bu ttha trangelan d in the valleys of thesout h and east).Thi s area forms a is not sufficient for the great number of grazing ani­ vast meadow grassland.Thi s is themai n typeo f vege­ mals. tation in the Tibetan Plateau, with types varying in Grazing animals,includin g yak,sheep ,goats ,an d distribution with elevation. Figure6.2 7 showsth egen ­ a few ponies and donkeys, are traditionally used for eralvertica ldistributio n ofKobresia meadow in differ­ food, clothing, transportation, and for exchange of ent areas from the north to the south in this plateau some industrial materials. These grazing animals are (Zhou, 1982). small and have low production rates, caused by the Generally, alpine meadow-grasslands are located deficiency of feed, severe environmental conditions, 4,200-4,800 m in the southeastern and eastern areas, and inbreeding. and at 4,500-5,200 m in the central portion. These ThePlatea uwa sno taccessibl efo r alon gtim ean d grasslands are characterized by Sino-Himalayan ele­ wascontrolle db yfeuda lsystems ,causin glo wlevel so f ments, including alpine-boreal elements. Species of education, little development of the animal industry, Kobresia (K. capillifolia, K.pumila, K.pygmaea) are and minimal management of grazing lands. During common. The production of biomass above ground recent decades, however, China's government has varies from 750-1,880 kg/ha. The nutrient content of helped the Tibetans to develop education, transporta­ alpinemeadow s and other types of vegetation arepro ­ tion,an d agricultural and industrial production. vided inTabl e 6.5. There have been very few studies of the grazing TheTibeta n Plateau isa vas t grazing land with an lands in this area, particularly with respect to plant area of about two million km . Owing to the high succession, although some vegetation studies have elevation, theenvironmenta l conditions are not favor­ been conducted. Ward (1947) provided some informa­ able to plant growth, and the region produces low tion on plant successions in the southern grazing area biomass.A numbe ro fspecie sar efoun d whichar eals o andindicate dtha tovergrazin gwa sparticularl y obvious found at thesam e latitude in Eastern China. Although incampin g and settlingareas . the vegetation types of the Plateau vary widely, the winter pasture and feed are deficient for grazing ani­ It is interesting to note the presence of wild mals, causing serious damage to one million grazing herbivorous animals of the Tibetan Plateau. Because animals in some winters in Qinghai Province. In the lamaseries always prohibited the hunting of thoseani ­ InnerPlatea u(Chan gTang) ,th eclimati ccondition sar e mals, lamas have multiplied into a large population.

Meiers 5,000 Alpine steppe Alpine scrub andmeado w zone Alpine scruban d andmeado w zone

4,500 meadow zone Temperate scrub

4,000 andstepp e zone Cool, temperate Alpine bushan d

3,500 coniferous Cool temperate meadow zone forest zone coniferous

3,000 forest zone Temperate steppe zone Temperate scrubzon e

2,500

2,000 Valleys inTibe t Northern Gorge Xiqing(Chishih) Easto f Oilian Mountains Mountains Mountains

Figure 6.27. Vertical distribution ofKobresia meadows of different places in the Tibetan Plateau. (Adapted from X.M. Zhou, 1982)

135 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Table 6.5. The nutrieotcompositio n (dryweigh tbasis ) ofdifferen t types of vegetation inTibet . (Adapted from W.H. Li, 1979).

Vegetation Crude protein Crude fat Crude fiber Nitrogen-free Ash C/N JïE* ÖÖ ffl extract(%) Alpine meadow 16.8 4.0 27.0 46.3 6.9 4.7

Steppe 12.5 3.7 27.8 47.8 7.6 6.8 Alpine scrub 13.4 3.1 27.1 48.4 8.0 - Alpine woodland 13.7 2.4 30.3 46.0 7.5 6.0

Alpine desert 12.9 3.6 34.4 42.0 6.9 6.6

Meadows on river 14.2 2.0 _ 44.6 5.0 5.9 bedsan dlak e shore

Thenumerou swil dherbivorou sanimal so nth ePlatea u 6. Investigateth eus eo fwil dherbivorou sanimal s for include:wil dshee p(Ovi shodgson), wildyak ,wil dass , meat production. wild goat,Tibeta n antelope (Pantholopsspp.) , gazelle (Piocapra spp.), snow leopard, and smaller animals SPECIES LIST such as hares (Lepidus hispusus), two kinds of stag, serow, and marmots. On the grasslands, there are im­ Grasses Legumes mense numbers of pigmy (Ochotona spp.). In the wet Achnatherum splendens Astragalus (4 species) gorge section and in western Sichuan, there are takin Agropyroncristatum Caragana (5 species) (Budoreas spp.), musk deer, monkeys, giant panda, Agropyrondesertorum Clinelymus spp. wild yak, ass, long-homed antelope, and bear (Ward, Aristida tsangpoensis Danthonia cachemyriana 1947). Kokonor (Qinghai) Lake also has an abundant Blymus sinocompressus Deschampsia spp. population of fish and birds. Bromus gracillimus Deyeuxialinshensis Festucanitidula Deyeuxia tibetica Theagricultura larea sar elocate d mostly in lower Festucapygmaea Eremopogonspp . valleysi nth esoutheast ,east ,an dnortheaster n Qinghai. Festuca rubra Hedysarum limprichtii The most important crops are grown in thewar m val­ Helictotrichon tibeticum Lespedeza cyrtobotrya leys of the east and south, while barley is grown on Leymusdasystachys Lespedeza dahurica higher elevations (upt o3,50 0 m). Littledaleaprzewalstdi Medicagoarchiducisnicolai Orinusthoroldii Medicago lupulina Generally, the Tibetan Plateau is a rich land of Oxytropisspp . forage resources with 355 species in 104 genera of Poa crymophila grasses with a range of distribution from tropical to Ptilagrostisdichotoma alpinedesert .Thes ear egoo d resourcesfo rselectio n to Stipa spp. improve thegrazin g lands of many partso f China. Trigonella ruthenica Thermopsis spp. RECOMMENDATIONS Viciaspp . Forth eimprovemen t ofTibeta ngrazin glands ,w e maketh efollowin g recommendations: Herbsan d Others 1. Evaluate present conditions with a systematic Anaphalis lactea Kobresia spp. study of the grazing lands, including forage spe­ Artemisia scoparia Leontopodium nanum cies, structure, succession, and productivity of Carex crebra pectinata plant communities. Carexheterostachys Pediculariskansuensis 2. Select and multiply the existing good forage spe­ Carexmoorcroftii Polygonumviviparum ciesfo r theimprovemen t of grazing lands. Dasiphorafruticosa Polygonum 3. Improvegrazin g management. Dracocephalum sphaerostachyum 4. Conserve hay and stockpile winter grazing lands heterophyllum Saussurea arenaria and other feeds for winter feeding. Gentiana straminea Saussurea superba 5. Investigateth eus eo ffores t rangelandsfo r grazing Heteropappusaltaicus Triglochin maritimum and haymaking.

136 CHAPTER 6

REFERENCES Yunnan. Acta Scientiarum Naturalium Universita- tis,Yunnan . (In Chinese) Atlaso f thePeople' s Republico f China. 1971. Central Intelligence Agency, Washington, D.C.8 2pp . Cox, E.H.M. 1945. Plant Hunting in China. Collins Clear-Type Press,London . 230pp . Bailey, R.M. 1925. Note on a portion of the Tsangpo. GeogJ .66:519-522 . De Terra, H. 1934. Physiographic results of a recent survey in LittleTibet . Geog.Rev . 24:12-42. Billings,W.D . 1979.Hig h mountain ecosystems:evo ­ lution,structure ,operation ,an dmaintenance ,p .97 - Fitzgerald, C.P. 1943.Th e northern marches of Yun­ 125. In: P.J. Webber (ed.). High Altitude nan.Geog .J . 102:49-55. Geoecology. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sei., Selected Gordon, T. 1926. From Yunnanfu to Peking along the Symposium Series,Vol . 12.Washington , D.C. Tibetan and Mongolian borders. Geo.J .77:2-27 . Chang,J.W., an d S.Chiang . 1976.A preliminar y study Gregor, J.W., and CJ . Gregor. 1923. The alps of Chi­ on the vertical vegetation belts of the Mt. Jolmo- neseTibe tan dthei rgeographica lrelations .Geog .J . Lungma (Everest) region and their relationship to 61:153-179. horizontal zones.Act a Bot. Sinica 15:221-236. (In Chinesewit h English abstract) Grubov,V.l .1969 .Flor aan dvegetation ,p .265-364./« : USSR Acad.Sei .Inst .Geog .Th ePhysica l Geogra­ Chang,J.W., and S.S.Sun . 1980.A preliminar y obser­ phyo f China.Vol . 1.F.A .Praege r Publishers,Ne w vation on the relationship between vegetation and York. frozen soil in the Chaidar Valley of Tsinghai (Qinghai).Act aBot .Sinic a 19:291-296 .(I nChines e Hammond, R. 1942. Through western Tibet in 1939. with English abstract) Geog.J .99:1-16 . Chang,S.Y. , andZ.Y .Ma . 1982.Th eutilizatio n rateo f Handel-Mazzetti, H. 1930. The phytogeographical solar energy and the ways to its enhancement of structurean daffinitie s ofChina .5t hInt .Bot .Congr . natural rangeland and cultivated grassland in Abstr. p.315-319 , Cambridge. Menyuan.Act aBiol .Sinic a 1:163-168.(I nChinese ) Hao, K.S. 1938.Pflanzengeographisch e Studien ueber Chang,X.S . 1978.Th eplatea uzonalit yo fvegetatio n in denKokonor-Se eun dda sangrenzend eGebiet .Bot . Xizang (Tibet). Acta Bot. Sinica 20:140-149. Jahrb.68:515-668 .(I n German) (In Chinesewit h English abstract) Hanson-Lowe, J. 1940. Ajourne y along the Chinese- Chang, X.S. 1983.Th e Tibet Plateau in relation to the Tibetan border. Geog.Rev .24:118-128 . vegetation of China. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gar. Hanson-Lowe, J. 1941. Notes on the climate of the 70(3):564-571. South Chinese-Tibetan borderland. Geog. Rev. Chen, Q.C., S.L. , and F.X. Yang. 1981. Math­ 31:444-453. ematical modelso f regression of populations under Hanson-Lowe,J . 1947.Note so n thePleistocen eglaci ­ grazing conditions in the Stipa steppe. Acta. Bot. ation of the South Chinese-Tibetan borderland. Sinica 23323-328.(I n Chinese) Geog.Rev .37:70-87 . Cheo, S.Y, S.T. Teng, and C.C. Li. 1980.A survey of grassyhill so nth eborde ro fSichuan .Bull ,o fGrassl . Hou, H.Y. 1960. The Vegetation of China. People's Sei.2:25-32 .(I n Chinese) Education Press,Peking .(I n Chinese) Hou,H.Y . 1983.Vegetatio n of Chinawit hreferenc e to Chiang,S . 1960.Th emeadow san d forests ofth ewest ­ its geographical distribution. Ann. Missouri Bot. ern mountains of Sichuan Province. Acta Bot. Gar.70:509-549 . Sinica 9:125-136. (In Chinese) Hsu, Y.T. 1941.A note on the climatic conditions of Chien, S.S., Y.C. Wu, and C.T. Cheng. 1956.A tenta­ Lhasa.Bull .Meteor . Soc.2 2 (No.2) . tive scheme of phytogeographical regions, p. 83- 142.In: K.F.Lo u (ed.).A Tentativ e Scheme of the Johnson, R.G. 1945.Explorin g a grass wonderland of Natural Regions of China. Science Press, Peking. wild west China. Nat.Geog .Mag .68:713-742 . (In Chinese) Kaulback, R. 1934.Th eAssa m border of Tibet. Geog. Chu, C.H., and G.C. Tschou. 1947.A survey of plant J. 72:177-190. communities in the Yalung Mountains, Likiang, Kazakova, N.M. 1969. The Tsinghai-Tibetan Region, p. 246-277. In: USSR Acad. Sei. Inst. Geog. The

137 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Physical Geography of China.Vol .2 .RA . Praeger Schweinfurth, U. 1972. The Eastern marshes of high Publishers, New York. Asia and river gorge country, p. 276-288. In: C. Troll (ed.). Geoecology of the High-mountain Re­ Li,P .1979 .Th egenera lcharacteristic so fth egrassland s gions of Eurasia. Franz Steiner Verlag, GMBH, of China. Bull, of Grassl.Sei . 1:2-12.(I n Chinese) Wiesbaden. Li,W.H . 1979. Thevegetatio n inTibe to f China and its Stamp,L.D .1940 .Ajourne y alongth eChinese-Tibeta n economicsignificance , p.650-654 .In: J.R. Goodin border. Geog.J . 95357-367. and D.K. Northington (eds.). Arid Land Plant Re­ sources,Pro t of theInt .Ari d LandsConf .o n Plant Stein, A.S. 1922. A Chinese expedition across the Resources.Texa sTech .Univ. , Lubbock, Texas. Pamirsan dHindu-kush ,A.D .744 .Geog .J .59:112 - 131. Liou, L. 1980. The characteristics and geographical subdivision of the Gramineae flora in Xizang Stevenson, P.H. 1932.Note s on the human geography (Tibet).Act a Phytotax.Sinic a 18:318-328.(I nChi ­ of the Chinese-Tibetan borderland. Geog. Rev. nesewit h English summary) 22:599-616. Lu,A . 1947.Precipitatio n inth eSout h Chinese-Tibetan Sutton, S.B. 1974. In China's Border Provinces; the borderland. Geog.Rev . 37:88-93. Turbulent Career of Joseph Rock, Botanist-Ex­ plorer. Hastings House Publishers, New York. 334 Mani,M.S .1978 .Ecolog yan dPhytogeograph yo fHig h pp. AltitudePlant so fth eWester nHimalayas .Chapma n and Hall,London . 205pp . Swan,L .W . 1961.Th eecolog y of thehig h Himalayas. Sei.America n 205(4):68-78. Merrill, E.D., and E.H. Walker. 1938.A bibliography of Eastern Asiatic Botany. Arnold Arboretum. Ja­ Teichman, E. 1922. Journeys through Kam (Eastern maica Plain, Mass.71 9pp . Tibet).Geog .J .59:1-19 . Pan, J.T., H.Z. Chang, and S.W. Liu. 1977.Th e alpine Thorp,J . 1936.Geograph y of theSoil so f China. Com­ plantsi nth eMapamyu m County district ando n the mercial Press,Shanghai .55 2pp . southern slope of Pengzhe Feng of Gengdise Shan Trinkler, E. 1930a.Th e ice-age on the Tibetan Plateau (Mountain). Acta Bot. Sinica 19:138-146. (In Chi­ nese) and adjacent regions.Geog .J .75:225-232 . Trinkler, E. 1930b. Exploration in the eastern Kara- Pan,J.T. ,T.N .He ,an dY.T .Zeng .1977 .Th eevaluatio n korum and the western Kunlun. Geog. J. 75:305- of some forage plants of the Qingzang (Tibet) Pla­ 317. teau.Act a Phytotax. Sinica 15:43-52.(I n Chinese) Troll,C . 1972a.Th e three-dimensionalzonatio n of the Pen, L.M., X.W. Yan, J.S. Zhou, and Y.X. Lu. 1980. Himalayan system, p. 264-275. In: C. Troll (ed.). The "Black Sands" region and its improvement in Geoecology of the High-mountain Regions of Eu­ Qumalai County, Qinghai. Grassland J. 4:7-13.(I n rasia.Fran z Steiner Verlag, GMBH, Wiesbaden. Chinese) Troll,C .1972b .Geoecolog yan dworld-wid e differenti­ Petrov, M.P. 1976. Deserts of the World. John Wiley ation of high mountain ecosystems, p. 1-16. In: C. and Sons,Ne w York. 447pp . Troll (ed.). Geoecology of the High-mountain Re­ Qin, Z.Y., and W.Z. Xie. 1980. Observation on the gions of Eurasia. Franz Steiner Verlag, GMBH, morphology and ecology of cushion plants in the Wiesbaden. Tongmen region of northern Xizang. Act. Bot. Tsui, Y.W. 1956. Some problems of economic plants Sinica 22:178-181.(I n Chinese) and cultivated crop plants in the northern Xikang Rock,J.F . 1930.Seekin gth emountain so fmystery .A n and Chando area. Acta. Bot. Sinica 2:223-236. (In expedition on the China-Tibetan frontier to the un­ Chinese) explored Amnyi Manchen Range.Nat . Geog.Mag . Tung, W.X. 1980. Pasture vegetation of Damxung, 57:131-185. Tibet, p. 161-170. In: 3rd Northeastern Grassl. Rock, J.F. 1933. The land of the Tebbus. Geog. J. Conf.,Soc .o fBot .o fKiri nan dHeilongjian g Prov., 81:108-127. Changchun. (In Chinese) Schomberg,R.C.F . 1945.Nort h Karakoram: Ajourney Walker, E.H. 1944.Th e plants of China and their use­ inth eMuztagh-Shaksga m area.Geog .J . 110:94-98. fulness to man. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. 1943:334-349.Washington , D.C.

138 CHAPTER 6

Walter,H. ,E.O .Box ,an dW .Hübig . 1983.Th edesert s Northwest PlateauInst .Biol. ,Academi a Sinica.(I n of Central Asia. p. 193-236. In: N.E. West (ed.). Chinesewit h English abstract) Temperate Deserts and Semi-deserts. Elsevier Sei. Yin,T.S. ,an dD.Y .Hong . 1978.A preliminar ystud yo f Pub.Co. ,Amsterdam , New York. the major plant communities and their verticaldis ­ Wang,J.T. ,B.S .Li ,W.L .Chen ,an dJ.W .Chang . 1981. tribution in the Guhsiang region of southeastern Thefundamenta l characteristics ofth estepp evege ­ Tibet. Acta Phytotax. Sinica 16:49-60.(I n Chinese tation in the Xizang Plateau (Tibet). Acta. Bot. with English abstract) Sinica 22:161-169. (In Chinese) Zhao, S.L., F.X.Yang , and Q.C. Chen. 1982.A testo f Ward, F.K. 1920. The valleys of Khom. Geog. J. usingth emetho do f fuzzy mathematicst ostud y the 56:183-196. grazingretrogressibl esuccessio nstage so fth eStipa steppe.Act a Bot. Sinica 24:366-373.(I n Chinese) Ward, F.K. 1921.Th e MeKong-Salween divide as a geographical barrier. Geog.J .88:49-56 . ZhengD. ,an dW.L .Chang . 1981.A preliminar y study on the vertical belts of vegetation of the eastern Ward, F.K. 1923. From the Yangtze to the Irrawady. Himalayas. Acta Bot. Sinica 23:228-234. (In Chi­ Geog.J .62:6-20 . nese) Ward, F.K. 1924.Th e Romance of Plant Hunting. Ed­ Zhou,X.M. ,F.T .Yang ,B.W .Li ,an dJ.H .Li . 1978.Th e ward Arnold and Co.,London .27 5pp . interrelationship between vegetation and per­ Ward, F.K. 1930a. The Sino-Himalayan node.p .322 - mafrost along the south section of the Qinghai- 324.In: Symposiu m on the , 5th Int. Xizang highway. Acta Bot. Sinica 20:13-19. (In Bot. Cong., Cambridge, England. Chinese) Ward, F.K. 1930b. The Seingku and Delei valleys, Zhou, X.M. 1979. A preliminary study of morpho­ north-easternfrontie r ofIndia .Geog .J .75:412-435 . logical-ecologicalcharacteristic so feigh tspecie so f Kobresia on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Acta Bot. Ward, F.K. 1934. The Himalaya east of the Tsangpo. Sinica 21:135-142. (In Chinese) Geog.J . 84:369-397. Zhou, X.M., and J.H. Li. 1980.Th e principal types of Ward, F.K. 1935.Th e geography and botany of Tibet. vegetationan dthei rgeographica ldistributio n atth e J. Linn.Soc .(Botany ) No.333:239-265 . HaibeiResearc hStatio no fAlpin eMeado wEcosys ­ Ward, F.K. 1936. A sketch of the vegetation and ge­ tems. In: W.P. Xia (ed.). Alpine Meadow Ecosys­ ography of Tibet, p. 133-160; 193-235. In: Proc. tem.Northwes t Plateau Inst.Biol .Academi a Sinica Linn.Soc .o f London, Session 148. Fasc. 1:9-19.(I nChines ewit h English abstract) Ward, F.K. 1947. Tibet as a grazing land. Geog. J. Zhou, X.M. 1982. Basic characteristics and principal 110:60-75. typeso fKobresia meadowso n the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau. Acta Biol. Sinica 1:151-161. (In Chinese Webber, PJ. (ed.). 1979. High Altitude Geoecology. with English abstract) Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sei., Selected Symposium Se­ ries, Vol. 12.Washington , D.C. 188pp . Wilson, E.H. 1913. A Naturalist in Western China. Doubleday and Page Pub.,Ne w York. (2 vol.) Yang,F.T .1979 .Th eecologica lfeature san dutilizatio n of alpine Kobresia meadows in Datong Valley, Qinghai.Grasslan d J. 132-38. (In Chinese) Yang, F.T. 1980. A general review of the natural ge­ ography in the region of the Alpine Meadow Eco­ system Research Station.In: W.P.Xi a(ed.) .Alpin e Meadow Ecosystem. Northwest Plateau Inst.Biol. , AcademiaSinica .(I nChines ewit hEnglis habstract ) Yang, F.T., Q. Sha, and S.L. Zhang. 1980. On the primary production of alpine bush land and alpine meadow on the Haibei Qinghai Plateau, p. 44-52. In: W.P. Xia (ed.). Alpine Meadow Ecosystem.

139 Chapter 7

COOL TEMPERATE STEPPE AND DESERT VEGETATION IN THE NORTHWEST

Northwest China is a vast, arid area with several forms the barrier, while the Yan-Yin-Long-Helan types of vegetation including mountain forest, steppe, mountainsan d others form anotherbarrie ri nth esout h semi-steppe(deser tsteppe) ,an ddeser tvegetatio n scat­ preventing Pacific monsoons from reaching this area tered without clear zonal boundaries due to the varia­ (Figure7.1) . tionso f relief,climate ,soil , and geographical location. Inside the region, mountains form severalbasins , This vast region is treated as a whole for the conve­ plateaus,o relevate d plainswit h agenera lelevatio n of nienceo f description of thevegetatio n types. 800-1,500 m. The Turfan Depression is 154 m below sea level, and the Tsaidam Basin is 2,000-2,800 m AREA AND GEOLOGY above sea level. Geographically, this area includes all of Xinjiang and Ningxia, parts of Gansu and Qinghai This region is the heartland mass of Asia, com­ provinces, and partso f Inner Mongolia. monly named Central Asia or the Mongolia-Xinjiang Plateau.I ti ssurrounde db yhig hmountain swhic h form Physiographically,Centra lAsi ai son eo fth eoldes t barriers to the monsoons.T o the south and southwest, regionso f theworld , particularly the Gobiarea ,whic h the Tibetan Plateau, and mountain ranges such as the was covered by the sea during later Palaeozoic times. Himalayas and the Kunlun stop the Indian monsoon. Berkey and Morris (1927) and Berkey (1929) stated To thewes t andnorth , thePamir ,Tianshan , thatther ewer ea tleas tfiv eset so forogeni cmovements . Alatau, Altai, and Khangai mountains stop monsoons From thelowe r Cretaceous period toth epresent , Cen­ from thewes tan dnorth .T oth eeast ,th eKhinga nRang e tral Asia has been subjected to periods of inundation

Figure 7.1. General map of the cool temperate steppe and desert vegetation of . Numbered locations are: 1) Lanzhou, 2) Bayanhot, 3) Yinchuan, 4) Wuwei, 5) Zhangye, 6) Jiuquan, 7) AMI, 8) , 9) Ejin, 10) , 11) Barkol, 12) Shanshan (Piqan), 13)Turfan , 14) Üriimqi, IS) , 16) Klines, 17) Usu, 18)Jingh e (Jing), 19) , 20) (Qoqelc), 21)Jeminay , 22) Burqin, 23)Fuyu n(Koktokay) ,24)Qingh e(Qinggii) , 25)Yinin g(Gulja) ,26)Tekes ,27 )Baichen g(Bay) ,28 )Kash i(Kaxgar) ,29 )Markit ,30 )Yechen g (Kargilik), 31) Pishan, 32) , 33) Moyu (Karakax), 34) Yutian (), 35) Qiemo (Qarqan), 36) Ruoqiang (Qarkilik), 37) Lenghu, 38)Golmud.

141 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

and deposits.Th esediments ,chiefl y gravel,sand ,silt y ing in the presenceo f someannua l plants.T o theeast , clay shales, and occasionally limestone layers, have there is only the summer rainy season (during June, settled ininterio r basins.Thre emajo r typeso f deposits July, and August). The rainfall in the eastern section weredescribe d by Roi (1941): coincideswit h favorable summertemperatures , result­ 1. alluvialfan s from theuplifte d mountain blocks, ing ingoo d plant growth. 2. stream deposits alongvalleys ,an d 3. windblow nsan d(eithe ra sdune so ra sthi nsheets) . SOILS Soils of the region are poorly developed and CLIMATE closelyconnecte d with theparen t materialan d physio­ Theclimat ei nth enorthwes t istypicall y continen­ graphy (Figure7.2) .Thes esoil sare : 1)lo w incla yan d tal. Both desert and steppe climates can be identified, loam;2 ) low in surface soil humus;3 ) rich in calcium with precipitation of 10400 mm and 100-300 mm, carbonates; and 4) rich in calcium sulfate and sodium respectively. When defining a desert, some limit the chloride(Hou , 1982). desert to areas with less than ISO mm of rainfall an­ nually, while others include areas with 250-499 mm. Chestnut and brown calcareous soils are common Rainfall, however,i sonl yon eparamete r usedt o define inth eeastern part of theregio n toit swester n bordera t the term; soil and vegetation must also be considered. theHela nMountains ,excep t for thealluvia lsalin esoi l Forexample ,th emoistur esourc eo fsom earea sma yb e in Ningxia and Hetau along theYello w River. dependento nsituation soutsid eo fth edeser titself ,suc h To the north is a vast elevated plain (or plateau) as the presence of rivers or lakes which are fed by adjoining Outer Mongolia (Mongolian People's Re­ surrounding mountains. This occurs in some areas of public).Her eth esoil sar ebrow ncalcareou swit hsalin e southern Xinjiang. Soiltype sals o influence the source soilso nlowlands .Gra ycalcareou ssoil sar edistribute d and retention of water: sand, which cannot hold water in the western part of the loess area and in the eastern because of rapid percolation, and clay, which creates Hexi Corridor (western Gansu Province). Gray brown runoff. Thus,soi ltyp econtribute s toth ecomplexit y of desert calcareous soils are found in the western Hexi vegetation in this region. Corridor and Dzungaria which includes sandy desert, gravelgobi ,salin e soil,an d a small area of clay desert Therainfal l ofth eregio ngenerall yvarie sfro m the soil. Gray desert calcareous soil is scattered on the driestarea so f southern Xinjiang, HexiCorrido r (west­ northernslope so fth eTiansha nan dth eQilia n (Chilien) ernGansu) ,an dth eGob iwit h 13-100mm ,t oth estepp e Mountains. andsemi-stepp e in theeas t ofwester n Inner Mongolia andwes to f northwestern Dzungaria with 150-300m m In northwestern Dzungaria, thesoi l issemi-deser t (Table 7.1). browncalcareou ssoi lwhic h containsgypsu m and car­ bonatean di ssaline .Souther nXinjian g ismostl ydeser t Rainfall plays a dominant role in plant growth, calcareoussoil . except for limited irrigated areas or areas subject to seasonalflooding .Temperature si nthi sregio n aregen ­ The semi-desert brown soilo f the steppe hassup ­ erally hot in the summers, with a range of 17-27°C ported a substantial animal industry with limited agri­ (July), and cold in the winter, with a range of -7 to culture in areas such as Hi, Tacheng (Tarbagatay, -16°C, which results in an annual mean temperature Qoqek), and Altai. The desert brown soil is found in rangingbetwee n2 an d9°C .Generally ,th estepp earea s eastern Xinjiang, theTari m Basin,an d on thesouther n arecoole r than thedesert sdu e toradiatio n of different slopes of the Tianshan. Gravel gobi and desert soil land surfaces andsoi ltype . covermos t lando f thisarea . Classified by rainfall, there are two obvious divi­ Other soils found in the region include meadow sions tothi s region, one below 150 mm (near 50 mm) soil present on certain mountains and some lowlands and the other with 150-300 mm. Rainfall varies from that are rich in soil water. Alluvial soil is distributed yeart oyear ,whic h influences plantgrowth and causes along rivers where oases form. In the Tsaidam Basin, fluctuations in year-to-year forage yields. The forage thesoil sar emostl ygra ydeser tan dsaline ,wit h limited yield ina give n yearma y be50 % highero r50 % lower meadow, marshy,an d sandy soils. than theaverage .Fo rthi sreason ,th evariatio n in rain­ Pasture is the major land use due to the severe fall is an important factor influencing the stability of natural conditions, with particularly limited and vari­ theanima lindustr y in the region. ablerainfall .Thi sregio n hasonl ylimite dagricultur ei n In western Xinjiang, there are two evenly distrib­ the irrigated areas such as the Ningxia plain, Hexi uted rainy seasons,durin g May and September, result­ Corridor, HiValley , and theoase so f Xinjiang.

142 CHAPTER 7

Table 7.1. Temperature and rainfall of selected places in the northwest region.(Adapte d from S.S. Chien et al. , 1956)

Temperature (°C)

Location Latitude, Altitude Annual Jan. July Rainfall Growing Longitude (m) (mm) Season (days)

Inner Mongolia East Ujimqin 43°30', llo^O' 0.5 -21.8 20.3 268.6 Abag 44"00', HSW 0.4 -22.7 20.1 243.8 Sonid 42°21', 112°40' 2.3 -19.9 21.2 211.4 177 43°39', 112°00' 965 3.5 131.6 Bailingmiao 41°50',114°40' 2.5 -16.6 20.5 252.0 Hailiut 41°50', nroo' 4.2 -15.9 22.0 206.0 Otog 39°21', 108°00' 6.2 -11.7 22.0 265.0

Ningxia Yinchuan 38°28', 106°13' 1,092 8.5 -9.2 23.5 205.0 Chungwei 37W, 105°10' 1,300 9.2 -7.6 23.6 227.4

Gansu Minqin 38°40', 103°00' 1,367 7.9 -9.9 23.8 113.0 Dunhuang 40=10', 94°20' 9.5 -9.1 25.2 31.8 177 Yumcn 39"50', 97°30' 6.9 -10.8 21.9 54.9 Jiuquan 39°45', 98°33' 1,470 7.3 -10.0 22.2 82.0

Xinjiang Urumqi 43"53', 87''36• 915 4.7 -15.0 22.2 194.6 161 Habahe 48°10', 86"20' 3.7 -16.4 21.4 173.8 Oinghe 46"10', 90°30' 320 0.4 -23.5 18.3 176.6 Tacheng 46°30', 83"00' 5.8 -12.9 21.9 302.1 44°00',81"20' 8.2 -10.6 22.5 263.7 Turfa n 42°50',89°12' 35 14.0 -9.5 33.0 16.0 240 Hotan 37°07', 79°53' 1,374 12.0 -5.7 25.5 35.0 39°24', 76W 1,288 11.7 -6.5 25.8 61.3

Qinghai Lenghu 38"50', 93°10' 2,735 -2.5 -13.3 17.4 15.4 Golmud 36°30', 94°38' 2,807 3.5 -13.1 17.8 41.5

Outer Mongolia Ulan Bator 47°50', 107°10' 1,325 -2.2 -23.7 17.0 242.0 100 Dalandzadgad 39"40', 104"20' 1,486 3.6 -16.6 21.6 125.0

HISTORY AND BOTANICAL EXPEDITIONS have traveled this area. Expeditions became more nu­ merous in the first three decades of this century. As a Duringth eHa ndynasty ,2,00 0year sago ,th ewest ­ result, the geological structure, geomorphology, and ern interioro f China (Gansu Provincean d the Xinjiang climate of Central Asia are well known today (Figure Region) was the main avenue of communication and 7.3). trade with and the European countries before the development of coastal cities. The famous Since 1830, many botanists have made botanical Chinese intellectual Chang Chien visited expeditions in the northwest (including Outer Mongo­ and Iranvi a Xinjiang. He imported Persian horses and lia). Most of these explorers were Russian; the most alfalfa and exported silk and other goods to the west famous of them was Bunge, a Russian of German overwha t isknow n historically as "TheSil k Road". extraction (1830). Others included Kirilov (1830, 1841), Kutzenov (1830-31), Gorski (1840), Rozov There is much literature dealing with the west (1841), Tatarinov (1840-50), Przhevalski (1839-88), which made Chinese people familiar with this grass­ Potanin (1876-77, 1879, 1884-85), and Father David land and areas to the west of this region. During the (1860) (a Frenchman who madeextensiv e expeditions thirteenthcentury ,a wel lknow nVenetian ,Marc oPolo , tocollec t plant specimens). madeth elon gjourne yt oChin ab ywa yo fth elan drout e between and the East. Since the middle of the In 1898-99,Futtere r madea nexpeditio nt oGansu , lastcentury ,man yEuropea ngeographer san dbotanist s Tibet,an d the Gobicountry . In 1910-11, therewa s the

143 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

•**MÊmm$

Figure 7.2. Mongolian yurts in Ulanqab, Inner Mongolia. Soils are light cheslnul here where short grass vegetation (steppe) is dominant (Photo byJ . Thorp; reproduced from J.Thorp , 1936)

Figure 7J . The steppe of northwestern Ulanqab, Inner Mongolia. (Photo by O. Lattimore, 1929; reproduced from C.W. Wang, 1961,wit h permission from Botanical Museum, Harvard University)

Carruthers-Miller-Price expedition to northwestern 1950's,th eChines ecooperate dwit hRussia nbotanist s Mongolia and Dzungaria. Still later there were other tomak eextensiv estudie s of vegetation in theregio n expeditions (Grum-Grzmailo, 1913; Father Licent, under the leadership of the Chinese Academy ofSci ­ 1914-38; Andrews,1932,1933 )t ocollec tplan tspeci ­ ences.Mos to fthos estudie swer epublishe di nRussian . mensi nth eregion . Since1966 ,som eEnglis hliteratur eo nth esubjec t has beenpublishe di nth eUnite dState s(McGinnies , 1968; Chinese botanists (Ching, 1928; Liu, 1932-33; Grubov, 1969;Petrov , 1966,1967, 1976;Biswa s and Keng, 1934; Hwang, 1940; Ting, 1943,1948 ) studied Biswas,1980 ; Waltere tal. ,1983) . thevegetatio n insom earea so f theregion .Durin gth e

144 CHAPTER 7

FLORA TERMINOLOGY OF STEPPE The elements of flora in the region are complex. Although the term steppe has been explained be­ Theyinclud eelement sfro m EasternAsia ,Middl eAsia , fore, it isnecessar y toad d somecomment so n theter m Mongolian central Asia, Tibet, the subtropics, and to make clear its intended use here. Ecologists com­ Mediterraneanareas ,resultin g from acombinatio n ofa monly use the term steppe without specific definition, longgeologica l period,th egeographical position ,geo - according to local custom. In 1903,Schimpe r defined morphology, and climate. There are, however, fewer meadow areas as meadow and steppe when the grass­ plant speciesi nthi sregio n thani nEaster n China. Most landconsiste d essentiallyo f perennialgrasses growing of the species which play an important role in vegeta­ in tufts. Hygrophilous conditions were termed tionar eMongolian .Base d ona nanalysi so f the forma­ "meadow," while xeric conditions were termed tion and relationshipo f floras (Popov, 1931; Li, 1963; "steppe." Liu, 1982;an d others),th evegetatio n may be grouped into the following three areas with their characteristic Americans use the term "grassland", which in­ species: cludes prairie and short prairie. Daubenmire (1970, 1978)define d steppea sthos egrassland s inregion s too 1. Dzungaria with MiddleAsia n elements; Anabasis dry for natural forest in highland areas. He defined aphylla, Calligonum spp., Haloxylon ammoden- grasslands as areas where herbaceous species (usually dron, Haloxylon persicum, and Salsola denoroi- grasses and sedges) weredominant , and where woody des. plants were either lacking or weredwarfe d and incon­ 2. Kashgaria and Tsaidam with Mediterranean spicuous.H eli mite dth estepp eare ai nth eUnite dState s elements;Ammopiptanthus nanus, Myricariapul- toonl ythos earea sbetwee nth eCascade san dth eRock y cherrima, Reaumuria kashgarica, Tamarixtakla- Mountains, e.g. eastern Oregon and Washington, makanensis, andZygophyllum sinkiangense. ,an d Utah.Th evegetatio n in these areas isdom ­ 3. Alashan elements;Allium mongolicum, Amygda­ inated mostly by Artemisia. lus mongolica, Caragana korshinskii, Convolvu­ lus tragacanthoides, Ephedra rhytidosperma, The term steppe is used extensively by Russian Psammochloa villosa,Pugionium spp.,an d Zygo­ botanists. They define steppe as those areas that look phyllum gobicum. like prairie.Th e term isall-inclusiv e and implies tree­ less grasslands. The height of the grasses varies from Therear ethirt y geobiologicaldivision so f Central tall to short, and dicotyledonous herbs are frequent Asia (Grubov, 1959, cit. Walter et al., 1983; Petrov, though not implied (Kuchler, 1948).Alla n (cit. Kuch- 1976) which include Tibet and a part of Outer Mon­ ler, 1948)claime dtha tther ewer ea tleas t5 4use so fthi s golia.Althoug h thesedivision sar ecomple x fora stud y overworked and usually imprecise term. of thegrazin g land inthi sregion ,the yd oprovid egoo d botanical references. TheChines elanguag ei squit edifferen t from West­ ernlanguage san dcanno tdistinguis h theterm so f prai­ rie, grassland, and steppe except that some botanists VEGETATION AREAS add an adjective "dry", "true", or "typical" before According to the geography, flora, soil, and cli­ steppe to specify the different kinds. Their use of the mateo f thisregion , thevegetatio n mayb edivide d into term is influenced by westerners (Collins, 1923;Roi , thefollowin g categories: 1941; Walter, 1979) and Russians (Printz, 1921; Pav­ 1. Steppe,semi-steppe ,an d mountain vegetation; lov, 1929;Yunatov , 1960; Petrov, 1966, 1976;).Rus ­ a) western Inner Mongolia and partso f sian botanists classified Chinese grassland as a steppe Ningxia and Gansu, which is a part of the Eurasian steppe. More recently, b) western Dzungaria and other partso f Li et al. (1980) used the term steppe to define those Xinjiang and Gansu. associationswhic h aredominate d by xerophytic, cold- 2. Desert vegetation; tolerant perennials, particularly Stipa, although some­ a) Alashan and Hcxi, timesincludin gxerophyti csemi-shrubs .Certainly ,thi s b) Beishan, terminology is imprecise. For instance, the Tibetan c) Dzungaria, Plateau was defined as steppe, particularly the Inner d) Kashgaria,an d Plateau (Chang Tang) area at 5,000 m, because of the e) Tsaidam. distribution of Stipa. Regardless of plant cover and 3. Oases. phytomass, the steppe also included mesophytic grassesan d herbs in the northeast. Walter etal . (1983) incorrectly classified thewhol eare a ofTibe t asdesert , asi n the northwest.

145 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

In this treatise, the term steppe is limited to areas Thestepp e hasdeteriorate d byextensiv e reclama­ of xerophytic grasses mixed mostly with semi-low tion and overgrazing. Since 1923 when the Peking- shrubs with a height above 20 cm and plant coverage Baotou Railroad was established, cultivation in the of 40-60%, including various soils and plant associa­ steppe was extended to PanKiang, 350 km north of tions.I n fact, treessuc h as Ulmusma y grow in certain Zhangjiakou (Kalgan) (Chang, 1933). In the western locations of steppe areas. Also, the historical back­ portion of the steppe, cultivated lands were extended groundo fth estepp emus tb econsidered .I fthi si sdone , about 50 km south of Beilingmiao. Since 1949, the the prospect of development of animal industry in number of nomadic livestock has almost tripled, with steppe areas in the future may beevaluate d more real­ little improvement in grazing management practices. istically. Duringth esumme ro f 1953,H u(1956 )mad ea general grassland survey in Inner Mongolia (including five Steppei nnorthwes tChin ama yb edivide dint otw o Leagues, i.e.district s including several or many coun­ areas; the eastern area, which includes western Inner ties: Ordos, Ulanqab, Chahar, Xilingol, and Juud). He Mongolia and parts of Ningxia and Gansu, and the observed that farmers and nomadic people in those western area in northwestern Dzungaria (northern areasrecognize d thedeterioratio n of thegrassland . For Xinjiang). These two areas are separated by a vast instance, Li et al. (1980) stated that the general plant desert. As stated above, theclimat eo f theeaster n area coverage of the typical steppe (which we have named isstil linfluence d byth ePacifi c monsoonswit h rainfall tallgrassland )range dfro m 20-40%,an dth eplan tcove r of 100-300 mm that decreases from east to west. By of the desert-steppe (which we have named steppe) contrast, the western area is influenced by western ranged from 15-20%, with an annual yield of 200 kg monsoons and is characterized by rainfall of 100-300 dry matter per hectare. mm which decreases from west to east. Hsu (1980) stated that during the period of 1949- Year to year rainfall fluctuation results in a large 1976, the nomadic livestock population on the natural variation in plant height and ground cover due to the grassland (steppe) in Inner Mongolia tripled. Twenty richness or scarcity of rainfall in a given season. The years ago grasses grew luxuriously and were of good steppe classification also includes semi-steppe areas, quality, appearing as a landscape of "blowing winds becauseth efluctuatio n ofrainfal l formsn oclea rborde r which makea nappearanc eo fcattle ,sheep ,an dgoats. " between them. Now, the natural grassland has deteriorated in many areas.I nrecen tyears ,th eyiel do fnatura lgrassland sha s STEPPE, SEMI-STEPPE, AND MOUNTAIN decreased from 40-60%.Fo rexample , in VEGETATION IN WESTERN INNER (astepp eare awit ha nannua lrainfal l of26 5m m during MONGOLIA AND PARTS OF NINGXIA AND thete n years, 1962-1973),annua l hay yield decreased GANSU from 432k gt o 143k gpe rhectare ,th eheigh t of herba­ ceous plants decreased from 8-15 to 2-5 cm, and the Based on reports of Bohlin (1949) and Norlindh plant cover decreased from 40t o13% . (1949) (part of Hedin's expeditions in the 1920's) and otherreport swhic hwer epublishe d inth eearl y 1930's, Another case of deterioration of grasslands is in the steppe vegetation of this region has deteriorated Darhan Muminggan United Banner (Bailingmiao). since that time. They reported that plant coverage of Thisare aha sa nannua lrainfal lo f25 2mm .Th eaverag e steppe, semidesert, and desert was more than 50%, yield of dry matter during July 1960 was 229 kg per 20-50%, and 20%respectively . Bohlin mentioned that hectare. This decreased to 150 kg per hectare for the the Longshan range (western Inner Mongolia) is the same month in 1973.Generally , the yield of forage of line dividing the steppe in the east and desert-steppe naturalstepp ei nInne rMongoli aha sdecrease d40-60 % with shrubs in the west (which also includes northern duringth elas ttw odecades .Th edeterioratio n ofgrass ­ Ningxia and western Gansu provinces). From his bo­ land areas has increased many problems, such as in­ tanical expedition in 1933, Wang (1961) stated that creased aridity, insect pests, desertification, and both south of the Yinshan (Taching-Wula Mountains) and wind and watererosio n (Hsu, 1980). the Longshan (Kharaharin Ula) ranges is a grassland which was called "the land of grass." Before the rich Thevegetatio n typeso fstepp ema yb edivide d into grassland was cultivated by agricultural settlers, the 8 areaswithi n this region. wholelandscap ewa son eo frich grandeur .Nort ho f the Steppe in Southwestern Hulunbuir and Part of mountain chains is the steppe of western Xilingol, Central Xilingol Ulanqab,an dBayannur . Themountain sformerl y were covered with fine forests, and nomadic tents whitened This area has a cold temperate climate with an thevalley sami d rich usage (Hue, 1928). annual rainfall of 200-300 mm. The soil is chestnut occurringcommonl y on lowhill svaryin g from dark to

146 CHAPTER 7

light due to the density of plants. Gentle slopes form The total number of species of the association is undulating lands which spread widely in high plains. about 35, with 15 species per m2 and plant cover of 40-50%.Th eannua lha yyiel d isles stha n 1,500 kg/ha, The most important species of thisstepp ei s Stipa withgrasse scontributin g 80%o fth e total. krylovii, sometimes associated with Stipa grandis, Stipaglareosa, th ebunchgras sCleistogenes squarrosa, Cleistogenessquarrosa +Stipa krylovii + and the semi-shrub Artemisia frigida. These species Agropyron cristatum Association form the main landscape of the steppe and are spread This association is found in southwestern Hulun- widely on the plains. On some lower lands, Leymus buir and northern Xilingol where the climate is drier chinense is also found. Caraganamicrophylla i sscat ­ andth esoi li ssand ychestnut .Th especie scompositio n teredwidel y and plays an important part in thesteppe . is simple, plants are dwarfed, and the percentage of Bunchgrasses, such asAgropyron cristatum,Cleisto­ cover is lower. In addition to the dominant species, genes spp.,Koeleria cristata, andPoa annua play the Koeleriacristata andArtemisia frigida ar efoun di nthi s main roleo n sandy soilan d form a pure grass associa­ association.Othe rspecie ssuc ha sAllium tenuissimum, tion. Cleistogenes spp. spread on both sides of the Alliummongolicum, Artemisia anethoides,Astragalus OrxonRive rt ofor m agoo dgrazin glan dalon gth e river spp.,Convolvulus ammanii, Iris temiifolia, Heteropap­ between and . Festuca ovina pus altaicus, and Oxytropis spp., are common. Some grows well on the tops of low hills with sandy gravel. plants of Caragana spp. also are dispersed in this Carex duriuscula appears in associations but contrib­ association.Percen tplan tcove ri slow ,rangin gfro m 15 utes little to forage yield.Artemisia frigida is a domi­ to 20%,wit h plants 15-20 cm tall. Annual dry matter nant or sub-dominant element and is stable in the yield is only 600-700 kg/ha, with grasses making up steppe, contributing about 20-30% of the total yield. 70% of the total. Thus,thi s association was named an Artemisiafrigida steppeb y somebotanists . Artemisia frigida +Grasses Association Although herbaceous xerophytes are not abun­ Thisassociatio nspread so ndrie rslope swit hchest ­ dant, species include: nutsoil .Win d erosion isprévalen twit hsan d and some Allium spp. Haplophyllum dauricum gravel on the soil surface. Artemisia frigida is the Artemisia commutata Medicago ruthenica absolute dominant and tolerates trampling well due to Astragalus spp. Potentilla bifurca itsprostrat egrowth habit. Bupleurum spp. Potentilla tanacetifolia Thecommo n grasses include: Convolvulus ammanii Serratulacentauroides Achnatherum splendens Koeleria cristata Cymbaria dahurica Thalictrum squarrosum Agropyron cristatum Leymuschinense The height of the upper layer of the association Cleistogenes squarrosa Stipa krylovii ranges from 30-35 cm, including Stipa krylovii, while the lower layer ranges from 10-15cm , includingArte­ Otherspecie s include: misia frigida and Carex duriuscula. Plant cover is Allium spp. Heteropappus altaicus 30-40% with about 15specie s per m .Th e annual hay Artemisia ordosica Phlomis spp. yield is 1,500-2,000kg/ha . Artemisia scoparia Potentilla acaulis Astragalus spp. SedumAizoon Threeimportan t associations are found. Dontostemondentatus Serratula centauroides Gentiana squarrosa Leymus chinense +Stipa grandis + Herbs Association The plant cover is 20-50% with plants 10-30 cm tall.Dr y matter annual yield varies greatly (500-1,000 This association is spread on rolling plains with kg/ha),dependin g on rainfall. Artemisia frigida makes good soil moisture or beside meadows. The soil is up42 %o fth edr ymatte ryield ,an dgrasse sabou t32% . chestnut, and Leymus spp., Carex spp., Cleistogenes This association is distributed widely to Ulanqab and spp., and Stipa spp. occur with high frequency. The Ordos in the west. common speciesare : Agropyron cristatum Ixerisdenticulata Steppe in Ulanqab and Western Xilingol Artemisia frigida Koeleria cristata This area is a narrow belt that merges into semi- Astragalus galactites Oxytropis myriophylla desert and desert. It is not possible to draw an exact Astragalus melilotoides Phlomis mongolica demarcation due to thevariabilit y in precipitation and Cymbaria dahurica Poa spp. grazing intensity which greatly influences the type of Heteropappus altaicus Potentilla acaulis vegetation.Th esouther nportio no fth earea ,especiall y

147 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

inUlanqab ,i smostl ycultivated ,wherea s southwestern Twenty tothirt yspecie sar epresent .Plan tcove ri s Hulunbuir and western Xilingol have no farming. about 30%. Plant height is 10-20 cm and there are 12 Therefore, thisstepp eare a hasbee n damaged byover ­ species per m . Annual dry matter yield is 400-550 grazing and is in a poorer condition than the former kg/ha with Compositaeformin g 50%o f the total. The area.Mor etha ntw odecade sag other ewer esom e trees botanistso f the ChineseAcadem y of Sciencesexpedi ­ and small forests of elm along the few rivers and tion (Hu et al., 1962) reported that this association is streamswhic h flow through thisare a and thevalle y of nota climax ,bu ta secondar ysuccessio n resulting from Bailingmiao, 100k m northo f Hohhot (Hu, 1963).Th e overgrazingwhic hresulte di nth eincreas eo f Artemisia steppe(shortgras sprairie )vegetatio n mayexten d north frigida and bunchgrasses. Artemisia frigida tolerates of Bailingmiao, gradually merging into desert-steppe trampling becauseo f its prostratehabit . Nomadicpeo ­ and then intoth eGob iDeser t nearth enationa l border. plebeliev e thissag especie si sa goo d forage with high nutritivevalu ean dgoo d palatability and thati tma y be This area includes the northwestern portion of grazed inal lseasons . Xilingol (e.g. Sonid), Ulanqab, and to the Longshan rangewher e theannua l rainfall isabou t 138 GrassesMixed withCaragana microphylla mm. Due to the nearness of the and the Association Mongolian high pressure, which causes strong winds during winter and spring seasons, the climate is cold This type of steppe is distributed on the elevated anddry .Generally , thisare ai sa n undulating landwit h plain of northwestern Xilingol and northern Ulanqab, somehill so f 1,000-1,500m .Th etopograph y ishighe r where the soil is sandy chestnut and usually covered in the south, sloping to the north. Soils vary from with a layero f sand.Caragana microphylla plants are chestnut tobrow n calcareous. widelydispersed .San daccumulate sa tthei rbase ,form ­ inga small mound and making Caragana microphylla Threeprincipa lassociation s arefoun d inthi sarea . thefirs t layero fth eassociation .Artemisia frigida isth e secondary layeran dgrasse s form thethir d layer. Stipa krylovii +Bunchgrass Association Four other associations are formed by the fol­ Thisassociatio n isdistribute d inwester n Xilingol lowing dominants:Stipa grandis +Leymus spp. ,Stipa and northern Ulanqab where there isa n elevated plain krylovii +Cleistogenes spp. ,Artemisia frigida +Agro­ with sandy light chestnut soil. Stipa krylovii is the pyroncristatum + Cleistogenes squarrosa, an dCleisto­ dominant vegetation. Subdominants include Agropy- genes squarrosa +Koeleria cristata. All associations ron cristatum, Cleistogenes squarrosa, and Leymus chinensewit h a few legumesan d herbs such as Allium are mixed with Caragana microphylla. The dominant spp.,Bupleurum spp. ,Cymbaria dahurica, Haplophyll- species areCleistogenes squarrosa andKoeleria cris­ um dauricum, Ptilotrichum canescens, and Saposh- tata.Artemisia frigida is the subdominant, including nikovia divaricata. The species composition is Poa sphondylodes, Agropyron cristatum, Artemisia comparativelysimpl e(1 5species pe rm )wit h20-50 % scoparia,Astragalus galactites, andPotentilla acaulis. plantcove ran d 15-25c mplan t height.Thi sassociatio n Plant cover is 25-30% with plant height of 15-20 cm. isth e most productive of the three.Dr y matter annual Dry matterannua l yield is350-45 0kg/ha ,wit h grasses yieldi s500-75 0kg/ha ,wit hgras san dher bcompositio n forming 60-65%o f the total. of 70% and 30%, respectively. Northern Ulanqab, Bayannur, and Northwestern Xilingol Artemisia frigida +Grasses Association Inth enorther nportion so fUlanqab ,Bayannur ,an d This association is widely distributed on the ele­ northwestern Xilingol, there is a narrow belt of desert vated plain of thecentra l part of Ulanqab (and Bayan­ steppewhic hextend st oth esouthwes to fwester nOrdo s nur) and northwestern Xilingol. The soil is sandy andwestwar d toa smal l parto f northern Ningxia.Thi s chestnut with some gravel on the ground. Important isa nope nplain ,greatl yinfluence d byth eSiberia ncol d species are Agropyron desertorum and Leymusspp. , current. Thesoi l is mainly brown calcareous and des­ with subdominants Cleistogenes squarrosa andStipa ert-calcareous soil, with less gray calcareous soil in krylovii. western Ordos. The vegetation is composed of small Herbs include: grasses and small shrubs forming a type of desert Allium mongolicum Lagochilus ilicifolius steppe,wit h shrubs playing a primary rolei n theasso ­ Alliumpolyrrhizum Potentilla acaulis ciations.Durin gwe tseasons ,annual sgro w luxuriantly Convolvulus ammanii Potentilla bifurca andchang e thephysiognom y of the associations. Dontostemondentatus Thymus serphyllum Fivemajo r associations are found. Heteropappusaltaicus

148 CHAPTER 7

Stipagobica +Stipa glareosa + Cleistogenes yield is300-45 0kg/ha . The percentages of dry matter squarrosa Association production of grasses,Allium spp., herbs, and annuals are 27, 15, 26, and 32%, respectively. Grasses and Thisassociatio n isdistribute di nwester nXilingol , Allium spp. provide good quality forage for autumn northern Ulanqab and central Ordos on undulating grazing. plains with sandy, dark brown sandy, and dark brown calcareous soil. In addition to the dominants, some Stipaglareosa +Artemisia frigida Association small bunchgrassesare : Thisassociatio n issprea do nth ebrow n calcareous Agropyron mongolicum Poa spp. soilwit h sand andsmal l gravelo n thesurfac e of slight Cleistogenes squarrosa Stipa breviflora undulatingplain s inwester n Xilingol,an d thenorther n Annual species include: Ulanqab area. Chloris virgata Pappophorum The grassesar e mainly: Eragrostis minor brachystachyum Agropyron cristatum Cleistogenes squarrosa berteronianus Cleistogenes mutica Herbs are: The small semi-shrubs include Ajania spp. and Ajania achilleoides EchinopsUon Oxytropis aciphylla. Ajania trifida divarication Allium polyrrhizum Common species include: Artemisia frigida Kochia prostrata Allium mongolicum Haplophyllum dauricum Artemisia macrocephala Peganum Harmala Allium polyrrhizum Heteropappus altaicus Artemisia pectinata Oxytropis aciphylla Artemisia scoparia Asparagus spp. Kochia prostrata The shrubs are mainly Caragana korshinsldian d Convolvulus ammanii Caragana pygmaea. Few seasonal changesoccur , with the association Dry matter annual yield is low, from 350-500 a silvery gray color. The plant cover is approximately kg/ha with the proportion of grasses, Artemisia, and 20%wit hplant s2 0c m tall.Th eannua ldr ymatte ryiel d herbs other than Artemisia being 55, 22, and 20%, ranges from 300-450 kg/ha. The proportion of dry respectively.Seasona lgrazin gi sprovide db yStipa spp . matter among grasses, Artemisia frigida, herbs other in the latesprin g and early summer, Cleistogenesspp . thanArtemisia, Allium, andCarexare 45,37,6,11, and and annuals during the summer season, and Artemisia lesstha n 1%, respectively. in the autumn. Stipaglareosa +Ajania trifida Association Stipa glareosa +Stipa gobica +Allium polyrrhizum Association Thisassociatio n isdistribute d onth esam esite sa s the former association, except that thesespecie s toler­ This association is found in western Ulanqab and atedrie r conditions. north of Hailiut (Urad),wher e thesoi l isheav y brown calcareous. In some situations, Allium mongolicum The subdominants are Ajania achilleoides and joins asa dominant species. Cleistogenes squarrosa. Theothe rspecie s include: Common species include: Grasses Legumes and others Allium polyrrhizum Cleistogenes mutica Agropyron desertorum Artemisia frigida Artemisia frigida Convolvulus ammanii Agropyron mongolicum Astragalus gobicus Asparagus gobicus Scorzonera divaricata Cleistogenes squarrosa Convolvulus ammanii Some shrubs include: Cymbaria dahurica Caragana brachypoda Oxytropis aciphylla Iris bungei Caragana pygmaea The annuals include: Someannua lgrasse sals oar efoun d inthi sassocia ­ Artemisia pectinata Pappophorum tion. Plant cover is 15-20% with plant height of 7-15 cm.Th eannua ldr y matter yield is350-55 0kg/ha .Th e Eragrostis minor brachystachyum proportion of grasses,Ajania spp.,Artemisia spp.,an d Salsola collina herbs is 19,45,25, and 11%, respectively.Ajania spp. During thesumme r of wet years,th e annuals may providegoo dforag e forshee pan dgoat sdu et oth ehig h dominate the perennial dominant species. Plant cover palatabihtyo f . isabou t20 %an dplant sar e8-1 5cm .Dr ymatte rannua l

149 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Ajania spp. +Artemisia frigida +Stipa spp. smallshru bo f 20-25c man dclum pdiamete ro f0.5-1. 0 Association m forming asmal l round part of the landscape. This association is distributed in the undulating The subdominants includespecie s ofAllium and sandan dgrave lplain si nnorther nUlanqa ban dwester n Ajania. Ordos. Thecommo nspecie s include: Thedominant sar eAjania achilleoides anà Ajania Asparagus gobicus Dianthus chinensis trifiaa,wit h the latter species found only inOrdos . Asparagus scaberrimus Lagochilusilicifolius Some commonspecie s include: Theannual sinclude : Allium anisopodium Cleistogenes squarrosa Grasses Herbs Allium tenuissimum Haplophyllum dauricum Aristida adscensionis Artemisia pectinata Artemisia frigida Heteropappusaltaicus Eragrostispilosa Artemisia scoparia Asparagus spp. Lagochilusilicifolius Salsola collina Sometimesa few shrubsar efound , mainly Cara- The height of grasses andAllium isabou t 7-8 cm. ganapygmaea. Plant cover is 15-20%.Th e annual dry matter yield is approximately 200 kg/ha, of whichAllium, Composi- The plant cover is 15-20% with plants 10-15 cm tae,an d grassescompos e 46,33, and 21 percent of the tall. The annual dry matter yield is approximately 300 yield, respectively. In addition, the yield of Caragana kg/ha of which Ajania, grasses, legumes, Artemisia, tibeticama y be30 0kg/ha .Al lth egrasses ,Allium, and other herbs, and Allium make up 53, 18,6 , 6, 15,an d shrubs are palatable toshee pan d goats. 1%, respectively. Caragana tibetica +Reawnuria songarica +Stipa Some Semi-steppe or Desert-steppe Associations gobica Association in Ulanqab and Its Adjoining Areas This association is distributed on undulant ele­ Stipagobica +Stipa glareosa + Caragana vated plains with sandy, light brown, calcareous soil microphyUa (Caraganastenophylla) Association with slight salification in western Ordos. Caragana Thisassociatio n issprea dwidel yo nsandy ,brown , tibetica is the dominant species, making this associa­ calcareous soil in northwestern Xilingol and northern tion different from the former which was mixed with Ulanqab and Bayannur. Shrubs are as important as othershrub ssuc ha sReaumuria spp. ,Caragana steno­ grassesi nthi sassociation .Win derosio ni sobvious ,an d phylla, Oxytropisaciphylla, an dZygophyllum xantho- thefin esan d ismove dan ddeposite d around Caragana xylon. Thesespecie s indicate that the sitei s more arid. spp. to form slightly higher spots. Coarse sand and Themai n grasses include: gravelsar efoun d on thegroun d surface. Cleistogenes mutica Stipa breviflora Thesubdominant sait Artemisiafrigida an dClei­ Stipa glareosa stogenes squarrosa. The herbsinclude : Thecommo n genera areAllium and Artemisia. Ajania achilleoides Ptilotrichumcanescens Allium mongolicum Echinopsgmelinii Some xerophytic small herbs and a few annuals Convolvulus ammanii Iristenuifolia alsoar efound . Seasonalsuccessio n of thesespecie s is obvious.Plan t cover is20 %o r lesswit h a height of 15 The annuals include Aristida adscensionis and cm. The annual dry matter yield is 275-325 kg/ha, of Pappophorumbrachystachyum. which thegrasse sfor m thelarges t proportion,34-54% , The cover of grasses and herbs is 10-15% with shrubs 19%, and herbs makeu pth e remainder. plants 5-10 cm and shrubs 15-20 cm in height. The SmallShrub, Sena-shrub, andSmall Grass annual dry matter yield is low, about 200 kg/ha, of Associations which the ratio of grasses and herbs to shrubs is three toone . The small shrubs, semi-shrubs, and small grasses form different associations on the light brown cal­ Reaumuria songarica +Salsola passerina +Stipa careous soil in more arid areas in Ulanqab, Bayannur, glareosa +Cleistogenes mutica Association andparticularl y incentra lan dwester nOrdos .Th emai n This association is found on the lowland of the association is: Caragana tibetica + Stipa gobica + elevated plain. Soils are slightly salinized, brown cal­ Cleistogenesspp .Thi sassociatio ni sdistribute di nwes ­ careous, and covered with small gravel to 30% of the tern Ordos and northern Urad. Caragana tibetica is a

150 CHAPTER 7

totalgroun dsurface .Allium alsoi sa nimportan tspecies Glycyrrhizauralensis Salsola passerina inth e association. Lespedeza dahurica Thecommo n species include: Herbsan d grasses Ajania achilleoides Asparagus gobicus Perennials: Artemisia commutata Convolvulus ammanii Alliumpolyrrhizum Limoniumspp . Artemisia frigida Haplophyllum dauricum Artemisia frigida Olgaea leucophylla Theannual ssuc ha sArtemisia pectinata, Aristida Asparagus gobicus Ptilotrichum canescens adscensionisan dSalsola collina ma yb esubdominant s Carex spp. Scorzonera divaricata during wet years.Ther e are two layers in the associa­ Cleistogenes mutica Stipa glareosa tion.Th eherbaceou san dshru blayer sar e1 0an d2 0cm , Echinops latifolius Stipa gobica respectively. The shrubs form clumps of 40-80 cm diameter.Seasona lsuccession sar eobviou swit h differ­ Annuals: ing colors from season to season. The plant cover is Aristida adscensionis Pappophorum only about 10%.Th e annual dry matter yield is about Corispermumspp . brachystachyum 200 kg/ha of which the percentages of grasses, le­ Eragrostis minor Salsola spp. gumes,Artemisia, and other herbs are 7, 22, 26, and Setaria viridis 45%, respectively. All the associations spread in thewester n portion of the semi-steppe, with some good for grazing. The Reaumuria songarica +Semi-shrub + Säpa plant covero f thefirs t twoassociation s is 20-40%an d glareosa Association plant height is about 35 cm for shrubs and 10c m for Thisassociatio n spreadso ngentl eslope so f undu- herbs. The yield of dry matter is 150-750 kg/ha. The lant plains with light brown, calcareous soil of sand­ latter association is poorer than the former two with stoneparen t material inwester n Ordos.Som eplant so f respect to plant cover, plant height, and dry matter Ajania achilleoides and Artemisia are dominants or yield. subdominants. Steppe and Semi-steppe in Northeastern Gansu The commonspecie s include: and Eastern Ningxia Artemisia scoparia Convolvulus ammanii The southwestern portion of the steppe includes Caryopteris mongolica Limonium spp. northeastern Gansu and eastern Ningxia provinces. Cleistogenes mutica Oxytropis aciphylla Here theclimat e iswarmer , with an annual mean tem­ The annuals include: perature 7-10°C higher than previously described ar­ Eragrostis minor Tragus berteronianus eas, and annual rainfall from 170 to 250 mm on the Salsola collina highland.Th ehighe r temperaturecause sgreate revap ­ oration,formin g adrie rclimat ean dstepp e vegetation. The plant cover is about 15%, with shrubs and Some farmlands are located on the lowlands where herbs 20-30 cm tall. The annual dry matter yield is water is available and the steppe vegetation is spread about 150kg/ha . onslope so fhill san dmountains .Soil sar emainl yloess , Some Other Associations gray,calcareou s and light calcareous with a deep sur­ face layer. Organic matter isver y low (0.8-1.7%) and Other associations include Eurotia ceratoides + thep H is7.6-8.0 . Ajania achilleoides + Shrubs,Artemisia spp. +Stipa glareosa + Cleistogenes mutica,Artemisia frigida + TheAjania fruticulosa Association Ephedrasinica + annua lgrasses ,Zygophyllum mucro- This association iscompose d primarily of a small natum + Cleistogenes mutica, Tetraenamongolica + semi-shrub plant of 10-30c mwhic h grows luxuriantly Cleistogenes mutica, Ammopiptanthusmongoliens + with many branches. The plant cover of this species Zygophyllum+ Allium mongolicum + Stipa gobica, an d may be 20-25% of the total coverage. Other small Potaninia mongolica + Cleistogenes mutica + Stipa shrubsar eAjania achilleoides, Artemisiadalai-kunae, glareosa. Artemisiafrigida, andArtemisia gmelinii. All of these They may includeth e following species: species are dominants and form the upper layer of the association.I nwette rsites ,bunchgrasse ssuc h asStipa Shrubs breviflora, Stipa bungeana, and Stipa krylovii may Ajania achilleoides Oxytropis aciphylla form asubdominan tlaye rwit ha plan tcove ro f 10-20%. Caragana stenophylla Oxytropispsammocharis Eurotia ceratoides Reaumuriasongarica

151 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

On drier sites, extreme xerophytic types of small songarica, Salsolapasserina, and Sympegma regelii. semi-shrubs and small shrubs form the subdominant The xerophytic bunchgrasses dominate the secondary layerwit h acoverag e lesstha n 10%.Th especies com­ layero fthi sformation ,includin gStipa breviflora, Stipa position of this layer includes Reaumuria songarica, krylovii, andAchnatherum splendens. Salsolapasserina, andSympegma spp .Th egrasse sar e Agropyroncristatum, Cleistogenes mutica, Poa annua, Theherb s mayfor m a subordinate layerwhe n the andStephanachne nigrescens.Th eperennia l herbspe ­ range is over-grazed, and the surface soil compacted. cies are numerous but contribute less to the coverage, Otherspecie so f thisformatio n include: particularly in drier sites, where they make up only a Astragalus scaberrimus PeganumHarmala small proportion of the association. Other species in­ Heteropappus altaicus Zygophyllum mucronatum clude Cymbaria mongolica, Heteropappus altaicus, Summerannual s include: Potentilla multifida, and Potentilla bifurca. In drier Artemisia scoparia Salsola ruthenica sites, summer annuals make up a larger proportion, Bassia dasyphylla particularly in wetter years. Of those, the common species areHalogeton arachnoïdes, Salsola beticolor, They may grow well during wetter years. The and Salsola rigida. Thus, the seasonal succession of annual dry matter yield is about 250 kg/ha with good thoseassociation sofAjaniafruticulosa isobvious ,wit h forages (such as Artemisia dalai-lamae, Stipa brevi­ various colors during thegrowin g season. flora, and Salsolapasserina), forming a good grazing land. The plant cover of those associations is 30-50%. Sand Dunes of Northern Ordos The number of species is 10-20,wit h 10-15 plants per m .Th eannua ldr y matter yield isa slo wa s20 0kg/ha , In northern Ordos along the bend of the Yellow but this includes good forage grasses. This type of River, there is a belt of ancient aerolian sand dunes. steppe may be grazed throughout the year due to the Theyar echiefl y hummock y andridge-hum mock yan d warmclimate ,bu tth esoi li sloos ean dsubjec t toerosio n roughly parallelt oth eYello w Riverfo r 350km .Thes e by impropergrazin g practices. areas are named the Ulan Buh Desert in the west and the Hobq Desert in the east. Generally, the sand dune TheArtemisia dalai-lamae Formation height is 10-15 m. This formation is a unique type of semi-steppe in northeastern Gansu which is found on loess hills and Thesan d dunebel t probably developed duet o the lowlands.I t isfoun d on thefoothill s ofmountain ssuc h "winnowing fan" in the west, between the Longshan asth enorther nslop eo fth eeaster n QilianMountain sa t Range in the north and the in the 2,000-2,500m ; thenorther n slopeo f Mao-maoMoun ­ south.Durin g thewinte r and spring seasons,th eMon ­ tain at 2,200-2,400m ;an d in theloes sare a west of the golian wind storms blow from thenorthwes t and bring Yellow Riveran d north of Gaolan.Thi s formation has sand to form this sand belt. Only 20% of the desert is developed strictly on the light gray,brown , calcareous vegetated. The dominant species are Artemisia or- soilo floes sparenta lmaterial .Artemisia dalai-lamaei s dosica and Artemisia sphaerocephala. A group of a typical, extremely xerophytic small semi-shrub. It psammophytes (sand loving plants) are primarily produces an abundant number of branches from the shrubs including: basalpar t of thestem , forming adens eclum po f 10-30 Atraphaxis frutescens Hedysarum mongolicum cm. Caragana korshinsldi Hedysarumscoparium Caragana microphylla Artemisia dalai-lamae is a dominant which often associateswit h otherspecie s forming a high degreeo f The large coarse grass Psammochloa villosa, and plant cover, upt o40-60% ,but without obvious layers. the common annuals Agriophyllum arenarium and Only 25 spermatophytic species are in associations, Corispermum tylocarpumals oar efoun d in this area. with 3-4 species per m .Thi s species,wit h or without Inth eeaster n areao f theYello w Rivero f Ningxia, other species (such asArtemisia xerophytica andAja- thevegetatio n typediffer s from that of western Ordos. nia fruticulosa), forms the dominant species of the Here large areas of sandland are found such as in shrub layer, providing 5-10%coverage .Th especie si n Yanchi Hsien (county).Althoug h theannua lrainfal l is this layer include Kalidium cuspidatum, Reaumuria moretha n30 0mm ,th eshiftin gsan ddune sar ecommo n

hummock: an elevated, well-drained tract of land rising above thegenera l level of a marshy region.

152 CHAPTER 7

duet oovergrazing .Th eplan tcoverag ei s30-40 %wit h principalassociation s (Wang, 1960):th e Achnatherum a totalo f 135species . splendens +Suaeda ussuriensis +Nitraria sibirica + Phragmites communis association, and the Salicornia The mainspecie s include: herbacea +Nitraria sibirica association. Artemisiafrigida Potendlla spp. Aster altaicus Stipabungeana The grasses Achnatherum splendens, Leymus Caragana microphylla Stipa grandis dasystachys,Puccinellia disions, an dPhragmites com­ Lespedeza dahurica munisar eimportan tforage si nthi sarea .Mos tmeadow s of the Yellow River Valley in Ningxia are cultivated Theannua ldr y matter yield is 1,800-2,400kg/ha . duet o theavailabilit y of irrigation. Thisstepp ean dsemi-stepp e area in the subregion Semi-Steppe is characterized by inner drainage resulting in many smalllake san dponds ,particularl y inth enorther nare a The area west of the Yellow River to the Helan of Daching Mountain and the inner area of Ordos. Mountains is the western border of the semi-steppe Theselake san dpond sar eo fvaryin gdegree so fsalinit y region. The Yellow River Valley is a narrow belt of which affects thesurroundin gsoi lconditions . irrigated farmland. The eastern portion of the semi- steppe area is an alluvial slope of the front of the Along the periphery of small lakes and ponds, piedmont, composed of old terraces and semi-stable vegetationi sprimaril ySalicornia herbacea mixe dwit h sand dunes. The general elevation is 1,000-1,300 m. Triglochinmaritimum. The next zone consists of sev­ Thewester n portion ofth eare ai ssimila rt oth eeaster n eralspecie so fSuaeda. Grassesan dherb sappea r farther areabut i sabou t4 5k mwide ran dha shighe relevations , out in the third zone from the salt marsh; the main 1,200-1,400m t o1,700-2,00 0m .Th eparen tsoi lmate ­ speciesar ePuccinellia hauptiana, Poa littoralis mixe d riali salluvia lwit ha laye ro fgrave lbu ti scovere d with withPolygonum sibiricum, Atriplex sibirica, an dothe r fineloes smateria lo f40-6 0c mdeposit sformin ga grey , salt tolerant species which form a meadow type vege­ calcareoussoi lbelt .Th erainfal lo fYinchua n(1,00 0m ) tation. and Bayanhot (1,450 m) is 205 mm and 244 mm, Inth eshallo wflats ,wher eth esoi li sslightl y saline respectively.Th e annual mean temperature is 7-9°C. andwet , Irispallasii andAchnatherum splendensar e The characteristic vegetation of the area is semi- the dominants. Each may form an association with steppe. Shrubs are the dominants with bunchgrasses a other species used as grazing land. smaller part of associations. Saline Marshy Meadows Shrubs Caragana jubata Piptanthusmongolica Regions of saline, marshy meadows are found Caragana pygmaea Tanacetum particularly inth earea so fth enort hben d(Hetau) o fth e Convolvulus chrysanpoides Yellow Riveran d theYello w River Valley in Ningxia. tragacanthoides Zygophyllum Wang(1960 )studie dthi svegetatio n in theforme r area Ephedra equisetina xanthoxyhn and described three types of meadow; herbaceous Nitraria Schoberi marshes, salt meadows, and salt vegetation. In the Grasses herbaceous marshes, the main dominants are peren­ Aristida adscensionis Pennisetumflaccidum nial hydrophylousspecie ssuc h as: Cleistogenes squarrosa Stipa glareosa Eleocharis spp. Scirpusmaritimus Eragrostis pilosa Stipa grandis Scirpus triqueter Typha angustifolia Otherspecie s Inth esal tmeadows ,th edominant sar eperennia l Allium spp. Pappophorum herbsincluding : Artemisia scoparia brachystachyum Grasses Other species Asparagus gilbus Peganum nigettastrum Achnatherum splendens Carex spp. Aster altaicus Salsola spp. Leymus dasystachys Halerpestes ruthenica Chrysanthemum gracilis Statice aurea Puccinellia distans Potendlla anserina Echinops latifolius Stance bicohr Annuals Perennials Lespedeza dahurica Tragus berteronianus Suaedaussuriensis Saussureaglomerata Grazinglan dma yb edivide d intouppe ran d lower Salicornia herbacea Kalidium gracile elevation areas.O nth euppe relevations ,plan tcove r is Nitraria sibirica 20-30%an d plantheigh t is 10cm .O n thelowe releva ­ There are more than 40 salt tolerant species, but tions, plant cover is40-50 % and plant height is 10-15 only 10 species play an important role in the two cm.

153 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

On the western border of this area are the Helan gobicum.Plan tdensitie so fmajo rspecie sare :Reaumu­ Mountainswit ha pea ko f 3,556m .Th evertica ldistri ­ riasongarica (3,40 0plants/ha) ,Brachanthemum gobi­ butiono fvegetatio ni sgenerall yPicea asperataforest s cum (1,980plant spe rhectare) ,Salsola passerina (480 on shady slopes at 2,400-2,700 m; Picea asperata plantspe rhectare) ,an dZygophyllum xanthoxylon (32 0 mixedwit hPopulus spp .forest sa t2,100-2,40 0m ;an d plants/ha). Other species which appear scattered in­ Pinus tabulaeformisforest s at 2,000-2,100 m. On the clude Nitraria sibirica, Potaninia mongolica, Stipa sunny slopes, theclimat e is dry and the vegetation is glareosa,an dConvolvulus ammanii. Forty-fiv especie s steppemixe dwit hshrub san dtree so fJuniperus rigida werecounte d in 1972wit h variation of from 25-35 in or Thuja orientalis.Th e lower elevation of themoun ­ drieryears . taini sstepp eo rdesert-steppe .A t theto po f themoun ­ tain,th eclimat ei scol dan dwe twit hlowe revaporation , Thetota lproductio nfo rth esteppe-lik eAgropyron forminga nalpin emeado ware awit hbrilliantl ycolore d fragile community was6 t/ha,wit hannua l production landscapes.Th e xerophyticspecie s areStipa spp.,Ar­ of 4.4 t/ha, of which 85% is underground. The Reau­ temisiafrigida, Allium sacculiferum,an d Agropyron muriacommunit yproduce d4. 5t/ha ,wit ha tota labove - cristatum,bu t mesophytic and herbaceous species in­ groundphytomas so f79 4kg/ha .Th eyearl yproductio n creaseth enumbe ro fspecies . of annual shoots and leaves is highly dependent on Aconitum spp. Gypsophiladahurica meteorological conditions. Production for the Bra­ chanthemumcommunit y is2. 4t/ha . Bromus inermis Pedicularis striata Bupleurum Poa sphondylodes The productivity of the 10% cover Stipa-Allium scorzonerifolium Potentilla bifurca polyrrhizumdesert-stepp e nearDalandzadga d wasre ­ Chrysanthemumspp . Potentillachinensis portedt ob e12 0kg/h ao fai rdr yshoot san dleaves .Th e Delphinumgrandiflorum Sanguisorba officinalis fraction ofStipa (S. glareosa, S.gobica) was65 % and Dianthus chinensis Taraxacum mongolicum Alliumpolyrrhizum made up25% .Th e rootsconcen ­ Gentiana decumbens Veronicaspp . trate in the upper, wetter soil layers making upabou t 83%o fth etota lphytomass ,wit honl y3 %goin gdeepe r The vertical distribution of soils generally coin­ than4 0 cm (Miroshnichenko, 1967; cit. Waltere t al., cideswit hvegetatio na sgrey ,calcareou ssoi li sassoci ­ 1983). ated with piedmont steppe or semi-steppe, mountain brownsoi lwit hmountai nxerophyti cforest ,an dmoun ­ tain meadow soil with mountain meadow grassland STEPPE AND SEMI-STEPPE IN (Wene tal. , 1956). DZUNGARIA (NORTHERN XINJIANG) AND OTHER PARTS OF XINJIANG Several ecological studies of the semi-steppe or semi-desert of the southern Mongolian People's Re­ The geological age of Dzungaria is the same as publichav ebee n published (Rodin 1975,1976,1977; Mongolia,bu ti tha sno tbee ncovere d by these asinc e cit.Walte re t al., 1983).Bulgan , located 70 kmnorth ­ the Paleozoic age. Arid conditions have existed here west of Dalandzadgad,show s some similarities toth e sinceth ePaleogen eperio d(Lavrov , 1957;cit .Grubo v semi-steppe of Inner Mongolia. Conditions at Bulgan 1969). The relief and surface sediments are complex include a mean annual temperature of 3.8°C (July (Petrov, 1976).A nintensiv e uplift begana tth een do f 21.4°C, January -15°C)an da nannua lrainfal l of ISO- theTertiar y Age in the great mountain system. Itha s ISO mm.Th eannua lsu mo f temperaturesabov e 10°C beenparticularl yactiv esinc eth eNeogen eperio dwhe n is 2,200°C. Sunshine per year is 3,200 hours and the the high mountain areas of Tianshan, Dzungaria Al- annualradiatio ni s50 4K Jc m .O na clear ,sunn yday , atau,Tarbagatay ,an dother swer euplifted .Thi scause d 2,843J c m havebee nmeasured .Th efrost-fre e period thediversit y ofhabitat sfo rth edistributio n of floras. lasts 150 days, with the growing season beginning in Aprilo rMay .Th emea nwin dspee di s3. 5m/sec .Hig h TheTiansha nlie si nth emiddl eo fXinjian gUygu r wind speed in thesprin gan dsumme ri s characteristic Autonomous Region, and its formation divided ofth eMongolia ndeser tan ddesert-stepp eregions ,wit h Xinjiangint otw oparts ,souther nXinjian g(Kashgaria ) speedsa shig ha s 16t o 18m/sec . andnorther n Xinjiang (Dzungaria). Kashgaria isdrie r thanDzungari adu et ohighe rmountain swhic henclos e The soils are sandy burozems 20 to 70 cm deep ito nthre esides . withhig hrunoff .Th esmal laccumulatio no fphytomas s The eastern side is not influenced by monsoons and the slow decomposition process results in aver y from any direction. In Dzungaria, the mountains are low humusconten t(0.26%) . lower, particularly in the west where there are some Thevegetativ e cover is 7-10% inth edeser t com­ lowermountain san dvalleys ope nt oth ewest ,allowin g munity of Reaumuria songarica and Brachanthemum this area to receive more rainfall from the western

154 CHAPTER 7

monsoons.Th e vegetation of Dzungaria is, therefore, 1961; Grubov, 1969). Steppes and semi-steppes in morecomple x with a richer flora than Kashgaria. Dzungariaar elocate do nth epiedmon tplains ,hills ,an d mountainsi nth esouth ,west ,an dnort h(Figure s7. 4an d Steppe, Semi-steppe, and Mountain Vegetation 7.5). in Dzungaria The mountains in Dzungaria generally are 2,000- Dzungaria is a depression surrounded by the 3,000m wit h many higher peaks,whil eflatte r areaso f Tianshana swel la sKarli kan dBogd amountain si nth e the piedmont bench land are 1,500-2000 m. The ver­ south. The general elevation is 3,000-4,000 m, with ticaldistributio n ofvegetatio n typesi sobvious ,but the peaks of 5,500 m (northern Tianshan, south of Usu) main type is mountain steppe in the lower elevation 5,448 m (Bogda), and 4,266 m (Karlik). The are located in the north with general eleva­ areas.Othe rtype s include mountain coniferous forest, tionso f2,500-3,00 0m an da pea ko f4,37 4m ,whil eth e mountain shrub grassland, sub-alpine meadow, and Tarbagatay and mountains are alpinemeadows .Soil srelate dt othes evegetatio n types found inth ewes twit h elevationso f about 2,000m an d are chestnut, chernozem, mountain gray forest soil, a peak of 4,000 m, with low mountains opening to sub-alpine,an d alpinemeado w soils. Soviet Middle Asia. In the east the area adjoins the In the piedmont and lower mountain areas the Mongolian Gobi with no high mountain barrier. This rainfall changes with elevation; from 120-160 mm up extremely dry area in Central Asia also influences to 500 mm at 1,500-2,000 m. Generally, 60% of the Dzungaria, but in the central area (the Dzungaria De­ rainfall is distributed in the summer and autumn. The pression or Basin) the climate is not as extreme as in annualmea ntemperatur ei s2-4° Ci nth enort h(Burqin ) theMongolia n Gobio r the Peishanareas . and 6-8°Ci n thesout h (IliValley) . In Dzungaria, the precipitation has a compara­ This area includes the foothills of theSau r Range tively even distribution during four seasons, differing inth esout h toFuyu n (Koktokay)o f theAlta iRang ei n from Mongolia where rainfall is concentrated in sum­ theeast ,an dth euppe rwatershe do fth eErti xRiver .Th e mer. The mean annual temperature is slightly higher climate is cold and wet with 165-190 mm of annual than in western Mongolia. Since the Tertiary Age rainfall inth elowe rpar t of thepiedmont , and60 0m m Dzungaria has had a close contact with the rich and in the alpinemountai n area. mountainous flora of Middle Asia, with no barriers to prevent the influx of species.Thi s has allowed for the The dominant species of the steppe and semi- development of morecomple xtype so fflora s andveg ­ steppei sa Centra lAsia nspecies ,Stipa glareosa whic h etation(Popov , 1931;Roi , 1941;Yunatov , 1950,1960, isfoun d from theplain sa t80 0 mthroughou t the pied­ mont to 1,500 m where steppe vegetation is formed.

Figare 7.4.A floc k of fine wool sheepbesid e Sanlim Lakei n Xinjiang with abackgroun d of Picea forest. (Photocourtes y of Y.Wang , 1985)

155 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Figue7.5 .Stepp ei nTicheo g(Qoqek )Distric t(norther nXinjiang )showin gth estorag eo fha yan ddung .(Phot ocourtes yo fJ.P .Zhong , 1985)

The steppe merges into scrub-grassland areas which nantst ofor m theStipa capillata +Thymus serphyllum may reach 2,100 mo n sunny slopes.O nshade d slopes association or other types of Stipa capillata + shrubs Stipa glareosa is not found above 1,200 m.Ther e it is associations. replaced by Larix forest and Larix mixed with Picea asperata forest. Thecommo n species include: Agropyron cristatum Heteropappus altaicus Sub-alpine and alpine meadowssprea d widely on Allium spp. Kochia prostrata themountain snort h of Fuyun. Artemisia frigida Lagochilusilicifolius Atraphaxis frutescens Leymus angustum Stipaglareosa form s adominan tassociatio n inth e Carexduriuscula Oxytropis spp. steppe, butFestuca sulcata, Stipa capillata, andArte­ Cranosperm echinoides Potentilla acaulis misia gracilescens are the dominants in other as­ Ephedra sinica Potenti.ua bijurca sociations. Thus, the Mongolian and Middle Asian elements combine to form some unique associations, Several layerso f the association are obvious. The sucha sNanophyton erinaceum +Stipa glareosa o nth e first layer consists of Stipa capillata with a height of piedmontplai ni nAltai ,an dStipa glareosa +Artemisia 20-40cm .Th e second layer, at 10cm , is Cleistogenes frigida + Carex physodes in Burqin and Altai. The spp.Th e third layer includesArtemisia spp., Potentilla ephemeralspecies ,Ferula spp., Poaspp. , andLepidium spp., and other herbs; while the lowest layer is com­ apetalum,develo pa synusi ai nwhic hth escrub-steppe , posed of lichens.Th e plant cover is about 40%.Stipa Stipa grandis,i sstil la mai ndominant .Thi smean stha t capillatai sth eabsolut edominant ,comprisin g50-60 % thestepp eo rflor ao fAlta ii sa transitiona lzon ebetwee n of the cover. Annual dry matter yield exceeds 500 MiddleAsi a(i nth ewest )an dCentra lAsi a(i nth eeast) . kg/ha,sufficien t for agoo d grazing land. Two important associations are described: the Stipa capillata +Festuca sulcata associatio nan dth eFestuca TheStipa capillataassociatio n mayals oappea ro n sulcata association. thewester n Dzungaria mountains and on the northern slopes of the Tianshan. It is an important grazingland TheStipa capillata +Festuca sulcata associatio n type on mountain slopes. The elevation where this issprea d widely on the mountains in the Altai area in association isfoun d varies with location; for instance, northwestern Dzungaria whereth eshallo w chestnut or thelowe rdistributio n limit atMana s(west )i s 1,300m , lightchestnu tsoil sar ecoars ewit h pebbles.Som eothe r atChita i (Qitai,i n thecentra l part)i t is 1,500 m,whil e species, Stipasareptana, Stipa Idrghisorum, andClei- atBarko l (east),i t isfoun d at 1,700 m. stogenes squarrosa may be dominants. On more gravelyland ,smal lshrub ssuc ha sThymus mongolian, The Festuca sulcata formation is another impor­ Caragana frutescens, Spiraea hypericifolia, Cerasus tant typeo f steppewhic h iswidel y distributed in Mid­ tianshanica, and Calophaca sinica may be the domi­ dleAsia ,but morelimite di nCentra lAsia .I n Xinjiang,

156 CHAPTER 7

it is found on theAlta iMountains , thenorther n slopes and Spiraea hypericifolia. The shrub height is 50-100 ofth eTianshan ,an do nth ewester n Dzungarian moun­ cm with 5-10% plant cover.Th eFestuca sulcata layer tains.Owin gt oth eincreas eo faridit yfro m westt oeast , isabou t 30c m with 40-50%plan t cover. the distribution limits gradually rise to higher eleva­ tions.Fo rexample , in the Habaheare a (western Altai) Festuca sulcatama yb eassociate d withgrasse so r iti sfoun da t700-1,50 0m ,i nth em iddl eAlta iare a from semi-shrubs into different associations to form good 1,100-1,800m ,an di nth eQingh eare a(Qinggil ,easter n grazinglands . Altai) from 1,300-2,100 m. South of Habahe, in the The grassesinclude : Tarbagatay Range, it isdistribute d between 1,100 and Agropyron cristatum Stipa capillata 2,000m .I nth emor eari dTiansha narea ,i ti sfoun d only Bromus inermis Stipa Idrghisorum in humid valleys. Koeleria cristata Stipa orientalb Festuca sulcata associations are found mostly on The herbs include: deep castanozems and common chernozem soils with Allium spp. Oxytropis spp. highorgani cmatte r content;castanoze m (2-3.5%)an d Astragalus spp. Potentilla acaulis chernozem (10%). Four Festuca sulcata associations Convolvulus ammanii Potentilla bifurca aredescribe d for different areas. The semi-shrubs include Artemisia frigida and TheAUaiArea Kochia prostrata. The Festuca sulcata +mesophyti c herbs associa­ Some otherspecie s may appear: tion is distributed in the Altai area, but mainly in the Carex duriuscula Myosotis spp. westernDzungari a mountainswher ei ti salway smixe d Galium verum Taraxacum dealbatum with deciduous broadleaf shrubs on shady slopes.Th e Leontopodium spp. association is rich in species and plants grow luxuri­ antly, forming distinguishable layers.Th e leaf layer is Amongthos eassociations ,Festuca sulcata + Stipa lesstha n 25c m inheight ,wit h60-70 %plan tcove ran d capillatai sth emos timportan t andspread swidely .Th e an annual dry matter yield ofabou t 1,500 kg/ha. plantcove ri s40-50 %wit hthre edistinguishabl elayers ; thereproductiv e branches of Stipa capillata reach 60- In addition to thedominant ,Helictotrichon schel- 80 cm, those of Festuca sulcata reach 40 cm, and the lianum,Koeleria cristata,Poa spp. ,an dStipa capillata othergrasse s 10-20cm . may also be the dominants, while Carexpediformis is Thestepp ei nth eAlta iare a isa n important poten­ a comparably stabledominan t species.Althoug h there tialbas efo rth edevelop men to frang elivestoc kproduc ­ are many mesophytic herbs, they arewithou t any dis­ tion (Figure 7.6). tinguishabledominan t species. Inth eeaster n portiono fth eAlta iMountains , from The mainspecie s include: Fuyun (Koktokay) to the east, the mountains increase Anemone Medicago falcata inheigh t andwidt h and gradually decreaset ob e lower narcissifloroides Phlomis oreophila and more narrow in the east. The elevation of Qinghe Astragalus spp. Polygonum spp. is about 3,000 m and to the east at Nurnu it is about Fragaria spp. Saussurea salicifolia Galium verum Thalictrum alpinum 2,100m .Thi sare ai scolde rtha nth ewester nAlta iarea , Gentiana prostrata Viola thianschanica with an annual mean temperature below 0°C.Th e an­ nual rainfall is 150-250 mm at higher elevations, half Somenumerou s xerophytic species include: ofwhic h falls insumme r months.Th euppe rpar to f the Allium spp. Potentilla bifurca mountainsisLarix forest ongra yfores t soilan dals oo n Gypsophila spp. Potentilla multifida thecoars ecastanozem s of the plains. Heteropappus altaicus Semi-steppe is spread on the piedmont and foot­ And thegrasse sinclude : hills, particularly in the eastern portion in which the Alopecurus pratensis Phleum phleoides steppetyp eform sa zona lvegetatio nwit hfewe rspecies Leymus angustum and less plant cover. On light castanozem soils, Stipa glareosa, Stipa gobica, and Artemisia frigida form a In the areas of rocky or gravel ground and in looseassociation .Alliumpolyrrhizum andNanophyton mountain forest orshru b near theFestuc asulcat aasso ­ erinaceum occasionally mix with Ceratoides latenst o ciation, there may appear a shrub + Festuca sulcata form an association on sand-gravel soils. steppe. The shrubspecie s are:Amygdalus ledebouri- ana, Berberis heteropoda, Caraganafrutescens, Car- Onth ealluvia lflat s ofth epiedmont , largearea so f agana leucophloea, Rosa spinosissima, Ribes meyeri, tall grass-herbaceous meadows of many species are

157 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Figure 7.6. Kazakh herdsmen grazingthei rflocks o n forest steppe inth eAlta i Mountains.(Phot ocourtes y of CIA, reproduced from Atlas of the People's Republico f China, 1971)

distributed,providin ggoo dgrazin gdurin gth esumme r Caraganamelanocarpa Juniperus chinensis and fall. Caraganastenophylla Rosa spinosissima Cotoneaster divaricatus Thespecies include: Galatella songarica Melilotus alba Sub-alpinestepp e isfoun d at2,600-3,00 0m .Fes­ Carex caespitosa Melilotus suaveolens tuca (F. ovina, F. rubra, and F. kryloviana) is the Carexmelanocephala Phalaris arundinacea absolutedominant .Othe rgras sspecie sar ePoa alpina, Clinelymus Sibiriens Trifoliumpratense Poa altaica,an dPoa sibirica.Al lo f thesegrasses mix Ligularia macrophylla Trifolium repens with herbs, forming various associations. In wet val­ Ligularia songarica Vicia cracca leys, there are many patches of Larix sibirica and Medicago sativa Vicia sativa juniper clumps or shrub meadow steppes.Th e grasses andherb sinclud eAnaphalis spp. ,Festuca ovina, Ley- In the river valleys in the steppe belt, Populus mus angustum, andPhleum phleoides. Theshru bspe ­ tremula, Populus laurifolia, and Salix spp. grow to ciesinclud ethos epreviousl y mentioned. form a corridor of trees. In the understory is a wet meadow of dense and tall plants, mainly Alopecurus Alpine meadows are located at elevations above songaricus, Dactylis glomerata, and Hordeum brevi- 3,000m .Th e mainspecie sare : subulatum. Carex atrata Kobresia filiformis Carex melanantha Kobresia sibirica Mountain steppeform s awid ebel t between 1,000 Carex pauciflora and2,60 0m wit h varioustypes .Th eFestuca sulcata+ Stipacapillata associationi sfoun da t 1,000-1600m .I n Steppes in theAlta iare a contain good forage spe­ wet low places,th eStipa capillata +herb s association ciesan da provid ea goo dforestr y resource(Figure s7. 7 mixeswit h various herbs.Th emai n speciesare : and 7.8). Artemisia sericea Medicago falcata TheTarbagatay and Saur Area Helictotrichon Oxytropis spp. schellianum Polygonumdivaricatum Thisare ai sfoun d onth emountain san d piedmonts Leontopodium spp. of the northern portion of western Dzungaria. The mountains are similar to tableland, having an undu­ Between 1,600 and 2,600 m, along the piedmont latingsurface . Thegenera lelevatio n isabou t 2,000m , plains, the open broad river valleys stretch into the with individual peaks reaching 3,000 m. The annual mountain area. The lower elevation of the mountain steppe increases to the east and is 2,000 m at the rainfall of Tacheng (Tarbagatay, Qoqek) is 280-300 Chinese-Mongolian border. On those gentle moun­ mm. The annual mean temperature of 5.8°C is favor­ tains, thedominan t species includeFestuca ovina and ablefo r thedevelopmen t ofa temperat esteppe .O n the Poaspp .mixe dwit hherb st ofor mvariou sassociations . piedmont, therainfal l islower .Th evertica l vegetation On sunny slopes, they associate with shrubs to form distribution is organized in the following order: semi- shrub-steppe.Th eshrub sspecie s include: steppe tostepp et oshrub-stepp e tomeado w grassland, Berberis heteropoda Cotoneasteruniflora including shrubso f Spiraea salicifolia and Caragana

158 CHAPTER 7

Figare7.7 .Fores tgrasslan do ath eAlta iMountain snea rBnrqi ni nnorther nXinjian gUygu rAutonomou sRegio n(Dzungaria) .(Phot ocourtes y ofJ.P.Zhong, 1985)

Figure 7.8.Meado wgrasslan dwit hsom etree si nth eAlta iMountai narea .Elevatio ni sapproximatel y 1,400m .(Phot ocourtes yo fJ.P .Zhoag , 1985) spp.Th esub-alpin emeado w iscomprise do fshrub so f Alyssumdesertorum Poa bulbosa var. Rosa davurica,whil eth ealpin e meadow is comprised Ceratocarpusspp . vivapara oiKobresia spp.an dCarex alpina. Ferula dissecta Schismusarabicus Ixiolirion tataricum Tauscheria lasiocarpa In the piedmont zone, thedominant sFestuca sul­ Lepidiumperfoliatum Tetrachnequadrkornis cata andStipa capillataar eassociate dwit hArtemisia Meniocusspp . Tulipa schrenidi lessingiana, Artemisia sublessingiana,an d Artemisia Plantago minuta Veronicaspp . gracilescens to form several associations. This area differs from Central Asia where Stipa glareosa and Onmountains ,wher ei ti smor erocky ,th eassocia ­ Stipa gobica areth edominants .I nstepp eassociations , tion of Festuca sulcata +Stipa capillata is limited to therear ea number ofephemeral s suchas : smallareas ,bu tthes especie smi xwit hshrub ssuc has :

159 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Amygdalus ledebouriana Caragana frutescens (Kuldja,Gulja) Area Atraphaxis frutescens Spiraea hypericifolia The Ili area is a broad valley surrounded by high Calophaca hovenii mountainso f 3,000-5,000 mo n threesides .Th e Boro- and grasses including Stipa Idrghisorum and Stipa horoMountain sli ei na northwes t tosoutheas t direction macroglossa tofor m variousan d stable associations. inth enort h andconnec twit h Bogda and Karlik moun­ Onmountains ,thicket so fLonicera tatarica,Rosa tains in the east (called northern Tianshan). The spp., andSpiraea hypericifolia mix with: Tianshan Range stretches in a northeast to southwest Bromus inermis Phlomis tuberosa direction in the south (called Southern Tianshan in Dactylis glomerata Poa pratensis China). Both mountain ranges come together at the Helictotrichon asiaticum Polygonum nitens east, forming a V-shaped valleyjunctio n which opens Origanum vulgare toth ewest . and are distributed widely from the lower part of the This landform is wetter and warmer than that of mountains up to the lower limit of thesub-alpin e area. Kashgaria (southern Xinjiang) in the south, and Between 1,800 and 2,200 mi n the mountain area, the Dzungaria in the north. It is influenced by the wet herbaceous meadows and grassy meadows are well current of the Caspian Sea and the Balkhash warm developed, consisting of many species with brilliant currentfro m MiddleAsia .Climat echange swit heleva ­ seasonal phases. tion, e.g. increased elevation is associated with in­ Themai n dominant species include: creased rainfall and decreased temperature. For Aconitum songaricum Ligularia spp. instance,i nth eYinin garea ,a selevatio nincrease sfro m Alopecurus songaricus Poa pratensis 600-800m to900-l,529m,th eannua lrainfal l increases Bromus inermis Polygonum spp. from 222-233 mm, to 492-821 mm, respectively and Dracocephalum nutans Trollius altaicus the mean annual temperatures decrease from 8.9°Ca t Geranium collinum 600m t o7.2 ° at 800 m. On the lower portion of the sub-alpine area, Al- The vegetation types include Artemisia steppe, chemilla spp. meadow is mixed with many other spe­ grassland, meadow,deciduou s broadleaved and conif­ ciesformin g awidel y spread combination of species. erousforests ,an d alpinemeadow . Thisi sa rich steppe andmountai n meadow grassland area with chernozem The alpine species of Kobresia smirnovii associ­ andcastanoze m soils. ates with Carexspp . to form an alpine meadow which isdistribute d onlyo n highelevation s ina limited area. Theabundanc eo fwater ,pastures ,an d fertile soils have made this valley the focus of a struggle for pos­ In the area of Tacheng and Emin (Dorbiljin), session among ancient nomadic people and Russians agriculture iswel ldevelope d and production is good. sinceth emiddl eo fth e 19thcentur y(Wiens , 1969).Th e South ofthe TarbagatayRange richstepp epasture san d mountain meadows producea finebree do fsturd y horsestha thav ebee n famous since Nearth eDzungaria nAl ata uare ather eals oi sa rich the Han dynasty in the second century B.C. More steppearea . At lower elevations of the mountains, the recently,thi sregio n produced almost 18%o f thegraz ­ steppe species are mainly Festuca sulcata and Stipa ing livestock of Xinjiang (Figure 7.9). It is also a rich capillata. sourceo f forests, mineral fuels, and metalores . By the Up to 1,000-1,500 m, the tall grassland is widely middle part of the 17th century, agriculture was well distributed andgrow s 70-100cm . developed by Han and Uygur farmers. Corps of the central Chinesegovernmen t built walled fortress cities Thedominan t speciesinclud eman y important for­ in this area. During the last 30 years, reconstruction agespecies corps havedevelope d theagricultur e of the region. Bromus inermis Koeleria spp. Dactylis glomerata Phleum pratense The climate of Ili Valley is typical of a Middle Festuca spp. Stipa spp. Asian steppe.Th emea n annualtemperatur ei s8-9.2° C with a mean January temperature of -10°C and 22.5- Grasses areassociate d with a number of tall (100 23.4°C in July. Annual rainfall is 326 mm, with half cm) herbaceous species including Delphinium con- occurring inwinte ran d spring. jusum, Eremurus spp.,Ligularia altaica, andScabiosa alpestris. On the flanks of middleelevation s (900-2,500 m) ofmountain swher eth emeadows ,grasslands ,an d for­ ests are widely spread, rainfall is about 800 mm. The

160 CHAPTER 7

Figure 7.9.Mountai n grassland inth esouther n mountainare ao fUrumqi ,Xinjian g UygurAutonomou s Region(Dzungaria) .(Phot o courtesy of D. Dewey, 1980) elements of floras include Middle Asian and some Therear emor etha n3 0species ,suc has : CentralAsia nspecies . Alopecurus ventricosus Medicago lupulina Centaurea stachya Plantago major The Ili area is a famous grassland of China, well Cirsiumpalustre Trifolium hybridum known tohe rpeopl efo rcenturies .Th elan di ssuitabl e Geraniumspp . for agriculture, forestry, and animal industry. The steppe and some semi-steppes on the bottom of the Some treesof Salix spp .an dBetulafruticosa also valley (below 900m )ar ewar man dsuitabl efo rwinte r arefoun dalon gth eside so frivers. Bot ho fth emeado w and spring grazing, while mountain grasslands and grasslands on lowland areas are valuable for grazing meadowsi nsub-alpin ean dalpin ezone sar esuitabl efo r andhaymaking ,wit ha nannua lha yyiel do fabou t2,00 0 summeran dfal lgrazing .Th eforage so f theregio nar e kg/ha(Figur e7.10) . The plantsbegi n togro w inmid - nutritious,an da goo d yield of hayi s obtained (1,600- Marchan dwithe ri nlat eAugust . 3,000kg/ha) . Thevegetatio no nth edrylan darea sinclude ssom e Therear ethre erivers in th eIl i Valley:th eTekes , semi-steppe characteristics, with the main species of theKune s(Kunges) ,an dth eKa x(Kush) .Thes e rivers Artemisia, Carex, Bromus, Ceratoides, Festuca, join tofor m theIl i River, anda larg ealluvia l flatare a Kochia, Koeleria, Nanophyton,Poo, Stipa, and some whichi sa meado wgrasslan dwit hplent yo fwater .Th e others,distribute dt o1,10 0m (Figur e7.11) .Plan tcove r mainassociatio ni sCalamagrostis arundinacea +Cyn- is 30-80% with annual hay yields of 1,000-1,5000 odon dactylon with 50-60% plant cover and many kg/ha,whic h isuse dfo rwinte rgrazing . species, moretha n4 0o fwhic h areforages . At elevations of 900-1,800 m, the soil is dark Themai nspecie sinclude : chestnut earthan dth erainfal l increases from 300-800 Grasses Legumes and others mm. Arich grasslan d mixed with fruit trees is found Agrostis alba Astragalus spp. between 1,200 and 1,600 m. Forests are found at the Bromus inermis Carex spp. higherelevations . Chloris spp. Lotuscorniculatus Themai nspecie s include: Festucaovina Medicago falcata Grasses Legumes Hordeumspp . Melilotus spp. Alopecurus pratensis Astragalus spp. Phleum pratense Scirpusmaritimus Bromusinermis Medicago falcata Phragmites communis Dactylis glomerata Sophora alopecuroides Calamagrostis arundinaceaan dCarex spp . form Eremopyrumorientale Trifolium spp. marshy meadows with of 60-100 cm plant heightan d Hordeum brevisubulatum 95%cover .Thes e meadowsar egoo dfo rha yharvest . Poa pratensis

161 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

**«#, 'v">r m.

Figure 7.10. Sheep «numberless as the sure» graze in the grassy Tekes highland of Xinjiang (Photo by ES. Murray, 1936; courtesy of the National GeographicSociety , 1985) '

mfâ

Figure7.11 .Aeria lseedin go fKochiaprostrate for «vegetation of rangeland inth e Hiare a of Xinjiang (Photocourtes yo fY.F .Chang , 1985)

Some species of Boraginaceae, Compositae, Cru- witha goo d canopy. Manybroadlea f herbsgro wi n the ciferae, Rosaceae, and Umbelliferae families also are understory with 60% plant cover. In some Jugions found. forests, distributed on the flanks of gorges,plan t cover The coverage may exceed 70%wit h plants grow­ may be60-70% . ingt o4 0cm .Annua lha yyield srange fro m 1,250-3,000 The main species include: kg/ha. These grazing lands are used for spring and Brachypodium sylvaticum Impatiens brachycentra autumn grazing. There are wild fruit forests between Bromus benekenii Poa nemoralis 1,200 and 1,600 m(Chang , 1973). At 1,200-1,400 m, apple orchards (forests) are An association ofJugions regia +Impatiens bra- distributed on shady or semi-shady slopes of hills, chycentra + Aegopodium podagraria grows on the tablelands, and terraces (Figures 7.12 and 7.13).I n the shadywe tfoothil lslopes .Jugions regiagrow s 15-17m under-story, a dominant grassy layer is mixed with

162 CHAPTER 7

Fig"'» 7.12. Landscape ofth eKune sValley .Th e foreground isa norchar do f apple trees.Th ebackgroun di sa meado w inth eH iarea .(Phot o courtesy ofJ.P . Zhong, 1980)

Figure 7.13. Tall grassland withwil d fruit treesi nth e KunesValle y areao f Hi.(Phot o courtesy ofJ.P . Zhong, 1980) someherb st ofor m 40-90%plan tcover .Th edominan t Grasses, herbs, and shrubs form a dense layer of the is Bromus benekenii. When the canopy of fruit trees understory. The dominant species are good forages decreases,th ecove ro fDactyl is glomerata i sincrease d such as Festuca sulcata, Bothriochloa spp., Koeleria alongwit h herbs ofAgrimonia pilosa, Asperula apar- gracilis, andAchillea millefolium. ine, Impatiens brachycentra, Geum urbanum, and Lamium album. There are two other associations in Gongliu (Tokkuztara); theJugions regia +Brachypodium syl- Between 1,400 and 1,600 m, theappl e forests are vaticum + herbs association, and theJugions regia + gradually replaced byPicea schrenManaan d Populus Impatiens brachycentra +Aegopodium podagiaria as­ tremulao n shady slopes.I n the transitionalzone ,spe ­ sociation.Th eplan tcove ro fth eunderstories i s60-70 % cieso fPopulus, Malus, andAegopodium form a group with good forage species, such as Bromus benekenii, of associations which make a beautiful landscape. andPoa nemoralis.

163 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Allo f thefruit tre eforest s associated with grasses The plant cover is about 70%, with plant height andherb sfor m agoo dforag eresourc efo rdevelopmen t 10-20cm .Annua l hayyiel dvarie s from 1,000 to2,00 0 of theanima l industry. kg/ha.Th eplant sstar tt ogro wi nearl yJun ean dprovid e aver y important pasture forsumme rgrazing . Up to 1,800-2,600m is coniferous forest, mainly Picea schrenkiana, Betula humilis, Populus tremula, TheNorthern TianshanArea andSorbus tianschanica, with many shrubs, including Tianshan isa long mountain rangeextendin g into species of: Cotoneaster,Lonicera, Potentilla, and Spi­ Russia in the west. The eastern portion is located in raea. Between these forests are many large areas of Chinaan di smor etha n 1,000 km longan d200-30 0k m good grassland or meadow grassland. wide. It forms a complex system of ranges and de­ The main forage species include: pressions. The main chain is 3,000-4,000 m (7,435m Agropyron spp. Hedysarum spp. atTomu rPea knort ho fWensu )(Figur e7.14) .Averag e Agrostis spp. Helictotrichon elevationsrang efro m 2,500m t o15 4m belo wse aleve l Brachypodium sylvaticum schelliamun (Turfan Basin).I ncontras t toth ewester nportio no f the Bromus inermis Poa spp. area, the mountains have flat peaks and gentle slopes, Calamagrostis spp. Trifolium spp. with the exception of Bogda Mountain. The eastern­ Dactylis glomerata most portion hasa n alpine line. and some herbs. Plant cover is 90% and plants grow Tianshan has twoquit e different types of climate. more than 50 cm. Annual hay yield varies from 2,500 The southern part (Kashgaria) is hot and dry, being to3,50 0kg/ha .Mos tplant sbegi ngrowin gi nearl yMa y affected byCentra lAsi aan dth eMongolia ndesert .Th e andar euse d forsumme ran dautum n grazing,o rwinte r northern part has a cold, temperate climate because of grazing of cattlean d horses. moist winds from the west. Subalpine and alpine meadow grasslands and The rainfall isquit edifferen t in thetw oareas . For meadows generally are distributed between 2,600 and instance, the rainfall of Baicheng (Bay, south) and 3,400m . Zhaosu (Monggolkire, north) is 96 mm and 519 mm, The most common species include: respectively. Generally, therainfal l decreases from the Carex spp. Polygonum viviparum west to the dry east, and increases from dry lower Kobresia capillifolia Phlomis oreophila elevations towe t higherelevations .Annua l rainfall of Lagotis glauca Saxifraga hirculus thenorther nTiansha ni sabou t20 0m mo nth epiedmon t Leontopodium spp. Saussurea spp. (except for Jinghe [Jing] which is in the rain shadow

Figure7.14 .Mountai n meadowi nth eforegroun d andmountai n steppe inth ebackgroun dwit ha distan tvie wo f ML Tomur,th esourc eo f the Aksn River. (Reproduced with permission from China Pictorial, 1984)

164 CHAPTER 7

and receives only 90 mm).Th e rainfall in the south is Desert steppe.Th e desert steppe zone spreads on generally below 100mm . the outermost areas of the piedmont with a width of 30-50km ,includin gth ealluvia lfla to nth efoothill san d Thevertica lzone so fvegetatio n inth enort har eal l bottoms of valleys. The dominant xerophytic species considerably lower,compare dt oth esouth .I nth enorth , includeArtemisi a schrenkiana,Carexpediformis, Fes­ the steppe is extensively developed at an elevation of tuca sulcata, and Stipa capillata mixing with other 1,000 m; at Urumqi it appears at 800-900 m. In the grasses,herbs ,an da smal lnumbe ro fshrubs .Ther ear e south, at the same elevations, desert associations ap­ different associations according tosit e characteristics. pear. Forestsar e found at elevations of 1,500-2,500 m Stipa capillata + Festucasulcata + Carexpediformis in the north, but steppe covers the south at the same +Artemisia schrenkiana association. Some associate elevation (Popov, 1931). The types of vegetation and speciesinclude : soils are dramatically affected by elevation. From the Astragalus spp. Polygonum aviculare piedmont zone to the alpine areas, the soils are distin­ guished asmountai nbrow ncalcareou s soil (800-1,100 Chenopodium album Poa bulbosa m), mountain castanozem (1,100-1,600 m), mountain Draba spp. Trigonellaspp . chernozem (1,600-1,800m) ,mountai n graybrow n for­ Kochiaprostrata Tulipailiensis est soil (1,800-2,700 m), sub-alpine meadow soil Plant height is 10-50 cm with 30-40%cover . An­ (2,700-3,000m) ,an dalpin emeado w soil (3,000-3,600 nualdr y matteryiel d is450-50 0kg/ha ;hal fo f thetota l m). isgrass .Wher e the soil water is favorable, Carexspe ­ cies increase. Theflor a of theare anort h ofTiansha n isver yrich with about 2,500 species, including elements of the The Carexpediformis +Artemisia schrenkiana eastern portion of Middle Asia and CentralAsian , and association. Thisassociatio n isfoun d onsunny , gentle greatly reduced numbers of Eastern Asian elements. slopes,an d alluvial flats of foothills with loamy sandy There are many forage grasses of the temperate zone soil of 30c m depth.Th especie so f the association are whichma yprovid ea valuabl esourc eo fbreedin gmate ­ few and simple. Plant cover is about 20%,th e annual rial for thisare a including: dry matter yield is 450 kg/ha, and three-fourths of the Agropyron cristatum Helictotrichon totali sArtemisia. Alopecurus spp. tianschanicum TheArtemisia sublessingiana + Stipa capillata Brachypodiumpinnatum Koeleria gracilis association. This association is distributed at 900- Bromus inermis Melica altissima 1,500 m on sunny slopes. Some associate species in­ Bromustectorum Phleum alpinum clude: Dactylis glomerata Phleumphleoides Alyssum desertorum Chenopodium album Elymusjunceus Phleumpratense Artemisiafrigida bulbifera Festuca alaica Poa alpina Astragalus spp. Tulipailiensis Festucakryloviana Poa bulbosa Convolvulus Tulipa Festuca ovina Poa nemoralis gortschakovii thianschanica Festucapratensis Stipa spp. Festuca sulcata Trisetum spicatum Plantcove ri slow ,abou t8% ,an dannua ldr ymatte r Koeleria cristata yield is225-30 0 kg/ha. There are many other species and ecotypes which Mountain steppe.Thi sare ai sfoun d onth enorth ­ mayb eexploite ddu et oth evariet yo fsites .Th evertica l ern slope of the Tianshan at 1,100-1,500m .Th e char­ distribution of vegetation is in the following order: acters of steppe show a somewhat pebbly Festuca piedmont semi-desert steppe, to mountain steppe, to sulcata steppewit h someStipa capillata. mountain cold temperate coniferous forest, to sub-al­ Thesubdominant s may include: pinemeadow ,t oalpin emeadow-cushio nvegetation ,t o thesno w and ice line. Achilleamillefolium Echinopsspp . Artemisia austriaca Elymusjunceus Hsu and Chia (1965) studied the steppe in Artemisia frigida Erysimum canescens Zinenquan (south of SanWan 44° N and 85°23' E) Aster altaicus Galiumverum located midwayo n thenorther nslope so fth eTiansha n Carex nitida Sisymbriumjunceus at an elevation of 1,050 m and with annual rainfall of On the drier slopes, Festuca steppes frequently 180m m (417m m in 1967).Th evegetatio n of thisare a show an abundant occurrence of Artemisia maritima is mainly Middle Asian type, mixing with some Mon­ andLasiagrostis +Caragana (association so fth esemi - golian elements, forming a complete spectrum with steppeo nrubbl ysoils) .Th estepp eshrub so nth enorth - vertical distribution.

165 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

ern slopes are Spiraea hypericifolia, Rosa platyacan- Sub-alpine meadow grasslands. The sub-alpine tha,an d Cotoneaster melanocarpus. meadow grasslands are found at elevations of 2,600- 3,000m .Th emai n species include: Two distinguishable associations of Stipa are Agropyron pectiniforme Koeleria gracilis found. Alchemilla vulgaris Polygonum viviparum TheStipa capilkita + Festuca sulcata association. Alopecurus pratensis Ptilagrostis purpurea This association spreads on gentle and half-shady Geranium albiflorum slopes of chestnut soilwit h elevations above 1,300 m. Other species include: Plant cover is 30-45% and annual dry matter yield is Anthoxanthum odoratum Stipa Idrghisorum 700-800kg/ha ;38 %o f thetota lweigh t iscompose d of Helictotrichon Festuca spp. tianschanicum TheStipa capiUata +Festuca sulcata + Spiraea Alpine meadows. Alpine meadow associations hypericiformisassociation. This association has plant appeara t3,000-3,60 0m .Tri emai nassociation sinclud e cover of 30-40% and an annual dry matter yield of Kobresia capillifolia, Carex stenocarpa + Kobresia about 700 kg/ha. In addition to the dominants, some spp., and at some locations herbs and Kobresia mead­ otherspecie s include: ows,includin g thespecies : Allium rubens Rosa spp. Aster alpinus Polygonum viviparum Carexpediformis Pyreihrum spp. Leontopodium Potentilla nervosa Koeleria cristata Stipa idrghisorum ochroleucum Saxifraga hirculus Leymus spp. Papaver nudicaule Spruceforests .Spruc eforest s arefoun d on north­ Inth esub-alpin ean dalpin emeadows ,grasse san d ernslope sa televation so f 1,500-2,600m .Thes e forests herbsgro wluxuriantl y andinclud eman y nutritivespe ­ always mix with mountain meadows on gentle slopes cies which are invaluable for summer grazing. The andwit hmountai nsteppe so ndrie rsunn yslopes .I nth e plantcove ri salway s70-80% ,wit hth eheigh tof Kobre­ western portiono f the mountainsa tBol e(Bortala )an d siarangin g from 10t o 15cm .Annua ldr y matter yields Jinghe (Jing), mountain steppes have developed well reach 1,000 kg/ha (Figure7.15) . on the wetter places below the forest zone at 1,700- 1,900 m,formin g atyp eo fmeadow-grasslan do n cher­ Onth eBogd a Mountains,i nth eeaster n parto f the nozem soil. northern Tianshan area, the vertical distribution of vegetationzone si sa thighe relevation stha ni nth ewest ; Twoassociation s are distinguished. iti sdesert-stepp e (upt o 1,500 m),stepp e (1,500-1,800 The Poa alpina + Bromus inermis + Gentiana m),forest-stepp e (1,800-2,800m) ,an dalpin egrasslan d spp.association. This association includes the follow­ andmeado w(2^00-3,50 0m) .Th especie scompositio n ingspecies : of each vegetation type is similar to that found in the Achillea millefolium Leymus spp. west. Astragalus spp. Medicago falcata Galium spp. Phleum phleoides STEPPE, SEMI-STEPPE, AND MOUNTAIN Thalictrum spp. VEGETATION IN KASHGARIA (SOUTHERN The plant cover is 60-80% and the annual dry TIANSHAN) matteryiel d is 1,500-1,800kg/ha . Incompariso n with the northern Tianshan region, The Phleum phleoides + Festuca sulcata + Iris thesouther nregio ni sdrier .Thi sare ai sa lon gmountai n ruthenica association. This association is distributed rangewit ha lengt ho fabou t 1,500km .I tstretche s from on moreope n siteswit h lesswater .Som eothe rspecie s south of Urumqi to the southwest to join the central in theassociatio n include: Tianshani nRussi aan dinclude sth emountain so fwest ­ Aster spp. Fragaria viridis ern Kashi (Kashgar) toPamir . The mountains average Astragalus spp. Galium verum 4,000 m with some peaks up to 6,995 m (Hantengri) Bromus inermis Koeleria cristata and 7,435 m (Tomur). There are many intermountain Carexpediformis Leymus spp. valleysan d basinssuc h asYanqi ,an d Baicheng(Bay) , which add to theari d climate. Furthermore, the south­ The plant cover is 50-60% and the annual dry ern mountains lie in the rain belt shadow. Thus, the matter yield is about 1,000 kg/ha; 30% of the total annualrainfal lo fcitie si nth epiedmon tzon eo fth elon g weight isgrass . range is below 100 mm, but on high mountains, the rainfall may be 200-400 mm. Mean annual tempera-

166 CHAPTER 7

Figur« 7.15. Alpine meadow on the Tianshan (3,000 m) in Xinjiang. Vegetation includes the dominant species otKobresia, Carex, and Polygonum viviparum. (Photo courtesy of J.P. Zhong, 1980) turesgenerall y rangefro m 7-8°Can di nsom earea sar e and endemic species. above 10°C (Kapin). In the higher Yurtus Basin, lo­ Ceratoides latens is a Mediterranean-Middle cated at 2,400m , the mean annual temperature is -5°C Asian species. with a mean January temperature of -26°C and an absolute low temperatureo f -46°C(Bayanbulak) . Mountain Desert and Desert Steppe From theseundulatin grubbl y foothills (areaswit h Onth epiedmon tbel to fth esouther nslope sar elo w many small rocks on the surface) with gypsiferous hillscommonl y covered with rubblewithou t loessan d hamada , the soils are mountain brown desert and with very scattered plant cover. The vegetation is gypsiferous brown desert changingt omountai n steppe mountain desert and desert steppe which is limited to brown calcareous soilan d light chestnut soil at higher thezon eo f 1,600-2300m ,du et oth eloca lconditions . elevations.O nth esub-alpin ean dalpin ebelts ,th esoil s aresub-alpin e meadow steppean d alpine meadow. On thedr y foothills where therear erock y pebble deposits,Sympegma regelii, Zygophyllum xanthoxylon, Fewer than 500 species are found in this area Ephedra przewalskii, and Gymnocarpos przewalskii (Popov, 1931;Grubov , 1969);o f them most are com­ grow.O ndiluvial-alluvia larea swit hgrave lan do n the mon toMongoli a orclosel y relatedareas ,suc ha sthes e slopeso flo whill ssemi-shrub sgrow ,suc ha sReaumu­ specieso f themountai n desert: ria songarica, Kalidium schrenkianum, Anabasis Ammopiptanthus nanus Nitraria sphaerocarpa aphylla,Anabasis truncata, andSalsola yunatovii. To Ephedra przewalskii Reaumuria kashgarica the upper portion of this belt, grasses gradually in­ Apophyllum dahuricum Sympegmaregelii crease, including: Stipa glareosa, Stipa gobica, and Iljinia regelii Zygophyllum Stipabreviflora. Kalidium gracile xanthoxylon There are two distinguishable associations of the Some MiddleAsia n desert species include: desert steppe; 1) theAnabasis brevifolia +Stipa spp. Anabasis aphylla Salsola yunatovii association, and2 ) theArtemisia +Stipa tianschanica Anabasis truncata Zygophyllum xanthoxy- association. Kalidium schrenkianum Ionvar . kashgaricum 1. TheAnabasis brevifolia + Stipa spp .associatio ni s Reaumuria songarica distributeda t 1,800-2,000m o nth esouther naspec t

hamada:a rock-floored or rock-strewn desert region (also:hammada) .

167 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

of Bogda Mountains in the eastern portion where in the east. Fewerassociat especie sar e found; Kochia there are foothills with diluvial-alluvial deposits prostrata, Eurotia ceratoides, Oxytropis spp., and andgravell ysoil .Ther ear emor eassociat especies , Sedum spp. The steppe belt in the west is represented but fewer plants. by a narrow strip or by areas of dry sparse grass Thecommo n species include: (Festuca ovina) steppes on clay slopes. A series of Alliumspp . Echinops spp. steppeshrub s(Spiraea spp. ,Lonicera semenovii, Rosa Artemisia spp. Euphorbiasinica kashgarica,Halimodendron halodendron, and (Salix Atraphaxisspp . Zygophyllum spp. tenuifolia) are hidden in the ravines, falls, gorges, and Plant covergenerall y is4-5% . amongth erock s (Grubov, 1969). 2. The Artemisia + Stipa tianschanica association spreads in the western portion of southern slopes Some smallarea s of shrub steppes are distributed ofTiansha nwit h about20 %pebble so nth eslopes . widely on light salinesoil .Th emai n speciesi sAchna- The plant cover may rise to50% . therum splendens, whileArtemisia pectinata and Che- nopodiumspp .for m meadowsalon g streams. Themai n species include: Agropyroncris latum Koeleria gracilis In the steppe belt, on the wet shady slopes of Elymus spp . Poa botryoides valleys, many patches of Picea schrenldana forests Festucaspp . grow. Mountain forests are generally dispersed at 2,400-2,900 m. On the western Kunlun Mountains, The desert species include Eurotia ceratoides, spruce forests are dispersed in shady valleys at 2,900- Kochiaprostrata, andth eher bAstragalus. 3,500m . Mountain Steppe Sub-alpine Steppe This classification is widely distributed in the southern portion of the region at 1,800-2,400m in the Sub alpine steppes are distributed in an inter- Hoxud area,an d 2,600-2,800 mo nMuza t Mountain in mountain areaabov e2,700-2,80 0m .Th emai n species the west. Because of the dryness of the area, steppe are Stipa purpurea and Stipa subsessiliflora mixing vegetation did not develop well. Two associations are withFestuca ovina, Festuca kryloviana, andArtemisia mentioned inwhic h the main dominants include: spp. In some locations, thereappea r sub-alpine herba­ Agropyron cristatum Koeleria gracilis ceous meadowswhic h include Campanula glomerata, Artemisia frigida Stipa glareosa Sanguisorbaalpina, and Geraniumwilfordii. On the bottom of valleys, marshy meadows develop with Cleistogenes squarrosa Stipa krylovii Carex microglochin, Deschampsia caespitosa, and TheAgropyron cristatum+ Cleistogenes squarrosa Juncus ejfusus. +Stipa spp. Association The typical vertical distribution of vegetation in Thisassociatio ni sdistribute d mainlyi nth eHoxu d the middle Tianshan was given by the expedition of area with light chestnut soil. The proportions of the Academica Sinica during 1977-1978 (described by dominants are different due to local micro-relief. For Chen, 1981). The area is located north of Wensu instance, on more gravel soil, Stipa glareosa is the (41°30' N, 80°20* E) with a general elevation of dominant while on alluvial flat areas of higher eleva­ 4,000m and five peaksa t 6,800t o7,43 5m .Th e mean tions,Stipa capillatai sth e dominant. annual temperature and annual rainfall at the foothill are7.4° Can d 96mm , respectively, which istypica lo f Othercommo n species include: a continental climate. Allium spp. Oxytropis spp. Artemisiafrigida Potentilla spp. Thedeser tbel ti sdistribute do nth ebroa dpiedmon t Lasiagrostis splendens withdiluvia ldeposit su pt o2,10 0an d2,30 0m o nshad y and sunny locations, respectively. The vegetation is with somedeser t species: mostly shruban dsemi-shru b whichbelon g toth e flora Eurotia ceratoides of the Mongolian desert and include: Kalidium Lagochilusspp . schrenldanum, Reaumuria songarka, andSympegma The plant cover is 20-25% with 25-30 cm plant regelii. heights. Thedeser t steppebel t isfoun d between 2,100an d TheAgropyron cristatum +Artemisia maritima spp. 2,400m .Th e formation includesStipa (S. glareosa, S. +Stipa tianschanica Association gobica, and 5. caucasica), Iris ruthenica, andothers . Species of Caragana,Festuca, an dAchnatherum also Thisassociatio n isdistribute d inth ewes to f Kuqa, arecommon . onMuza tMountain ,extendin gt oth eBogd aMountain s

168 CHAPTER 7

Thefores t grassland belti sfoun d at2,40 0t o 3,150 Stanyukovich (1955, cit. Ikonnikov, 1965) m.Th e formations oïFestuca ovina,Stipa (S.krylovii, grouped all thespecie s into oneo f three elevations: 1) S.brevifolia, an d5 . caucasica), andother sfor m moun­ lower high-mountainous (3,600-4,200 m), 2) middle tain grasslands in broad areas of sunny slopes. Picea high mountainous (4,200-4,800 m), and 3) upper high schrerüdanaforest s developher ebette rtha neas to fth e mountainous(abov e4,80 0 m).Th emajorit y of species Tianshan and are found on shaded slopes with annual (478specie so r76% ) isconcentrate d in thelowe rhig h rainfall of 350-400 mm. mountain area, while about 300 species are limited to below 4,000 m. At this level, species include many Thealpin emeado w belt isfoun d at3,15 0t o3,90 0 desert plants, almost all the steppe plants, a series of m.Th e primary formation isKobresia capillifoliaan d meadow plants, 18specie so f shrub plants,an d thorny Carex melanantha. cushion species.A tth emiddl ehig h mountain levelar e Themai n species include: found 86specie s(14% )whic h include meadow plants, Eutrema edwardsii Primula turkestanica talus plants, and some desert plants. The upper high Oxyria digyna Rhodiola quadrifida mountains do not include any species specific to that Polygonum viviparum Saussurea gnaphalodes elevation,but onl ythos especie so fth eothe rlevel stha t These form many colorful meadows. have penetrated. The cushion plant belt is found at 3,900 to 4,000 Ikonnikov (1965) described grazing lands on the m.Specie sinclude :Astragalus ellipsoidens,Potentilla highmountain si nthi sare aa swel la sother si nXinjiang . biflora, andSibbaldia tetrandra. Above4,10 0m i s the Grazingland sar efoun d atelevation so f3,600-4,20 0m , permanent snowline. with about three-quarterso fal lth eplant so fth ePamir s being highly nutritive pasture and meadow plants Inth e Tianshan area good forages include: which are rich in sugars. There are sites in this area Grasses and Carex where Kobresia, grasses, and legume plants might be Achnatherum splendens Koeleria spp. collected from which new specieso f cultivated fodder Agropyron spp. pererme plantscoul d beselected .Th e area isals oric h inindus ­ Bromus inermis Poa spp. trialplants ,nutritive plants ,ornamenta lplants ,an d fuel Carex spp. Roegneria spp. plants. Dactylis glomerata Stipa (four species) Elymus sibiricus Trisetum (two species) Tue tal .(1981 )studie d themeado w pastureo nth e Hordeum easternslope so fth ePamirs ,wher eth emeadow ssprea d brevisubulatum along river valleys with some areas as large as 1,000 hectares. They divided this meadow region into three Legumes and other herbs include: types: river valley meadows, saline meadows, and Artemisia spp. Melilotus officinalis marshy meadows. Medicago sativa Salsola spp. High Mountain River Valley Meadows Inth egrazin glan do fsouther nslope so fTianshan , some good steppe areas are found in intermountain Three associations are distinguished: 1) Carex + valleys and are used as winter pastures, while alpine Astragalus, 2) Carex +Koeleria, and 3)Clinelymus + steppes are used as summer pastures. This area has a Phragmites. deficiency of meadow regions for hay harvest. Carexspp. +Astragalus spp. + Clinelymus dahuricus Association THE PAMIRS, SOUTHWEST OF KASHGAR Themai n species include: ThePamir sar ea hig hmountai nare awit ha genera l Bromus inermis Oxytropis spp. elevation of5,00 0m ,peak so f 7,000m ,an d valleyso f Chenopodium glaucum Poa spp. 3,000-5,000 m. The western portion of the Pamirs is Hordeum Primula spp. located in Russia. brevisubulatum Taraxacum mongolicum Medicago falcata Ikonnikov (1965) stated that in the high altitude region of the (3,600-4,500 m), 628 The plant cover is 90-95%, plant height is 23-34 speciesar efoun d listed asbelongin gt o25 0familie s of cm,an ddr ymatte ryiel d isabou t 2,000kg/h aannually . flowering plants and ferns. The largest family is the Carexspp. +Koeleria gracilis + Triglochinpalustre Poaceae (Gramineae) with 86 species (13.7%), fol­ Association lowed by the Compositae with 72species (11.5%)an d the Cruciferae with 65specie s(10.3%) . Theaccompanying species include:

169 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Astragalus spp. Rheum reticulatum plants and meadowsalon g thewate r sides. Tanacetum Glaux maritima Rumex acetosa pamiricum appears on sand flats at the base of rubble Oxytropis spp. Taraxacum mongolicum slides.Artemisia rutifoliai sfoun d on steeproc kwalls . Poa spp. UpperBelt The plant cover is 85-95%,plan t height is 36-46 Therainfal li sroughl ydoubl etha to fth elowe rbelt . cm, and annual dry matter yield is 1,200-1,500kg/ha . Tanacetumxylorrhizum isth edominan tan d is accom­ Clinelymus dahuricus +Phragmiles communis + paniedb yDracocephalumpaulsenii, Poa litvinoviana, Achnatherum splendens Association andFestuca sulcata. Th eKobresia sward scove ra larg e area. Theaccompanyin g species include: Artemisia vulgaris Hordeum Thegrass y(desert )steppe sdevelope dwel lo nsan d Astragalus spp. brevisubulatum in thevalleys . Bromus inermis Lepidium latifolium Thedominant s are: Chenopodium album Zygophyllum spp. Stipa glareosa Ptilagrostis subsessiflora The plant cover is 50-70%, plant height is 14-29 Stipa orientalis cm, and theannua l dry matter yield is 1,200 kg/ha. and areassociate d with: Mountain Valley Saline Meadows Ajania Ceratoides Artemisia Triglochin pamiricum Thisi sdistinguishe d by thePhragmites communis +Clinelymus dahuricus association. Insubalpin esteppe s(unde r4,20 0mm) ,50 %o fth e plants areforme d byFestuca sulcata, with the follow­ Thespecie s include: ingaccompanying species: Achnatherum splendens Eurotia ceratoides Hordeum Puccinellia Artemisia vulgaris Hordeum turkestanicum subspicata Bromus inermis brevisubulatum Oxytropis immersa Saussurea Cirsium spp. Lepidium latifolium Poa litvinoviana leucophylla The plant cover rangesfro m 30t o40 %wit h plant Potentilla heights of 18-30c m and dry matter yield of about 600 pamiroalaica kgpe r hectare. High Mountain Valley Marshy Meadow KARAKORAM, KUNLUN, AND ALTUN (ALTYMTAG) MOUNTAINS The Carex spp. + Tamarixspp . + Triglochinpal­ ustreassociatio n is found in this area. The Karakoram, Kunlun, and Altun (Allym tag ) mountains are great mountain ranges forming a large Theaccompanyin g species include: land mass with general elevations of 4,000-5,000 m Ephedra spp. Polygonum viviparum with many peaks more than 7,000 m. This is an area Equisetum spp. Rumex spp. 2,000k m in length from west toeas twhic h lieso n the Koeleria gracilis Taraxacum mongolicum southwestern andsouther n bordero f Xinjiang. It faces Phragmites communis theMongolia ndry-col dclimat ei nth enort hwhil esout h The plant cover is 80-90%, plant heights range ofth emountain si sth ealpin edeser tare ao fTibet .Thus , from 20-30 cm and annual yield of dry matter per the climate of this great land mass is extremely dry, hectare is about 1,000 kg. Stanyükovich (1973, cit. especially on thenorther n slopeso f theKunlu n Moun­ Walteretal. ,1983 )divide dth evegetatio no fth eeaster n tainsa tQiem o(Qarqan )an dRuoqian g (Qarkilik),wit h Pamirs intotw obelts : an annual rainfall of 9.4 and 11.1mm , respectively. 3,500-4,200m sub-alpinehemicryophytes ,an d Thevegetatio no f thesemountain si sver ypoo rno t 4,200-4,700m alpine eucryophytes only with respect to the number of species, but also Abovethi sleve llie sth eniva lbel twhic h isalmos t consideringtri enumbe ro fplant swit h poorgrowth an d completely withoutvegetation .Eac h belt is xerophytic small plant cover. The vertical distribution of vegeta­ andsometime s iscalle d desert steppe. tion iswithou t regular belts. Generally, alpine vegeta­ tion and FestucaStipa mountain steppes are Lower Belt incompletely developed, and thedominan t of thepied ­ Thisbel t isdominate d byCeratoides an d includes mont,Artemisia, isfoun d at2,400-2,70 0m .Again , the Artemisia rhodantha, with some grasses or cushion distribution of vegetation from the west to the east

170 CHAPTER 7

varies. Generally, the poorest distribution is found in The Middle Portion of the Kunlun and Altun the middle part. Mountains Li (1960) reported that theYutia n (Kenya, on the Thisare ai sextremel y dryan dit sclimat ei sclassi ­ piedmontbelt )an dPul u(o nth emountains )area so fth e fieda s desert mountain climate. On thepiedmon t belt KunlunMountain scontaine d thetypica lvertica lvege ­ ofthes emountains ,an deas tt oQilia ni nwester nGansu , tation distribution of: theannua lrainfal l (in mm)i sa sfollows : Hotan(38.5) , 1,400-1,700m Gypsiferous desert without vegeta­ Qiemo (9.4), Ruoqiang (Xinjiang) (11.1), Dunhuang tion (Reaumuria kashgarica, Calli- (38.8), Ansi (51),Yume n (60.5), and Wuwei (Gansu) gonumkashgaricum deser twit hver y (137.6). Physicalweatherin g processes and wind play few plants in 1,600-1,700m) . the leading role in thisextremel y dry area.Thes e con­ 1,700-2,100m Reaumuria kashgarica desert ditionsar eextremel y unfavorable for thedevelopmen t Eurotia ceratoidesdeser t of soil and vegetative cover. It is estimated that not 2,100-2,400m Sympegma regelii desert moretha n 150specie sar epresen ti nth eeaster nKunlu n 2,400-2,700m Artemisia parvula desert and the Altun mountains.Th e elements of flora in the 2,700-3,000m Artemisia parvula, Allium, Stipa areaar emostl y CentralAsia nan d areonl ylierophytes . desert steppe Changan dL i( 1980 )state dtha tth evertica ldistributio n above3,00 0m Alpine steppe-cushion and alpine ofvegetatio n was as follows: cushion vegetations. Mountain Desert Belt The Western Portion of Kunlun Thisvegetativ etyp eexist sbelo w3,20 0m fro m the Morerainfal loccur sher edu et onorther n exposure bottom of the foothills to the sub-alpine area. The and the depression between the Tianshan and the vegetation iscompose d of desert-type plants and may Kunlunshan,whic hlet si nmor emoistur efro m thewest . bedivide d into twosub-belts : Thus, in the western Kunlun Mountains, there is more rainfall than in the central part (Yarkant Valley is the Artemisia parvula subalpine desert sub-belt dividing line between the western and the central Thisbel t islocate d at 2,700-3,200 m.O nth eto po f the KunlunMountains) .I nth ewester nKunlu nMountains , belt,th evegetatio ni smor eo rles sgrass ywit hmountai n therainfal l mayb e300-40 0m mo nth esub-alpin ebelt , browncalcareou ssoil .O ncliff so ro nhighl yweathere d falling as snow and providing water resources for the slopes,ther ei sn oplan t growth. Yarkant and Kaxgar rivers. However, in the lower Sympegma regelii, Reaumuria songarica semi- portion of the western Kunlun Mountains, the annual shrub desert sub-belt. This belt is found from the rainfall is less than 100 mm, with only a few small foothills to2,700-2,90 0m wit hmountai nbrow n desert rivers.Thes econdition s createa complet ese t of vege­ soil. tation types, including mountain steppe, forest, and sub-alpine and alpine meadows. The desert steppe in Mountain Desert Steppe Belt thewester n Kunlun Mountains rises to 2,000 m, how­ This vegetation type exists between 3,200 and ever. Steppe and forest belts also are found but no 3,400m on shady slopes with fine soil. A narrow belt herbaceous meadows. of desert steppe is discontinuously distributed and is composed of: Stipa glareosa,Stipa purpurea, Festuca In the western Kunlun Mountain area, Festuca olgaean dothe rgrasses ,an dAllium oreoprasum,Arte­ olgae,Stipa purpurea, Agropyron spp., and Artemisia misiaparvula, and Ceratoides compacta. parvula form a sub-alpine steppe at 3,000-3,600 m. Alpinemeadow san dcushio nvegetatio nar edistribute d Alpine Desert andAlpine Cushion VegetationBelt to 3,600 m, forming alpine meadow with the main speciesKobresia esenbechii andKobresia capillifolia, Thisbel t islocate d at3,400-4,50 0 m.O n thepeb ­ joinedwit hsom especie so fth ealpin estepp e(grasses) . bled slopes of this mountain-land, Ceratoides com­ Thylacospermum spp. appears on pebble slopes as a pacta forms a loose alpine desert vegetation. On the cushion vegetation species. In the piedmont areas, the slopes of the mountain where it is slightly moist, An- plant species are mostly shrubs including Anabasis, drosace squarrosa forms a cushion vegetation mixed Asterothamnus, Gymnocarpos, Zygophyllum, and withStipa purpurea. somehalophyte s ofAlopecurus, Glaux,Carex, Phrag- TheAlpine Snow Belt mites, Taraxacum, and Triglochin. This belt is located from 4,500 mt oth esno w line and hasver y few plants.

171 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

TheA Ipine Snow andIce Belt sandy loam soil. TheBrachanthemum nanshanicum + Sympegmaregelii +Stipa breviflora +Stipa glareosa This belt exists from 5,300-5,700 m and contains association spreads on sand-gravel orrock y slopes. no important vegetative species. The structure of the verticaldistributio n ofspecies o fth ewester nAltu nan d Southern Slopes ofthe WesternQilian Mountains middle Kunlun mountains is similar to that described On the southern slopes of the western Qilian above. The grazing lands of this great mountain area Mountains,th eclimat ecreate sa larg ebel to f mountain are used aswinte r and spring pasture. Due to the high desert vegetation from the foothills to 2,900-3,500 m elevation,stee pslopes ,an dloos eplan tcover , iti suse d whichinclude spiedmon talluvia lplain ,lowe rhills ,an d only for sheep and goats. The coarse sheep wool ob­ middle mountains with coarse gray brown desert soil. tained from these animals is used to make Hotan car­ Therei sn ovegetatio n on largearea so fgroun d surface pets.Abov e 3,000m , the sub-alpine desert steppe and butalon gth egullie sar edisperse d twoassociations :th e cushionvegetatio ni suse da sa summer-autum npastur e Salsola collina +Sympegma regelii +Ephedra prze- for yak. In thebroa d flat valleys of the mountain area walskii+ Ceratoides latens associatio nan dth eSalsola where it is rich with water, irrigated crops of spring abrotanoides + Ceratoides latens association. From wheatan dbarle yar egrow n forfoo dan dlivestoc k feed. 3,450-3,550 m both plant cover and species increase with theSalsola abrotanoides +Reaumuria songarica WESTERN QUILIAN MOUNTAINS +Artemisiaxerophytica desertassociatio n asth edom ­ inant. The area of thewester n Qilian Mountains and the series of mountains between the Qilian and Altun The main species include: mountainsfor m alarg emountai nmas swhic h connects Ceratoides compacta Stipa purpurea theTsaida m Basin steppe and desert vegetation in the Salsola abrotanoides Stipa subsessiliflora south, and Hexi Corridor (Gansu) in the north. The Stipa glareosa general elevation is above 3,500 m with some peaks Thesespecie sfor m various associations. On allu­ above5,00 0m an dlo wvalley so f3,00 0m .Th eclimat e issever ewit hannua lrainfal lfo rth eare abetwee n 2,800 vial flats,Artemisia forms purestan d associations. and 3,000m bein g 170m m in the east and 120m m in Mountain Steppe the west, but at the base of the mountains only 30-80 mmi sreceived .Th erainfal l increaseswit helevatio n to This steppe is found between 2,700 and 3,300m . 300-400 mm at the alpine belt, while mean annual Theassociatio no fStipa krylovii +Agropyron cristatum temperatures decrease with elevation. Located on the isfoun d at2,700-3,30 0m wit h mountain light chestnut northernborde ro fTsaida m inth esouth ,Lengh u (2,735 soil of loess parental material. The Stipa purpurea m) hasa mean annual temperature of -2.7°C. steppespread si nbasin so ro nsunn yslopes .Dasiphora fruticosavar . tanguica+ Stipa purpurea +Agropyron Theelement so fflor a inth eare aar emainl yCentra l cristatum steppe is distributed above 3,000 m. On the Asianan dinclud eTibeta nan dMiddl eAsia nelements . broad level land covered with yellow soil,Stipa peni- The vertical distribution of vegetation is generally cillataan dAgropyron cristatum usuall yappear . mountain desert, mountain desert steppe, mountain steppe, alpine steppe, and alpine desert with loose Alpine Steppe vegetation. This steppe is distributed at 3,300-3,800 m. The main species of alpine steppe include Festuca ovina, Mountain Desert Koeleria cristata, Roegneria melanthera,Carex spp. , From thedeser t area on the plain up to2,50 0 m is andPoa alpigena,formin g associations that aresprea d a belt of mountain desert with salinized brown desert widely. On the upper part of the steppe, there appear soil. In the lower, middle, and upper levels are Reau- some cushion plants such as Ceratoides compacta or muriasongarica, Nitraria sphaerocarpadesert ,Sym- Oxytropis spp. whileAgropyron cristatumsometime s pegma regelii desert, and Salsola abrotanoides— is added to the association. Alpine snow with loose Kalidium cuspidatum desert. Along the wet valley vegetation is found above 3,800 m on the tops of areas,specie soîMyricaria are found. mountainso r in thedepression s between peaks. Mountain Desert Steppe Thevegetatio n ismonotonous ; it includes: Ajania scharnhorstii Potentilla pamiroalaica This steppe spreads between 2,500 and 2,700 m Arenariapulvinata Saussureamedusa and in the river valley has an upper limit of 3,000 m. Ceratoides compacta Thylacospermum spp. TheSalsola abrotanoides + Alliumpolyrrhizum + Stipa glareosaassociatio n spreadsmainl yo nth eslope swit h

172 CHAPTER 7

These species form cushion associations or loose toit scharacteristic s andassociations , it mayb eclassi ­ vegetation on pebbleslopes . fiedint o mountain desert steppean d mountain steppe. Alpine Desert Mountain Desert Steppe The alpine desert is distributed at 3,900-4,500 m Mountain desert steppe is distributed at 1,800- with loess on the ground surface. The climate is very 2,000 m (2,000-2,200 m in the western portion) with cold. The Ceratoides compacta association is dis­ mountainligh tcastanoze m soil.O nth esouther nslope s tributed on the loess parental material. On the gravel of loess hills, theStipa breviflora +Ajania fastigiata andsand ygrave li sth eArtemisia spp.+ Ephedra gerar- associationi swidel yspread .O nth elowe rhills ,slopes , diana association. In depressions is found the Thyla- and terraces, theArtemisia dalai-lamae (semishrub) + cospermum spp. + Arenaria musciformis cushion Stipa breviflora association is distributed. This grad­ association orth eRhodiola quadrifida pur estan dasso ­ uallydisappear sfro m Sunant oth ewest ,bein greplace d ciation. by theSalsola passerina +Sympegma regelii +Stipa breviflora+ Alliumpolyrrhizum association ,formin ga In this mountain area, because the climate is so desert vegetation. On the topso f the alluvial fan is the severe,ther ei sa scarcit yo fvegetatio nan da deficiency Sympegma regelii + Artemisia xerophytica + Stipa of water. As a result, the grazing value of this area is glareosa +Ajania achilleoides deser tassociation . low. Mountain Steppe EASTERN QUILIAN MOUNTAINS Mountain steppe occupies the largest part of this belt with an upperelevatio n of 2,500 mi n theeas t and This area is a cool temperate coniferous forest- 2,700 mi n thewester n portion. In theare a of Sunan it steppe located in the eastern Qilian Mountain area. It extends to 2,800 m. The soils are typical castanozem actually includes several mountains previously men­ and dark castanozem. On gentle, shady slopes is the tioned in describing thewester n Chilien Mountains. It Stipa krylovii purestan d steppe;o nsunn y slopesStipa iseas y toconfus e thename s of these mountains,espe ­ breviflora forms a pure stand steppe; on the higher cially since there are several different names for these elevations of mountains where the wind is strong, the mountains in foreign literature such as Richtofen (Qil­ Stipa krylovii +Artemisia frigida steppeassociatio n is ianMountains) , Humboldt (Danghe Nanshan),an d the found; and in the western portion Stipa krylovii + Mushketov Range (Sertang Shan). Artemisiaxerophytica +Stipa purpurea form astepp e Some foreign geographers named this area as the association. Nanshan System (Kazakova, 1969)whic h includes the Mountain forest-steppe and cool temperate conif­ Kokonor Depression, placing it into the Qinghai erous forest aredistribute d on wetter shady and semi- (Tsinghai) - Tibetan Region. Some Chinese geogra­ shady mountain slopes. On sunny slopes, steppe phersan dbotanist shav eagree dwit hthi s classification. vegetation is found at 2,500-3,200 m in the east and We have chosen tolimi t this forest-steppe area to 2,700-3,300 m in the west. The species of trees are themountai nareas ,excludin gth eKokono rDepression . simple, including only Picea crassifolia and Sabina Provincial maps of China (1977) use many names for chinensis. Either species may form forests alone, or Nanshan with local namesa s adjectives. Those moun­ they may combine tofor m forests. Forests of Populus tains are parallel to each other lying in a southeast to cathayana and Ulmus pumila are spread in valleys northwest direction. below 2,800 m. Generally,th ewester nportio no fthi smountainou s Mountain steppes are distributed on sunny slopes areai shigher ,wider ,an ddrie rtha nth eeaster n portion. with Stipa przewalskii found on the lower part of the The general elevation is above 3,500 m, while peaks belt and Stipa purpurea found in upper areas. Some exceed 5,000 man d are constantly covered with snow meadowssprea d on thelo wslope swher esoi lmoistur e and glaciers. This makes irrigated agriculture possible is good. inth enorther n neighboringare a ofHex i Corridor. The Thedominan tspecie smcluôeAlliumprzewalsJdi zone of high ranges consists of alternating narrow andStipa krylovii folded block ranges and deepvalleys . and thefollowin g herbs: Mountainstepp ei sth emai nvegetatio ntyp eo nth e Anaphalis lactea Pedicularis mountains. It iswel ldevelope d from east towes t with Artemisia laciniata alaschanica broad belts occurring at higher elevations. According Dracocephalum tanguticum

173 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Sub-alpinemeadow san dshrub sexten dt o3,80 0m Achnatherum splendens Kobresia spp. in the east and 3,900 m in thewest . Alpine evergreen Hippophae tibetana Polygonum spp. thickets spread on shady and semi-shady slopes and Iris lactea var. chinensis Stipa purpurea alpine meadows are distributed on sunny and gentle slopes (Figure 7.16). In the eastern part of the belt, Inthi sarea ,ther ear esevera ldifferen t typeso frich Rhododendronanthopogonoides, Rhododendron capi- grazinglands ,bu tther ei sdeficienc y ofwinte rpasture . tatum, andRhododendron thymifoliumfor malpin eev ­ Since this area is near the Hexi Corridor, where irri­ ergreen thickets on the shady slopes below elevations gated agriculture is made possible by thewate r of the of3,50 0m .O n thetop san dwester n portion of thebel t Qilian Mountains, cultivated forages may be used to are Caraganajubata, Salix oritrepha, and Dasiphora supply supplemental forage for thesegrazin gareas . fruticosa which form alpine deciduous thickets. Mountain Steppifled Desert Belt Themai nspecie so fKobresia meadow sar eKobre­ The extreme eastern portion of the Qilian Moun­ sia pygmaea, Kobresia tibetica, and Kobresia royle- tainsi sinfluence d byth ePacifi c monsoon,makin g the ana. On wet soils, Polygonum sphaerostachyum, climatewette r than inth ewester n portion.A complete Polygonum viviparum,Saxifraga spp., and Gentiana set of vegetative spectrums in vertical distribution is algida appear as indicators of an alpine "meadow of found inth e east. flowers". Floral elements in the area are mostly Central Alpine Vegetation Asianwit habou t2 0commo nspecies ,but als oinclude d Between the alpine meadow-scrub area and the aremor etha n5 specie so fnorther n temperate-Eurasian snowlin ei sth ealpin eloos evegetatio n ina 200-30 0m origin, more than 5 species of eastern Asian, and 3 of wide belt. The climate is severely cold. The cushion endemicspecies . species are:Arenaria pulvinata, Arenaria kansuensis, Themountai n steppified desert belt isfoun d from andStellaria decumbensvar .pulvinata. Saussurea in- thepiedmon tplain ,wit ha nelevatio no f 1,500m o flo w conspicuaan dSaussurea medusa ar efoun do nth ewe t level mountains, to 1,800 m. The soil is loamy light slopes. castanozem. Inth esouther n areaso f theNanshan ,althoug h the The mainspecie s are: elevation is more than 4,000 m, the relative elevation Kalidium cuspidatum isonl y 500-1,000m ,a s indicated by thealpin e steppe Salsola passerina and meadows that arewidel y spread. accompanied by: The main species which form good grazing lands Reaumuria songarica Stipa glareosa include: Stipa breviflora Sympegma regelii

maws w I I ,<.,tf/ "f' : l

Figure 7.16. Alpine meadow ODth e Qiliân Mountains in southern Gansa Province. (Photo courtesy of D. Dewey, 1983)

174 CHAPTER 7

On the heavy sandy soil, the Oxytropis aciphylla REFERENCES association is found. In thewester n portion, where the Andrews, R.C. 1932. The New Conquest of Central climatei sdry ,ther ear etw osub-belts .O n theslope so f Asia. The American Museum of Natural History, lower hills with an elevation of 1,500-1,800 m is the New York.67 8pp . typical desert association of Sympegma regelii, where theparenta lmateria li sloess .O nsand ygrave lfla t areas Andrews, R.C. 1933. Exploration in the Gobi desert. isth eReaumuria songarica an dSalsolapasserina des­ Nat.Geog .Mag .63:653-715 . ertassociation .Fro m 1,800-2,000m ,th emai nspecies , Salsolapasserina andSympegma regelii, accompanie d Anon. 1958.Report so nth ecoordinate d researcho nth e byStipa breviflora, form steppified desert. desert region 1-2. Academia Sinica, Sand Control Team.Scienc e Press,Peking .(I n Chinese) The area from 1,800-2,300 m is steppe. On the Anon. 1962. Research on sand control. Academia drier slopes, Stipa spp. are the dominants with some Sinica, Sand ControlTeam . Science Press,Peking . species of Astragalus, Asterothamnus,Hololachna, (In Chinese) Reaumuria, Salsola, and Tanacetum. On the moist slopes,Poa spp. are thedominant s with the main spe­ Anon. 1963.A preliminary report of the study of pro­ cies of Hordeum proteose, Triticumstrigosum, and ductivity in the natural steppe of the loess area of others. Yenchi County, Ningxia Province. (Unpublished) (In Chinese) From 2300-3,100 m is forest, with purestand so f Picea asperata.O nth elowe rportion so fth eforest san d Anon. 1980a.Combatin gdesertificatio n inChina .Lan - in thelogge d areas,Picea asperata mixed withBetula chow Institute of Glaciology, Cryopedology, and japonica, Betula albosinensis, and Populus tremula Desert Research, p. 109-144.In: M.R. Biswas and var. davidiana are found. The undergrowth of the for­ A.K. Biswas (eds.). Desertification. Vol. 12.Envi ­ ests is rich with species found in northern China or ronmental Sciences and Applications. Pergamon endemicspecie s which includespecie s ofAcer, Cory- Press, Oxford, New York. lus, Daphne,Primula, Rhododendron, andman yothe r genera.The y may mix with grasses to form grassland. Anon. 1980b.Contro l thedesert san dcreat epasture si n On the southern drier slopes, Picea asperata is fre­ Wushenchao Commune, Inner Mongolia Autono­ quently replaced by a low sparse forest of Juniperus mousRegion ,p . 145-162.In: M.R .Biswa san dA.K . tibetica andJuniperus saltuaria. Biswas (eds.). Desertification.Vol. 12. Environ­ mental Sciences and Applications. Pergamon Inth eare afro m 3,100-3,800m ,subalpin emeado w Press, Oxford, New York. is found composed of many species, including repre­ Anon. 1980c. Tame the wind, harness the sand, and sentatives ofAllium, Astragalus, Gentiana,Oxytropis, andPotentilla. transform the Gobi. Office of Environmental Pro­ tection. Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region, p. From 3,800 to 4,400 m, there is an alpine vege­ 163-177.In: M.R. Biswas and A.K. Biswas (eds.). tation of cushion plants including Arenaria formosa, Desertification. Vol. 12. Environmental Sciences Paraquilegia grandiflora, Rheumspiciforme, Sedum and Applications. Pergamon Press, Oxford, New quadrifidum, Thylacospermum rupifragum, andman y York. others. Atlas of thePeople' s Republico f China. 1971. Central In the areas of the southern slopes of the Qilian IntelligenceAgency , Washington, D.C.8 2pp . Mountains, the climate is wetter than on the northern slopes where coniferous forests have developed well. Berkey, C.P., 1929. Orogenic evolution in the Gobi Theyar eth esam ea si nth enorther nare ao fth eTibeta n regiono fCentra lAsia .p .206-211 .In: J .W .Gregor y region.Th efores t belti slocate da t2,400-3,10 0 m.Th e (ed.).Th eStructur eo fAsia .London .22 7pp .(Cite d main species is Picea asperata, and many shrubs are by Roi,J . 1941.Phytogeograph y of CentralAsia) . found in the understory.Pinus tabulaeformisi s mixed Berkey,C.P. ,an d F.K.Morris .1927 .Geolog yo f Mon­ into the lower portion of the forest belt. In the area golia. The American Museum of Natural History, between 3,100 and 3,600 m, the shrub vegetation is NewYork .47 5pp . dominant. Above the area is alpine vegetation with Biswas, M.R., and A.K. Biswas (eds.). 1980. Deser­ manybeautifu l flowering plantsincluding :Allium cya- tification.Vol .12 .Environmenta lScience san dAp ­ neum, Corydalis spp.,Paraquilegia grandiflora, Saus- plications.Pergamo nPress ,Oxford , NewYork .52 3 surea spp., and Trolliuspumilus. On the whole, the pp. Qilian mountain area isa rich grasslan d used primarily by nomadicpeople .

175 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

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176 CHAPTER 7

Hao, K.S. 1938. Pflanzengeographische Studien ueber Lattimore, O. 1934. A ruined Nostorian city in Inner denKokonor-Se eun dda sangrenzend eGebiet .Bot . Mongolia.Geog .J .84(6):481-498 . Jahrb.68:515-668 .(I n German) Lavrenko, E.M., and A.A. Yunatov. 1966. Botanical- Hou, H.Y. 1982. The vegetation geography of China geologicalobservation s inth edeser to f Gansu Cor­ withreferenc e toth echemica lcompositio n ofcom ­ ridor and the northern slope of Nanshan. Bot. J. monplants .Scienc ePress ,Beijing . (In Chinese) 51:1816-1823.(I n Russian) Hsu,Z.X. ,an d S.S. Chia. 1965.Th e typeso f mountain Li, P. 1963.Th e zonality, primary types, and ecogeo- grazing land of the Zinequan area, on the northern graphic roles of vegetation in Inner Mongolia. J. slopeo f theTianshan . (Unpublished) (In Chinese) Univ.o f Inner Mongolia (Science), No.2 . (In Chi­ nese) Hsu, Z.X. 1980. The problem of the deterioration of grasslands in Inner Mongolia, p. 90-97. In: Proc. Li,P. ,C.L .Liu ,an dS.P .Yong .1980 .Steppe si nChina . 3rd. Northeastern Grassl. Conf., Soc. of Bot. of In: Y.Z. Wu (ed.).Vegetatio n of China. Academia Kirin and Heilongjiang Prov.,Changchun . (In Chi­ Sinica, Inst. Bot. Science Press, Beijing. (In Chi­ nese) nese) Hu, S.T. 1956.Th e grasslands of Inner Mongolia and Li,S .Y . 1960.Th echaracteristic san dformation s ofth e theirutilization . (Unpublished) (In Chinese) vegetation in relation to aridity of the northern slopes of the Kunlun Mountains. Acta Bot. Sinica Hu, S.Z. 1963. The fundamental characteristics and 9:16-31.(I n Chinese) utilization of Dzungarian desert grazing land. (Un­ published) (In Chinese) Li, S.Y., A.C. Wang, T.Y. Hwang, and CR. Wang. 1958. A survey of the vegetation and soils of Hu, S.Z., Y.T. Lu, Z. Wu, D. Zheng, and G.M. Chen. Tsaidam.Plan t Ecol.an d Phytogeog. Res.Ser .No . 1962. A survey of the desert of Junggar Basin, 18.Scienc ePress ,Peking .(I n Chinese) Xinjiang.In: Researc h onSan d Control.San d Con­ trolGrou po fAcademi aSinica .Nat .Tech .Inf . Serv. Li, S.Y., A.C.Wang , W.C.Tsai , CR. Wang,an d T.Y. Pub.JPR S 19993. Hwang. 1957. A discussion of the botany of Tsaidam. Acta Geog. Sinica 27:329-343. (In Chi­ Hue, E.R. 1928. Travels in Tartary, Tibet and China, nese) 1844-1886.2Vols .Harper , New York. Liu,CY . 1982.A discussio n of theformatio n ofdeser t Hwang, Y.H., and S.H. Lin. 1974.Studie s of the plant flora in China. Acta Bot. Sinica 20:131-141. (In communities on sands at Toutao Lake Basin in Chinese) Ningxia.Act a Bot.Sinic a 16354-364.(I nChinese ) Liu,E.L .1952 .Th eHo-S i(Hexi )Corridor .Econ .Geog . Ikonnikov,S.S . 1965.Recen tdat ao nth eflor a ofPamir , 28:51-56. p.250-256 .In: V.N .Sukache v (ed.).Studie so n the Flora and Vegetation of High Mountain Areas. Is­ Liu, T.N. 1934. The phytogeography of northwestern raelProgra m for Scientific Trans.,Jerusalem . China.Inst .Bot .Nat .Acad .2:423-451 ,Peking .(I n Chinese) Kamal,1.1975 .Glossar yo f theTerm s Used in Pasture andRang eSurvey ,Research ,Ecolog yan dManage ­ Lowdermilk, W.C. 1932. Forestry in denuded China. ment.FA O of theUnite d Nations, Rome. Ann.Amer .Acad . Polit. &Soc .Sei . 152:98-104. Kazakova, N.M. 1969. North China, p. 115-135. In: Lowdermilk,W.C , and D.R.Wickes . 1938.Histor yo f USSR Acad.Sei .Inst .Geog .Th ePhysica l Geogra­ soil use in the Wutai Shan area. p. 4-5.In: Mono­ phyo fChina .Vol .2 .Praege rPublishers ,Ne wYork . graph RoyalAsiati cSoc .N .Chin a Branch. Kuchkr, A.W. 1948.A new vegetation map of Man­ McGinnies, W.G. 1968.Appraisa l of research on veg­ churia.Eco L 29:513-516. etationo fdeser tenvironments ,p .391-456 .In: W.G . McGinnies, BJ. Goldman, and P. Paylore (eds.). Lattimore,0.1929 . Thedeser t road toTurkistan :20t h Desertso f the World. Univ.o f Press,Tuc ­ century travel through Inner Asia, along caravan son. trailsove rwhic horienta lcommerc ewa sonc eborn e from China to the medieval western world. Nat. McGinnies,W.G. ,B J . Goldman,an dP .Paylore .1968 . Geog.Mag .55:661-702 . Desertso f the World. Univ.o fArizon a Press,Tuc - son.788pp . Lattimore, 0.1932. Chinese colonization in Manchu­ ria. Geog.Rev .22:177-195 .

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Monod,T . 1964. Deserts,p . 116-132.In: The Ecology Roi,J . 1940.Souther n Chaharvegetation . PekingNat . of Man in the Tropical Environment. IUCN Pub. Hist.Bull . 14:221-224. New Series,No .4 . Monges,Switzerland . Roi,J .1941 .Phytogeograph yo fCentra lAsia .Bull .Fa n Murzayev, E.M. 1971. The deserts of Dzungaria and MemorialInstitut eo fBiolog y(Bot .Series )11: 1-36 . TarimBasin ,p .241-246 .In: S .R .Eyr e(ed.) .Worl d Schimper,A.F.W .1903 .Plan tGeograph yUpo na Phys ­ VegetationTypes .London . iologicalBasis .Oxford .83 9pp . Norm,E .1932 .Quaternar yclimati cchange swithi nth e Schomberg, R.C.F. 1930. The climate of the Tarim Tarim Basin.Geog .Rev . 22:591-598. Basin.Geog .J .75312-323 . Noriindh, T. 1949. Flora of the Mongolian steppean d Schomberg, R.C.F. 1932. The habitability of Chinese desert area. A report of the Sino-Swedish Exped. Turkistan.Geog .J .80:505-511 . Publ.No .31 .Bot .Sec .4:1-157 . Stockholm. Simpich , F. 1929. Manchuria, promised land of Asia. Pavlov, N.V. 1929. Materials on the flora of northern Nat.Geog .Mag .56:379-428 . andcentra l Mongolia brought by thebotanica l ex­ peditionsi n192 4an d1926 .Bui .Soc .Nat .Moscow . Stein, A. 1925. Innermost Asia: Its geography as a 33:1-153. (InRussian ) factori nhistory .Geog .J .65:377-403;471-501 . Penck,A . 1930.Centra lAsia .Geog . J.76:477-487 . Thorp,J . 1936.Geograph yo fth eSoil so f China. Com­ mercialPress ,Shanghai .55 2pp . Petrov,M.P . 1966.Th eDesert so fCentra lAsia ,Vol .1 . Ordos,Alashan , and Beishan. Science Publ.,Mos ­ Ting, S. 1948. The Vegetation of Sinkiang. (Unpub­ cow, Leningrad.(I nRussian ) lished) Petrov,M.P . 1967.Th eDesert so fCentra lAsia ,Vol .2 . Tu,C.Y. , S.H. Ai,an dL.Z .Aize . 1981.A surve yo fth e Hosi Corridor,Tsaidam ,an dTari m Basin. Science grasslando nth eeaster nslope so f Pamir.Grasslan d Publ.,Moscow , Leningrad.(I nRussian ) J.(I nChinese ) Petrov, M.P. 1976. Deserts of the World. John Wiley Vavilov, N.I. 1929. The role of Central Asia in the andSons ,Ne w York.44 7pp . origino f cultivated plants.Bull ,o f Appl.Bot. , Ge­ netics,an dPlan t Breeding, Leningrad. (English) Popov, M.G. 1931.Betwee n Mongolia andIran .Bull . Appl.Botany , Geneticsan dPlan tBreeding . 26:71- Walker, A.S. 1982. Deserts of China. Amer. Scientist 84. (Englishan dRussian ) 70:366-376. Printz,H . 1921.Th e Vegetation of the Siberian-Mon­ Walter,H .1979 .Vegetatio no fth eEart han dEcologica l golianFrontier s(th eSayans k Region).45 8pp . Systems of the Geo-Biosphere. Springer-Verlag, New York.2n ded .27 4pp . ProvincialMapso fChina .1977 .Ma pDivision .Beijing , China. 169pp . Walter,H. ,E.O .Box ,an dW .Hübig . 1983.Th edesert s of Central Asia. p. 193-236. In: N.E. West (ed.). Reginald, Lieut.-CoL, and R.C.F. Schomberg. 1932. Temperate Desertsan d Semi-deserts. Elsevier Sei. Alleged changes in the climate of southern Pub.Co. ,Amsterdam ,Ne w York. Turkistan.Geog .J .80:132-144 . Wang, C.T. 1960. Observations on the phenology of Richardson,S.D . 1966. Forestry in Communist China. certainhalophyti cplant si nth eYello wRive rmiddl e JohnsHopkin sPress ,Baltimore .23 7pp . valley,Inne rMongolia .Act aBot .Sinic a9:159-168 . Rodin,L.E . 1975.Productivit y ofdeser tcommunities . (InChinese ) BiosphereResource s 1:128-165.(I nRussian ) Wang, C.W. 1961.Th e forests of Chinawit h asurve y Rodin,L.E . 1976.Primar y productivityo f desertcom ­ of grassland and desert vegetation. Maria Moors munitiesi nNorther nAfric a andAsia . p.55-65 .In: Cabot Found. Pub. No. 5. Harvard Univ., Cam­ Problems of Desert Development. (In Russian). bridge,Mass .31 3pp . [Cited by Walter, Box, and Hilbig, 1983. The De­ sertso f CentralAsia. ] Wang, Y.F., S.P. Yong, and C.L. Liu. 1979. Charac­ teristicso fth evegetationa lzone si nth eNe iMongo l Rodin, L.E. (ed.) 1977. Productivity of Vegetation in AutomonousRegion .Act aBot .Sinica .21:274-284 . the Arid Zone of Asia: Synthesis of the Soviet (InChinese ) Studies for the USSR Academy of Sciences. Sci­ ence,Leningrad .22 2 pp.(I nRussian )

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Wen, C.W., C. Hsu, J. Li, and W.C. Tsai. 1956. The soil-vegetation zones of western Inner Mongolia. (Unpublished) (In Chinese) Wiens,J.H . 1969.Chang ei n theethnograph y and land use of the Ili Valley and region of Chinese Turk- istan.Ann . Assoc.Amer . Geog.59:753-776 . Wu,Y.Z .(ed.) .Vegetatio n of China.Academi a Sinica, Inst.Bot .Scienc e Press,Beijing . (In Chinese) Yang, J.C. 1959. The natural landscape to the west of theTola iRive ri nTsaidam .Act aGeog .Sinica ,Vol . 25(6). (In Chinese) Yao,S.Y . 1943.Th egeographica ldistributio no f floods anddrought si nChines ehistor y20 6B.C-191 1A.D . Far Eastern Quarterly 2:357-378. Yunatov, A.A. 1950. The basic features of the plant cover of the Mongolian People's Republic. Tr. Mongol.Kom .39:223 .USS R Acad. Sei., Moscow, Leningrad. (Trans, from Russian, 1959). Science Press,Peking .(I n Chinese) Yunatov,A.A . 1960.O ncertai n ecological-geographic patterns of the vegetation cover of the Sinkiang- UigurAutonomou sRegion .USS RAcad .Sei. ,Mos ­ cow.(I n Russian) Yunatov, A.A. 1961. On the understanding of theveg ­ etation cover inth ewester n Kunlun Mountains and the nearby part of the Tarim Depression. USSR Acad. Sei., Moscow. (In Russian) Zhu, CD. 1980. The fundamental characteristics of vegetation of Mazong Shan, Gansu.p .136-138 .In: Proc. 3rd Northeastern Grassl. Conf., Soc. of Bot. of Kirin and Heilongjiang Prov., Changchun. (In Chinese)

179 Chapter 8

THE DESERT VEGETATION IN THE NORTHWESTERN REGION

CentralAsi a isa vas tinterio rterritor yincludin g TERMINOLOGY northwestern China,Inne rMongolia ,an dOute rMon ­ golia (Mongolian People's Republic).I t ison eo f the Desert oldestlan dmasses ,wit hlarg einterna ldrainag ebasin s Asth eenvironmenta l condition of desertsi n the andsom eo fth emos textremel yari dcondition si nth e world are very different, the definition of desert is world.Thi slan dmas si ssurrounde db yhig hmountain s varied.Rainfal l isno tth eonl yfacto r usedt odescrib e on all sides. The outer zones are steppe and forest- thedeser tarea so fth eworld .Term ssuc ha s"ari dlands " steppe,excep tfo rth esouther npar to fth eTaklamaka n and"ari dzones "hav ebee nan dstil lar euse dt orefe rt o Desert.Th einne rlan di sa grea tdeser to fth enorthwest ­ the areas with dry climate, including dry steppe in ernpar to fChin a(Figur e8.1) . temperate zones,an d pampaan dsavanna h intropica l andsubtropica lzones .Certainly ,thes etw oterm salon e

Figure 8.1. General map of the northwestern region. Locations numbered are as follows: 1) Wnwei, 2) Zhangye, 3) Minqin, 4) Jiuqnan, 5) Anxi, 6) Dunhnang, 7) Hami, 8) Barkol Karzak, 9) Qitai, 10) Üriimqi, 11) Fukang, 12) , 13) Bole, 14) Tacheng, IS) Karamay, 16)Burqin , 17)Altay , 18)Fuyun , 19)Shansha n (Piqan), 20)Tnrfan , 21)Toksun , 22) ,23 )Kuqa ,24 )Aksa , 25) Huocheng, 26) Yining, 27) Xinynan (Kiines), 28) Tekes, 29) Kashi (Kaxgar), 30) Markit, 31) Yecheng (Kargilik), 32) Pishan, 33) Moyu (Karakax), 34) Hotan, 35) Yntian(Kenya) , 36) Qiemo(Qarqan) ,37 ) Ruoqiang(Qarkilik) ,38 )Lenghu ,39 )Golmud .

CentralAsi ai sa vas tterritor ywit hdeser tan dstepp evegetatio n inth einterio ro fAsi aincludin gnorthwester n China,Inne rMongolia ,an dOute rMongolia .Middl eAsi ai sth egeopolitica luni tcomprisin gth eSovie tAsia n republics.

181 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

are insufficient to define desert areas. Monod (1964) The characteristics of a gobi (Academia Sinica and Petrov (1976) described deserts and semi-deserts Sand ControlTeam ; Anon., 1958an d 1962,cit . McG- asregion sresultin gfro m anextremel yari dclimat ewit h inniese t al., 1968)ar e listed as: irregularprecipitation , lesstha n200-25 0m mannually , 1. an arid and continental climate, andexcessiv eevaporation .Othe rcharacteristic so fdes ­ 2. water generally scarce, with low level of under­ ert regions noted were; intermittent or dry streams, ground water, absenceo f regularsurfac e runoff, and salinesoil swit h 3. ground surface generally even and flat, crustswher esulfate san dchloride sar econcentrated .I n 4. ground surface composed of coarse conglomerate theseareas ,th eplan tcove ran d fauna arever y meager, orbedrock , as migration of salts predominate over biogenic pro­ 5. soil mostly brown calcium with very low fertility, cesses in thesoil ,an d agriculture ispossibl eonl y with and irrigation. 6. generally sparse vegetation with cover less than 30%,an d in most places lesstha n 1%. Delineation of a desert on the basis of vegetation isequall y difficult asvegetatio n isinfluence d by local From themorphostructura l perspective, thedeser t environmentalcondition ssuc ha sgeology ,topography , ofth enorthwester n region mayb edivide d intosevera l drainage,soi l(type ,an dchemica lan dphysica lproper ­ areas. The complex morphostructure of the Tianshan ties), shade, and slope aspect. As recently as a few divides the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region into centuriesago ,presen tdeser tan dsemideser t areaswer e twoparts : used intensively by man. Human activities such as 1. The Dzungaria tertiary plain or basin which oc­ grazing, lumbering,burning , cultivation, and other in­ cupiesth enorther npar to fXinjian gfro m thelowe r fluences havebrough t about great change. piedmonts of the Tianshan in the south, the Altai Mountains in the north, and theDzungari a Alatau Acomprehensiv edefinitio n ofdeser twa sgive nb y Mountains in thewest , forming a trianglewit h its Kamal(1975 )a sa nare a of land which hasa narid ,hot apex in the east; to cool climate, with vegetation that is very sparse (usually shrubby) that givesa dominan t toneo f aridity 2. theTari mo rTaklamaka nDeser tsout ho fth eTian ­ to the landscape. This is a general definition while shan and north of the Kunlun Mountains. The retaining thetraditiona lconcep t of a desert. Altunan d Qilian mountain chainsdivid e the east­ ern desert into two desert areas, Qaidam in the The deserts in the northwestern region of China south and Alashan inth e north. include the gobi and the sandlands. They cover The elevations of the deserts are: Dzungaria 300- 1,095,000k m ,abou t 11.4%o f China's totalarea .Th e 900 m; Taklamakan (Tarim) 700-1,400 m; Alashan sanddunes ,includin gwind-erode d land,mak eu p59 % 800-1,600 m; Qaidam 2,600-2,800 m; and Beishan while the gravel gobi makes up 41% of the desert. (which lies at the middle between the east and west) Thesesan d dunearea si n thestepp ema yb ereferre d to 1,000-2,000m . as sandland to distinguish them from the desert and barrenlan d (Lanchow Instituteo f Glaciology, Cryope- Geological formations of sedimentary deposits dology and Desert Research;Anon.,1980) . and extensive quaternary minerals are found in this area, including alluvial and extensive eolian deposits. Gobi Beishan is a very dry area of ancient mountains and The term gobi in the means hills.Th eDzungaria ,Taklamakan ,an dAlasha ndesert s scarcity ofvegetatio n withsan d andgravel .Th egrave l arecovere d extensively bysand .Gob i regionso fvary ­ ispredominantl y of pebblesiz e (4-64m m in diameter) ing types are distributed widely in the lowland and with moretha n50 %o fi to nth esurface .Ther ei sa lac k mountainousarea so fAlashan ,wester nQaidam ,Dzun ­ ofwater , anda scarcit yo f population.Th e term gobi is garia,an d east of theTianshan . now usedcommonl y ingeographica l references and in literature on vegetation toindicat eari d land and xero- phytic vegetation, including desert and desert steppe CLIMATE areassuc ha sthos elocate di nsouther n OuterMongoli a Theclimat eo f thesedesert si sstrongl y influenced and western Inner Mongolia,part s of Ningxia, Gansu, by atmospheric circulation. The typical anticyclonic and eastern Dzungaria in China. Petrov (1976) and circulation has a great influence on temperature Walter et al. (1983) included desert and desert-steppe fluctuations. Coldest January temperatures range from areasi n theirdefinition , butherei n gobiwil lrefe r only -7° to -9°C at the southern border (Kashgar, -7.4°C; totru e desert. Anxi, -9°C; Bayanhot, -8.7°C) to -16°C in the north (Urumqi, -16.6°C; Qinghe (Qinggil), -23.0°C; Karamay -17.2°C). Minimum temperatures drop to

182 CHAPTER 8

-20°C to -30°C in the south (Kashgar, -20°C; Anxi, while in Huhetao, in April,speed s of 24.5 m/sec have -29.9°C;Bayanhot ,-32.4°C )althoug htemperature sar e beenrecorded. Thes ewin dcondition spla ya majo r role lowest in the northern regions, dropping to -40°C in all physical and geographic processes in the desert (Urumqi,-38.3°C ;Chitai ,-42.6°C ;Karamay ,-35.9°C) . area. The process of salt accumulation resulting from The mean temperature of July is 20-26°C in the south intensive evaporation of ground water reaching the (Kashgar, 25.1°C; Anxi, 26.1°C; Bayanhot, 24.6°C), surface inth elowe rarea si sa n important factor. Allo f with maximum temperatures rising to over 40°C in these physical and soil conditions are unfavorable for many locations of the north (Kashgar, 40°C; Anxi, thedevelopmen t ofvegetativ e cover.Plan t growthan d 43°C; Bayanhot, 38°C; Karamay, 42.9°C; Chitai, animal industry, particularly the nomadic pasturage, 41°C). are influenced greatly by the severe and variable cli­ mate. Thehottes tpar to fth edeser ti si nTurfa nwhic hlie s inth edee pintermountai n depressionwit h an elevation of 154m belo wse alevel .Th emea ntemperatur edurin g VEGETATION July is33.4° Cwit h a maximum of 47.6°C. Thedeser t flora is mostly of Central Asian (Mon­ The annual mean temperatures of the region in­ golian) origin, with some plant species from eastern clude: in Kashgaria (southern Xinjiang): Kashgar, China in the east and the Mediterranean and middle 11.7°C;Hotan , 12.1°C;Turfan , 14.1°C;Kuqa , 11.5°C; Asia inth ewest .Thos eplants ,develope dsinc eancien t in Dzungaria (northern Xinjiang): Urumqi, 7.3°C; times under selection by the severe climate, make the Qitai, 4.9°C; Karamay, 8.1°C; in Qaidam (Golmud) occurrence of singlespecie s inon egenu s common. 3.6°C; Yenmakui, 3.9°C; in Alashan and Hexi Corri­ Previous Classifications dor:Jiuquan ,6.9°C ; Bayanhot, 8.7°C. Chiene tal .(1956 )classifie d thevas tdeser t region Thesedesert shav eextrem eseasona ltemperatures . of theNorthwes t into four categories according tosoil , The annual amplitude of the fluctuation of mean characteristicspecies ,an d hydrography: monthlyJanuar yan dJul ytemperature si s30-50°C ,an d 1) Sand duneso r yellow gobi, thedifference s ofth eextrem etemperature si s60-89°C . 2) Pebblegobi , The heat and light resources of the desert regions 3) Saline and alkaline flats, and areabundant . Daylight hours usually exceed 3,000pe r 4) Oases year with 120-175 cal/cm /yr radiation heat. The SandDunes or YellowGobi ranges of cumulative annual temperature above 10°C are:Qaidam ,1,500-2,000 ;Taklamaka n(Tarim) ,4,000 ; Thiscategor y issprea dwidel y inever yare ao f the Turfan, 5,500; Dzungaria, 2,200-2,800; Alashan, desert, with the Taklamakan region the largest. The 3,100-3,900. This high temperature creates conditions dominant speciesar eseparate d by regions: of extreme evaporation, above3,00 0m m annually. In the Mongolian Gobi:Agriophyllum arenarium In these deserts, rainfall is generally below 100 andAgriophyllum gobicum. mm and much less in some areas: Toksun, 39 mm; inside of Tarim less than 25 mm; Qaidam, 50 mm; Inwester n Alashan: Mazong Shan-Beishan, 17 mm. Generally, the south­ Calligonum mongolicum eastmonsoo ni sstil lnoticeabl ei nth eeastern par to fth e Haloxylon ammodendron desert, but summer rainfall decreases to the west. In Nitraria Schoben contrast, the Atlantic monsoon influences only the In Dzungaria: Achnatherum splendens and western part of Dzungaria, which has an even rainfall Tamarixspp . distribution through the four seasons,wit h decreasing precipitation toth eeast .Thus ,th emiddl eo f thedeser t In Ordos: isth edriest .Kashgari a (Taklamakan) isanothe r desert Alhagi pseudalhagi Pugionium cornutum area separated from monsoon rains by high mountains Artemisia halodendron Pugionium dolabratum andatmospheri c circulation. Artemisia salsoloides Salix mongolica Caragana spp. Timouria villosa Violent seasonal wind is another climatic and many other species onsan d dunes, including: characteristic in the desert, particularly during the Agropyron spp. Oxytropis aciphylla spring.Durin g winter, winds arenortherl y while sum­ Alhagi pseudalhagi Pappophorum spp. mer winds are from the west, south, and southeast. Allium spp. Peganum spp. Generally, the wind velocity is 20 m/seco r more. For Aristida adscensionis Statice aurea example,i nUrumqi ,th eMarc hwin dspee di s4 4m/sec ,

183 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Pebble Gobi In the Mongolian Gobi: Iris ensata and Iris pal­ lasii. Themai n species in Dzungaria include Artemisia spp. Caragana spp. InAlashan , Gansu and Ordos: Asterothamnus central! Haloxylon ammodendron Aeluropus littoralis Reaumuria spp. asiaticus Helianlbemum Calamagrostis spp. Salix cheilophila Calligonum caput- songaricum Kalidium spp. Suaeda spp. medusae Reaumuria songarica Nitraria spp. Tamarix spp. Capparis spinosa Zygophyllum xanthoxylon In Qaidam: Halogeton tibeucus and Sympegma Inth enorther n foothills of theKunlu n Mountains: regelil Alhagi pseudalhagi Halimodendron Along lakesan d rivers, species include: Atraphaxis frutescens halodendron Aeluropus littoralis Salix cheilophila Calligonum aphyllum Haloxylon ammodendron Atriplex sibirica Statice bicolor Capparis spinosa Hedysarum scoparium Calamagrostis spp. Suaeda spp. Caragana spp. Nitraria sphaerocarpa Nitraria spp. Swainsona salsula Ephedra przewalskii Tamarix spp. Phragmites communis Tamarix spp. and some species of: Compositae, Leguminosae, Cru- Populus spp. Typha spp. ciferae, and Umbelliferae. Puccinellia hauptiana Triglochin maritimum In Hami: Salicornia herbacea Asterothamnus fruticosus Oases Peganum Harmala Tanacetum vulgare The main specieso f treesare : Myricaria (2 species) Salix (2 species) In the Mongolian Gobi Populus (4 species) Ulmus (2 species) Artemisia frigida Convolvulus Artemisia pectinata tragacanthoides Theprincipa lspecie so f herbs include: Atraphaxis pungens Ephedra equisetina Cynanchum pubescens Lepidium latifolium Calligonum spp. Prunus mongolica Dodartia orientalis Mulgedium tataricum Caragana spp. Prunus spinosissima aragana spp. Prunus spinosissima Themai n farm cropsare :sprin gan dwinte rwheat , (mainly C. microphylla)Rhamnus erythroxylon cotton,an d corn.Walte r et al.(1983 ) listed the typical In Ordos particularly important species include: specieswhic h occur only in Central Asia. Artemisia spp. Lycium spp. Sand desert: Astragalus spp. Plantago minuta Atraphaxis frutescens Hedysarum mongolicum Caryopteris mongolica Potaninia mongolica Caragana bungei Hedysarum scoparium Jurinea mongolica Tetraena mongolica Caragana korshinsldi Lagochilus ilicifolius Oxytropis aciphylla Caragana microphylla Salix flavida In Qaidam: and thefollowin g herbs: Hololachna songarica Peganum nigellastrum Agriophyllum gobicum Psammochloa villosa Nitraria spp. Zygophyllum xanthoxylon Artemisia ordosica Pugionium cornutum Artemisia sphaerocephala In Alashan: Ephedra spp. Peganum Harmala Sand-gravelly deserts on the high plateau of Cre­ Nitraria spp. Zygophyllum xanthoxylon taceousan d Tertiary formations: Ammopiptanthus Potaninia mongolica Saline andAlkaline Flats mongoliens Reaumuria songarica Themai n species inDzungari a include: Artemisia xerophytica St'ipaglareosa Iris pallasii Asterothamnus spp. Stipa gobica Tamarix spp. Caragana frutescens Zygophyllum Trachomitum spp. Caragana pygmaea kashgaricum Ephedra przewalskii Zygophyllum xanthoxylon In theTari m and Ruoriver areas : Nitraria sphaerocarpa Elaeagnus angustifolia Populus euphratica Halimodendron Salix spp. Specieswhic h occur in Kashgaria-Dzungaria are: argenteum Tamarix spp. Convolvulus Iljinia regelii Lycium turcomanicwn gortschakovii Sympegma regelii

184 CHAPTER 8

Convolvulus Current Classification tragacanthoides According to the climate, vegetation, and land­ Rockan d rubble desertso n higher ground: scape,w ehav e divided thevas t desert region intofive Ammopiptanthus spp. Salsola laricifolia regions: Gymnocarposprzewalsldi Sympegmaspp . 1) TheAlasha n desert area and Hexi Corridor, Iljinia spp. Tetraena spp. 2) Beishan-Mazong Shan, Nitraria spp. Zygophyllum spp. 3) Dzungaria, 4) Kashgaria (Taklamakan),an d Salt-deserts: Kalidiumcuspidatum an dKalidium 5) Qaidam. gracile.Kalidium foliatum isa species mor e character­ istico fTurano-Gobi careas ,an dTamarix chinensis an d A sixth (azonal) area isdescribe d which includes othersar e from Middle Asia. theoases . Otherspecie scharacteristi co f CentralAsi a are: Tanacetum (Hippolytia) achilleoides ALASHAN AND HEXI CORRIDOR DESERT Tanacetum gobicum AREA Tanacetum trifidum TheAlasha nDeser t isa depressio n areao f Central aswel la sAllium mongolicum an dAllium polyrrhizum. Asia with a complex structure which includes a com­ Inth ewester n parto fthes edeserts ,th esan ddeser t binationo fsevera ldifferen t typeso frelie f: lo wisolate d dominatesi nTaklamakan .I nth ecentra lpar t(Beishan) , ranges; sand-pebbly plain (gobi); dry river channels, theston ean d sand-pebble desertsar edominant .I n the and barchan sands. The barchan (new moon shaped) eastern part (Alashan), sand and sand-pebble desert sands are medium to large sand areas which are char­ predominate. acterizedb ypatche so fsaksau l(Haloxyhn ammodend- ron) and small salt flats or broad gravel plains with Grubov (1959, 1969; cit. Petrov, 1976) distin­ inselbergs. guishedthre ephytogeographi cregion si nCentra lAsia : Mongolian, Dzungarian-Iranian, and Tibetan. Gru- The elevation of the Alashan Desert is 800-1,400 bov's map(1959 ;cit . Walter et al., 1983),showe d the m with some hills such asYapbrai , 200-300 m above whole territory of the Tibetan Plateau and western thegenera lelevations . Sichuan Province asa desert .Actually , thislatte rclas ­ sification is not accurate. According toclimate , vege­ Threeprincipa lsan d massesca nb edefine d for the tation types,an d elementso f flora, theTibeta n Plateau eastern Alashan Desert:th eBadai n Jaran Desert in the cannot be classified as desert. The Tibetan vegetation west,th eTengge r(Tengri )Deser ti nth esoutheast ,an d inth eeastern portion (thegorg eregion ) isa rich forest theUla n Buh Desert in the northeast. and meadow grassland. The main vegetation elements Thevegetativ eelement so fth eAlasha n Desert are areeastern Asia nan dChina-Himalaya n witha nannua l verysi mpie .I nth ecentra lan dnorther ngob iparts ,ther e rainfall of 500-1,000 mm. The central portion is an are few species with scattered plants. The percentage alpinemeadow-grasslan d mixedwit hshrub swit h rain­ of edificators (a Russian plant ecology term which fall of 400-600 mm. indicates that the species isth e most important tocon ­ stitutea plan tassociation )i na nassociatio ni sver yhigh . Petrov (1966,1967)divide d thedeser t territoryo f Shrubs are thedominant s in thedeserts ,wit h the char­ MiddleAsi a and Central Asia into four physiographic acteristic species being Potaninia mongolien, Ammo­ regions:Centra l Asian, Dzungaria-, Irano- piptanthusmongolians, andTetraena mongolica. Turanian,an dTibetan ;an ddivide dth edeser to fCentra l Asia into six areas: Ordos, Alashan, Beishan, Hexi The annual rainfall in the eastern Alashan is 148 Corridor, Qaidam,an d Tarim Basin. mm (Bayanhot), much more than in thewester n areas near Anxi (Ansi) (40.4 mm). Some characteristics of Liu (1982) analyzed three dominant genera, steppified desert are present in the east (Figure 8.2). Suaeda,Salsola, an dZygophyllum accordin gt ogener a Speciesinclude : distribution and developmental ages of flora and re­ ported therelationship samon gthem .Accordin gt othi s Ammopiptanthus Potaninia mongolica analysis, Liu divided thevas t desert region into three mongolians Tetraenamongolica floras:Dzungaria nelement swhic hmigrate dfro m Mid­ Caragana tibetica dleAsi a flora; Tarim elements,includin g Qaidam;an d and specieso f typical desertsuc h as: those elements related to Mediterranean and Alashan Reaumuriasongarica floras. Salsola passerina Zygophyllum xanthoxylon

185 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Figure 8.2. Livestock grazingo n thedeser t steppe inAlashan . (Reproduced with permission from People's Daily, 1981)

All of these species may form associations or be mixed with someothers . Generally, small grasses and TheTengge r Desert liesi nth esoutheaster n parto f herbsgro w in theseassociations , including: Alashan and issurrounde d by mountains (Figure 8.3). Agropyron mongolicum Ptilagrostis pellioti Thetota lare a forms avas t innerdrainag ebasi n greater Allium polyrrhizum Stipa breviflora than40,00 0k m .Shiftingsan ddune soccup ymor etha n Carex stenophylla Stipa glareosa 64%o f thetota l area. Between thesesan d dunes, there Cleistogenes mutica Stipa gobica areman ysal tbasin san dsal tlake swhic hcompos e6.8 % In addition, Ajania achilleoides, and Artemisia of thetota larea ,locate d in themiddl ean d south of the xerophytka commonlyaccompan y theothe rspecie si n desert.Stabl ean dsemi-stabl esan d dunesar elocate di n theseassociations . theperipher y of thebasins . Thewester n Alashan desert is thedries t area with The climate of the Tengger Desert is severe but a typical desert vegetation. The associations olReau- milder than the areas north and west of Alashan, with muria mongolica and Salsolapasserina are typical of 150 mm annual rainfall and 6-8°C mean annual tem­ the sand-gravel gobi and gravel gobi which join with perature.Th e potentialevaporatio n isa shig h as 15-20 theBeisha n andTari m deserts inth ewest .Th e species times the annual rainfall and the relative humidity is of Zygophyllum xanthoxylon, Nitraria sphaerocarpa, 35-40%.Th espee d ofviolen t windsexceed s3 4 m/sec and Ephedraprzewalsldi are dominant on rocky gobi. Frost-free daysrang e from 170-200day s annually. On the eroded lower hills, the species of small semi- shrubs are mainly Anabasis brevifolia and Salsola Thevegetatio n isa desert type with simple struc­ arbuscula. In the Mazong Shan (mountain) area, an turecharacterize d by 145specie swhic h belong to 111 Iljinia regelii association appears. In wetter years, an genera and 38 families. The predominant families in­ annual species (Halogeton arachnoïdes) grows on the clude Chenopodiaceae, Compositae, Tamaricaceae, gravel gobi which has been named Halogeton Desert Fabaceae, Polygonaceae,an d Convolvulaceae. Shrubs (Wange t al., 1979). areth edominants , followed by grassesan d annuals. Lakes Thelake so fthi sare ahav ehig hsal tconcentration s (100 g/liter). Beside these lakes, grasses, Carex, and

186 CHAPTER 8

Figure S3. Thesouther n Alashan desert nearth e GreatWal l inNingxia .(Phot ob y G.B. Cressey, 1933;reproduced fro m C.W.Wang ,1961 , with permission from Botanical Museum,Harvar d University) speciesoiChenopodium growabundantl ywit h20-90 % Onth esemi-shiftin g sanddunes ,Calligonum mon- plant cover, forming a salt meadow. These meadows golicum(wes to fth eBadai nJara nDesert )o rHaloxylon aregoo d grazing land and are suitable for hay harvest. ammodendron (north of Alashan) grow with someac ­ companying species of Psammochloa mongolica and Thespecie s include: Agriophyllum arenarium. Thesesan d dunearea sar eo f Achnatherum splendens Kalidium spp. littlevalu efo rgrazin gbut som eplant so fPsammochloa Artemisia ordosica Nitraria spp. mongolicagro w insom eplace san dca n becu t for hay. Artemisia Phragmites communis sphaerocephala Psammochloa mongolica Lowlands Carex spp. Thymus spp. On the lowland between the semi-stabilized sand Iris spp. Typha davidiana dunes, the main association is Calamagrostis pseu- Sand Dunes dophragmites + Thermopsis lanceolata. The meso- phyte sar eth edominant swit h50 %vegetatio ncoverag e Shiftingsan ddune sar edistribute dwidel yno tonl y andplan theigh to f50-6 0cm .Th emai nspecie sinclude : in Tengger, but also in Ulan Buh where the Badain Achnatherum splendens Leymus dasystachys Jaran deserts occupy most of the area of the Alashan Haloxylon arachnoïdes Salsola ruthenica Desert. Sand dunes range from 10-20 mt o70-8 0m to Iris ensata more than 100 m in height. Plants grow on the lower parts of thedune s with sparse plant cover (about 1%). Vegetation in Alashan Therear en o plants on theto po f thesesan d dunes. Other desert vegetation inAlasha n may beclassi ­ Thedominan t speciesis : fied into three types (Inner Mongolia and Ningxia Artemisia sphaerocephala Integrated Survey Team; Anon., 1980): 1. smallshru bston y gravel gobi, with sand tolerant species including: 2. smallshru b sand gravel gobi,an d Agriophyllum arenarium 3. stabilized and semi-stabilisan d dunes. Corispermum declination Psammochloa mongolica SmallShrub andShrub Vegetationon Stony Gravel Gobi Inth esemi-stabilize d sandlando feaster n Alashan, the crescent sand dune is common (Hwang and Lin, This typeo f vegetation isdistribute d in the north­ 1962)an d isfoun d withth eNitraria tangutorum,Arte­ ern part of Gansu and the northern part of Alashan, misiasphaerocephala +Psammochloa villosaassocia ­ occupying61.4 %o fth etota lare ao fAlashan .Thi sare a tion.Th eothe r important species include Tournefortia isa n eroded high plain with an elevation of 900-1,400 sibirica and Corispermum spp. The vegetative cover m.Th eclimat ei sseverel ydr y with an aridity index of may be 25% with IS species in a 1m plot sample. 4 and 7-12, from east to west, respectively. Violent

187 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

winds blow frequently, carrying the fine soil particles Allium mongolicum, Stipa glareosa, and the an­ awayt ofor m sanddune san dleavin ggrave lan dcoars e nual Halogeton arachnoïdes are also found. In a plot sand. Due to the low rainfall, leaching is limited and areao f2 5m ,1 5an d3 5clump sof Salsola anâNitraria evaporation is large resulting in an accumulation of a were found, respectively. The yield of dry leaves and largequantit yo fsal to nth esurfac e withouta n obvious twigs is 75-110 kg/ha. This area is used mostly for humus layer.Th ewhol esoi llaye r isabou t SO cm deep camelgrazin g during thesprin g and summer seasons. with a 10-20c m calcareous layer and a large quantity of accumulated gypsum. Inthi ssever e condition, only Zygophyllum xanthoxylon +Ephedra przewals- smallshrub sgrow ,formin g desertvegetatio n with few kii +Nitraria sphaerocarpa association. This associ­ species and little forage. Several types of associations ationspread sfa rwes to fAlasha no nhill san d piedmont may be distinguished. plains with coarse sands and rocks. The number of plants is much less than the other associations. Poor Reaumuria songarica association. Accompany­ plant coveri scommon , rangingfro m 1-2%. ing species includeNitraria sphaerocarpa, Haloxylon Theaccompanying species include: ammodendron,an dannua lHalogetoa spp .Grave lcov ­ ers up to 90% of the ground surface. The density of Anabasis brevifolia Reaumuria songarica plant cover is very low, and the water resource is Calligonum mongolicum Salsola arbuscula deficient ando f poorqualit y duet oth ehig hconten t of Iljinia regelii salt. This grazing land is used only for camels. The andth eannua lHalogeton arachnoïdes. Th eyiel do fdr y grazingcapacit y hasbee n reported tob e8 hectares for leaves and twigs isabou t 75kg/ha . oneshee puni t (that translatest o5 6hectare s percame l Haloxylon ammodendron + Reaumuria songa­ unit). rica+ Nitraria sphaerocarpa association.Thi sassoci ­ ationspread so nth ewester npar to fth enort ho fAlasha n Salsolapasserina +Reaumuria songarica + Ni- gobi.Plan t cover isver y poor. In a plot area of 25 m , trariasphaerocarpa association.Thi sassociatio n also 12 and 5 clumps of Reaumuria and Nitraria were is distributed in the northern part of Alashan to the found, respectively, and the number of clumps of Ha­ eastern border of Sogo Lake.I tstretche s into southern loxylonwa s 1-10/666m .Th e yield of dry leaves and Outer Mongolia and west of Bayannur (Inner Mongo­ twigswa sreporte d tob e 150kg/ha . lia)i nth eeast .Thi sassociatio n issprea dwidel y on the broadpiedmon tplai nan dmountai nvalleys .Grave lan d SmallShrub Desert Vegetationon Sand-Gravel pebbleso rsan dgrave lcove rth egroun dsurface . Soili s Gobi commonly gray-brown desert soil with slight saliniza- tion. In addition to the dominants, the accompanying Thisdeser tvegetatio n isdistribute d east of Gaxun species are mainly: Lake, in the north central region of Alashan, and also in some areas of western Ordos (Figure 8.4). This is Anabasis brevifolia Zygophyllum xanthoxylon generally a level plain with a layer of sand-gravel on Salsola arbuscula Oxytropis aciphylla thesurfac eo fth eground .Th esoi li sgrey-brow n desert with less contribution by: earth with a large amount of gypsum. Plants include Halogeton spp. Zygophyllum smallsemi-shrub swit h littleplan t cover.Severa lasso ­ Stipa glareosa mucronatum ciations are distinguished. In a plot area of 25 m2, the number of clumps of Potaninia mongolica + Reaumuria songarica + Salsola, Reaumuria,Nitraria, andAnabasis havebee n Zygophyllum xanthoxylon association. This associa­ reported to be 29, 11, 4, and 9 respectively, with the tion isdistribute d on the piedmont plain and in moun­ total plant cover only 2-8%.Plan t height is 20-30 cm tain valleys in the middle [east of Alashan to the west with a yield of dry leaves and twigs of 150kg/ha .Thi s of Hanggin (Inner Mongolia)] and in the northwestern area is commonly used for grazing camels and goats part of Ordos. A sand-gravel layer of 5-15 cm com­ during winter and spring. monly covers the surface. Potaninia is the dominant withaccompanyin g species of: The Nitraria sphaerocarpa + Reaumuria song­ Ammopiptanthus Oxytropis aciphylla arica association. This association is spread on the mongolicus Reaumuria trigyna open plain of gravelgob i in northwestern Alashan and ongypsu m grey-browndeser tsoil .Th eelement so fth e Caragana brachypoda Salsola passerina association are simple. In addition to the dominants, Eurotia ceratoides someaccompanyin g species include: Zygophylluman dAmmopiptanthus form theuppe r Calligonum mongolicum Nitraria spp. layergrowin g to5 0c m with othershrub s of 20-30c m Convolvulus Salsola arbuscula in the middle layer, and a herbaceous layer in the gortschakovii

188 CHAPTER 8

Figure 8.4. Wildasse si n steppe andGob i Desert on theMongolia n Plateau (Photo reproduced from C.W. Wang, 1961,wit h permission from Botanical Museum, Harvard University) bottom with height of 5-10 cm. The main species in­ Tamarixspp. +Cotoneastermelanocarpus + clude: caspica. Allium polyrrhizum Iris tenuifolia Allo fthes especie smak egoo dgrazin gland si nth e Cleistogenes squarrosa Stipa glareosa Gobi Desert area with plant cover ranging from 30- Echinops latifolius 70%.Som eadditiona lvaluabl e forages include: Annuals include: Aeluropus littoralis Chloris virgata Eragrostis minor var. sinensis Scorzonera mongolica Pappophorum brachystachyum Allium polyrrhizum Stipa glareosa Salsola collina Atriplex littoralis Suaeda spp. Calamagrostis epigeios Herbsar ea mino rpar to f thevegetatio n with10 % of the yield.Th edr y matter yield is 150-270kg/ha . Stabilized and Semi-stabilized Sand Dunes Some other associations. Other associations in­ Artemisia frigida association. On stabilized and clude: 1)Zygophyllum xanthoxylon +Reaumuria son- semi-stabilized sand dunes, Artemisia frigida often garica, 2) Ephedra przewalskii + Zygophyllum forms a pure stand in the eastern Alashan while Arte­ xanthoxylon +Reaumuria songarica,3 )Artemisia fri- misia ordosicasometime si sth edominant .Plan tcove r gida +Eurotia ceratoides +Reaumuria songarica, an d rangesfro m 30-50%wit hplan theigh to f35-6 0cm .Th e 4)Caragana brachypoda +Eurotia ceratoides + Reau­ diameter of a clump of Artemisia is 60-80 cm with muria songarica. about 40 clumps per 100 m . Accompanying species includeAjania achilleoides, and Calligonum mongoli­ In some sites, Nitraria sphaerocarpa and Calli- cum. The herbaceous layer includes: gonummongolicum form purestand swit ha fe w plants Allium mongolicum Phragmites communis of Artemisia xerophytica, Artemisia sphaerocephala, Cleistogenes squarrosa Stipa glareosa andNitraria. These plants form grazing land for cam­ els,eve n though thegrazin g capacity is low. andsom eannuals ,includin gAgriophyllum arena- riuman dEragrostis minor. There are about 60,000 camels in Alashan. They arever yimportan t fortransportatio n inth eGob iDeser t Onth esemi-stabilize d sanddunes ,th eplant scom ­ area, and theirwoo li svaluabl e for clothing. monly grow on the windy bottom of south aspect slopes.Th edominan t isArtemisiasphaerocephalawilh Lowland and riverside vegetation associations. a covero f 5-10% and plant height of 50-60 cm. Somelowlan dvegetatio nassociation sinclude :1 )Kali- diumspp .(K. gracile, K. foliatum), 2)Reaumuria son- Theaccompanyin gspecie sinclude : garcia +Kalidium spp .+ Salsola spp. ,3 ) Achnatherum Agriophyllum arenarium Hedysarum scoparium +Kalidium spp. +Phragmites communis +Iris ensata, Corispermum declinatum Psammochloa mongolica 4) Haloxylon ammodendron + Kalidium spp., and 5) Hedysarum fruticosum Pugionium cornutum

189 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Thedr ymatte ryiel di s150-45 0kg/ha .Th epropor ­ plenty of water during thesumme r monthswhic h per­ tion of shrubs and herbs is 3:1 with Artemisia spp. mitsabundan t plant growth. contributing 80%.Thes e plants form a usable grazing land, except in summer when the Artemisia ordosica Three formations are distinguished. fragrance isundesirabl e toanimals . Grass meadows mixed with trees. Tree species include mainly Salix spp., Populus diversifolia, and Caragana korshinskii + Artemisia frigida asso­ Elaeagnus angustifolia. Each may form parkland or ciation.Thi sassociatio n islocate d easto fAlasha nan d forest mixed withgras smeadows .Grasse sgro w abun­ westo f Ordoso nstabilize d sanddunes .Caragana spp . dantly in understories. This formation has high eco­ constitutes a large shrub synusia with clumps 1.5-2 m nomic value due to wood production. Tree leaves are in height and 2-2.5 m in area. Caragana spp. has a good forage and meadows are suitable for grazingan d good capacity for sand stabilization, forming a small hay. heap with a height of 1.2-2 m. The accompanying speciesinclude : Salinemeadows .Salin emeadow so n thelowlan d Artemisia frigida and on the periphery of lakes (Figure 8.5). Species Oxytropis aciphylla include: Zygophyllum xanthoxylon Achnatherum splendens Leymus spp. Artemisia anethifolia Puccinellia tenuiflora and grasses and herbs of: Iris ensata Agriophyllum arenarium Eragrostis pilosa Aristida adscensionis Pappophorum Salineshrub s mixed with herbs. This formation Cleistogenes squarrosa brachystachyum appearso nth esalin esoi llowland sdu et opoo rdrainag e Corispermum declination and poorwate r quality. Themai n speciesinclud e salt- tolerant shrubs: Thisassociatio n isuse dfo rsprin gan dfal lgrazing . Kalidium spp. Reaumuria songarica Haloxylonammodendron+Nitraria spp.+ Zygo­ Nitraria spp. Salsola spp. phyllum xanthoxylon association. This association is and herbs of: distributed inth ecentra l part ofAlasha n on half-stabi­ lizedsan ddunes .Haloxylon range sfro m 1.3-2.5m wit h Achnatherum splendens Iris ensata the area of a clump 2-2.5 m . In a 1,000 m2 plot, Artemisia anethifolia Puccinellia tenuiflora typically there are 35 clumps of Haloxylon and 15 SinceAchnatherum splendens is 1-2 m in height, clump sof Nitraria. Th eaccompanyin gspecies includ e: it forms a good shelter from cold winds in areas used Agriophyllum arenarium Oxytropis aciphylla for winter grazing. Allium mongolicum Psammochloa mongolien Corispermum spp. Salsola collina Hexi Corridor Hexi (Hohsi)Corridor , located in thewester n part These species are suitable for grazing of camels, of Gansu, is a long belt extending from the west of sheep,an dgoats .Sometimes ,Nitraria spp.form sa pur e Wushaolingi nth eeas t toth ewester nborde ro f Gansu. stand community mixed with some plants of: Iti salmos t 1,000 kmlon gan d 100k mwid ei nth ewes t Achnatherum splendens Psammochloa and narrowing to 20 km wide in the east. The high Artemisia frigida mongolica mountains of Qilian and Nanshan (5,020 m) lie in the Phragmites communis south, and Longshou Mountain (3,615 m) and some Nitraria forms a large clump with an area of 6-8 lower mountains (Helishan) lie in the north.Thi s long m .I t is used for grazing camelsi n theautum n season. belt of land isderive d from an ancient piedmont plain between twoside so f themountains .Th epebbl edeser t Alluvial Vegetation is composed of a thick layer (20-30 m) of ancient Inth earea so fth ealluvia lflat , thelowe rpar to fth e proluvian pebbles. In the upper 2 m layer, pebbles RuoRive r flows intoth emiddl eAlasha n forming two predominate over fine earth which is enriched with lakes,Gaxu nan d Sogo.Th eRu oRive rcome sfro m the gypsum and carbonates. Hexi Corridor was filled by Qilian Mountains in the south with a good volume of bedso f Paleozoicsedimen t and Meso-Cenozoic conti­ water.I ti sa nintermitten t riverwhic hform sa larg eare a nentaldeposit sformin ggrea tdepth si nth edepressions , ofalluvia l flat incentra lAlashan .Owin gt oth edeposi t as in Jiuquan (Chiuchuan) and Zhangye. Elevations of good soil from the watershed of the mountain, the generallyar e80 0m i nth ewes tan d 1,500 mi nth eeast . soil fertility is high, with large amounts of organic matter forming meadow and marshy soil. There is Inth eeaster n part,th esoutheaster n monsoon pro­ videsa nannua lrainfal l of 149m m (Wuwei)wher e the

190 CHAPTER 8

Figure 8.5.Grazin gcamel so na deteriorate d saline meadowalon g the Hohhot-Lanzhourailway. (Phot ocourtes y of D. Dewey, 1980)

drystepp epredominate s(Figur e8.6) .Th ewester n part Onth eincline dsand y gravelareas ,th edominan t is very dry, with an annual rainfall of 76 mm in speciesinclude : Zhangye, 80 mm in Jiuquan, and 49 mm in Yumen, Artemisia capillaris forming a desert vegetation. Stipa glareosa Generally, the desert vegetation of Hexi Corridor Typicalelevation so fth evariou sarea sare :1 )oase s islittl edifferen t from thato fAlasha nan dBeisha nwit h of the alluvial plain (1,500 m); 2) sandy gravel desert its floristic elements of Cancrinia maximoviczii, and atth efoo to fth eslop e(1,500-2,00 0m) ;3 )shru bstepp e Brachanthemumnanshaniewn (Grubov, 1969). (2,300-2,500m) ;4 )dr ymontan estepp eo fth e foothills (2,000-3,000m) ;5 )spruc eforest swit hfores t meadows Halophyticmeadow sar elocate di nth elo ware ao f (2,500-3,000 m); 6) high mountain meadow steppe thegrabe n and oases. (3,200-3,500 m); 7) alpine meadow (3,500-3,600 m); Thespecie s ofmeado w include: and8 )th eniva lbel t(abov e3,60 0m )(Wu ,1980 ;Walte r Bolboschoenusaffinis Schoenoplectus etaL , 1983) (Figure8.7) . Carex spp. tabernaemontani The climate of the Hexi Corridor area isarid , but Triglochinpalustre there are many good grazing lands and rich oases due Thespecie so fsoloncha k include: toth eplentifu l amounto fwate rcomin g from theNan - Halocnemum spp. Nitraria schoben shan and the Qilian Mountains, where glaciers and bekmgerianaTamarix (orHaloxylon) large snow capped areas form abundant water re­ Kalidiumfoliatum ammodendron) sources. During the hot summer periods, snow from thesearea smelt san dform s manyrivers, includin g two On sand areas, thedominan t species include: large rivers, the Shule and the Ruo. For conservation Artemisia sphaerocephalaPsammochloa villosa andutilizatio n of thiswate r resource, China hasestab ­ Caragana korshinsldi Pugionium cornutum lished the Institute of Glaciology, Cryopedology, and Hedysarum scoparium Desert Research. During the last few decades many On mobile sands,vegetatio n isdominate d by: largestat e farms were established to developth e agri­ Aristida pennata Calligonum zaidamense cultural economy intha t area. Calligonum mongolicum

graben:a portio n of theearth' s crust bounded ona tleas t twoside sb y faults, that hasbee n moved downward in relation toadjacen t portions.

191 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Figure 8.6.Livestoc k corral ina deteriorate drange alon gth eHohhot-Lanzho urailway. (Phot ocourtes y of D. Dewey, 1980)

InChines ehistory ,th eHex iCorrido rregion wa sa considered museums.Ove rman y years,th evegetatio n richare afro m theHa nDynast yo nfo ra thousan dyears . has been improperly used and this area has gradually Aspecia ltyp eo fdr yfarmin gwa spractice d inthi sarea . changed to a poor economy. Recently, there has been Inaddition ,th eHex iCorrido rwa sth eonl ywa y for the no development of the agricultural economy due to silk road of China to communicate with its western political disturbances. territoriesan dwester ncountrie s(e.g .Persi aan dIndia) . Chinese historicalbook srecorde d thetw ocitie si nthi s area as "Silver" Changyi (Zhangye) and "Golden" BEISHAN-MAZONG SHAN DESERT AREA Chiu-Chun (Jiuquan),whic h meansth erichness o f the Thisarea ,betwee n theAlasha n in theeas t and the HexiCorridor .Ther ear eman yver yfamou swal lpaint ­ eastern part of the Lop-Nor and Hami depressions in ingsan dsculpture sdepictin gth erichness o fth eare ai n thewest ,i s30 0k m inwidt h and50 0k m inlength .I t is thetemple so fDunhuang .Temple si nthi sare aar eno w anancien t piedmont elevatedbloc k risingfro m 1,000-

MaßanJin g Altitude (M) (-1850

1650

ShuleRive r Valey Anxi

140km Figure 8.7. The vertical distribution of desert species from Anxi to Malian Jing, adistanc e of 140 km. 1)Alhagi pseudoalhagi, 2)NUraria sphaerocarpa, 3)Ephedra przewalskii, 4)Reaumuria songariea, 5)Sympegma regeld, 6) Haloxylonammodendron 7 )Phragmkes communis. A) Loamy terrace,B ) Diluvial sandy gobi, C) Graniteeroden tpebble , D)Diluvia l gravelgobi , E)Metamorphi ceroden tmountain s F)Salin e lake.(Adapte d from H.Walte re t al., 1983)

192 CHAPTER 8

2,800m (Mazon g Shan) and represents theoldes t part Sandy, Gravel Desert ofth eCentra lAsia ncontinent .Th ewester nlimi to f the Cover in thisare a isseldo m as much as 20%an d Beisnan desert is the Lop-Nor Depression and Hami. often only 1%( 9samples ,5-1 5 speciespe rsample) .I n Geologically, Pleistocene deposits cover more than 40% of the area, and the mountains are composed of lower elevation areas (1,100-1,400 m) of the broad Pre-Cambrian metamorphic rock, covering more than plain cover,th efollowin g speciesar e found. half of the area. Deposits of Jurassic, Cretaceous, and Dwarf shrubs: Tertiaryparen tmaterial sar efewe r (Waltere tal. ,1983) . Anabasis brevifolia Gymnocarpos przewalsldi Thisbloc kstructur eo flo wmountain san dhill scontrib ­ Artemisia salsoloides (+) Haloxylon ammodendron uted to the formation of an independent morpho­ Asterothamnus Lycium ruthenicum structural region of gravel-pebble desert. Beisnan is centraliasiaticus (+) Nitraria schoben (+) distinguished from other Central Asian deserts by the Atraphaxis mongolica Nitraria sphaerocarpa predominance of rock deserts (hammadas) (Walter et Calligonum Reaumuria al., 1983). mongolicum (+) songarica (+) Caragana leucophloea Salsola laricifolia The climate of the area is characterized as severe Caryopteris mongolica Sympegma regelii continental dry with temperature extremes. In winter, Clematis songarica Tamarix ramosissima theare ai sentirel ywithi n theSiberian-Mongolia n high- Ephedra przewalskii (+) Zygophyllum xanthoxylon pressurearea .Th eeaster nChin amonsoo nha sn o effect Perennial herbs: on this area during the summer. Rainfall comes from Artemisia anethifolia (+) Scorzonera divaricata thewes tb ydus tstorm sformin g individualdownpours . Haplophyllum dauricum Tanacetum fruticulosum Annual rainfall ranges from 39-85 mm (Hsing-Hsing- Jurinea spp. Tournefortia sibirica hsia 1,776 m),wher e 20 mm wasrecorde d in one day, Limonium aureum Zygophyllum mucronatum 49 mm in Anxi, and 33.4 mm in Hami. The highest annual rainfall was 500mm , but thiswa s only on high RubbleDesert ofLower MountainAreas (up to mountains and occurred mostly in thesummer . 2,000 m) Cover is 1 to 5% (five samples, 8-13specie s per The maximum and minimum temperatures re­ sample). corded are42.5° Can d -35.1°C.Th epotentia l evapora­ tion at Anxi is more than sixty times the rainfall. Dwarf-shrubs. The first 14 species listed above, Relative humidity reaches 60-80% during the winter, but with Nitraria sibirica and Atraphaxis bwdfolia but thisoccur sonl ywhe n thetemperatur e is extremely instead ofNitraria schoben. low. When the temperature increases in spring, wind storms are frequent. These conditions are severe for Also the following speciesar e found: plant growth, makingvegetatio n scarce. Amygdalus mongolica Artemisia sphaerocephala Soilsar efoun d infla t areas.Underneat hth epebbl e Kalidium foliatum layeri sfin eeart hon emete rdeep .Calciu m andgypsu m crusts are common. Saline soils spread in depression Perennial herbs:Th efirs t sixliste dabove ,plu s Allium mongolicum Rheum nanum areas. Chestnut soil is found on the mountains, while dark-gray forest soil is common at the highest el­ Aster altaicus Stipa bungeana (in crevices) Stipa glareosa evations(Walte re t al., 1983). Halophytic Meadow Communities ofMoister Vegetation Depressions According tohistorica ldat a (Grumm-Grzhimailo, These areas havecove r of 25-30% (four samples, 1899, cit. Petrov, 1976), there were some small areas of forest vegetation on the top portion of Beisnan. 4-12specie s persample) . These forests consist of spruce (Picea asperata),birch , Woody plants: mountain ash, and shrubs. Clematis songarica Nitraria schoben Lycium ruthenicum Nitraria sibirica (+) Petrov (1966, 1967, cit. Walter et al., 1983) pro­ Lycium Tamarix ramosissima vided alis to fsite sample sfro m variousdeser t commu­ turcomanicum (+) nities. The following list indicates Petrov's common Perennial herbs: specieswit ha plu ssig n(+ )i nadditio nt oothe rcommo n Aeluropus littoralis Lasiagrostis splendens species for thearea . (abundant in patches) Leymus dasystachys Alhagi sparsifolia Limonium aureum Carex spp. Peganum harmala

193 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Glycyrrhiza uralensis Phragmites communis Hedysarum scoparium Zygophyllum xanthoxylon Iris ensata (abundant) Theothe r important species include: RiverAreas Ajania achilleoides Oxytropis aciphylla Ajania fruticulosa Stipa glareosa These areas contain the same species as listed in Allium polyrrhizum the halophytic meadow communities. In addition, Populus diversifolia,Elaeagnus moorcroftii,an dHali- Haloxylon ammodendron, Reaumuria songarica, modendronhalodendron are found. and Ceratoides latens may be the dominant species. Brachanihemummongolicum isth echaracteristi cspe ­ Dry Lowlands cies of the area. Floras in the area are different from Dry lowland areas are found between mountain thosefoun d inDzungari ai nth ewes tan dAlasha ni nth e chains and Haloxylon ammodendron stands are com­ east.Th evertica ldistributio n ofvegetatio n on Mazong mon. Shan is:deser t on the northern slope (below 2050 m), desert steppe (2,150 m and above) and desert on the Sand Areas inthe Northeast southern slope (below 2,320 m), and desert steppe These areas contain several different species. On above 2,320m . mobile sands, the species include Hedysarum, Cara- gana, and Psammochloa, and on sand drifts Nitraria DZUNGARIAN DESERT AREA Schoben and individualsplant sotKalidium are found. TheDzungari a Desert occupies much of thetrian ­ Highest Mountain Peaks (upto 2,800 m) gular shaped Dzungaria Basin. It is bordered on the This area is divided into two vegetation belts. north and northeast by the Altai Mountains, on the Species have been determined by means of binocular southb yth eTiansha nan dth eBogd a andKarli kmoun ­ survey. tains,an do nth ewes tb ysevera lmountain s (mentioned inth eDzungaria n steppean d mountainvegetatio n sec­ Steppe-shrub belt.Amygdalus mongolica, Stipa tions). This desert is approximately 48,800 km , of bungeana, and the following genera havebee n identi­ which more than half is gobi. The remainder of the fied: Cotoneaster,Rhamnus, Rosa, Spiraea. desert consistso f sand duneswit h heights of 15-25m , Spruce-birch belt.Picea asperata and an under­ approximately 50% of which are fixed and 25% are growth of Cotoneaster, Lonicera, Rhamnus, and Sor- semi-fixed (Chu et aL, 1980) (Figure 8.8). The major bus havebee n identified. mountain ranges in Dzungaria reflect the complicated windregimes .Th ewin d isgenerall y from thenortheas t The closest similar montane forest is in the inth ewinte ran dfro m thenorthwes t inth esu mme r(H u Nanshan (350-400 km to the south) and the Tianshan et al., 1962). Owing to the wind direction regime, the (300k m toth ewest )wit hPicea schrenldana. southan dwes tdune sar ei na nort ht osout h orientation, Zhu(1980 )reporte d moretha n 100flowerin g spe­ with broad, complex linear ridges with crescentic cies belonging to 28 families in the area. The per­ dunes. In the east, the dunes are directed in a north­ centages of the main families are: Chenopodiaceae, easterly orientation. 22%; Compositae 15%; Gramineae, 11%; Legumi- Dzungariai sa depressio nwhic hform sa basi nwit h nosae, 9%; and Zygophyllaceae, 6%. The geographic anelevatio nexceedin g 280 m(Eb iLake ,27 9m t o90 0 elements of flora are similar to those in the desert of m). The relief and the characters of the surface sedi­ Mongolia and are absolutely dominant. mentsi nDzungari aar ecomplex .Th eare ai scompose d Speciesinclude : of foothills or hillsi n various combinations of ancient Anabasis brevifolia Nitraria sphaerocarpa crystalline rocks,gravel-pebbl y plains,takyr s ,solon - Calligonum mongolicum Salsola abrotanoides chaks ,stabilize d sanddunes ,an dbarcha nsan ddunes . Ephedra przewalskii Sympegma regelii

takyr:smoot hcla yareas ,covere di nth esprin gan ddryin gu pi nth esummer .O ndesiccation, th esurfac e develops polygonalcrack s and becomesextremel y hard.

solonchak: salinetyp eo fsoi ltha t prevailsi nQaidam .

194 CHAPTER 8

Climate respectively, while the Mediterranean flora accounted for only 11%. This distribution of flora suggests that Aspreviousl y mentioned (in thestepp e section of thevegetatio no fDzungari ai sreall ya transitiona lzon e Dzungaria), the climatic types are different in eastern of Central and Middle Asia. and western Dzungaria. Mongolian type climate pre­ dominates in the east, with cold winter and spring Grubov (1969) classified the Dzungarian vegeta­ seasons.Ther ei sles ssno wcove rdurin gth ewinte ran d tion as Dzungarian-Turan Province and listed the there isextrem e drought in the spring.Th e summer is characteristicspecies : hotteran dwette rtha n theres to f theyear ,wit h70 %o f Anabasis aphylla Kalidium caspicum the total annual rainfall. Thus, surviving plants are Anabasis salsa Nanophyton erinaceum tolerant of summer heat and rain. Some annuals are Alhagi Idrghisorum Salsola lariciflora present in the interval between summer and fall. The Alhagi sparsifolia Stipa lessingiana dimat ei nth ewest ,i ncontrast ,i scol di nth ewinte rwit h Artemisia maritima Stipa sareptana rainfalldistribute devenl yove rfou rseasons .Th eplant s Atriplex cana Suaeda physophora favored by this climate are shrubs, semi-shrubs, and Elymus junceus ephermerals which are much less important. Conse­ quently,th eclimat ei nDzungari a isa transitiona l zone He stated the flora and the development of the of Central Asia and Middle Asia which together with Mongolian and Dzungarian-Turan provinces are relief and geographical location results in a complex closely related with many common elementso f genera 5 vegetation of various unique characters. The meteo­ andcommo nspecie so fedificator s and coenospecies . rological data for the desert region of Dzungaria have Murzayev (1971) stated that theHaloxylon desert been provided in the steppe section. No data on the is the most wide-spread vegetation type in the Dzun­ interior area are available. garia Desert area, found on sand and on the loamy hammadas in the east and west. Generally, the central Vegetation parto f theDzungari a Deserti sa basi ncovere db y sand Li (1961) analyzed the elements of floras of the dunes with Haloxylon (Figure 8.9). The northern part Dzungaria Desert, finding that Central and Middle isa rubbleshru b covered desert at the piedmont of the Asianflora scomprise d 36%an d53 %o fth evegetation , southern AltaiMountains .Th esouther n part isa rocky

Figure 8.8. Sand dune vegetation in FukingCount y about 80 km north of Ürümqi,Xinjian g Province. (Photo courtesy of D. Dewey, 1980)

coenospecies:a grou po fecospecie scapabl eo flimite dgeneti cexchang eb yformin gfertil ehybrids ;cenospecies .

195 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

flfe* ^

Figure 8.9.Haloxylon persicum is a good speciesl lostabiliz e sand dunes in the Dzungaria Desert (Reproduced from H.Y . Hon, 1983,wit h permission from Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden)

desert onth enorther n piedmont of theTiansha n while tion of Haloxylon ammodendron desert on carbona­ the eastern part is a desert plateau covered with Arte­ ceous gray-brown skeleton soil is always linked with misia and Salsola. thesediment s ofancien t lakes,delta so f ancient rivers, or the ancient alluvial plains of foothills. Haloxylon The distribution of vegetation formations of the ammodendron is a semi-tree species with a height of desertdepend so nprecipitatio n inth efor m ofsno wan d 60-400cm .O nligh tloam ysoil ,Haloxylon ammodend­ rainfall, aswel l assoi l and location. The main forma­ ron may form forests with the dominant species of tions arestate d as follows: Artemisia terrae-albaei nth eunderstory .O nsilt yloa m The Desert Vegetation cf Western Dzungaria soil,th esynusi a of Salsola collina and ephemerals are common,bu t dono t developwell . Haloxylon formation. Thesaxau ldeser t includes two species,Haloxylon ammodendron and Haloxylon On gray-brown skeleton desert soil, Haloxylon persicum, and is the most widely distributed type in ammodendron is distributed mainly in the northern Dzungaria forming auniqu elandscap eo fthi sdesert .I t plain of Dzungaria on the tertiary sediments and the is found both on the sandy and clayey substratum or ancient alluvialfa n alongth eside so fEb iLak e(Figur e stony hammadas from theUlungu r River in the north­ 8.10). It always grows along theborde r of dry valleys east toEb i Lake(Ebinur ) inth esouthwest .Thi s desert of the gravel desert. There are many shrubs mixed to is also found in Kazakhstan (Middle Asia), the Altai form communities, including the species of Salsola Gobi (Outer Mongolia), Alashan, and Qaidam. Con­ arbuscula, Calligonum mongolicum, and Ephedra sequently, theHaloxylon formation isth e most impor­ przewalskii, and some ephemerals such as Tetrachne tant one in Central Asia. The white saxaul, Haloxylon quadricornis, Meniocus linifolius, and Eremopyrum persicum, prefers togro w onsan d inMiddl eAsia .Th e orientale,bu t thesespecie s neverconstitut e a synusia. extremeeastern li mit so fit sdistributio nar eth eUlungu r Valley,an dth eQita i(Chitai )(th eeastern par to f Dzun­ On sand land, the distribution of Haloxylon garia).Haloxylon persicum isaccompanie db y Aristida ammodendron alwaysoverlap swit h whitesaxau l(Hu , pennata with Tamarix,Reaumuria, and Eurotia cera- 1963),i nwhic h theforme r speciesi sdistribute d on the toidesfoun d inth e depressions. lower landsbetwee n sand dunesan d thelowe r partso f sandy dunes. It is mixed with Artemisia terrae-albae Haloxylon ammodendron is distributed on three and ephemerals to constitute various associations. habitats;carbonaceou sgray-brow ndeser tsoil ,gypsu m White saxaul grows on the tops of sand dunes and is gray-brown desert soil, and sandy land. The distribu­ adapted topartiall y stabilized sand dunes.

196 CHAPTER 8

Figure8.10 . Desertvegetatio n locatedabou t8 0k m northo f Kuytun. Speciesinclud eHaloxylon ammodendron,Arisüdapennata, Callligonum spp.,an d Salsola spp. (Photo courtesy of J.P. Zhong, 1980)

Reaumuria songarica formation. This formation Salsola rigida formation. This is a semishrub isa nimportan telemen ti nth eformation s ofsemi-shru b formation. Plant height is 30-50 cm, creating a semi- desert.I ti sfoun d chiefly inth eare ao fbroa d highlands shrub desert formation which is linked with sand- between rivers and alluvialplains ,wit h saline or alka­ gravel, light brown soil.I t isdistribute d mainly on the line,gray , brown desert soil. It ismostl y distributed in bottom ofalluvia lfan s onheav ysalin esoi li nth earea s the southwestern and southern part of the Dzungarian of the Dzungarian Alatau Mountains and the Takyr Desert. It also has a wide range of distribution to the lowland of theTianshan .Th evegeta l cover is10-15 % east (Alashan, Qaidam) and thewes t (Kazakhstan).I n and is mixed with Aristida adscensionis, Oxytropis Dzungaria, it has developed well on carbonate gray spp.,Scorzonera spp.,an dStipa orientalis. brown soilswit h a cover of 12%. Artemisia desert formations. These formations Reaumuriasongarica maygro wa pur estan dcom ­ include the species ofArtemisia borotalensis, Artemi­ munity but always associates with other species to sia kashgarica,Artemisia schischkinii,Artemisia ter- forma different communities, such as Suaeda acumi­ rae-albae, and Artemisia arenaria, distributed on the nata, Haloxylon ammodendron, Anabasis aphylla, loessparen tmateria lan dfin esoi lparticle so fpiedmon t Tamarixspp. ,an dStipa glareosa. Th evegetativ ecove r diluvial fans, particularly in theTarbagata y Basin. On may reach 50-60%. northernslope so fth eTianshan ,Artemisia borotalensis andArtemisia schischkinii appear, while in theare a of Anabasis formation. Thisformatio n includesA« - theUlungu r River,Artemisia terrae-albaei s found. abosis aphylla. Anabasis brevifolia, Anabasis boro- talensis,an dAnabasis salsa,an d isdistribute d inarea s There are twoArtemisia desert formations which betweenth ecente ro fth edeser tan dth eUrungu r River, include the typicalArtemisia desert and the steppified thetablelan d in thenort h of theTiansha n and northern Artemisia desert. In typical desert, Kochia prostrata Tashan, and on the broad tableland of the Mori River andEurotia ceratoidesar efound , but they dono t form toth eeast .I nth enorther nportion ,i ti smixe dwit hStipa obvious synusia. Ephemerals, particularly in the Tar­ glareosa, which appears as asteppifie d desert type.I n bagatay Basin, may form synusia with luxurious theeastern portion,wher edry ,blac kgrave lvalley sar e growth, including Poa bulbosa, Meniocus linifolius, located, it is mixed with species of Reaumuria and Carex pachystylis. Ferula spp. grow well in the songarica,Ephedra przewalskii, and Stipaglareosa to EminRive rValley .Plan tcove ro fth e typicalArtemisia form variousassociations .Anabasis salsadeser tals oi s desert generally ranges from 20-25%. closelylinke dwit h salinesoil ,appearin gi nth ealluvia l fanso fth eTianshan .Th evegeta lcove ro fthos e forma­ The steppified Artemisia desert spreads on the tionsi sa slo wa s5-20% ,wit hplant sgrowin g 10-50cm . upper belt of thetypicalArtemisi a desert. It isa transi ­ tional zone from the typical Artemisia desert to the mountain steppe and ischaracterized by the growth of

197 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

grasses, includingStipa capillata, Stipa glareosa, and This formation is one of the main types of desert Festuca sulcata. The northern slopes of the Tianshan vegetation in Outer Mongolia. area includeStipa kirghisorum, while Stipa orientalis isinclude d in the Dzungarian Alatau. The plant cover On dry channels, gullies, and hammocks, the of thistyp eo f desertvegetatio n rangesfro m 30-35%. dominantspecie sar eGymnocarpos przewalsldi, Nitra- ria sphaerocarpa, and Zygophyllum Potanini which Nanophyton formation. Nanophyton erinaceum, form different types of desert shrub vegetation. These a semishrub of 10c m and long life, isdistribute d from species alternate with the associations of Anabasis west of Dzungaria to east of Urumqi on the northern brevifolia, and Ephedraprzewalskii, while Haloxylon slopes of the Tianshan and on the diluvial fans of the ammodendrono r Tamarixspp .occu ro nth efin esoi la t Altai Mountains, where strongly alkaline rubble soil thebotto m of hills.Othe r species include: predominates. This formation is characterized by the Asterothamnus centrali- Pappophorum boreale smallsemi-shrub sassociate dwit hReaumuria songari- asiaticus Pyrethrum discoideum ca, Anabasis aphylla, Artemisia terrae-albae, Stipa Caragana spp. Rheum nanum glareosa,Kochia prostrata, Orostachysspinosus, Poa Convolvulus ammanii Statice spp. bulbosa and many species of Chenopodiaceae. These Eragrostis minor Stipa glareosa speciesar eoccasionall ymixe dwit hAnabasis salsa an d Hippolytia achilleoides more frequently combined with Artemisia spp. Plant cover is 10-20%. Ephedra formation. The Ephedra formation is a maintyp e inth eshru bdeser t of theCentra lAsia n gobi Ulmus formation. Ulmus parkland is a unique and is distributed to a limited extent on the diluvial characteristic of the Dzungaria Desert, distributed hammockso fmountai nfront s inpar to fDzungaria ,an d mainlyo nth etop so falluvia lhammock so fth enorther n on north branches of Ebi Lake in western Dzungaria slopes of the Tianshan. In the understory, Leymus (Figure 8.11). It is widely distributed in the areas of dasystachys and Sophora alopecuroides occur, form­ Outer Mongolia, Kashgaria, Peishan,an d Qaidam. ing a meadow vegetation mixed with Calamagrostis pseudophragmites. Lasiagrostis splendens forms a Iljinia regeld formation. TheIljinia regelii small dominant synusia of thesalin e meadows. semi-shrubsformatio n islinke dclosel ywit h textureo f gypsum distributed mainly in the Nuomin (Nomin) Tamarixformation . Tamarixmigrate dfrom Mid ­ Gobi ineaster n Dzungaria and islimite d toth e terrace dleAsi a toCentra lAsi a inancien t times.Th edistribu ­ along Ebi Lake in western Dzungaria. The common tion of the Tamarix laxa formation in the Dzungaria accompanying species is Sympegma regelii, which is Desert is linked with saline soil, while Tamarix sometimesmixe dwit hAnabasis eriopodaan dHaloge- ramosissimai sdistribute d onth eborde ro fsan ddunes , tonarachnoïdes. The plant cover is notove r 4% (Lie t forming stabilized dunesknow na s "Tamarixpatches. " al., 1958). These formations of Tamarix are not important in the Because the climate is extremely dry, the desert Dzungaria Desert, though they are widely distributed vegetation of eastern Dzungaria may reach toth e foot­ in MiddleAsi a and Qaidam. hills, with elevations above 1,000 m, such as on the The eastern Dzungaria Desert is a gobi desert northern slopes of Bogda and Karlik mountains where whichi ssituate dbetwee n theeaster nextremitie so fth e the elevation is higher than the northern slopes of the Altai Mountains and the Tianshan. This gobi is an Tianshan. Thevertica l distribution of soil and vegeta­ ancient, denuded plateau, with an undulating relief of tion isshow n in Figure8.12 . ridges includes Borten Gobi in the west, Nomin Gobi in the center, and Narin-Hu Gobi, with elevations of Easto fDzungaria ,ephemera lsynusi aar efoun d on 360-700 m. The vegetation is simple and scarce. The plains, sand lands, or alluvial fans. The plant cover of flora is Central Asian whose influence may reach to ephemerals ranges from 2-50%, with 5 to 15 species central Dzungaria. found in a 1 m sample. The total number of epher- meralsi sabou t 40species . Desert Vegetationin the Eastern Dzungaria Perennial ephemerals include: Anabasis brevifolia formation. Anabasis brevi- Carex pachystylis Euphorbia rapulum folia formsa typ eo fsmal lsemi-shru bdeser tvegetatio n Carex physodes Ferula (2 species) found mainlyi nth eMongolia ngobi .I ti sdistribute do n Eremostachys Leontice inserta thewor nston ehammoc ki nth eerosio nplai no f eastern molucelloides Poa bulbosa Dzungariawit hver ylo wplan tcove ran dwithou t other Eremurus inderiensis Tulipa biflora species, except an occasional Zygophyllum Potanini. Erodium Tulipa halopakovkiana Theannua l ephemerals include:

198 CHAPTER 8

l.*ï. ^^S3ltó:

Figure 8.11. Ephedraprzewalskü is found widely in the desertvegetatio n of thenorthwester n region. (Reproduced from H.Y. Hon,1983 , with permission from Annalso f the Missouri BotanicalGarden )

5000 North

4000 ft/i •rf i #\

f J ***•"'*^> •yyyyyyoyyyyl

2000 Turfan tX\\\\\\\\7^ij il il ri ri « riî^ 1 JÊS* JASAÎ'SÏ^ SSfE 1000 -rftjjpi- i MHBMKJ^^^SSSisS^S® ilÊSS^&giMS^s*»»«**

Figure 8.12. Verticaldistributio no fvegetatio no n theslope so f Bogda Mountaini neaster nDzungaria . 1.Rock y desert, 2. Artemisia-Kochia desert, 3. Semi shrubSympegma-Reaumuria desert , 4. Mountain desert steppe, 5. Steppe, 6. Mountain meadow grassland, 7. Picea forest, 8. Subalpinemeadow ,9 .Alpin e meadow, 10.Alpin ecushio n vegetation, 11. Alpinesnowline .(Adapte d from Y.Z.Wu , 1980)

Alyssum desertorum Lepidium perfoliatum Among those species, Poa bulbosa and Carex Bromus secalinus Leptaleum filifolium pachystylis form a synusia with plant cover of 5% in Chorispora tenella Malcolmia africana theArtemisia deserto f theTarbagata yBasin .O nsand y Colpodium humile Plantago spp. land, Carex physodes constitutes an obvious synusia Eremopyrum orientale Trigonella argenta with plant cover of 10-50%. Those synusia have no Eremopyrum triticeum important significance in other typeso f desert vegeta­ Koelpinia linearis Veronica campylopoda tion.Generally ,al lth eannua l ephemerals start growth

199 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

in early March to early April, and seed ripens in late This makes the climate of Kashgaria extremely dry May tomiddl e June. with hotsummer san d cold winters. Perennialherb sar eo f significant appearance, par­ The sand mass of the Kashgarian Desert covers ticularly in the woodlands on river banks. The main 400,000 km2 and is 1,400 km long from east to west species,Sophora alopecwoides, mixes with other pe­ and more than 500 km wide from north to south. It is rennial herbs to form a synusia, e.g. with Leymus one of the largest sand deserts in theworld . This large dasystachys, Calamagrostis pseudophragmites, and sand basin includes some other small basins such as species of Glycyrrhiza glabra, Glycyrrhiza walensis, Turfan and Hami and some deserts which are dis­ Poacynum hendersoniian d others,whic h form a synu­ tributedo nth ehig helevation so fmountain s(e.g .belo w siao f perennialso nsalin esoil .Lasiagrostis splendens, 2,700 m on the Kunlun Mountains). The elevation is a dominant species,grow s on theborder s of thesalin e 1,200-1,500m i n thewes t and south and 800-1,000m meadow. Stipa glareosa, Stipa orientalis, and Allium inth eeas t andnorth ,excep t for Turfan which is 154 m polyrrhizum are the important elements of synusia in below sea level. This characteristic relief makes the steppified deserts on piedmont alluvial fans and in rivers drain inward and flow from south to north and intermountain basins. from east to west. In the Dzungarian Desert, vegetation is deficient Climate of annuals (particularly the grasses), except for a few The climate is continental with an annual rainfall specieso f Chenopodiaceae. The annuals include: of lesstha n 70 mm. In some locations, precipitation is Ceratocarpus arenarius Climacoptera subcrassa lesstha n 30mm ;suc h as 25m m inYul i (centrala t the Ceratocarpus Corispermum northernborder) ,25. 9m mi nTurfa n (northeastern bor­ turkestanicus hyptapotankum der),9. 9m m inQiem o(Qarqa n cherchen,centra la tth e Climacoptera ajjtnis Echinopsilon southern border),an d 63 mm inKash i (Kashgar at the Climacoptera bracheata divaricatum westernmost point 1,360 m).N odat a are available for Climacoptera ferganica Suaeda acuminata thecentra lportio n ofth edesert ,bu ti nsom eyear sther e Allth eannual s mixed withHaloxylon spp.,Reau- is no rain. The potential evaporation in the desert is muria songarica, and Artemisia spp. form different 20-25 times the average annual rainfall. The mean desert vegetation according to location. They grow in temperature is generally about 10°C, but winters are the summer season forming a synusia. Hu (1963) re­ relativelycoo lwit hmea nJanuar ytemperature sof- 5 to ported the hay yield of associations and ground water -11°C. Minimum temperatures may drop to -20 to resource found in this area according to the types of -37°C.Becaus eo fth elo wrelativ ehumidity ,sno w falls sand dunes and sand land (Table 8.1). In view of the for only a few days. The summer is hot, with mean forage available and the grazing utilization, the temperatures in July about 25°C and the maximum Dzungaria Desert is the best of the Central Asian de­ temperatures of 43°Crecorde d at Ruoqiang, and 48°C serts. (118°F) at Turfan. Accumulative degrees above 10°C aretypicall y3,800-4,700 ,an dth ehour so fsunshin epe r year range from 2,800 to 3,200, providing abundant KASHGARIA (TAKLAMAKAN) DESERT resourceso f heat and light. Thewhol eare ao fth esouther nportio n of Xinjiang Springi scharacterize d byviolen t winds.Th epre ­ (which includes the Tarim Valley, Taklamakan, the vailing wind is mostly from the northeast (Mongolian Turfan-Hami depressions, and Lop Nor), is named high pressure),bu t in thewes t and southwest thewin d Kashgariabecaus eo fal lth edeser tareas .Som eauthor s isfro m thenorthwest .Th edirectio no fwind s influence have described this area as the Tarim Basin (Figure the formation and shape of sand dunes. Breed et al. 8.13) or , which includes all the (1979) used landsat images to divide the Taklamakan desert areas, but this is not an exact description. We Desert into four sections according to the external have chosen to include all of those subareas in the shapes and the relative position of slip faces of sand Kashgaria Desert designation. dunes.A nare ao fnorth-sout horiente ddune sconsistin g As mentioned in thesectio n describing the steppe of compound, crescentic ridges inth enortheas t grades andmountai nvegetatio n insouther n Xinjiang,thi svas t westward into dome-shaped and linear dunes south of land mass is circled by high mountains on the north, the . Fields of short, linear dunes occupy south,an dwest . In theeast ,th enarrowe d basin of Lop the central portion east of the Hotan River. Dome Nor opens to Peishan and the Hexi Corridor desert, dunes, sand sheets, linear ridges, and crescentic dunes which are deeply influenced by Mongolian climate. occupy thewester n section of the desert.

200 CHAPTER 8

Tabk 8.1.Characteristic san d productivity of variousgrazin g lands of the Dzungarian Desert.* (Adapted from S.Z. Hu, 1963)

Typeso f grazing lands Acreage Hay yield Groundwater Height of sand under surface (m) dunes (kR/ha) 0") 1. Semi-shifting sand dune grazing land 6.2 (1) Calligonum mongolicum + large grasses 2.6 16 1-15 (2) Haloxylon +Calligonum + Aristida 3.6 307 15 20-100

2. Semi-stabilized sandland grazing land 37.7 (3) Haloxylon +Calligonum + annual herbs 19.7 882 2-16 10-20 (4) Haloxylon +Artemisia frigida 20.0 577 2-16 15-30

3.Stabilize d sand dune grazing land 30.5 (5) Haloxylon +Eurotia +Artemisia + ephemerals 14.1 1,146 9-16 5-20 (6) Haloxylon + Tamarix +larg e grasses 1.3 1-5 1-5 (7) Calligonum +Artemisia + ephemerals 7.3 628 16 2-10 (8) Artemisia +grasse s + ephemerals 4.9 579 1-5 16 (9) Calligonum +smal l shrubs +Artemisia + ephemerals 3.1 3,345 2-10 1-15 Depth of sand 4. Stabilized sand land grazing land 23.6 layer (10) Haloxylon +annua l herbs 10.2 1-15 2.0 (11) Haloxylon +smal l semishrubs 7.4 929 - 1.0 (12) Eurotia +Artemisia + ephemerals 3.1 553 16 0.5 (13) Artemisia +ephemeral s 2.9 780 12-16 0.5 *ln sand desert, species including woody plants and herbs(mainl y Artemisia and ephemerals), are grazed primarily by sheepan d goats. Haloxylon and Tamarix species are grazed by camels.Thes e grazing lands are deficient in perennial grasses.

Thehig h mountainsar eth ebarrier swhic h prevent valleysan dth evicinity .Severa ltype so fvegetatio n are wet monsoons from coming into this vast desert area. formed depending on ground water salinity. There are Largearea so f glaciersan dsno w caps form onsom eo f nohill so rrock y formations topreven t theTari m river­ thesemountain s giving rise torivers wit h ample water bed from changing. for irrigating agricultural production, and for various types of vegetation such as forests, meadows, and Floods were, and still are, the cause of vegetation swampy vegetation. The Tarim River is the largest of in the desert areas. Breed et al. (1979) reported that the rivers of this region; it is 2,000 km in length. The poplarfores t covered manyo fth emargina larea so f the widthvarie s from 80t o 1,000 mwit ha naverag edept h desert until approximately 1,500 years ago. Flooded of 10 m. Other larger rivers (the Yarkant, Kaxgar, areas have decreased since the latter part of the 19th Toksu,an d Muzat)joi n theTari m Riverfro m thewes t century due to the increased cultivated areas in the andjoi n at thenorther n border of thedesert , creatinga Tarim Basin. For example, between Bachu (Maral- flow of 1,200-1,300m 3/sec. Smaller rivers (the Hotan wexi)an d Yarkant, thefield s havebee n almost contin­ and Qarqan) come from the Kunlun Mountains and uously cultivated during the last several decades flow into thedeser t in the north.I n addition, the Shule (Reginald and Schomberg, 1932). This continuous Riverarise sfro m theHex iCorrido ri nGans u and flows cropping increaseswate r usean d reducesth edange ro f intoth esoutheaster n portiono f thisdeser ta sfa ra sLo p flooding. Nor (lake) forming meadow vegetations. There are Sand Areas many small rivers which flow into the desert but with limited areas. Selivanov (cit. Petrov, 1966 and 1967) On the southern and western border of the desert divided the Tarim Basin into 11san d areas according lies a stretch of foothills and desert sloping plains that tothes e rivers, asshow n in Figure8.13 . iscompose do fproluvia lpebble-grave lsediment .I nth e north, the sands form a distinct border with the Tarim The name Tarim is given to the aggregation of Valley. The sand mass of the Taklamakan Desert is rivers which flow into the main stream of this area. composed of loose quaternary alluvium which is sev­ Flowcapacit yo fth eriver i saffecte d greatlyb yclimate , eral hundred meters thick and covered by up to30 0m increasing inApri lan d lateautumn , when the first and of eolian sand (Figures 8.14 and 8.15). The western lastsno wwate ri sadde dt oth eriver. Rive rwater screat e peripherycontain serode d forms of ancient river chan­ floods and provide adequate ground water in river nels and deltaic plains,wit h half of those plains filled

201 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Bosten Lake

Figure8.13 .Overvie wo fth eTari mBasi owit hth edifferen t sandareas :1 )Taklamakan ,2 )Be l Knm,3)Tag h Kum,4 )Yengisahr ,5 )Faizabod , 6)Tur nShuk ,7 ) ,8 )Ching-lyk ,9 )Kumkatti , 10)Lo pNor , 11)Ku mTag h(earl y boundaryo f theLo pNor) .(Adapte dfro m Petrov, 1967. Thisma pdoe sno t include theTurfa n and Hamibasin so rdepressions. ) withsand .I nth eeastern andcentra lpart so fth edesert , Anabasis brevifolia Iljinia regelii crescent-shaped sand deposits and large complexes of Asterothamnus fruticosus Kalidium cuspidatum barchan dunes predominate. In the Hotan (Khotan) Ephedraprzewalskii Nitraria sphaerocarpa River valley, transverse and longitudinal eolian forms Gymnocarpos Sympegma regelii are found side by side. Generally, the height of the przewalskii Zygophyllum xanthoxylon barchan dunes are 30-150 m and 250-500 m wide. Distancesbetwee n thedune srang efro m 1-4.5km .Th e Sometimes Reaumuria songarica is a dominant complex wind patterns shape the diverse relief forms. species while Haloxylon ammodendron is distributed Thesoi lo f thisare ai sbrow ndeser twit h largeamount s mainly in theeastern part of the desert. of gypsum. Saline soil is found on the alluvial plain MiddleAsia nspecie sar edistribute d mainlyi n the (Petrov, 1976). western part of thedeser t including: Anabasis aphylla Astragalus spp. Generally, thisvas t desert isdevoi d of vegetation, Anabasis truncata Oxytropis spp. due to the scant precipitation. However, the sand on Artemisiakashgarica water-saturated alluvial deposits has a high ground watertable .Hedi n (1904,cit .Walte re tal. , 1983)state d and someephemeral s and salinespecie s of: that fresh or saline ground water can be found almost Alhagi sparsifolia Halostachys belangeriana dailyi nwell so f 1- 2t o1 - 5m i nth edeepes tdun evalley s Halocnemum Karelinia caspica in the eastern part of the desert. Tamarix shrubs and strobilaceum Poacynum hendersonii reedsca nb efoun d onsuc hsites .Groundwate rwas ,an d Species from the desert of Middle Asia include is,use d for irrigating agriculture in those areas. Populus euphratica (diversifolia) and Populus prui- Vegetation Characteristics nosa, while Tamarix spp. and Nitraria spp. are the dominants in the river valley (Figures 8.18 and 8.19). Intheearly 1930'sth eflor a ofKashgariaconsiste d Theendemi cspecies of Kashgaria include mainly: ofles stha n50 0specie s(Popov ,1931 )but ha sincrease d Ammopiptanthus nanus now to more than 500 species. This is, however, an Calligonum roborovsMi extremely small figure for this vast territory. In the Reaumuria kashgarica desert region,abou t20 0specie sar efound .Th eflor a of Zygophyllum xanthoxylon var.kashgaricum Kashgaria isclosely related toCentra l Asia in the east with someMiddl eAsia n elements inth ewest , appear­ Popov (1931) examined the flora of Kashgaria ing as a transitional zonebetwee n these areas. Central revealing thefollowin g features: Asian species of shrubs and semi-shrubs found in Kashgaria (Figures8.1 6an d8.17 ) include(Wu , 1980):

202 CHAPTER 8

'Aiuk ***

Fig««».14 .Shiftin gsan ddune si nth eTaklamaka nDesert .Thi sphot owi stake nfro m anairplan ea t1,00 0m .(Reproduce dfro m H.Y.Hon , 1983,wit hpermissio n from Annalso fth eMissour iBotanica lGarden )

Figure8.15 .Th elandscap eo nth eborde ro f theTaklamaka nDesert .(Phot ocourtes yo fJ.P .Zhong ,1984 )

1. The absence of endemic species and the lack of terranean. Examplesinclud eth efamilie san dgen ­ stimulus for theorigi n of new species. era: 2. Boreal elements which are widely spread in ad­ joining countries are poorly represented, found : chiefly in mesophilous habitats (water basins, Allium moistmeadow so fth ealpin ezone river, banks ,an d Asparagus weed flora ofth eoases) . Stipa 3. The majority of xerophilous plants of the moun­ Boraginaceae: tainousarea so fKashgari abelon gt othos esystem ­ Arnebia Heliotropium aticgroup swhos ecente ro fdevelopmen tlie si nth e Echinospermum Solenanthus Ancient Mediterranean, in particular in Middle Asia, to Kashgaria. Only a few species of those Convolvulaceae: groupshav epenetrate d theregion ,however .The y Convolvulus may beterme d the "tails"o f thesystemati c plexus Cruciferae: which developed luxuriantly in the ancient Medi­ Malcolmia Tetrachne Sisymbrium

203 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Figure 8.1t. Thedeser to f southe n Xinjiang, withZygophyilum xanlhoxylon andEphedra intermedia growingo n theston y sanddeser tnea r Aks».(Phot ob y M. Popov, 1931;reproduced fro m C.W. Wang, 1961,wit h permission from Botanical Museum,Harvar dUniversity )

Figure 8.17. Desertvegetatio no fZygophyilum, Calligonum, andNitaria isfoun do n the piedmontplain si nth echannel so ftemporar y runoff inth eTaklamaka nDeser to f southern Xinjiang. (Reproduced from H.Y. Hou, 1983,wit h permission from Annals of theMissour i Botanical Garden) Compositae: Lophanthus Artemisia Eupatorium Scutellaria Chondrilla Pyrethrum Polygonaceae: Echinops Serratula Atraphaxis Fabaceae Calligonum (Leguminosae): Plumbaginaceae: Astragalus Acantholimon Oxytropis Scrophulariaceae: Labiatae: Scrophularia Lagochilus Tomiophyllum

204 CHAPTER 8

Figwe8.18. Old trees of Populuspru'mosa and Tamarix mounds on the river bank in southern Xinjiang in theTarim Basin. (Photo by F.N. Meyer, 1911, courtesy of USDA;reproduce d from C.W. Wang, 1961)

Figur 8.19.Avie w of the Tarim Basin nearYak-Kuku k in southern Xinjiang. Busheso fAtriplex grow in alkaline depressionswit h Populus euphratka on sandy terraces. The change in vegetation isdu e to the change of river bed and ground water level. The scattered deadwood in the foreground ispoplar . (Photob y F.N. Meyer, 1911, courtesy of USDA; reproduced from C.W. Wang, 1961)

Veryfe w ofth exerophylou styp especie s foundi n flora. Theyal l arecommo n tosouther n Mongolia theflor a of Kashgariaar eno tfro m Turkistan cen­ andinclude : ters of origin. However, those species which do Anabasisspp . Haplophyllum belong toth eMongolia n florainclude : Apocynum spp. dauricum Caragana Hedysarum Ephedraspp . Myricariaspp . Dontostemon Saussurea Gymnocarpos Nitrariaspp . Inth enorther npar to fKashgaria ,ther eoccu ra fe w przewalskii Reaumuriakashgarica ratherillustrativ erelic so f thepre-Miocen edeser t Haloxylon Staticeplatyhymenium ammodendron Zygophyllumspp.

205 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

and others. part of the Tarim Valley with meadow and swampy soils. The accompanying genera include Oxytropis, Thus, Kashgaria differs little from southern Potentilla, and Inula. The plant coverage is 40-60%, Mongolia, except for the greater mixture of ancient withplan theigh trangin gfro m 1.2-1.5m .I nth edraine d Mediterranean elements in theflor a of Kashgaria. The areas, Calamagrostispseudophragmites is distributed basic landscapes of the Kashgarian Desert are rocky, where thesoi li sdr y and thegroun d water level is3 m gravel-pebble and sand deserts. The hammadas occur below thesurface .Th ePhragmites plantcove ri sabou t on piedmont areaswit h few specieso rwithou t vegeta­ 25% with a height of 60-80 cm. Some species such as tion,whil eth evalle yan dsalin elandscape shav e forests Tamarix hispida, Karelinia caspica, and Apocynum and meadows. The inner sandy deserts are the most andersoniiar e found in the area.I n theswamp y areas, barren areas. Thypha angustifolia and Scirpus locustris form a Types of Vegetation swampyvegetatio n community. According to landscape, soil, and potential water Generally, those areas are used for grazing and resources,fiv e areas may be distinguished in Kashga­ hay.Th eyiel do fha y mayb e3,00 0k gpe rhectare .Th e ria. area may be potentially grazed the year round, pri­ marily by sheep,bu tals ob y horsesan d cattle. Barren Gobiand Scarce Shrub-semi-shrub Desert onFoothills andProhivial Plains Calamagrostis formation. The Calamagrostis pseudophragmites formation is distributed on alluvial This type of vegetation is distributed on the foot­ meadow soilwit hsom esal t on thesoi lsurfac e and the hillsalon g the mountains of thesouther n slopes of the ground water table at 1-2 m with good drainage. The Tianshan, east of Kashgar, and on the northern slopes plant cover ranges from 20-60% with a plant height of of the Kunlun and Altun mountain ranges. The width 60-70 cm. In some places, Phragmites communis, of this area varies from 30 to more than 100 km. Tamarixchinensis, andOxytropis ar efoun d ascompo ­ Alluvial-proluvialplain spredominat ewit hgravel-peb ­ nent species. bles-sand,an da smal lamoun t ofbrow ndeser t soilan d gypsum salt pan are found. Usually, no vegetation is Populus diversifolia formation. The Populus present, with only rocky gravel-pebble areas which diversifolia forest formation is one of the important formgobi .I nrain yyears ,Halogeton glomeratus grows , vegetation types in the Tarim Valley. Water is the formin gball-shape dgree nclumps .I nvalley so rgullies , determiningfacto r inth edistributio no fthi svegetatio n individual shrubsma y be found. type.Thi sspecies grow sbette rwher eth egroun d water table is high or in areas near the river. In the upper Thecommo n species include: watershed of theTari m River,wher e thegroun d water Asterothamnus fruticosus Iljinia regelii table is at 1.5 m,Populus mixed with Halimodendron Calligonum mongolicum Nitraria spp. halodendron and Calamagrostis pseudophragmites Ephedra przewalsldi Sympegma regelii form an association with component specieso f Tama­ Gymnocarpos Zygophyllum xanthoxylon rix spp., Apocynum spp., Phragmites communis, and przewalsldi Glycyrrhiza spp. Populus grows 5-8 m with a breast The Reaumuria songarica formation of Dzun- heightdiamete ro f2 0c mo rmore .Th eplan tcove rma y garia-Mongolia is also widely distributed. Haloxylon rangefrom 40-60% . ammodendron spreads inth eeaster n part ofth e desert, Onth ealluvia lplain so fth emiddl ean dlowe rpart s particularly on the piedmont of the Altun Mountains. ofth eTari mRiver ,wher eth egroun dwate rtabl erange s Thespecie so f MiddleAsia, Anabasis aphylla, appears from 1.5 to3 m,wit h slightly salinized soil,a Populus inth ewes t andAnabasis brevifolia isfoun d inth eeast . +Tamarix +Phragmites associationi sformed . Populus Many ephemeral formations appear on the western grows 12-15mwithadiamete ra tbreas theigh to f30-5 0 proluvial of Kashgar. cm. There are about 40 plants of Populus per hectare. Shrubs andPopulus Forest Whenwate r isdeficient , thePopulus willb ewea k and gradually die. Shrubs,Populus forest,salin emeadow ,an d saline vegetation are found on saline alluvial plains. This Onalluvia lplains ,ther ear ethre eothe r formations vegetation belt is located on the outer border of the of Tamarix: Tamarix + Phragmites + Apocynum + desert, mainly in the Tarim Valley. Three important Calamagrostis, Tamarix + Haloxylon + Karelinia + formations are found. Phragmites, and Tamarix. Phragmites communis formation. The Phrag- mites communis formation isdistribute d in the middle

206 CHAPTER 8

Central Taklamakan fan which rises 1,000-1,500m abov e sea level.A t the bottom of this fan, there is abundant ground water In the central portion of the Taklamakan Desert, runoff.A tth elowe r parto f thefan ,a fine sediment has there are countless large shifting sand dunes without been deposited, forming earth gobio rdr y deltaswher e vegetation except in limited areas between the sand irrigated agriculture is found. In the Turfan Basin, the dunes, where some plants of Tamarix psammo-philla AydingkolLak ei sa catchmen to fgroun dwate ran dsal t arefound . In thearea so f rivers flowing into thedeser t has formed a salt beach to this lake. At the bottom of there are forests of Populus pruinosa, Populus eu- thesebasins ,th egroun dwate rrunof f flowsou t forming phratica, shrubs of Tamarix chinensis, Halimoden- salinesoi lan dsalin eswamps .Generally ,Ham i Gobii s dron,an dmeadow so fCalamagrostis an dPhragmites. anundulatin g rocky tableplai nwhic h hasbee n formed On the edge of the desert, Tamarix and Phragmites bydesiccating erosio nove ra lon gperiod .Th eplai nha s grow but remain very small. anelevatio n of 1,200-1,400m .Th e rocky hills are not It is of interest to note that there are none of the more than 100m in relative height. This entire area is psammophyteso f Mongolia sand desert such asCara- deficient insurfac e and ground water. gana, Psammochloa, andPugionium, but the Middle The annual rainfall of these twobasin s is3. 9 mm Asian species Aristida permata, Calligonum, and forToksu n(0. 5m mi n 1968)an d3 3m m forHami .Th e Tamarixramosissima are found. The annualsAgrio- aridity indexes of Turfan and Toksun are 70 and 237, phylhun arenarium and Corispermum spp. can be respectively, and dust stormsoccu r3 6an d7 2day s per found after rain. year, respectively. Accordingt oth egeobotanica ldivision so f Central Owing to the severe climate, coarse substratum, Asia, Grubov (1959) defined two areas in the east of andhig h levelso f gypsum andsal t in thesoil ,th e flora Kashgaria; the northeastern Kashgaria, including Tur- is very poor with simple vegetation. The zonal flora fan and Hami basins, and the Lop Nor Depression includes mainly pebble gobi species of shrubs and including Kumutage Desert. semi-shrubs of Central Asia, such as Nitraria sphae- Northeastern Kashgaria (Turfan-Hami) rocarpa,Ephedra przewalskii, Iljinia regelii, an dherb s aîSeorzonera divaricata,an dsom eothers .Th especies The name of this area is confusing since various of Middle Asia, Haloxylonammodendron andReau- authorsgiv edifferen t namest oth esam eregion .Petro v muria songarica, play a lesser part. The halophylous (1976) named this area as Gashun Gobi, but Grubov specieso f Central Asia arecommon . They include: (1959) named it northeastern Kashgaria. In addition, Aeluropus littoralis Karelinia caspica Grubovname dth esouther n portiono fthi sgob ith eLo p Alhagi sparsifolia Lycium ruthenicum Nor Depression, but Walter (Walter et al., 1983)cite d Glycyrrhiza inflata Phragmites communis it as Gashun-Gobi. Grubov gave a name of Gashuun Glycyrrhiza uralensis Salicornia herbacea Nur (Lake) to the areawes t of Alashan Gobi,whic h is thesam ea stha tassigne d by theProvincia l mapso f the and some elements of Mediterranean-Middle Asia in­ People's Republic of China (1977). To avoid confu­ cluding: sion, we have chosen the name of northeastern Kash­ Capparis spinosa Tamarix laxa garia for this area. Populus euphratica Tamarix ramosissima The northeastern Kashgaria area is located be­ Tamarix Hohenackeri tween theBogda-Karli kmountain s inth enort han d the In these two basins, the vegetal distribution is Kuruktag Mountains and theBeisha n inth esouth .Th e determined byth egeomorphologica l features and qua­ elevated plain has a maximum elevation of 1,557 m ternary geological structure, forming ring belts along with gently sloping-undulating relief and isa comple x the basins.O n the northern portion of thesebasin s the labyrinth of broad ravines separated by flat hills and southernslope so fth eTiansha n form agrave lproluvia l rocky ridges, reaching 100 m in relative height. The fanwher ether ear elarg earea so fbarre ngobi .O nlowe r desert iscompose d of pebbles.Th esoi li sgray ,brown , placeso ri ngullies ,a deser tassociatio noîlljinia regelii gypsiferous and solonchak in thedepressions . is formed, as well as a desert association of Nitraria Turfan andHam iar eth elarges to fth eman ybasin s sphaerocarpa. inth earea .Thi sare a islinke d with theAlasha n Desert Where alluvial loamy soil and loamy sand soil and the Tarim Basin and is one of the driest areas in plains are on the bottom of proluvial fans, there are Central Asia. Both the Turfan and Hami basins are largearea so f salinesoi ldu e toth e presenceo f ground depressionso fol ddeposit san dthei rlowes t leveli s15 4 water near the surface. The vegetation is mainly the mbelo wse aleve l(Aydingko lLake) .O nth epiedmont s Phragmites communis+ Aeluropus littoralis associa- ofth eTianshan ,ther ei sa thic kgravel-pebbl e proluvial

207 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

tion, with some accompanied species of Lycium the Tarim and Shule, emptied into Lop Nor. The fish ruthenicum, Karelinia caspica, Glycyrrhiza spp., and and the surrounding grasslands for grazing cattle and others. On saline sand, hammocks also appears. The game fed this city of over 10,000 people. Since the associations of Alhagi sparsifolia and Scorzonera fourth century the Tarim River changed course to the divaricata and Phragmites communis are mixed into west, and the lakedrie d up,causin g a change of vege­ them. tation and therui n of thecity . On thebotto m of basins and lake beaches are salt Richardson (1966) mentioned that the vegetation swamps, while on heavy saline soil are found the as­ community of Lop Nor included two psammophytes, sociations of Halocnemum strobilaceum and Sali- Agriophyllum arenariuman dCorispermum hyssopifol- cornia herbacea + Lycium ruthenicum. On the ium. southwesternpar to fth eHam iBasi nther ear eabundan t Populus forestswhic har edistribute do nth efloo d plain This area is a level saline plain with few plants, and on the banks of rivers and lakes.O n the periphery primarilyKalidium an dHalocnemum strobilaceum. On of these basins, there are many areas of sand dunes, thewester n edge, shrubs of Tamarix and meadows of sandy land,an d eroded land.Ther e isn ovegetatio n on Phragmites communis + Halogeton glomerulus and the tops of shifting sand dunes, only some plants of Poacynum hendersonii + Trachomitum + Halogeton Calligonum mongolicuman dAristida pennata. On the are found. stabilizedsan ddune san dsan dland ,Alhagi sparsifolia, To the east of Lop Nor is the Kumutage Desert Scorzonera divaricata, Phragmites communis, Agrio- which is composed mostly of gobi, sand sheets, and phyllum squarrosum, and some other species form as­ crescentic, linear, and star shaped dunes. The average sociations. duneheigh t is 10-30m ,but inth esout h theyreac h 200 m.Thi s area issparsel y vegetated. Basically, this area is a rocky desert with only thirty species of plants. In the central portion of the desert are found some plants of Nitraria spp., QATOAM DESERT VEGETATION Haloxylon ammodendron, Anabasis brevifolia, and Ephedraprzewalsldi forming associations.Reaumuria The Qaidam Basin, a specific depression, is lo­ songaricaappea ronl yo n thelowe rlan darea sbetwee n catedo nth enortheaster nportio no fth eTibeta n Plateau. dunes. Along the periphery of a few springs, there are Itha sa nelevatio no f2,60 0m i nth esoutheas tan d3,00 0 patches of Phragmites communis and Halocnemum mi nth enorthwest , and isencircle d by high mountains strobilaceum. witha nelevatio n of 4,000-6,000 m.Geologically , it is apar to f that plateau,co mpose d ofthic kbed so fMeso - The grazing lands of Kashgaria are generally dis­ Cenozoic deposits and is an aggregation related to tributed on the periphery of the desert where there are Mongolian and Kashgarian floras. many rivers along which have formed different types of vegetation such as Populus forests, shrubs, mead­ This Basin lies between 91-98° E and 36-39° N with a length of 850 km from east to west and with a ows,an dsteppifie ddesert .Al lth eplant sprovid ea goo d widtho fabou t25 0km .Th eelevatio no fth enorthwest­ forage resourcefo r domesticanimals ,wit h three types ernportio n isabou t 3,000m whic h slopest oth esouth ­ of grazing land: summer-fall, winter-spring, and year east.Insid e thebasin , theTertiar y loose layerha sbee n around. eroded by winds, forming denuded hills.I n thesouth ­ LopNor Area easternportio nther ei sa depressio nare adeposite dwit h athic kproluvia lan dalluvia llaye ro fQuaternary .Fro m The Lop Nor (Lake) Depression is located in the those foothills to the central part of the basin, the southeastern portion of Kashgaria in which yardangs landscape is characterized by pebble-gravel and sand (sculpted landforms streamlined by winds) were first distributed on an inclined alluvial plain of piedmont. described by Hedin (1904, cit. Walker, 1982). Mc- On the northern alluvial lake sediment flat plain, the Cauley and colleagues (1977 cit. Walker, 1982) cal­ soils are saline sand, sandy loam, or clay where the culated that wind has been etching yardangs near Lop groundwate ri snea rth esurfac eo rwher erunof f washes Nor at the rate of about 0.2 cm per year, thus proving out,formin g largearea so fsal tswamps .Win d deposits theeffectivenes s of wind asa nagen t oferosio n in arid spread proluvial and alluvial plains. Most of the sand land. dunes are shifting, with only 30% of dunes stabilized During the Han Dynasty (206 B.C. to 220A.D.) , byvegetatio n (Zhu, 1980).Th ecentra lare ao fth ebasi n there was a city of Loulan, which was situated on the iscompose d of many salty marshes and lakes. side of Lop Nor, on the silk road of Chinese travel to westernAsia .Durin gtha ttime ,fis h from rivers, mainly

208 CHAPTER 8

Climate Theelement so f MiddleAsi a include: Haloxylon ammodendron The climate of the Qaidam Basin, a gigantic in­ Reaumuriasongarica termediate steppe, is characterized by cool summers Salsola arbuscula and cold winters.I t has limited rainfall, abundant sun­ with the species of saline meadows including Ach- shine, and frequent and violent winds, though not as natherumsplendens an dPoacynum hendersonii. strong as those inTibe t or Mongolia. The annual rain­ fall is 100-200m m inth esoutheast ,les stha nS Om mi n Specieswidesprea di ntemperat eAsi ainclud eGly- the central portion, 20 mm in the northwestern area, cyrrhizauralensis andLeymus dasystachys. 1S.4 mm in Leng Hu (Lake), and 25 mm near the Theendemi cspecie so f Qaidam include: southernborder .Th earidit y indexes are2- 4 inth eeas t Calligonum zaidamense and 9-20 in the central and northwestern parts of this basin. Mean annual temperatures range from 1 to5°C , Salsola zaidamica whilemea n temperatures of July and January are 15t o Reaumuriakashgarica var.nanshanica 17°C, and -10 to -15°C respectively. The minimum Reaumuriakashgarica var. przewalsldi temperature is -30 to -35°C. Hours of sunshine total Types of Vegetation 3,000-3,600hour spe ryea rwit htota lradiatio n capacity of 160-180 cal/cm per year. In the western part, the According to the features of climate, landscape, western winds prevail year-round, forming wind- substratum, groundwater, and salt content, several eroded and shifting sand landscapes.Th e zonal soil is vegetation types may be distinguished (Wu, 1980). gray brown soil, but in the central portion, extremely These aredescribe d by location. saline soil has developed with high concentrations of In theEastern Part gypsum present in thewest . In the eastern part, (east of 36° N, 97°50 ' E) the Vegetation Characteristics vegetation is characterized as steppified desert with brown calcareous soil. The desert formations of Thedominan t specieso f thevegetatio n in Qaidam Reaumuriaspp. ,Salsola arbuscula, andKalidium gra­ are the same as in Mongolia and Kashgaria. They cile are mainly distributed on sand-gravel proluvial include: fans.Achnatherum splendens mixe dwit hNitraria tan­ Ephedraprzewalsldi Reaumuria songarica gutorum is distributed on fine saline soil, forming a Eurotiaceratoides Reaumuriatrigyna significant part of the landscape.O n thestabilize d and Haloxylonammodendron Salsola abrotanoides half-stabilized sand dunes, loose clumps of Achnat­ Kalidium gracile Salsola arbuscula herumsplendens, Nitraria spp.,an dHaloxylon ammo­ Nitraria sibirica Sympegma regelii dendronar e distributed. The main desert associations Thesespecie sfor m deserts inth enort h and north­ of Sympegma regelii, Kalidium cuspidatum,Salsola western parts of Qaidam (Lie t al., 1957;Yang , 1959). abrotanoides, Ceratoides latens, and Reaumuria tri­ gyna occupy the slopes of the piedmont belt. Among There are about 228 species of flora in the basin theseassociations ,th egras sspecie soîStipa brevifolia, which belong to 46 families and 153 genera. If the Stipa bungeana, Cleistogenes songarica, Agropyron mountainspecie sar eincluded , therear emor etha n 400 repens,Agropyron desertorum, andherb so fArtemisia species.Th emai nspecie sar eo fth efollowin g families: frigida andNeopallasia pectinata mayb emixed . Gramineae(mor etha n3 0species) ,Compositae , Legu- minosae, Chenopodiaceae (more than 20 species), In theCentral Portion Rosaceae and Cyperaceae (moretha n 10species) .Th e Inth ecentra lportion ,th evegetatio n isdistribute d specieso fthes efamilie smak eu pabou t58 %o fth etota l in widestrip s orbelts . On theproluvia l declined plain geographical flora. Qaidam flora should beconsidere d (pebble-gravelgobi )o f theKunlu n foothills, thewidt h as belonging to ancient Mediterranean desert (Wu, of vegetation ranges from 3 to 30 km. Deep ground­ 1980) although this conclusion is not shared by all water is present in this area, although vegetation con­ botanists (Lie t al., 1957;Liu , 1983;an dothers) . sistso f onlycrust so f lichen.O nth emiddl ean d lowest Thedeser tspecie so fCentra lAsi afor m thenucleu s parts of the gobi, xerophytic shrubs and semi-shrubs of Qaidam vegetation. Species include: form azona ldeser t formation including: Asterothamrms Kalidium gracile Asterothamnus Haloxylon ammodendron centraliasiaticus Nitrariatangutorum centraliasiaticus Kalidiumcuspidatum Ephedraprzewalsldi Reaumuriatrigyna Calligonumzaidamense Reaumuriasongarica Gymnocarposprzewalsldi Salsola abrotanoides Ceratoides latens Salsola arbuscula Kalidium cuspidatum Sympegma regelii Ephedra przewalsldi

209 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

On the lower part of the proluvial fans (with TheNorthwest groundwater depth at 6-10 m),th eshru b species form scarceclump san d include: To the northwest, on the proluvial fans of the Calligonum zaidamense Nitraria tangutorum piedmontso f theQimanta g Mountains (thenorthwest - Ceratoides latens Tamarix Uvea em corner of Qaidam), large areas are covered with shifting sand. The climate is extremely dry with fre­ Onth ealluvia lan dproluvia lfla t plainswit hsand y quentwinds .Ther ei sn ovegetation ,wit hth eexceptio n clay-loam soil and with ground water ranging from of some scarce clumps of Calligonum zaidamense, 2-6 m, the species of Tamarix laxa, Tamarix ramo- Ephedra przewalskii, and Tamarix chinensis which sissima,Nitraria tangutorum, Nitraria sibirica, Lycium form smallsand y heaps.I nth enorthwester n parto f the ruthenicum,an dKalidium gracile form abel to f saline basin, the environment is even more severe. On the tolerant shrub clumps. Clumps of Tamarix spp. often windy aspect,denude d hillsan dlowland s have formed form large heaps. On the lowlands located between from shifting sand dunes of wind deposit. Saline flats hills, Phragmites communisan d Poacynum hender- are found between thesan d dunes,whic h are basically soniifor m asalin emeado w inwhic hshrub sar esprea d without vegetation. By the sides of small lakes and widely. At the edge of the fan belt with fine soil, springs, there aresalin e meadowso f Phragmites com­ Achnatherum splendensals oform s a saline meadow. munis andLeymus dasystachys. On theoutsid eborder , saline desert soil is found with spreading scattered Thesal tconten t ishighe ri nth elarg eare ao fsalin e plantso f Ceratoides latensan dReaumuria songarica meadows with a ground water table of less than 2 m. ina deser t association. Thespecie sof Phragmites communis an dLeymus dasy- stachysar eth edominan tspecies o fsalin emeadow san d The southern slopes of the Altun Mountains are are mixed with salt tolerant shrub species including coveredmainl ywit hReaumuria songarica, Sympegma Lycium ruthenicum, Nitraria tangutorum, with other regelii,Kalidium gracile, andSalsola collina, forming speciesformin g smalleart h heaps.The y mayb emixe d asemi-shru bdeser to ngrave lan dproluvia lfans .O nth e with species of Calamagrostis pseudophragmites, outer border appears Leymus dasystachys in saline Calamagrostis macilenta,an dApocynum venetum. In meadows. On the eastern part of the proluvial fans, theswamp y areas, Glauxmaritima, Polygonum sibir- these semi-shifting sand dunes are covered by icum,Triglochin palustre, Triglochin maritimum, and Haloxylon ammodendron. others form salineswamp y meadows. Therei sa mountainous desert on the southeastern The lake sediment plains are located along salt part of the basin of the Kunlun Mountains. Below the lakesi nth ecentra ldepressions .Barre nsal tflat s appear elevationo f3,60 0m ar erock y lowermountain salmos t on thelak ebeache scovere d withai m thicksal t crust. without vegetation or with only sparse plants ofCera­ On the border of the lakes with shallow salt water, toideslatens, Reaumuria songarica, Sympegma regelii, Potamogeton pectmatus, Hippuris vulgaris, Utricu- Ephedraprzewalskii, and Kalidium cuspidatum. Be­ laria vulgaris, and Chora form a small association of tween3,60 0an d3,80 0m i sa subalpin estepp eo fStipa hydrophilous vegetation. Swampy associations are purpurea. Between 3,800an d 4,500m , Kobresiapyg- formed with Carex aterrima, Scirpus pumilus, and maeai sth eprimar yspecie sformin g analpin emeado w Centaurea atropurpurea. On the moist lowland, mixed with Stipapurpurea. Some plants of Arenaria Phragmites communis, Triglochinspp. , Glauxmari­ kansuensis aresprea d on theslopes . tima,an dSaussureasalsa areth emai nspecies forming salineswamp y meadows.O n theedge so f lakesan d in depressedareas ,salin eswamp ysoi li sfoun d witha sal t THE OASES crust. The surface soil contains more than 60% salt. The vast land of the Northwest is circled by high Only salt tolerant annual species such as Salicornia mountainsan disolate dfro m monsoons,formin g aver y europaea and Suaeda salsa appear, forming an as­ dry climate with cold winter and violent winds. The sociation.O nth esmal l hillsforme d bywind y deposits summer ishot an dbrigh twit h abundant radiation heat. of clay saline soil, Kalidium cuspidatum, Kalidium Theho tsummer ,whe n combined with abundant water gracile andReaumuria songarica form a halophilous supplied from melting snow and glaciers of those high association.O nsalin esand ysoil ,clump so f Poacynum surrounding mountains, results in the formation of hendersoniian dPhragmites communis appea ri nsalin e many areas of oases for agricultural production. Agri­ meadows, while Nitraria tangutorum sometimes is culture is the basic enterprise and supplies food and found onsalin esand yhill s(l i et al., 1957,1958). clothing for thepeopl eo f the region. Mosto f theoase sli ei nlowe raltitudes ,wit h many near thesand y desert. In general,the y extend over the

210 CHAPTER 8

alluvial fans which are deposited by rivers at the foot Kashgaria ofth em ountain so fthei rorigin .Th erivers ca nb eeasil y In Kashgaria, agriculture depends wholly on irri­ divided into channels for irrigation. The river water gation and all oases lie along the rivers. Tarim is the flowsdow n insubterranea nchannel sint oth eloos esoi l namegive n toth eaggregat eo f riverstha t flow intoth e ofth efans ,the n reappearsfarthe rdow n inmois t places main stream of this area. The large rivers are Kaidu allowing cultivation. The soil in the oases area is uni­ (Karaxahar), Muzat, Toxkan, Aksu, Kaxgar, Yarkant, form andfertile .Th eusua lloes ssoi lbenefit s from ato p Karakax, Hotan, Qarqan, and Keriya.Man y small riv­ dressing of sand which prevents it from setting intoa ersals oar e found inthi sarea .Al lo fthe mwate ra serie s hard pano f clay after irrigation. of oases in marshy and swampy land. The climate of Northern Slopes of the Tianshan Kashgariai swarme rtha ntha to fDzungaria . Therefore, thedevelopmen t of agriculture in the area occurred as Onth enorther nslope so fth eTiansha nan di nman y early as 2,000 years ago with diversified farming. areas of northwestern Dzungaria, the rainfall is fa­ Mostly farm crops are produced;mainl y winter wheat, vorable for crop production with or without irrigation. corn, cotton, rice, silk worms, and different kinds of Winter wheat grows on the low slopes due to snow fruit trees. The cropping systems may be one or two coverdurin gth ewinter .Barley ,millet ,corn ,sugarbeet , cropsi na year ,o r threecrop si n twoyears .Th esoi l is rapeseed,potatoes ,an dwatermelo nar emarkedl ygood , highly productive.Ther ei sabundan triver water ,with ­ aswel la sth estapl ecrop so fcotto nan dric ewhic hwer e out the irregular climate and ubiquitous pests of other developed in Manas many years ago. areas.Generall y speaking,soi lfertilit y isno tth e limit­ West of the Southern Slopes of the Altai ing factor for agricultural production in Kashgaria. Mountains Aurel Stein (cit. Schomberg, 1932) recorded that the entire Taklamakan Desert is potentially cultivalable. Inth eErti x area,wes to f thesouther n slopeso f the Fifty yearsago ,Schomber g(1930,1932 )an d Reginald Altai Mountains, barley and spring wheat are grown. and Schomberg (1932) reviewed theclimat e and agri­ The climate during the growing season is good, but cultural practicesi n theKashgaria n area andwrote , "It harsh during the winter. In the Tacheng (Tarbagatay, issaf et osa ytha t properirrigatio nwil ldoubl eth eyield . Qoqek)area ,prairie soîAchnatherum splendensar etal l Good farming willad d5 0percent ,an dagricultur e will enought ohid ea ma nmounte do na horse .Here ,astabl e beabl et osuppor t thepopulatio n of 16millio nfro m the dryland farming system has developed to produce Tarim Basin alone." springwhea t and potatoes.Thi sare ai son eo f themai n grain production sites in Xinjiang. Turfan and Ilami are the driest depressions with oases.Th eclimat e isextremel y cold inwinte r and hot Ili Valley insummer .Althoug h therei sn o abundant river water, Hi Valley is a rich agricultural land with fertile subterranean water is used for irrigation. Wheat, corn, soils,a war m climate,an d manyrivers wit h thesecon d cotton, and peanuts are produced there, in addition to largest volumeo f water (Ili River) for irrigation.Agri ­ grapesan d watermelons which are famous throughout culture started in this valley in the middle of the 18th China. century. Itha sbee n important, particularly inth elatte r Hexi Corridor is another area rich in oases.Agri ­ parto fth e19t hcentury ,whe nXinjian g wasestablishe d culture developed as early as the Han dynasty about as a province of China. At that time, the government 2,000 years ago. The water is plentiful, coming from encouraged and protected farmers, moving them there the Qilian and Nan mountains in the form of melting for agriculture. Since the revolution of 1950, agricul­ snow and glaciers. Spring wheat, millet, peas, broad- ture hasdevelope d rapidly. beans, rice, linseed, and sorghum are grown on the The expanse of level land in this area has an plainswit h elevationso f 1,100 to 1,600 m.Barley ,rye , agricultural potential estimated to be capable of three rapeseed, and potatoesar e grown at 1,600 to2,50 0m . timesit scurren t production level.Th eaverag eyiel do f A unique dry farming method has developed in this winter wheat in this area is 2,250 kg per ha. Corn, area. tobacco, and other crops are produced, including or­ Qaidam chard crops of grapes, apples, and apricots, which are famous in other regions of China. There are many Theoase s in the Qaidam Basin areextende d init s publications dealing with the agriculture and geogra­ southeastern part with irrigated agriculture. Owing to phy of this area (Chang, 1954; Chang, 1957; Bruk, the high elevation, the summer temperature is not fa­ 1956;Wiens , 1969). vorable for many crops, but cultivated spring wheat obtainsa goo dyiel do f6,00 0kg/ha .Othe rcrop sinclud e barley, potato,rapeseed , and sugarbeets .

211 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Some small areas of the oases are located in Al- an example (Table 8.2) (Chao,H.P. , 1961;cit . Wiens, ashanwher ether ei sirrigatio nsuc ha sRu oSh ui n Ejin. 1969). They also producesprin g wheat, aswel la s millet, and According to farmland utilization, primary crops, . time of harvest, and cropping systems, the oasis agri­ The Development of Oasis Agriculture cultureo f Xinjiang can bedivide d into the six types. 1. Dryfarmin go fsingl ecroppin go fsprin gwhea tan d Historically, the development of agriculture in potatoes northwest of Dzungaria (Ertix, Tarbaga- some places in the northwest, such as Kashgaria and tay). Hexi Corridor, occurred as early as 2,000 years ago 2. Single-cropping winter wheat on the northern during the Han Dynasty. Dzungaria, traditionally, has slopes of theTiansha n (aserie so f oases). been a nomadic area and agriculture developed much 3. Single-cropping spring wheat. This system is di­ later,durin g themiddl eo fth eeighteent h century inth e vided intofou r areas; IliValley . (a)Il i (Kuldja Valley), Irrigated agriculturei softe n amor establ eagricul ­ (b) Kuqa (Kuche), ture.Accordin gt oChines ehistorica lrecords ,ther ewas (c)Kashgar , and nofamin e inXinjian g from thelatte rpar to fth e 18tht o (d) Qiemo (Charchan, Qarqan). the middle of the 19th centuries. The development of 4. Single-cropping of wheat, rice, or cotton in Aksu agriculturei ntha t region,however ,wa sver yslow .Fo r and on the northern slopes of theTianshan . example,th eaverag ecro pyields ,i nkg/ha ,a tRuoqian g 5. Cotton, sericulture, and two-year triple-cropping (Qarkilik) are: wheat, 353: rice, 532-720; corn, 532- ofwhea tan dcorn .Thi ssyste m isdivide dint othre e 1,088 (Chang, 1949).Th e average return (kg/ha) from areas; aplantin g is 12a t Ruoqiang, 15a tAgs u (Aksu), 10-12 (a)Hota n (Khotan), at Uch Turfan, and 8-10 at Baicheng (Bay, a cold (b)Yarkant , and climate)(Schomberg , 1932).Th ereason sfo rthes elo w (c) Kashgar. yieldswer elac ko fprope rirrigatio nmanagement ,poo r 6. Cotton and two-year triple-cropping wheat and selection of seed, lack of protection against pests and sorghum in theTurfa n and Hami depressions. diseases,an d lack of manure. SUMMARY Since 1949, the government of China started a majoreffor t toexpan dth eproductio no fagricultur ean d Ingeneral ,agricultura lproductio ni nth enorthwes t pastoral industries. Many new canals were dug and is quite good. In fact, the agriculture of Xinjiang has irrigation channels were extended and regulated. The made good progress during the last few decades as a use of chemical fertilizers and mechanization have basic production area for and cotton in China. been introduced. Improvement of seed and livestock The development of the skillful use of modern irriga­ disease and pest control, and forest strips for wind tion methods, fertilizers, farm machines,an d pest con­ protectionfo rcrop san dlivestoc khav ehelpe d increase trol, aswel l as improvement of crop varieties and soil production. Particularly, the government established management, however, will make large increases in many mechanized state farms to demonstrate large agriculture possible,particularl y in Xinjiang. scale production to the peasants. The development of cultivated acreage in Ili Kazakh Autonomous Zhou is The resourceo f forages in the northwest region is very rich, with 388 species of Poaceae (Gramineae),

Table 8.2. Cultivated area (ha) in the Ili Kazakh Autonomous Zhou District. (Adapted from H.P.Chao , 1961; cited by J.H. Wiens, 1969)

1949 1961 1964

IliAutonomou s Zhou 664,000 1,756,000 cultivated area 46,166 2 834,000 1,432,500

Ili Valley alone 232,500 715,000 cultivated area

Since few crops can be grown without irrigation, much of the "cultivated", but non-irrigated area may have been in hay. Haymaking and storage for winter use were among the steps advocated by Chinese advisors in the settling of the nomads in fixed dwelling places. Chao's figure of 46,166 hectares for the 1949 irrigated area appears erroneous since the NewChin a NewsAgenc y indicated only a 68% increase between 1949 and 1957,whe n he reported approximately 700,000 irrigated hectares.

212 CHAPTER 8

due to the variations of climate, soil, and altitude. A Festuca dessyi snortlis to fth evaluabl especie so fgrasse sinclude sth e Festuca erectiflora following: Festuca forrestii Agropyron (15 species) Festuca gigantea Agropyron abolinii (Roegneria abolinii) Festuca japonica Agropyron angustiglumis (Roegneria angustiglumis) Festuca kryloviana Agropyron batalinii Festuca kurtschumica Agropyron crislatum Festuca modesta Agropyron czimganicum (Roegneria czimganica) Festuca olgae Agropyron desertorum Festuca ovina Agropyron komarovii (Roegneria komarovii) Festuca pratensis Agropyron macralepis (Roegneria curvata) Festuca ralesiaca Agropyron tnongolicum Festuca rubra (3 subspecies) Agropyron pectiniforme Festuca sinensis Agropyron propinquum Festuca sulcata Agropyron repens Festuca valesiaca (4 subspecies) Agropyron schrenkianum (Roegneria schrenkiana) Leymus (10 species) Agropyron sibiricum Leymus angustum Agropyron turczaninovii Leymus chinense (Elymus chinensis) Agrostis (10 species) Leymus dasystachys (Agropyron chinensis, Elymus Agrostis alashanica dasystachys) Agrostis alba Leymus giganteum Agrostis canina Leymus multicaule Agrostis capillaris Leymus paboanum Agrostis hissarica Leymus raemisum Agrostis perlaxa Leymus regelii Agrostis stolonifera Leymus skmalirensis Agrostis turkestanica Leymus tianshanicum (Elymus tianshanicus) Agrostis tenuis Lolium (5 species) Agrostis trinii Lolium multiflorum Bromus (8 species) Bromus catharticus Lolium remotum Bromus inermis Lolium temulentum Bromus japonicus Lolium persicum Bromus oxyodon Poa (20 species) Bromus secalinus Phleum (3 species) Bromus Sewertezowii Phleum alpinum Bromus tectorum Phleum phleoides Bromus tylolepis Phleum pratense Dactylis (1 species) Roegneria (8 species) most in Xinjiang Province Dactylis glomerata Roegneria abolinii Digitaria (3 species) Roegneria mutabilis Digitaria iscnaemum Roegneria viriula Digitaria sanguinalis Roegneria gmelinii Digitaria violascens Roegneria nutans Elymus (3 species) Roegneria tschimganica Elymus giganteus Roegneria breviglumis Elymus paboanus Roegneria ugamica Elymus regelii Therear eman yvaluable legumes ,mos to fthe m in Festuca (21 species) Xinjiang Province including: Festuca alaica Astragalus (1 species) Festuca amblyodes (2 subspecies) Astragalus adsurgens Festuca arundinacea (2 subspecies) Cicer (4 species) Festuca brevifolia Cicer arietinum Festuca coelestis Cicer flexuosum

213 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Cicerjacquemontii Allium spp. Cicersongaricum Artemisia spp. Lathyrus (7 species) Atriplex spp. (14 species, and 4 varieties) Lathyrussativus Calligonumspp . Lathyrus frolovii Caragana spp. Lathyrus humilis Ceratoides (4 species) Lathyrus palustris Kochia (7 species, and 2 varieties) Lathyruspannonicus Potaniniaspp . Lathyrus pilosus Lespedeza spp. The analysis of nutrient content of forages in arid Lotus (1 species) areaswa sreporte d tob e better than those of grassland Lotus corniculatus or meadow. For example, the crude protein content of Medicago (10 species) meadow-grassland and steppe or desert forages was Medicago agroyretorum 6-8% and 14% respectively, but the nitrogen-free ex­ Medicago falcata tract content of these two types of vegetation was Medicago lupulina 44-49% and 29.5%,respectivel y (Wu, 1980). Medicago minima The productivity of the steppe and desert vegeta­ Medicago orbicularis tiono fth eregio nwa sreported b yChan g(1949 ) (Table Medicago rivularis 8.3). This table providesonl y general information due Medicago romanica to the vastness of the region and the great variation Medicago saliva which exists in the composition of vegetation. How­ Medicago subdicycla ever, the northwestern region is a rich grazingland Medicago vassilczenkoi (Vavilov, 1951), especially the northwestern area of Melilotus (4 species) Dzungaria, which was classified as a tall grass prairie Oxytropis spp. (Chang, 1949). An approximate estimate of grazing Trifolium (8 species) land of Xinjiang is 66 million hectares and the total Trifolium alexandrium number of sheep and goats (11.2 million), cattle (1.6 Trifolium eximium million), horses (0.87 million), and camels (90,000) Trifolium fragiferum wasreporte dt ob ealmos ta sgrea ta si nth enorthwester n Trifolium hybridum provinces (the western part of Inner Mongolia, Trifolium hipinaster Ningxia, Gansu and Qinghai) (Chang, 1949). Trifolium montanum Trifoliumpratense China has carried out programs to combat Trifolium repens desertification for more than twenty years and has Trigonellaruthenica achieveda numbe ro fsignifican t results.I nsan d desert Vicia (15 species) areas treean d shrubshelte r beltsar eplante d to protect Viciaamoena crops. Grasses are planted for stabilization on the Vicia angustifolia fringes of the surrounding moving sandlands. En­ Vicia costata closures are constructed between sand dunesb y plant­ Vicia cracca ing trees and by fencing, and by seeding forage plants Vicialilacina tofor m tree-shrub-grasscombination sfo rha yan dwin ­ Viciamegalotropis ter-springgrazing .Thi swor kneed st ob eextende d step Vicia semenovii byste p for improvement of desert productivity. Viciasepium Vicia sylvatica REFERENCES Vicia sinJdangensis Viciasubvillosa Breed, CS., and T. Grow. 1979.Morpholog y and dis­ Vicia tenuifolia tributiono fdune si nsan dobserve d by remotesens ­ Vicia tetrasperma ing, p.253-302 .In : E.D. McKee (ed.). A Study of Vicia unijuga Global Sand Seas. U.S.Geologica l Survey Profes­ Vicia villosa sionalPape r 1052. Breed,CS. ,S.G .Fryberger ,S .Andrews ,C .McCauley , Some herbs and shrubs which are valuable for F. Lennartz, D. Gebel, and K. Horstman. 1979. forages: Regionalstudie so fsan dsea susin gLandsa t(ERTS ) Anabasis spp. imagery,p .305-398 .In: E.D.McKe e(ed.) .A Stud y Alhagi spp.

214 CHAPTER 8

Tabic S3. Thetype san d productivity of natural grazing landi n theNorthwes t Region.(Adapte d from C.W. Chang, 1949)

Type of grazing laid VegeUl Drymatte r Proportiio no f family in thecompositio n ofvegetatio i i(%) coverage yield (*) (kg/ha) Grasses Legumes Sedges Herbs Semishrsbs Sleppe and grassland 1. Meadow grassland 60-85 1,000-2,000 30-40 5-10 5-10 35-55 - 2. Steppe 40-60 500-1,300 50-80 3-9 2-4 15-45 10 3. Semisteppe 15-35 250-350 32 - - 12 56 (Desert steppe)

4. Alpine grassland 30-40 450-600 40-50 5-15 0-5 15-20 10-15 5. Sandland vegetation 30-40 1,500-800 40-55 0-1 6-10 37-57 - Desert vegetation 6. Steppified desert 10-20 250-350 28 - - - 72 7. Desert 5-10 150-250 0-1 - - - 90-100 8. Alpine desert 5-15 100-250 - - - 10-20 80-90 Meadow 9. Alpine meadow 60-90 1,000-2,000 10-20 3-5 40-60 20-60 - 10. Forest meadow 95-100 2,500-3,500 3-12 14-15 8-15 60-75 - 11. Lowland meadow 75-95 1,500-2,500 65-95 0-10 1-30 3-7 - 12. Saline meadow 60-90 4,000-7,500 70-75 0-7 0-5 15-25 -

of GlobalSan dSeas .U.S .Geologica lSurve yPro ­ Chia, S.S. 1962. Grassland and its utilization in fessionalPape r1052 . Sinkiang.Sinkian gAgric .12:463-471 .(I nChinese ) Brak, S.I. 1956. The ethnic composition and distri­ Chien,S.S. ,Y.C .Wu ,an dC.T .Cheng .1956 . Atenta ­ butiono fpopulatio ni nSinkian g(Xinjiang )Uighu r tive scheme of phytogeographical regions, p. 83- Autonomous Region of the People's Republico f 142.In: K .R .Lo u(ed.) .A Tentativ eSchem eo fth e China.Centra lAsi aRev . 11:439. Natural Regions of China. Science Press,Peking . (InChinese ) Chang,C.Y .1949 .Lan dutilizatio nan dsettlemen tpos ­ sibilitiesi nSinkiang . Geog. Rev. 39:57-75. Chu,X.D. ,Z .Wu , andS .Lin . 1980. AGenera lIntro ­ duction to the Deserts of China. Science Press, Chang, H.M. (ed.). 1957. The frontier problem and Peking. (InChinese ) frontier development. Chung-HuaLibrary ,Taipei . Grubov, V.l. 1959.Th e experience of botanical-geo­ Chang,T.C .1954 . Theevolutio nan dpresen tsituatio n graphicalzonin go fCentra lAsia .USS RAcad .Sei. , ofHsin-Chiang' s(Xinjiang ) ethnicgroups . Central Leningrad.7 7pp .(I nRussian ) LibraryContr .Soc. ,Taipei . (InChinese ) Grubov,V.l .1969 .Flor aan dvegetation ,p .265-364 .In: Chang,X.S . 1973.O nth eecogeographica l characters USSRAcad .Sei .Inst .Geog .Th ePhysica lGeogra ­ andth eproblem so fclassificatio n ofth ewil d fruit- phyo fChina .Vol .1 . F.A .Praege rPublishers ,Ne w tree forest inth eIl iValle y of Sinkiang.Act aBot . York. Sinica 15:239-253. (InChinese ) Hou,H.Y .1983 .Vegetatio no fChin awit hreferenc et o Chao,H.P . 1961.Agricultura lproductio ncontinuousl y its geographical distribution. Ann. Missouri Bot. leaping forward in Ili Kazakh Autonomous Chou. Gar.70:504-548 . Nationalities United No. 6.Trans ,i nU.S .Consul ­ ate,Hon gKong .Surve yo fChin aMainlan dMaga ­ zines,No .273 ,Aug .8 ,p . 15.

215 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Hu, S.Z. 1963. The fundamental characteristics and Murzayev, E.M. 1971.Th e deserts of Dzungaria and utilization of Dzungarian desert grazing land. (Un­ Tarim Basin,p .241-246 .In: S.R . Eyre(ed.) .Worl d published) (In Chinese) Vegetation Types.London . Hu, S.Z., Y.T. Lu, Z. Wu, D. Zheng, and G.M. Chen. Petrov,M.P . 1966.Th eDesert so fCentra lAsia ,Vol .1 . 1962. A survey of the desert of Junggar Basin, Ordos, Alashan, and Beishan. Science Publ., Mos­ Xinjiang.In: Research on Sand Control.San d Con­ cow, Leningrad. (In Russian) trolGrou po fAcademi aSinica .Nat .Tech .Inf . Serv. Petrov,M.P . 1967.Th eDesert so fCentra lAsia ,Vol .2 . Pub.JPR S 19993. Hosi Corridor, Tsaidam, Tarim Basin. Science Hwang,Y.S. ,an dS.H . Lin. 1962.Sand y desert vegeta­ Publ.,Moscow , Leningrad. (In Russian) tion of the eastern Alashan region. Desert Amelio­ Petrov, M.P. 1976. Deserts of the World. John Wiley ration Bull.No .4 . SciencePress .(I n Chinese) and Sons,Ne w York.44 7pp . Kamal,1.1975 .Glossar y of theTerm s Used in Pasture Popov, M.G. 1931.Betwee n Mongolia and Iran. Bull. andRang eSurvey ,Research ,Ecolog yan dManage ­ Appl.Botany , Genetics and Plant Breeding. 26:71- ment. FAOo f theUnite d Nations,Rome . 84.(Englis h and Russian) Lavrenko, E.M., and A.A. Yunatov. 1966. Botanical- ProvincialMapso fChina .1977 .Ma pDivision .Beijing , geologicalobservation s inth edeser to f Gansu Cor­ China. 169pp . ridor and the northern slope of Nanshan. Bot. J. 51:1816-1823.(I n Russian) Reginald, Lieut-Col., and R.C.F. Schomberg. 1932. Alleged changes in the climate of southern Turk- Lewis, R.A. 1966.Earl y irrigation in West . istan.Geog .J . 80:132-144. AnnalsAssoc .Amer .Geographer s56:466-91 . Richardson, S.D. 1966.Forestr y in Communist China. Li, S.Y. 1961.Th e fundamental characteristics of the Johns Hopkins Press,Baltimore .23 7pp . vegetation of northern Xinjiang (Dzungaria). Acta Bot.Sinic a 9:287-314. (In Chinese) Schomberg, R.C.F. 1930. The climate of the Tarim Basin.Geog .J .75:312-323 . Li, S.Y., A.C. Wang, T.Y. Hwang, and CR. Wang. 1958. A survey of the vegetation and soils of Schomberg, R.C.F. 1932.Th e habitability of Chinese Tsaidam. Plant Ecol.an d Phytogeog. Res.Ser .No . Turkistan. Geog.J .80:505-511 . 18.Scienc ePress ,Peking .(I n Chinese) Stein, A. 1925. Innermost Asia: Its geography as a Li,S.Y. , A.C. Wang, W.C.Tsai , CR. Wang,an d T.Y. factor in history.Geog .J .65:377-403;471-501 . Hwang. 1957. A discussion of the botany of Tsaidam. Acta Geog. Sinica 27:329-343. (In Chi­ Ting, S. 1948. The Vegetation of Sinkiang. (Unpub­ nese) lished) Vavilov,N.I .1951 .Th eorigin ,variation ,immunit yan d Liu,C.Y . 1982.A discussio n of theformatio n of desert breeding of cultivated plants: selected writings. flora in China. Acta Bot. Sinica 20:131-141. (In ChronicaBotanic aVol . 13,N o 1/6.Waltham ,Mass . Chinese) 364pp . McCauley, J.F., M.J. Grolier, and CS. Breed. 1977. Walker, A.S. 1982, Deserts of China. Amer. Scientist Yardangs of Peru and other desert regions. U.S. 70:366-376. Geological Survey Inter-Agency Report, Astroge- ology81. Walter,H. ,E.O .Box ,an d W.Hilbig . 1983.Th edesert s of Central Asia. p. 193-236. In: N.E. West (ed.). McGinnies,W.G. ,B J . Goldman,an dP .Paylore .1968 . Temperate Deserts and Semi-deserts. Elsevier Sei. Desertso f the World. Univ.o f Arizona Press,Tuc ­ Pub. Co.,Amsterdam , New York. son. 788pp . Wang, C.W. 1961.Th e forests of China with a survey McKee,E.D . 1979.A Study of Global Sand Seas. U.S. of grassland and desert vegetation. Maria Moors GeologicalSurvey Professiona l Paper1052.42 9pp . Cabot Found. Pub. No. 5. Harvard Univ., Cam­ Monod, T. 1964. Desert, p. 116-132.In: The Ecology bridge,Mass .31 3pp . of Man in the Tropical Environment. IUCN Pub. Wang, Y.F., S.P. Yong, and CL. Liu. 1979. Charac­ New Series,No .4 .Monges , Switzerland. teristicso fth evegetationa lzone si nth eNe i Mongol Automonous Region.Act a Bot.Sinic a 21:274-284. (In Chinese)

216 CHAPTER 8

Wiens,J.H .1969 . Changei nth eethnograph yan dlan d useo f the lb Valley and region of ChineseTurk - istan.Ann .Assoc .Amer .Geog .59:753-776 . Wu,Y.Z .(ed.) . 1980.Vegetatio n ofChina . Academia Sinica, Inst. Bot. Science Press, Beijing. (In Chi­ nese) Yang,J.C . 1959.Th enatura llandscap et oth ewes to f theTola iRive ri nTsaidam .Act aGeog .Sinica ,Vol . 25(6).(I nChinese ) Zhu, CD. 1980. The fundamental characteristics of vegetationo fMazon gShan ,Gansu . p.136-138 .In: Proc.3r d Northeastern Grassl.Conf. , Soc.o f Bot. of Kirin and Heilongjiang Prov., Changchun. (In Chinese)

217 Chapter 9

SUBTROPICAL AND TROPICAL MOUNTAIN AND HILLY GRASSLANDS OF CENTRAL AND SOUTH CHINA

This region includes two main watersheds, the the mountains of northwestern Yunnan are located in Yangtze (Changjiang) and the Xijiang (). thewes twher ethe yjoi nwit h theTibeta n Autonomous The Yangtze is the largest river in China, extending Region. The western part of the southern border is from the Central Tibet Plateau through Central China common withth enationa lborder so fBurma , ,an d to the sea coast in the east.Ther e are many tributaries . The southeastern portion of the region in­ which join the Yangtze on its 6,000 km course. The cludes theisland so f the .Th e eastern Xijiang is the largest river in South China. It extends border is theEas t ChinaSea ,includin g Taiwan Island. from Yunnan through Guangxi, to Guangdong Prov­ ince, and to the sea. Several tributaries also join the Xijiang on itssomewha t shorterjourne y of 2,000km . GENERAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS Thenatura ldividin glin ebetwee nthes etw owatershed s Subrogions is the Nanling Range.Othe rsmalle r watersheds of the regioninclud eth eMi nRive ri nFujia n Provincean dth e The region may be divided into two subrogions, Chientang Riveri n Zhejiang Province. CentralChin aan dSout hChina .Eac ho fth esubrogion s includesevera larea saccordin gt oclimat e(Chan ge tal. , The northern border of the region is the Qinling- 1956; Tu, 1936), hydrological division (Lou, 1956), Huaiyang Range which separates it from North and relief (Cheo et al., 1956), and natural division (Lee, Central China (Figure 9.1). The Min, Qionglai, Xi- 1947;Lou , 1956). aoxiang,an dLuna n mountainsi nwester n Sichuan and m

Figure 9.1.Genera l mapo f the subtropical and tropical mountain and hilly grasslands of central and south China. Numbered locations are: 1)Nanjing , 2)Shanghai , 3) ,4 ) ,5 )Taipei ,6 ) ,7 ) ,8 ) ,9 ) , 10)Chengdu , 11) , 12) , 13) Nanning, 14)Guangzho u (Canton).

219 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Central Plateau. Sichuan ismostl y hilly landwit h some moun­ tains. The parental soil material is a productive sand­ Central China has a highly diversified landscape. stonewit hpurpl ecolo r(s onamin gi t "RedBasin") .Th e Mountainsan drelativel ynarro wvalley salternat ewith ­ climate is favorable to virtually all crops, making this outth ebroa dplain sfoun di nNort hChina .Th eQinling - a rich agricultural area of China. Farmland comprises Huaiyang Range is the transition zone between North 25% of the total land, with the capacity to feed a and Central China. South of the range, the climate is population of 100 million. Yunnan and Guizhou are warmer and wetter with calcareous grey-brown forest geographically named the Yun-Gui Plateau, with ele­ soilo n most partso f thehil llands .Th ewester n border vations from 1,000 m in the south to 4,000 m in the is a series of north-to-south mountains which separate north. Many mountains are located on the plateau, the Tibetan Plateau from Central China. Rice is the especially in Guizhou where95 % of thelan d is moun­ main crop, forming a typeo f agriculture which isdis ­ tainous and isdescribe d as an area with "noleve l land tinct from North China. Farmland represents 20-25% of three feet." This plateau is rich with flora and there of thetota l area. isampl e grazing land. Southeastern Geographically, South China includes , The southeastern portion of China is a large area Guangdong,an d Guangxi provinces,but wehav echo ­ of hilly and mountainous land with an elevation of sen to distinguish the parts with tropical climate, in­ 1,200-2,000 m: Huang (Yellow) Mountain (1,841 m) cluding the southern valleys of Yunnan, Guangxi in southern Anhui, (1,507 m) in Basin, Guangdong, southern Fujian, and two islands, western Zhejiang, and others of 1,200-1,900 m in Taiwan and . In the areas of southwestern southern Zhejiang, theWuy i Mountains (2,158m )an d Guangdong, on the Leizhou Peninsula, and in Hainan otherso f 1,500-2,000m i nFujia n (Fukien) and eastern there isa n abundance of flora. Guangdong (Kwangtung) and 2,000-3,950 m in Tai­ wan.Consequently ,th esoutheaster n parto f China,i sa Climate hilly mountain country with less than 15% farmland The climate of most parts of the region is domi­ (10%i nFujian) . Richdelta sar epresen ta tth emout ho f natedb yth ePacifi c monsoon inth eeas t and theIndia n theYangtze ,Chientang ,an d otherrivers . oceanic monsoon in the southwest. Both temperature and rainfall increasefro m north tosout h (precipitation Middle Central ranges from 800-1,000 mm in the north to more than Themiddl epar t of Central China includes 2,000 mm in the south), varying with topographical (Kiangsi), Hubei, and provinces. The Nanling locations,e.g .increase so felevatio nar eassociate dwit h Rangelie si nth esout hwit ha genera lelevatio no f1,90 0 decreased temperatures, and increased rainfall. Gen­ mi n the east, merging with mountains in Fujian Prov­ erally, Central China hasa subtropica l typeo f climate. ince. In the west the general elevation is 2,140 m, TheMongolia n highpressur einfluence s CentralChin a finally joining with the mountains in Guizhou during the winter period and occasionally influences (Kweichow).Thus ,th esouther n part of Central China the northern part of South China. Climatic character­ is a mountainous land. In the western parts of Hubei istics of Central and South China in comparison to and Hunan provinces, there are many mountains with North China areshow n inTabl e 9.1. an elevation of 1,500-2,000m . Some other mountains lie between Jiangxi, Hunan, and Hubei provinces. In July, which is the warmest month, has almost the the central part of Central China, there is a large area same temperature throughout the region, but there are oflowlan dwit htw olarg elakes ,Poyan gi nJiangxi ,an d distinct temperaturedifference s inJanuar y resulting in Dongting in Hunan, and hundreds of small lakes in different lengths of growing season among the three Hubei. All these join with the Yangtze River. This regions.Ther ei slittl edifferenc e inrainfal lamon gmos t lowland is a rich agricultural area, particularly in the partso f Centralan dSout h China,but rainfall isdoubl e production of rice, which gave it the name of the "rice that of North China. bowlo f China." The rainfall varies by 20% throughout the whole region, causingsevera l droughtsan d floods each year, Western especially as a result of typhoons which bring heavy The western part of Central China includes most rainfall every summer inth eeastern parto f the region. of Sichuan,Yunnan ,an d Guizhou provinces,whic h all In the southern part of South China, e.g., the belong to the Yangtze watershed. Sichuan is sur­ coastal area of Leizhou Peninsula, Hainan Island, and rounded by mountains with elevations of 1,500-2,000 thevalley so fsouther nYunnan , thetemperatur edurin g mi nth e north,east ,an d south.The y increase to2,000 - thecoldes t monthrange sfro m 13t o23°C .Precipitatio n 3,000 m in the west and connect with the Tibetan

220 CHAPTER 9

Table 9.1.Th e climatic conditions of various 1 locations of North, Central, and South China . (Adapted from C.W. Tu, 1936)

Temperature (X)

Location Latitude, Growing sea Altitude January July Annual Annual rain­ Notes longitude son (days) (m) (mean) fall (mm)

North China

Tsinan 36"41', 240 42 -1.7 27.6 14.2 672 middle in the () 117"00' east

Xian 34°15', 236 396 -1.3 26.7 13.3 604 middle in the 118-55' west

Central China

Hangzhou 30"16', 280 10 3.6 28.7 16.1 1,400 middle in the 120-10' east sea coast

Changsha 28-13', 300 45 4.6 29.5 17.2 1,422 central 112-46'

Chengdu 30°40', 300 505 5.6 25.8 16.3 976 middle in the 104-40' west

Guiyang 26°04', 300 1,051 4.9 24.0 15.3 1,162 west 106-43'

Kunming 25°04', 300 1,891 7.8 19.9 14.8 991 west 102-40'

South China

Taipei 25-02', 365 9 14.6 28.6 22.3 2,068 east 121-02'

Fuzhou 26-05', 354 84 10.4 28.7 19.6 1,328 east 119-27'

Guangzhou 23-07', 365 6 13.4 28.3 21.8 1,622 middle (Canton) 113-16' ischaracterized by a dry and wet season with 70-80% Soils occurring in thewe t season. In thesouth ,6-8 % falls in The soil types of thevas t region include montane December to February causing savanna vegetation in red and yellow earth, latérite, montane brown earth, manyareas .Thre eharvest so frice ar epossibl ei n these montane yellow-brown paddy soil, and alluvial soil. areas. The entire area of South China has a sum of Theorgani cmatte ro f soilsi squickl y decomposed due annual temperatures above 10°C between 6,500 and to high temperatures. High rainfall results in nutrient 8,500°C. Differences occur between the eastern and leaching and low fertility, particularly in nitrogen, western partso f thismonsoo n tropical area.Th ewest ­ phosphorus, and sulfur. All of the soil is characteristi­ ern part is rarely affected by severecol d waves due to cally acidic (pH 4.5 to 5.5). theshieldin gactio no fth eplateau .Th etropica lzon ei s higher in elevation than the eastern part and the maxi­ Sichuan Basin is an area that contains red and mum temperature occurs in April or May before the yellow earthsoils ,bu t iti scompose d mainly of purple rains come. The maximum temperature in the eastern earthsoi ldu et oth eparenta lmateria l(purpl esandston e part occurs in July accompanied by heavy rainfall due or sand shale). Regions of red earth are distributed in tofrequen t typhoons. limited areaso nhig h terracesalon gth e river farmland. In the mountains, yellow earth is the main typewit h a Central China is characterized by subtropical cli­ podzolicpropert y (alsofoun d inth eGuizho u Plateau). matewit ha larg eamplitud eo f temperature,wit hhotte r Thepurpl esoi li sfertil e andcultivated .Alluvia lsoi li s summers thantha t ofSout h China,bu twit h occasional distributed in the lowland. The distribution of soil is frost and snow in winters influenced by the northern closely related toaltitud ean d vegetation (Figure 2.5). cold waves. The sum of annual temperatures above 10°Cvarie sfro m thenort ht oth esouth ,reachin g4,500 - Red earth soil is widely distributed on hills and 6,500°Cwit h a frost-free period of 240t o30 0days . lower mountains in this region (including Yunnan in

221 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

the west towards the east through Guizhou, Hunan, Vegetation is distributed in several zones. These Jiangxi, Zhejiang to Taiwan, and Hainan Island to the zones extend from west of thehig h mountains,basins , south).Th edistributio n of yellow earth soils is similar and plateaus to east of the lower mountains, hills,an d to that of red earth but is found on higher mountains. lowlands for almost 2,000 km.Thei r flora varies with Generally, yellow earth soils aredistribute d widely on altitude, latitude, climate, soil, and region. Each zone higher mountainsan d alternatewit h redeart ho n lower includessevera l typeso fvegetatio n andca nb edeline ­ mountains.Mos to f thesesoil sresul t from a processo f ated into severalareas . podzolization forming varioussoi ltypes .Th e plentiful rainfallan dwar mweathe rar efavorabl et oplan tgrowth From deciduous broadleaf forests predominated and form a unique landscape on the red and yellow bydeciduou soaks ,th enorther n mountainsan d hillso f soils. the region (north of the Yangtze River) gradually change to the main type of vegetation of deciduous Latentesoil soccu r in limited areassout h of Yun­ broadleaf,mixe dwit hmesophyti cfores t predominated nan, Guangxi, and Guangdong with hot-wet climate. by Quercus. This soil has low fertility. Alluvial soil is found on alluvial deltas, fans, valleys,an d throughout lowlands Inth esouther npar to fCentra lChina ,includin gth e inth ewhol eregion .Th ealluvia lsoil sar etypicall yhig h Nanling Range, themai n typeso f vegetation are ever­ in fertility. green forest formations of oaks, Schima, and laurels, with Pinus massoniana in secondary stands (Figures Vegetation 9.2 and 9.3). South of Nanling, thevegetatio n is com­ posed ofevergree n broadleaf formations including ev­ Sinceth eearl y 18thcentury ,man yplan t collectors ergreen sclerophyllous broadleaf forests (composed of and botanists have studied plants in the region, par­ Castanopsis,Pasania, Quercus, and Magnolia), rain­ ticularly the tree species. Merrill and Walker (1938) forests, and littoral forests. Thesouthwester n area isa compiled a "Bibliography of EastAsiati cBotany" list­ plateau with a vegetation type of evergreen broadleaf ingove r21,00 0title so fbook san darticle so nth eplant s forest of oaks,Schima, and laurels with Pinus yunna- ofChina ,Japan ,Korea ,an deastern Siberia .Durin g the nensis insecondar y stands. nearly five decades since that time, much botanical literature of China has been added, making it possible Grasslands todelineat e thedivision so f plants inth eregion . These studies havebee n performed by many botanists,geog ­ Grassyslope scovere dwit hshrub swer edevelope d raphers, and soil scientists including Diels, 1900-01; intograzin g lands topreven t the forest succession. On Wilson, 1914; Hu, 1926; Handel-Mazzetti, 1930; the denuded forest land, the coarse, tall bunchgrasses Thorp, 1936;Hwang , 1940-41;Metcalf , 1942;Walker , formed grazing lands insubtropica l and tropicalareas . 1944; Wu, 1950; U, 1952; Good, 1953; Chien et al., Thecommo n genera include: 1956;Ho ue tal. , 1957;Steward, 1958,andWang,1961 . Arundinella Miscaninus Eulalia Saccharum Because of the monsoon climate, there is a rich Imperata Spodiopogon diversity of plant species, with 25,000 species and Ischaemum Themeda about5,00 0geographica l races.I nth ewester n partso f Yunnan and Sichuan thereals oar eancien t paleotropic Coarse ferns grow abundantly, especially in Gu­ and holarcticspecies . angdong, Guangxi,an d Guizhou provinceswher e they monopolize the poorsoil so f themountain s andhills . As a whole, the vegetation type of Central and South China is a forest region with many kinds of There are large areas of natural grazing lands formations. Since the Han Dynasty, especially during (grassland, savanna, and meadow) located on high theTan gDynasty ,Chines epopulatio nan dcultur ehav e mountains and lowlands and beside rivers and lakes. been well developed in Central and South China and These provide a rich and valuable forage resource. In formed the main area of wealth and culture in China. the southern part of South China, there is a zone of During early times, owing to the shortage of labor for savannafro m thevalle yo fth eNujian g(Salwee nRiver ) land reclamation, fire wasth eonl y toolt oclea r forests inth ewes t tosout ho f Guangdongi nth eeast .Thi sare a andt okee pfield s clearfo ragricultura luse .Mos to f the could provide good grazing land with proper use and virginal forests were removed by man, except in areas management. without good roads. Use of wood for fuel also caused the disturbance of forested areas. During recent de­ Unfortunately, mostbotanist san dagronomist sdi d cades, overlogging and improper forest management littleresearc ho nth egrazin gland si nCentra lan dSout h hasbee n a serious problem in this region, causing soil China,bu tfocuse d onth etaxonom yo fplan tspecie so r erosion, floods, and drought. on farm crops.Th efirs t articledealin gwit h grasslands

222 CHAPTER 9

&

'life 'iXt!^^ J|Ît||ff;-î •mm

Figure 9.2. Pint» massoniana foresl with Rhododendron simsii as an undergrowth species. This is a secondary broadleaf evergreeen forest on red earth soil in Central China.(Reproduce d from H.Y. Hou, 1983, with permission from Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden) of the region was presented by Richardson1 (1946) hectares, slightly larger than Dyne and Dyne's esti­ titled "Grassland inSout hChina" .I tactuall ydeal swit h mate.Accordin g to theus eo f land ineac h province of theentir e Central and South China region. According the region, Hu (1951) calculated the acreage to be as to "The Land Utilization of China" (Buck, 1937;cite d mucha s6 6millio nhectares .Thi si sclose r toth eactua l by Richardson, 1946) there are at least 60 million acreage, as indicated by several provincial documents hectares of grazing land in the region. One of the (Chu, 1979;Hsu , 1979). authors(Hu) ,me tan dtalke dwit hDr .Richardso nabou t hiswor k in China and the resulting article. Since that Generally, farmland and woodland make up 10- time, Hu has worked with Dr. Ma, a pedologist of the 20% of the region, with theexceptio n of several areas Instituteo f Geology ofAcademi a Sinica and compiled sucha slowland san ddelt ao fth elowe rYangtz eRiver . a grassland map (with a scaleo f 1:400,000) according A preliminary survey of grazing lands has been con­ to soil types. Hu also conducted experiments at the ducted in some provinces, and several grassland im­ National Agricultural Research Bureau for improve­ provement farms have been established. Two of these ment of hilly grazing land with native vegetation and farms havebee n aidedb yAustralia n andNe w Zealand surveyed grasses in the Nanking area (Hu, 1948). specialistsan dhav eimprove d theus eo fgrazin glands . The agricultural policy of China was changed in Severalyear sago ,a grazin glan dm a po fChin awas 1979. The hilly land was redistributed to individual compiled by a group of Chinese grassland scientists farmers who were maderesponsibl e for the use, man­ according to plant communities (Anon., 1979). Based agement, and improvement of their land for seeding on thismap ,va n Dynean dva n Dyne(1981 ) estimated forageso rfo r plantingtrees .T ospee dth eimprovemen t theacreag e of intensivean d partialgrazin g land of the of the grazing lands, air seeding of forages was prac­ region to be 25 million hectares. This is less than the ticed in certain locations, such as in Hunan, liangxi, actualacreage .Thi serro ri sdu et oth efac ttha tth earea s Yunnan,an d Guizhou provinces. ofplan tcommunitie so nth ema par esmal lan dth ema p wasbase do nfe w actualsurveys .Re n(1983 )estimate d thegrazin glan dacreag eo fth eregio nt ob e29. 4millio n

Dr. H. Richardson is a New Zealand pedologist who came from Great Britain as an advisor to the National AgriculturalResearc h Bureau of China during the 1940's.H ei sth eautho r of "Agricultureo f Szechuan," 1944.

223 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Figure 93. Afer n (DicranopterisSchotoma) commonly found in theanderstor yo fPinus massoniana woodland. The fern forms a purestan d instrongl yaci dsoil si nth ehumi dsubtropi can dtropi cregions .(Reproduce d from H.Y.Hou , 1983,wit hpermissio n from Annalso fth eMissour i Botanical Garden)

SUBTROPICAL GRASSLANDS OF land is 1.7-3.5 times the cultivated land. The natural CENTRAL CHINA forages supply a large proportion of animal feed: 70- 90% for cattle, 80-95% for sheep and goats, and 20- Grasslands in Sichuan Province 50% for pigs. The Red Basin of Sichuan Province consists The grassland vegetation is mostly a secondary largely of hilly land, except for high mountains which succession of forest with luxuriant growth. Generally, border the area on the east, north, and west. In the the hay yield from one cutting is 3,000-5,000 kg per western part is the Chengdu Plain. The subtropical hectare with 92-97% utilization. According to the to­ climate and soil is favorable to many crops, with fruit pography, the grassland may be distinguished by five trees and other economic trees making this one of the types (Cheo et al., 1980). richestland so f China.Th eproportio no fdifferen t land formsis :49.8 %mountains ,29 %plateaus , 18.4%hills , Grassland Mixed with Shrubs and 2.6%lowland .Cultivate d land isonl y 11.8%.For ­ est cover was above 19% during the early 1950's but This type of grassland is distributed on the steep decreased to 9% during the "Great Leap Forward" slopes of the low-to-middle elevation areas of moun­ period of 1958-62.Th e forest cover of 53 counties in tains along the borders. The original forests were de­ thecentra lpar to fth eprovinc ei sno w 1-3%.Overlogg - nudedb yman' sactivities ,formin ggrazin glan d mixed ingo f forests hasresulte d insoi lerosio n on two-thirds with shrubs. The plant cover develops very well, par­ of the totallan d of theprovince . ticularly thegrasses .Th edominan t species include: Arundmella hirta Imperata Accordingt oth e "Vegetation ofChina "ma p(Wu , Arthraxon lanceolatus cylindrka 1980), van Dyne and van Dyne (1981) estimated the Deyeuxia arundinacea Miscanthus spp. acreage of intensive and partial grazing lands of Thisgrasslan d isuse d for grazing of cattle,sheep , Sichuan Province to be approximately 167,000 km , andgoats . includinga par to fth eGorg esubregion .Thi si sles stha n itsactua l area for the reasonsdescribe d earlier for the Grassland Mixed with Trees entire region. The acreage of grassland on the border hillylan doccupie s 15-30%o fth etota lprovince , form­ Thisgrasslan d ismainl y distributed onth e middle ing the base for production of cattle, water buffalo, elevation of mountains with some trees. Plant cover sheep, and goats. For some locations, such as Wan- develops well. yuang,Xuanhan , and othercounties ,th eare ao f grass­ Thedominan t species include:

224 CHAPTER 9

Agropyron spp. Imperata PasturesBetween Farmlands and Wet Locations Arundinella hirta cylindrica Smallpasture sar edistribute d between farmlands, Carex spp. Miscanthus spp. wasteslopes ,strea m banks,an do nriver beaches .Tota l Cyperus spp. Paspahim thunbergii area is limited, but it represents an important forage Theha yyiel dvarie swit h thelocation , from 2,000 resource.Becaus e the soil isfertil e with a good water to3,50 0kg/ha .I t is used for grazing cattle, sheep,an d resource, the forages grow luxuriantly and have good goats. regrowth.Thes epasture sar euse d for grazingan d hay. Inth ewester nare ao fth eMi nRiver ,i nWenchua n Thevaluabl egrasse san d legumesinclude : County, Hu (1946) surveyed the grassland in thesum ­ Grasses mero f 1945an d reported that there aregoo d grassland Aristida spp. Digitaria sanguinalis areas. On the bottom of the valley, most forests were Arthraxon hispidus Echinochloa crusgalli disturbed by cultivation of corn and miscellaneous Arthraxon lanceolatus Imperata cylindrica crops.Th e grassesgro wwel l on theborder s of fields. Paspahim thunbergii parviflorum Roegneria ciliaris The main species include: Cynodon dactylon Agropyron Chloris vividis Legumes semicostatum Digitaria sanguinalis Lotus corniculatus Vicia cracca Bromus inermis Setaria viridis Lespedeza spp. Vicia villosa and many others. Theha y yield reaches5,00 0kg/ha . The legume Melilotus officinalis is widely dis­ The composition of Sichuan grassland includes tributed. On the higher slopes and tops of mountains, 400-500 species of grasses and herbs of which 40-50 excellentmeado wgrassland sar edistribute dan dm ixe d arever y valuable, including: with trees and shrubs. The main species include Festuca,Poa and some species of Carex and an abun­ Grasses danceo f herbs including: Arundinella spp. Eremopogon delavayi Aconitum spp. Saxifraga spp. Capillipedium Festuca spp. Anemone spp. Trollius parviflorum Microstegium ciliatum Caltha fistulosa ranunculoides Dactylis glomerata Miscanthus nepalensis Iris delavayi Trollius Poa spp. Meconopsis spp. yunnanensis annulatum Polygonum spp. Legumes Astragalus sinicus Medicago lupulina Grassland on Dry Slopes Desmodium spp. Melilotus suaveolens This grassland is distributed mainly on sunny Kummerowia striata Pueraria slopes of mountains in the south of Ya-an where the Lespedeza cuneata pseudo-hirsuta forests have been removed and the soil is drier. The Other species species of grassland plants are dominated by grasses Artemisia spp. Fimbristylis spp. including Heteropogon contortus, Carex spp., and Aster spp. Polygonum spp. someothers .Th eha y yield reaches2,000-3,00 0kg/ha . Carex spp. Scleria hebecarpa Cyperus rotundas Senecio scandens Semi-arid Grassland Mixed withShrubs in Valleys Some shrubs This typeo f grassland isdistribute d in the valleys Albizzia spp. Pyracantha of Min and Dadu rivers where the rainfall is low and Bauhinia spp. fortuneana evaporation ishigh .Soi lerosio n isserious .Plan t cover Indigofera Rosa roxburghii islo w and dominated by shrubs. pseudotinctoria Rubus spp. Lespedeza spp. Thevaluabl e grassesinclude : Artemisia japonica Botriochloa spp. Somesmal lplo texperiment shav ebee nconducte d Artemisia sacrorum Chloris spp. for the improvement of grasslands. Good results have Artemisia vulgaris Eragrostis nigra beenobtaine d(Che oe tal. ,1980) .Fo rexample ,seedin g of white clover into grasslands has raised theyiel d by Shrubs include: 30% and improved thequalit y of forage with thepres ­ Rosa omeiensis ence of 50% legumes. Sophora vicifolia Theha y yields reach 3,700k g per hectare.

225 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

In western Sichuan, beside the Gorge subregion, In the North there is a rich forest rangeland with well developed The north is a mountain area with mountain cli­ grasses, herbs, and shrubs. The alpine meadow ele­ mate. The vertical distribution of grassland is distinct ments include: Andropogon yunnanensis, Deyeuxia according to elevation. In the north, for instance, the scabrescens, Kobresia setchwanensis, and Kobresia peak of the Wumeng Mountains is 4,370 m while the pygmaea, forming a plant cover of 30-80% in the elevation in thevalle y of theJinsh a (Yangtze) River is southern area. In the northern area, thedominan t spe­ below 1,800 m. This elevation change greatly influ­ ciesinclud eCar ex spp .an dRoegneria nutans an dothe r ences thetype ,formation , and development of vegeta­ species,e.g .Astragalus tanguticus,Orinus kokonorica, tion. Generally, the vertical distribution of grasslands andStipa bungeana,formin g a plantcove ro f 10-20%. may bestate d according toelevatio n (Jing, 1980): Theshrub smainl y includeCaragana spp .an d Spiraea 1,700 m Atyp eo fsavann awit h Heteropogon mongolica with a cover reaching 40%. Those forest rangelands aresuitabl e for thedevelopmen t of an ani­ contortus mixed with trees on dry mal industry. andhot valleys. 1,700-2,800m Cogonal type of grassland mixed Grasslands in Yunnan Province withtree si na subtropical-secondary vegetation. Yunnan Province extends from 29° 30' N in the 2,800-3,100 m A transitional belt between sub­ north to 21° N in the south. The province includes tropical-secondary cogonalan d sub- lowlandsan dvalley sa t200-40 0m i n thesout h tohig h alpine. mountainswit h elevations above4,00 0 mi n thenorth . 3,100-3,900m Alpine meadows. The climatic zones include tropical, subtropical, and warm temperate types from north to south. They are Jin (1980) reported that only the subalpine influenced by the Indian Ocean monsoon with its dis­ meadow grassland in the Da-hai area is used as graz- tinct wet and dry seasons. The cool temperate climate ingland.Th e topography isundulat e hillswit h a gentle typei sfoun d onth e high mountains.I n thetropics ,th e slopeo f 10-30°.Th eclimat e isa mountain typewit h a mean annual temperature is 21-24°C and the lowest mean annual temperature of 4.3°C and annual rainfall temperature is above 10°C. The recorded sum of ac­ of 1,100-1,300mm , mostly in May to September. cumulated temperature above 10°C is over 7,500°C. Annual rainfall is 1,000-2,000 mm. In the subtropics The subalpine meadow occupies the largest area (thecentra lpar to fYunnan) ,th esumme ri sa sho ta sth e with 471specie s of spermatophytes, including mainly tropics, but the coldest temperature may reach minus Compositae, Poaceae (Gramineae), Rosaceae, and 10°C.Th emea nannua ltemperatur ei s 14°C.Th eaccu ­ Cyperaceae.Th e dominants are mostly grasses mixed mulated temperature above 10°C is 4,500-6,500°C. with herbsan d shrubs. Geographically, Yunnan is a plateau with an undulate Achnatherum chingii and Festuca ovina create a topography, except in the mountains of the north and subalpinegrass ymeado wlandscape .Thi si sdistribute d northwest. on higher elevations with poor soil. Juncus + San- guisorbafor m aswamp ymeado w associationwhic h is Since environmental and geological conditions distributed on lowerelevation s with deep,fertil e soil. vary greatly,a comple x vegetation hasdeveloped ,an d the area is considered one of the richest species areas Shrubs also may develop into different associa­ in the world. Generally, the vegetation types may be tions. The main species include Berberis, Rhododen­ divided into rain forest and savanna in the tropics, dronspp .an dS'marundinariafangiana (bambo obush) . coniferous and evergreen broadleaf forests in thesub - The herbs include Euphorbia, Rheum, Sanguisorba, tropics,an dalpin evegetatio no nhig hmountains .Eac h andSedum. Thesema yb edominant san d form various varieswit h elevation. associations. In the strict sense those associations are meadows mixed with shrubs. Carex and Kobresia are The types of grassland are variable including sa­ notdominants ,bu tar erepresente d abundantly. vanna, cogonal (coarsal tussock), subalpine meadow, and alpine meadow. The grasslands in northwestern All the formations are secondary vegetation and Yunnan havebee n described inth e Gorgeare a section have developed from virginal forests of Abies which ofChapte r6 .Th esavann ai sdescribe di nth e following werelogge d almost 300year sago .Fires ,grazing , fuel section of this chapter. collection, and reclamation have prevented the rede­ velopment offorests .Th eresul ti sa stabl egrasslan d or As a whole, only 6-8% of Yunnan Province is meadow with plant height of 15-20c m to30-5 0 cm. cultivated.Th eforest shav ebee nseriousl ydisturbe db y loggingan d fire.Th etota lgrasslan d areao fal ltype si s Thegrasslan d and meadow species are numerous atleas t 10millio n hectares. with as many as50-8 0specie so f spermatophytes in a

226 CHAPTER 9

100m plot.Eac hformatio n includes 100-150species . Alnus yunnanensis Pinus yunnanensis Seasonal successions are obvious, particularly in June Castanopsis delavayi Quercus to September, and include many herbs with brilliant Ficus japonica semicarpifolia flowers. Themai nshru bspecie stoleran to ffire ,ligh tinten ­ The mainspecie s includeth e following genera: sity,an d acid soils include: Anemone Pamassia Lyonia ovalifolia Myrsineafricana Cyananthus Pedicularis Michelia Osyris wightiana Gentiana Potentilla yunnanensis Rhododendronspp . Geranium Saussurea Myrica nana Viburnum cylindricum Habenaria Saxifraga Mostforest s ofCentra lChin ahav ebee n logged or and some members of the Rosaceae family. were disturbed by fires. Tall coarse grasses dominate This area is rich in forage resources having many and include: palatable and nutritiousspecie swit h good tolerance to Arundinella hirta Eulalia spp. grazing. Northern Yunnan is particularly rich in Fes- Eremopogondelavayi Heteropogoncontortus tucaspecies .Traditionally ,thi sgrazin glan dbelong st o Eremochloazeylanica Imperata cylindrica thenationa l minorities. These grasses have formed a community with In the valleys, the climate is dry and hot due to somecharacteristic so fsavann a mixedwit ha fe w trees foehn (local warm dry winds, such as in the Jinsha andshrubs ,graduall y mergingwit h thetru esavann a in Valley) and toth edisturbanc eo f forests which caused southern Yunnan. In addition, Yunnan isric h with the thedevelopmen to fa typ eo fsavann awit hth edominan t specieso fAvena an dFestuca. speciesHeteropogon contortus (Chien et al., 1956). Iti simportan t topoin tou ttha tth efores t rangeland In the Central Area isvaluabl efo rgrazin gt odevelo pa nanima lindustr y in Yunnan.Th egras scove rma yreac h40% ,wit hth emai n The central part of Yunnan Province is a plateau species including Andropogon yunnanensis, Ere­ witha nelevatio no f 1,891 m(Kunming) ,a mea nannua l mopogondelavayi, an dEulalia quadrinervis. Becaus e temperatureo f 16.7°C,a nannua lrainfal l of 1,062 mm, the forests were intensively logged, revegetation with and distinct dry and wet seasons. forage plants should be encouraged for reducing soil Themai n treespecie s include: erosion (Figures9.4,9.5 , and 9.6).

Figaro 9.4. Eroded purpleshal e nearLuna n County in Yunnan Province. Grasses are needed for soil andwate rconservatio n and for use as pasMre.(Phot ob y J. Thorp; reproduced from J.Thorp , 1936)

227 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Figur*9.5 .Landscap eoutsid eKunmin gi nYunna nProvince .Thi sloa mcla ysoi lma yb edevelope dint ogoo dpastur eland .(Phot ob yJ .Thorp ; reproduced from J.Thorp , 1936)

Grasslands in Guizhou Province land in threefee t and nobrigh t weather inthre edays. " Yunnan and Guizhou provinces, geographically Formerly, Guizhou was a rich forest area, but most of and traditionally, were named the Yun-Gui Plateau. thelan d isno wcovere d bygrasse san d shrubs. GuizhouProvinc ei sa mountainou slan dwit ha genera l Land use is 14% cultivated, 13-16% forest, 12% elevation of 500-1,500 m except for the northwestern pasture, and 44% grassy sloped land (Chu, 1979). In andsouthwester n partswhic har eapproximatel y 2,500 1955, Hu reported to the provincial government that ma t theborde r with theYunna n upland. Climatically, there were 4.66 million hectares of grassland in the Guizhou isinfluence d by southeastern monsoons with province.Ch u(1979 )estimate d 6.3 million hectareso f temperate damp weather. A Chinese phrase describes grazing land, but 5.3 million hectares is commonly the land and weather of Guizhou as having "no level reported.

Figur»9 A.Goo dgrowt ho fre dclove r(Trifolium pratense) onhill ylan dwit hre deart hsoi l nearKunmin gi nYunna nProvince .(Phot ocourtes y of Y.F. Chang, 1985)

228 CHAPTER 9

Owingt oth evariatio no f climate,relief ,an dgraz ­ Shrubsan d herbs ing land characteristics, the grassland may be divided Artemisia apiacea Gnaphalium multiceps into threetypes . Aster tataricus Rosa spp. Coriaria sinica Salix amygdalina Subtropical Grassland in the South Grassesan d legumes Thistyp eo fgrasslan d isdistribute di nth esouther n Arundinella anomala Kummerowia spp. and eastern parts of Guizhou Province with a general Heteropogon Lespedeza spp. elevation of 500 m. In the south, Luodiang County is melanocarpus Trifolium alba an example. The elevation is 440 m, with an annual Imperata cylindrica Trifolium repens mean temperature of 19.6°C and a sum temperature Thegrasslan di nthi sare ai sestimate d tob ea slarg e above 10°Co f 7,158°C. The mean temperature of the as 3.3 million hectares, about 40% of the total of the coldest and warmest months are 10an d 27°C, respec­ area. According to 356 samples of different grazing tively, with a growing season of 330 days. Recorded lands,th eaverag eha yyiel di s4,00 0kg/ha .Th egrazin g annualrainfal l is 1,049 mm. capacity is 1.2 hectares per cow. Theclimati ccondition sar egoo d forplan t growth, CoolTemperat e Grassland inth e Northwest forming a belt of evergreen broadleaf forest. The tree speciesinclud eCastanopsis henryi, Quercus hirsutula, This grassland isdistribute d mainly in northwest­ andCinnamomum camphor a. Som erai nforest sma yb e ern Guizhou Province above 1,500 m. In Weining found in the lower valleys. The severe disturbance of district,fo rexample ,th eelevatio n risest o2,23 4m ,th e the forest resulted in the formation of a secondary meanannua ltemperatur ei s10.5°C ,wit hmonthl ymea n succession dominated byshrub san dgrasses including: temperatures of 1.6°C in January, and 17.7°C in July. Shrubs The annual sum temperature above 10°C is 3,850°C, Caesalpinia sepiaria Rubus palmatus witha frost-fre e seasono f22 0days .Th eannua l rainfall Rosa microcarpa is95 2 mm.Th e natural vegetation wasdeciduou s for­ Grasses est. Arundinella anomala Reynaudia After destruction of the forest, grasslands mixed Heteropogon contortus reynaudiana with shrubs developed. Herbs and grasses are dis­ Imperata cylindrica Themeda triandra tributed according toelevation . Legumes Lespedeza spp. Lower belt of mountains. The dominant species Pueraria thunbergiana isMiscanthus floridulus. Trifoliumrepens an dMedicago lupulinaar e found Othersinclude : on low,we t places. Imperata cylindrica Themeda triandra Accordingt osom estatistica ldat a(Chu , 1979),th e Polystichum aculeatum (fern) grazingland area isabou t 1.3 million hectares or 18% of the total area. The grazing capacity is about 1.3 Some shrubs include: hectares perco w with year-round grazing. Castanopsis sequinii Rhus palmatus Warm TemperateGrassland inthe Central Areas Rosa microcarpa This typeo f grassland isdistribute d in the central which form bush vegetation. part of Guizhou with an elevation of 600-1,400 m. Middlebel to f mountains.Th edominan t species Guiyang, the capital city, is 1,051 m above sea level isMiscanthus tinctorius. Otherspecie s include: with a mean annual temperature of 15.2°C and an Bromus japonicus Leontopodium japonicum annual sum temperature above 10°Co f 5,572°C. The mean temperatures of thecoldes t and warmest months Gnaphalium multiceps elongatus are 5°C and 23.9°C, respectively. Recorded annual High belt of mountains..Thedominant s are Fes- rainfall is 1,117 mm. The natural vegetation includes tucaspp . evergreen broadleaf forests mixed with deciduous broadleaf forests. Other species include: Allium japonicum Arundinella hirta Slashan dfir ehav echange dth enatura lvegetation . Artemisia spp. Eragrostis pilosa The secondary vegetation is grassland mixed with shrubs and trees.Th emai n species include:

229 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

A bamboo species, Phyllostachys bambusoides, vated, 65%mountain s and hills,6.6 % water area, and and shrubs, Quercus acutissima and Rhododendron 11.3% other uses. The analysis of the use of grazing molle, form bush vegetation. land on grassy hills and mountains, forest ranges, and miscellaneouspasture sshow stha t6. 0millio n hectares The grassland is about 1.67 million hectares and are not fully utilized (Hsu, 1979). the grazing capacity is 1.9 hectarespe rcow .Thi s area isa traditiona lgrazin g area.Guizho u isa rich grazing - The disturbance of grazing land areas has been landare awit hman yspecies ,particularl yrich i n fescues serious.Accordin g to the Hunan News (Jan. 1,1955), andclovers ,suc ha swhit eclove rwit hvariou secoty pes . therewer eman yfire si nth efores t grasslanddurin gtha t year. For example, 26 fires in Dao-hsien County were Themai nproblem so fth egrazin glan do f Guizhou caused by burning for reclamation and for making are annual fires, digging and collecting of grasses to compost and ash.Anothe r report was of 1,479 fires in make compost, and improper reclamation of Yangshu County during the winter of that year which slopelands. These practices have resulted in serious burned 10,000 hectares of grassy hills. Cutting and erosionan ddenudin go fth egrazin glands .Fo rinstance , diggingth egrasse san dherb st omak ecompos t hasals o the eroded area of the province is about 35,300 km , damaged grazing lands. This practice is un­ witherosio no ffertil esoi lamountin gt o 11 million tons derstandable,however ,sinc ether eofte n isnot enough annually. Recognition of the problem led to a change roughage for cattle, resulting in thelos s of about 20% in agricultural policy and restoration of vegetation by of the cattle in the winter of 1955 in the agricultural enclosure.I n recent years,grasses and treeshav e been county of Xiantan. The local people have a traditional seededb yplane .Aeria lseedin go f introduced cultivars habito fburnin ggrass yhills ,bu tth eagricultura lpolic y of white clover, red clover, and ryegrass has been since the revolution focused only on food crops. This successful and resulted in excellent pastures (Figures caused thepeopl et o reclaim "unarable" hills for culti­ 9.7an d 9.8).Th e increased forage yield of theseintro ­ vation. Additional study of conservation techniques duced cultivars is2-1 0fol d that of nativespecies .Thi s and improvement of grazing land areas isneede d here experience will be extended in the near future in aswel la s inth eLoes s region (Figure 9.9). Yunnan and Guizhou provinces. Thegrasslan d typeso fHuna n mayb edivide d into Grasslands in Hunan Province six areas (Hsu, 1980). Hunan Province is surrounded by mountains on Mountain Meadow and Grassland Mixed with three sides, with the western part being the most Shrubs mountainous. Valleys and lowlands are found in the north and central parts.Th e total area of the province This grassland is distributed on mountains above is about 21 million hectares. Land use is: 17% culti­ 1,400 mwit ha mea nannua ltemperatur eo f9-12° Can d

Figure9.7 . Whiteclove ran dryegras spastur ereseede db yai ri nth emountai n areao f WeiningCount y inGuizho u Province.(Phot ocourtes y of Y.F. Chang, 1985)

230 CHAPTER 9

Figure 9». Wild planI so fLotus corniculatus in the mountain area of WeiningCount y in northwestern Guizhoa Province. (Photocourtes y of Y.F. Chang, 1985)

annual rainfall of 1,200-2,200 mm. The sum of tem­ The composition of the grassland includes more peratures above 10°C is about 7,000, with a growing than 40 species of grasses and 150 species of herbs. seasono f lesstha n30 0days .Mountai n meadowsoi li s Mostar e tall,coars e tussockgrasse s including: widely distributed and is occasionally mixed with red Arundinella hirta Miscanthus floridulus and yellow earth. The mountain meadow grassland Capillipedium assimile Miscanthus sinensis originated from thedisturbanc eo fevergree n broadleaf Eulalia speciosa Spodiopogon cotulifer forests which formed meadows and grasslands mixed Imperata cylindrica Themeda triandra with shrubs.

Figure9.9 .Shee tan dshallo wgull y erosion onol dre deart h soili nsout h central Hunan Province.(Phot ob yJ .Thorp ; reproduced from J.Thorp ,

231 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Valuablegrasse s include: Imperata + Themeda + Isachne association. Alopecurus aequalis Digitaria sanguinalis Grassesar e the mainelement s of thisassociation ,pro ­ Cynodon dactylon Festuca arundinacea viding luxuriant growth. Calamagrostis spp. Poa annua Other main speciesinclude : Thetota lacreag eo fth egrasslan dwa sestimate d to Capillipedium assimile Echinochloa crusgalli be at least 3.6 million hectares. Grasses reach 100c m Cynodon dactylon Leptochloa chinensis with plant covero f 80-90%.Th e yield of thegrasslan d Digitaria sanguinalis Poa spp. varies by location sites. In the Nanshan area (on the Herbsmainl y include: Nanling in southern Hunan), the yield of hay for one Erigeron aceris cutting peryea ri s4,500-7,50 0kg/ha .Th eha yyiel d of Potentilla spp. cultivatedalfalf a atth eHwa-Yun gLivestoc kFar mwa s Taraxacum spp. 15,000kg/ha .Th efres hweigh to fwhit eclove rwa sals o 15,000kg/h a(Figure s9.1 0an d 9.11). Swampymeado wassociation .Thi sassociatio n is located in the concave lowland areas between hills Theanalysi so fnutrient so f nativegrasslan d hayi s wherether e ispoo r drainage. shown inTabl e9.2 . Thedominan t species include: The Nanshan Livestock Farm is located on the Carex spp. Juncus effusus southwestern corner of Hunan Province in thewester n Equisetum spp. Scirpus maritimus part of the Nanling Range at an elevation of 2,000 m. The meadow grassland of theare a isdivide d into four Grasses mixed with small shrubs association. main associationsaccordin g toloca lsites . Grassesar eth edominant san d thesmal lshrub s include Lespedeza spp.,Rhododendron spp.,an d many others. Arundinella +Festuca +Calamagrostis associa­ Some other species are Pueraria spp., and Dicranop- tion. This association developed after the disturbance terisspp . of the forest. The height of grasses and herbs ranges from 1t o 1.7 m,wit h plant cover of 95%. Mountain tussock grassland In addition to those dominant species, the main This type of grassland is found alternately with speciesinclude : meadow grassland and at lower elevations. The com­ Adenophora elata Lespedeza spp. position and structure of the grassland are simple due Capillipedium assimile Themeda triandra to fires, shallow soil, and low fertility resulting from Eulalia speciosa erosion. Both plant coveran d yield are low. Themai n species include:

Figure 9.10. RevegeUtioo of high mountain pasture by aerial seeding of white clover and ryegrass on the Nanshan (1,900 m) in southern Hunan Province.(Phot o courtesy of Y.F.Chang , 1985)

232 CHAPTER 9

Figure 9.11.A close-upvie w of apastur e of red clover mixed with ryegrasso n the Nanshan insouther n Hunan Province.(Phot o courtesy of Y.F.Chang , 1985)

Arundinella spp. Miscanthus spp. GrasslandMixed with Camellia oleosa Festuca spp. This typeo f grassland is found widely distributed GrasslandMixed with Trees(including logged on hillswithi n theelevation s of 500-800m an d devel­ areas) oped from thefores t disturbance. This grassland type developed in the areas where The mainspecie s include: the forests were logged or were burned as abandoned Artemisia spp. Pueraria thunbergiana lands. The grasses and herbs grow luxuriantly due to Imperata cylindrica Setaria spp. thefertil esoils .Th eelevatio n isgenerall y below 1,200 Miscanthus sinensis m. The type of grassland iswidel y distributed, partic­ ularly in the central and northwestern parts of Hunan Shrubsare : Province. Clerodendron Bungei Mahonia spp. Themai n specieso f grassesinclude : andothers . Arundinella hirta Miscanthus sinensis This typeo f grassland is also found inth e nearby Imperata cylindrica Pennisetum alopecuroides farmlands and wascause d by overgrazing. Legumes include: Lowland Meadows Found Widelyin Lowland Areas Lespedeza spp. andon Beaches ofLakes and Rivers Pueraria spp. There is a large lake (Dongting) in the northern Shrubsare : part of the province where four rivers join. This has Mahoniaspp . resultedi nth eformatio n ofa larg eare ao flo wlan dan d the growth of abundant grass meadows as a source of

Table 9.2.Th e percentages of nutrientso f native grasslando f Nanshan.(Adapte d from S.H. Hsu, 1980)

Percent

Forage Harvest date H-20 Crudeprotei n Crudefa t Crudefiber N-free extract Ash

Grasses May 6.89 13.23 3.07 26.00 79.62 10.53

Grasses Sept 4.68 4.91 3.28 32.26 50.02 4.85

233 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

forages. Plants may be submerged for a short period acreageo f grassland, however, islarge r than 3.37 mil­ during summer flooding. lion hectares due to the fact that the forest land is smaller than the grassland. Generally, the land area is The main species isPhragmites communis which 60% mountains and hills, 20% farmland, 10% water makes excellent hay. On the non-submerged areas, surface (riversan d lakes),an d 10%road san dvillages . Cynodon dactylon and many other grasses grow well for grazing. Thevegetatio noriginall ywas evergree n broadleaf forest but has been seriously deforested, except in the Miscellaneous Pastures Found onthe Banks of highmountains .Mos to f thehill y land andth elo w part Rivers, Slopes ofDykes, andRoadways of of mountains has developed into a coarsal tussock Farmlands grassland mixed with trees andshrubs .Th e dominants Thespecie sar eabundan twit ha nexcellen t growth aregrasse swit hsom elegume san dherb s including: on a large acreage which may comprise 35% of the Grasses farmland, providingth emai nare afo rgrazin g livestock Arundinella anomala Spodiopogon cotulifer and for hay. Miscanthus sinensis Themeda triandra Poa spp. The main species include: Saccharum Grasses arundinaceum Alopecurus aequalis Hemarthria altissima Legumes Cynodon dactylon Pennisetum Desmodium spp. Mucuna Dactyloctenium alopecuroides Kummerowia spp. semperivirens aegyptiacum Phleum pratense Lespedeza spp. Pueraria spp. Digitaria sanguinalis Phragmites communis Medicago hispida Vicia spp. Echinochloa crusgalli Setaria viridis Eleusine indica Zoysia matrella Sometimes the forest rangelands consist of Cun- Herbs ninghamialanceolata o rPinus massoniana mixe dwit h Amaranthus viridis Erigeron annuus grasses and shrubs such as Camellia cassidata, Les­ Artemisia spp. Oenanthe stolonifera pedeza davidii,Loropetalum chinense, Rhododendron Capsella spp. Polygonum spp. spp., and Rosa spp. (Figures 9.12 and 9.13). These Chenopodium album Portulaca oleracea species are distributed in elevations of approximately Cyperus spp. Taraxacum mongolicum 1,000 m,formin g abundant pastures.Th evariation s in formations vary according to changes in aspects of Valuablelegum eforage sar einclude d inth egrass ­ slope, frequency of fire, soil type,an d degree of graz­ lands of the lower Yangtze Valley (Hunan, Jiangxi, ing.Gras scove rgenerall yvarie sfro m 40%t o80 %wit h Anhui,an d Jiangsu): plant height of 20-60 cm. Astragalus scaberrimus Medicago lupulina Cassia mimosoides Medicago minima The pastures which occur near villages, rivers, Crotalaria spp. Melilotus spp. ponds, and roadsides and field borders are used pri­ Desmodium (7 species) Pueraria spp. marily ascattl e grazing land. Dunbaria villosa Thermopsis chinensis The main species include: Glycine ussuriensis Trifolium pratense Cynodon dactylon Indigof er a parkesii Trifolium repens Imperata cylindrica Lespedeza Vicia (9 species) Poa pratensis (17species ) There isa largelak e (Poyang) in thenorther n part Grasslands in Jiangxi Province of Jiangxi Province. About 200,000 hectares flood in JiangxiProvinc ei slocate di nth emiddl eo fCentra l summer causing an excellent growth of grasses and China,eas t of Hunan Province.I t isa hilly and moun­ herbswhic h are used for grazing and hay harvest. tainous area except for the large valley of It is estimated that full development of the poten­ locatedi nth emiddl epart ,a nalluvia lplai ni nth enorth , tialproductivit yo fthes egrazin gland swoul dpermi ta n and some small scattered plains.Geographica l forma­ increaseo f 2.7 million head of cattle.A goo d example tions,soils ,climate ,an dvegetatio n aresimila r tothos e istha t of Taihe County which lies in the middleo f the of Hunan. GanRive rvalley .Geographically ,thi scount yi sa hill y Theestimate dare ao fcultivate dlan dan dgrasslan d land with a total area of 250,200 hectares. The pro­ are 25 and 337 million hectares or 15%an d 22% of portiono fhill yland ,farmland , andothe ruse sar e64% , the total land of the province, respectively. The actual 20%,an d 16%,respectively .Th etota lacreag eo fgrass y

234 CHAPTER 9

Figure 9.12. Hilly pasturemixe dwit hyoun gPinus massoniana tree sgrowin g onre deart hsoi l inGuix iCount yi nJiangx iProvinc e incentra l China. (Photocourtes y of Y.F.Chang , 1985)

Figure 9.13. Tea plantation intercropped with perennial ryegrass on redeart h soil in Teh Xin County inJiangx i Province in central China. (Photocourtes y of Y.F. Chang, 1985) slopes of the county is 107,000 hectares.Th elarges t Grassland in Hubei Province pastureha s16,00 0hectares . Hubei Province is located in the middle part of Generally, the types and percentages of grazing CentralChina .On ethir do fth elan di smountainou s(i n land mayb e distinguished as agrasslan d mixedwit h the west where it joins with Sichuan and Guizhou forest (34%), hilly grassland (27%), and level land provinces).Th enorther npar ti shill ylan dwit hvalley s pasture(39%) .Th efarmer' smai nincom ei sfro mcro p and some mountains in the northwest and southeast. production. The estimated grazing capacity of that The central part isa lowland with a great numbero f countyi s130,00 0hea do fcattle ,whil eth etota lnumbe r lakes. ofcattl ei spresentl y 43,000head .Th ecompositio no f thegrasslan dis :grasse s73% ,legume s18% ,an dherb s Thevegetatio n isa transitiona ltyp efro m summer 9%.Th eha yyiel di s4,000-5,00 0kg/ha . green forest predominated by oaks in the north to mesophyticfores t inth esouth .Th esouthwester npar t

235 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

of Hubei Province is a mountain land which may be There is no literature describing the grassland of considered tob ea par to fth eGuizho u Plateau,wit h the the eastern part of Central China. Since 1947, forage same climate and vegetation forming a rich grazing species have been introduced from foreign countries. land area (Figure9.14) . The western part is a forested Many species have adapted to the area and produce mountain area. The central part is mostly cultivated goodresult s(Tabl e93) . lowland. It isinterestin g tonot etha t Trifoliumpratense has TROPICAL GRASSLANDS OF SOUTH been cultivated in the Enshi mountain area of south­ CHINA western Hubei Province for a hundred years on 6,700 hectares. Thus, this area is rich in ecotypes of red Good(1974 )classifie d thegeograph y of the flow­ clover. The grazing land cannot be described ade­ ering plants of the Continental Southeast Asiatic Re­ quately because thegrasslan d has notbee n studied. gionint ofiv eareas :1 )eastern Assa m anduppe rBurm a (including western and part of southern Yunnan), 2) lower Burma,3 )Sout h China and Hainan, 4) Formosa GRASSLANDS IN THE EASTERN PART OF and the Riukiu Islands, and 5) Siam () and CENTRAL CHINA Indo-China. This area includes northern Fujian and Zhejiang Climatically,Sout h Chinainclude ssouther n Yun­ provinces,an d southern Anhui and Jiangsu provinces. nan and Guangxi, Guangdong, southern Fujian, and Most of thislan d is hilly and mountainous,excep t the Taiwan provinces,an dconsist so f atransitiona lbel t of deltao fYangtz eRiver .Th egrazin g lando fFujia n was subtropical climate in the north totropica l climates in estimated to be at least 2.28 million hectares. The thesouth .Generally , thetropica lclimat ei nChin ama y percentage ofmountain s andhil lland si sabou t 70%i n bedelimite d south of 23°N .Th e relief iscomple x but Zhejiang Province and is less than 70% in southern a large part of the sub-region is below 1,000 m. The AnhuiProvince .Th evegetatio no fthos earea si ssimila r mean annual temperatures range from 20°C to 26°C, totha t of the Nanling area (Metcalf, 1942). almostwithou ta fros t period.Th esu mo f temperatures above 10°Crange s from 7,900t o9,950°C .Th e annual Thesouther n portion of Jiangsu and northern part rainfall ranges from 1,500-2,000 mm and may reach ofZhejian gprovince si sa nalluvia lplai no fth eYangtz e 3,000 mm or more in some high mountain locations. Delta. More than 50% of the total land of that area is Wet anddr y seasonsar echaracteristic , forming aveg ­ cultivated. Local people use the abundant weeds and etation distinguishable from Central China. Soils are leaves of Monis spp. for feeding sheep, especially in mostly red and yellow earth soil and lateritewit h low Jiaxing District. Astragalus sinicus is an important fertility. species for green manure, with someus e as feed.

A•**' i

£**?**

Figmre9.14 . Hilly pasturei a southeastern Hubei Province.(Phot ocourtes y of Y.F.Chang , 1985)

236 CHAPTER 9

nants and sometimes are mixed with trees and shrubs. Tabic 93. Forage species adapted to the eastern part of Central Mostgrassland sar eneithe rproperl y managedno r fully China. used. The primary savannas are found in hot and dry Forage species Annual hay yield placeso fsouther nYunna nt osouthwester n Guangdong (kg/ha) (Leizhou Peninsula and Hainan Island). A number of Dactylis gtomerata 7,500-15,000 treespecie sar eunabl et ogro wi nth edens eforests .Th e Festuca elatior 4,500 characteristic growth of these trees isa n umbrella-like crown,whic h branchesou tlik ea broo m from thebase , Lolium(Z .perenne, L.multiflorum) 12,000-15,000 consisting of a low trunk, and horizontal branching. Lotus corniculatus 4,500-8,250 They form a typical savanna landscape. The tree spe­ ciesinclude :Bombax (Gossampinus) malabarka, Dil- Pennisetumpupureum 10,000-37,000 lenia,Garuga, an dLanttea. PhalarisarutuOnacea 9,000-15,000 In the dry and hot valleys of the Red, Lancang Phalaris tuberosa 6,000-12,000 (MeKong), and other rivers, there are some variations Phaseolus aureus 6,000-9,000 of savanna with extremely xerophytic characteristics. Onsite so fdr yan dre dsoil ,clump so fth eshrubs Acacia Sorghumhalapense 7,500-11,250 famesiana, Zizyphus mauritiana, and Vitex spp. are Trifolium incarnatum 6,000-9,000 scattered. The tree species present in the savanna in­ clude the species of Phyllanthus emblica, Pistacia Trifoliumrepens 6,000-8,000 weinmannifolia, and Terminaliafranchetti, an d some Trifolium resputünatum 10,000 tree-like species of Euphorbiaroyleana, an dOpuntia Trifolium subterraneum 8,000-1,000 monacantha. The dominant grasses are Heteropogon contortus,specie s of Cymbopogon, Bothriochloa, Im- Vicia sauva 7,500 perata and Thysanolaena,an dThemeda gigantea. Thesavann a of tropical South China is limited to Vegetation Types and Successions areas where the climate is characterized by alternate The South China subregion may be classed into wetan ddr yseason so rloca lfoeh n withinth eelevation s three areas: 1) southwest and southern Yunnan Prov­ between 300an d 1,200m o fth evalleys .Som esavann a incei nth ewest ,2 )souther n Guangxi,Guangdong ,an d areas have been formed by fires resulting in predomi­ Fujian provinces in the middle, and 3) Taiwan in the nantly fire-tolerant species. They are mostly grasses east.Thes ethre earea sar edistinguishe d dueth e differ­ including: ences of climate, flora characteristics, and human ac­ Aristida chinensis Heteropogoncontortus tivities, especially in the part of southwestern and Arundinella Themeda hookeri southernYunna nwher eth eclimat ei sinfluence d byth e decempedalis Themeda triandra Indian monsoon and thevegetatio n issimila r totha to f binata the Assam-Upper Burmese area of Indochina (Good, Some species of Compositae, Fabaceae (Legu- 1974; Grubov, 1969). In the east, the flora of Taiwan minosae),an dCyperaceae ,a fe wshru bspecie s(includ ­ haslittl eresemblanc et oIndo- ncharacte rdu e ing Gymnosporiadiversifolia andAcacia jhrnesiana), topaleographica l factors (Merrill, 1923). and sometre e species alsoar e present. In tropical South China, the vegetation types in­ Generally,ther ear etw oimportan tcommunitie so f cludemangrov e forests, tropicalrai n forests,dr ysemi - savanna;\)Heteropogon contortus+ Woodfordiafruti- deciduousmonsoo nforests ,savannas ,an dtropica lpin e cosa + Bombax malabarica, found in the valleys of forests.I naddition ,th etype so nhig hmountain sinclud e southwesternYunnan ,an d2 )Heteropogon contortus + "moss" forests, rhododendron thickets,an d meadows. Flacourtiaindica + Streblus asper, foundo nth ewest ­ In China, especially South China, fire is the most erncoas t of Hainan and on Leizhou Peninsula (Anon., important man-madefacto r influencingvegetation .Be ­ 1980;Chan g et al., 1957). cause plant growth is luxuriant and abundant, fire isa The dry semi-deciduous "monsoon" forests, in convenienttoo lfo ragricultura lmanagement ,a si teli m- terms of floristic composition, aresimila r tosavannas . inateswil d plantsan dbeasts .I nfact , man-madesavan ­ Somebotanist s (Change tal. , 1957)name d these areas nas and grassland occupy a considerable portion of "arborescent savanna."I nJanuar yt oApri l(th edrough t tropical South China. Tall, coarsal grasses are domi­ season),th etalle rtree salway sdro pthei rleaves .Thes e

237 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

forests are found in the dry Red River Valley in Crotalaria Tephrosia Yunnan,o n Leizhou Peninsula,an d on Hainan Island. Grasslands in Southern Yunnan Province Fire is important in the development of savanna. This area includes the area west of the Gaoligong The secondary succession is stable and is not able to Mountains(Irrawaddy-Salwee n divide)an dturn st oth e develop to forest again because of the frequent fires east through Luxi (Mangshi), Ximao, and southern from year toyear . Yunnan, including the valley of the lower part of the Fire, logging, and grazing have changed the Red River to the east,joinin g with southern Guangxi, succession of the monsoon forests and rainforests into whereth etopograph y ismainl y middlean d low moun­ secondary forest, clumps of shrubs, and lastly into tains alternating with a broad valley. The climate is savanna or wasteland. Following a fire, the site is characterized by wet-dry seasons without any cool air changedt ob edr yan dsunny .Drough tan dligh t tolerant current. treespecie swit hquic kgrowt hinvade ,suc ha sMallotus spp. and Trema spp. on clay soil and Engelhardia The vegetation types in the area include warm chrysolepisand Liquidambarformosana onsand ysoil . subtropical inth enort h and tropicali nth esouth ,espe ­ If the fires continue, the fire tolerant deciduous tree cially in the low valleys. According to "Vegetation of species Quercus acutissima, Schima wallichii, Pinus China" (Wu, 1980), there are 26 formations in the massoniana (on the mainland), and Pinus ikedai be­ Yunnan area due toth ediversit y of relief which influ­ come thedominant s of the first layero f crown and are ences the climate. Fires are frequent, making savanna mixedwit hothe rspecie s including: thesecondar yvegetatio nwhic hi ssprea dwidel yi nthi s Aporusa chinensis Lannea grandis area. Six types of grassland formations can be de­ scribed. Dillenia spp. Symplocos spp. WarmSubtropical GrasslandMixed With Trees At the same time, some tall grasses and shrubs and Shrubs may invade including: Baeckea frutescens Miscanthus spp. This type of grassland is found in the sites of Dodonaea viscosa Rhodomyrtus tomentosa deforested areas. Helicteres spp. Saccharum The main species of grasses include: Melastoma candidum arundinaceum Arundinella setosa Eremochloa zeylanica Ifth etree sar eseriousl ydisturbed ,th egras sImper - Capillipedium Eulalia pattens atacylindric ama yb edominan twit hPhoenix, hanceana parviflorum on heavy clay soil, Helicteres angustifolia and others onsand ysoil ,an dCymbopogon spp .o nwet ,heav ycla y Some herbs are included. Grasses grow from 50- soil,formin g a type of grassland (savanna). 100c m with a high percentage ofvegetativ e cover. WarmSubtropical Secondary Grasslands Mixed If thevegetatio n isdisturbe d continually, thiswil l WithShrubs lead to serious soil erosion and loss of waterholding capacity. This leads to drought, soil compaction, and This type of grassland is found on the flanks of invasion of thegrasses , mainly the medium grasses of mountainsi nth esout ho fth elowe rgorge .I tdevelope d Ischaemum spp. and Digitaria spp. When the soil is from thedisturbanc eo fQuercus an dPinus forests.Th e very dry, thedwar fgrasse s predominate, including: absolutedominan t speciesar e xerophyticgrasse s with Aristida chinensis Eremochloa spp. very few specieso f mesophytic dicotyledons. Schizachyrium The grassesinclude : aciculatus brevifolium Arundinella spp. Themeda triandra Eragrostis spp. Imperata cylindrica var. japonica Onlya fe w shrubsma yoccu ro rth eare ama y form Miscanthus floridulus barren land.Th eshrub s include: The height of grasses is about 100 cm with good Clerodendrum Melastoma candidum plant cover. cyrtophyllum Rhodomyrtus Cratoxylon ligustrinum tomentosa TropicalSecondary Savanna Mixed With Trees and and someothers . Shrubs When thevegetatio n isdenude d tothi sstage ,i t is Inth eare a of Lincang (24°N , 100°E) ,th etyp eo f verydifficul t torestor eth eforest .I nthos estages ,som e vegetationinclude srainforest s andseasona lmixe d for­ legumesma y bepresen t including species of: ests. When these forests are disturbed by fire, the sa- Desmodium Indigofera

238 CHAPTER 9

vanna develops. Grasses are the dominants with an Heteropogon contortus +Cymbopogon spp. average height of 1.5-3 m. Savanna Mixed With Woodfordiafivticosa and Some Other Trees Themai n species include: Arundinella spp. Saccharum When thevegetatio n isseriousl y affected by man, Eulalia phaeothrix arundinaceum Heteropogon contortus becomes the absolute domi­ Neyraudia Themeda gigantea nant, forming a type of grassy savanna. In a large area arundinacea var. caudata such as the Dehong lowlands,som e trees such asAca­ Dicotyledonous speciesar e fewer in number. ciafamesiana, Pistacia weinmannifolia,an d Zizyphus montana are found on the flanks of the dry-hot valley Tree species include: of Nujiang (Salween) and Lancang (MeKong) rivers. Bombax malabarica Toona ciliata Grasslands in Guangxi Province The landscape seems tob e similar total l savanna Geographically,Guangx iProvinc ema yb econsid ­ in the tropics. ered tob ea basi n surrounded bymountains ,excep t for the southeastern lowland section. The Miao Ling The previous three formations are widely distrib­ (mountains) in the north, west, and southwest have uted and most of them are not used for forage. elevations of 1,500-2,000 m. Mountains in the south Secondary Mountain Savannas and east are lower, 1,000-1,200 m. The basin in the central part is actually a land of hills.Tw o rivers, the These formations are widely found on the moun­ Qian and Yu, come from the northwest and join to­ tains of southern Yunnan Province. The xerophytic gether at Guiping, flowing to the east like the Xijiang evergreen forests have been denuded by frequent fires (West River).Th e basin islocate d between 26°N and and secondary savannas have developed. The areas 21° 31' N. The climate is subtropical in the north include Gengma,Shuangjiang , and Xisungbana. changing gradually to tropical in the south. Soils are Grasses areabsolut e dominants and include: mostly redan d yellow earth,an d latente.Vegetatio n is Arundinella Capillipedium mostly evergreen broad-leaf forest of evergreen oak, decempedalis parviflorum Schima,an d laurelswit h Pinus massoniana in second­ Arundinella Eulalia quadrinervis ary stands, with rain forests in certain areas (Wang, cochinchinensis Imperata cylindrica 1961). Arundinella Miscanthus floribundus The evergreen forest is found on the mountains bengalensis Neyraudia arundinacea north of the province with subtropical climate. The Theaverag e height of grasses is 100-150cm . The dominantassociatio ni sCastanopsis hystrix+Bambusa distribution of grasses differs due to the variation of + Alpinia platychilus with different layers. The Liq- humidity of the sites. For example, Eulalia quadri­ uidambarformosana + Schima wallichii + Blechnum nervisi sfoun d on higherelevation s andshad y slopes. orientale association is a secondary succession of rainforest at 200-400 m. Most of these forests were Heteropogon contortusMixed With Treesand denuded by slash and burn techniques and formed Succulent, Thorny Shrubs different associations. At the first stage of succession, This type of savanna is found on the flanks of the thespecie sar emostl y light-tolerant treesan dshrubs .I f valleyso f theRe d Riveran d Jinsha Riverbelo w 1,000 thedisturbanc ei scontinued ,th etal lgrasse sbecom eth e m (Jinsha River Valley is in northern Yunnan and is dominants, then medium-to-low grasses, and finally, deeply influenced by foehn causing a dry and hot barren land. If the grassy association is restored, how­ climate). The potential evaporation is more than four ever, the forest vegetation will recover. In fact, the times the rainfall. The vegetation is completely com­ cogonal type of grassland occupies a large area of the posed of xerophytes . provincean d forests arepreserve d only onhig h moun­ tains,an d atcertai n other locationswher e human pop­ Succulent,thorn yshrub ssuc ha sCalotropis gigan­ ulation islo w(Stewar dan dCheo ,1935 ;L ie tal. , 1956; tea, Euphorbia royleana, Opuntia monacantha, and andNuttonson , 1963).Soi lerosio ni sseriou sdu et oth e Zygophyllum spp.ar e found beside the rivers. Hetero­ absenceo f vegetation (Figures9.1 5 and 9.16). pogon contortus isfoun d inlarg earea so nth eslope so f valleys.Phyllanthus emblica and some treesar e found Therear e nostatistica l data on the land useo f the in higher parts ofvalleys . province.Owin gt oth emountai ntopography , farmland is not more than 15%o f the area compared to 6% of Yunnan and 14%o f Guizhou.

239 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

TheLongzhou District resulting ina soi ltha t isrich i norgani cmatte r (ashig h Lie tal .(1956 )studie d thevegetatio n ofth eLong ­ as3.76-6.85%) . zhou district in the southwestern part of the Guangxi Thedominan t species,Imperata cylindrica,a nac ­ Province which is located 22° 22' N and 106° 45' E tively growing grass, is widely spread. The length of with mountains, Karst hills, and rolling land. The rootspe rsquar emete rma yreac h 100m wit h rhizomes mountainregio ni s95 0m high ,wit ha relativ eelevatio n distributedi nth e0-2 0c msoi llayer ,hchaemum ciliare of 750m ,an d theelevatio n of rollinglan d with hills is and hchaemum aristatum are the dominant tussock 200-400m .Th eclimat ei stropica lwit ha mean annual grasses. These two species are drought resistant and temperature of 22.9°C and mean temperatures of the form 60% of the total plant cover. Miscanthus warmest months (July and August) and the coldest floridulus is the secondary dominant species; it has month (January) of 33 and 10°C, respectively. Mean rhizomes that penetrate 35 cm into thesoil . monthly temperatures exceed 20°C for up to eight months. Annual rainfall is 1,320 mm, but distribution The main species of theassociatio n include: isuneven ,e.g .th erainfal l offiv e monthsi s20 %o f the Andropogon spp. Eulalia contorta totalwhil eprecipitatio n isbelo w5 0m mfro m Novem­ Aristida spp. Leersia spp. ber to March. Consequently, wet and dry seasons are Arundinella villosa Miscanthus distinguished, resulting in monsoon forest formations Capillipedium sacchariflorus and savanna. glaucopsis PhragmUes maxima Capillipedium Schizachyrium spp. Li (1956) studied several associations derived parviflorum Sorghum fulvum from forests denuded by fires. Only theImperata cyl- Cymbopogon caesius Sporobolus elongatus indrica+ hchaemum spp.associatio ni sdiscusse d here because it relates toth e grazing land resource. Otherspecie so f monocotyledons include: Fimbristylis spp. Rhynchospora rubra This association was derived from evergreen Lilium longiflorum Scleria biflora broadleaf forest and issprea d on mountain slopeswit h Ophiopogon longifolius elevationsbetwee n 600an d90 0 m.I twa s theresul t of impropercultivation , logging,an dfrequen t fires and is Othercommo n herbs anddicotyledon s include: anassociatio nwithou ttrees .Fo rth epas t 100years ,tall , Anisopappus chinensis Osbeckia chinensis coarseperennia lgrasse shav egrow nabundantly , form­ Eupatorium lindlayanum Pouzolzia hirta inga plan tcove ro f90-100% .Hal fo f theplan t coveri s Inula cappa Torenia spp. occupied by grasseswit h a plant height of 1-2 m.Thi s Oldenlandia corymbosa stable association has a luxuriant growth of grasses, Somefern s include:

Figure 9.15. Deforested mountain in northeastern Guangxi Province with coarsal cogonal grasses in the foreground. (Photo by J. Thorp; reproduced from J. Thorp, 1936)

240 CHAPTER 9

Figure9.16 .Terrace d fields in Guangxi Province resulting from collective effort. (Reproduced with permission from Y.F.Tuan , 1969)

Dicranopteris linearis Lycopodium flexuosum Clerodendron Osbeckia chinensis Dryopteris sophoroides Stenoloma chusanum cyrtophyllum Rhodomyrtus tomentosa Lycopodiumcernuum Cratoxylon ligustrinum Moretha n 20specie so f shrubs aremixe dint o the Many cultivated varieties were introduced and associations. The valuable legumes include Cassia have performed well, including: mimosoides andDesmodium spp.Thi s typeo f grazing Cynodon dactylon Pennisetumpurpureum land occupies a largeare aan d isburne d yeart oyea r to (c.v. Coastal No. 4) Setaria anceps improvegrazing . Lolium multiflorum (c.v. Kazzungula) Loliumperenne On the dry and eroded locations, the xerophytic Paspalum wetterii grassesfor m associations including thespecie s of: (c.v.Pioneer ) Arundinella anomala Ischaemumciliare Capillipedium Paspalum spp. In thesouther n part of Guangxi Province, the dry glaucopsis Themeda triandra and wet seasons may last as long as five months. The Cassia mimosoides is a legume found in this associa­ type or types of savanna in this area have not been tion. studied. In the locations where the land is flat with deep Grasslands in Guangdong Province brown soil, grasses and herbs form good pasture for Guangdong Province lies between 25 and 18°N , grazing.Th ecommo n species include: except for Hainan Island,whic h islocate di nth eSout h Aneilema spp. Elephantopus scaber China Sea. Mountains alternate with hillsan d occupy Chrysopogon acictdatus Erigeron spp. a large proportion of the total land, especially in the Cynodon dactylon Fimbristylisspp . north and east where the Nan Ling mountains are Digitaria chinensis Oxalis repens located. Farmlands are distributed in the valleys, sea, Inth emois tareas ,Cymbopogon spp .ma y form an coastal plains,an d deltas. association.Th eherb san dgrasse so f theunderstor y of Guangdong Province faces theocea n and is influ­ forestsar eabundan tan dinclud esom evaluabl eforages . enced by a monsoon climatewit h pronounced dry and The successional stages from forest tograssland s due wetseasons ,bu t hasmor erainfal l than thewest . From to fire are: species tolerant of fire, dry weather, and the subtropical climate in the northern mountains, the intensivelight ,the n trees,the nshrubs ,an dlas tgrasses . climate gradually changes to be tropical in the south, Someshrub swhic h aretoleran t of fire include: characterizedb ymonsoon swit hhot-we tan dwarm-dr y

241 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA seasons. Mean annual temperatures are above 22°C. have added elements, enriching the composition of Themea n temperatureo f thecoldes t month isabov e vegetationdurin grecen tcenturies ,suc ha sEucalyptu s 12°C;ther ei sn owinte rseason ,an dsno wonl yrarel y spp. from Australia, Psidium quajava from tropical appears.Th e temperature and rainfall gradients from America,an dman yothers . northt osout har eshow ni nTabl e9.4 . Firecause db yma ni sth emai nfacto r influencing Both temperature and rainfall increasefrom th e vegetationsuccession .Ther ei sver ylittl evirgi n forest northt oth esout hexcep ti nZhanjian go nth eLeizho u in theentir e South China region.Th esecondar ysuc ­ Peninsulai nth ewes t(Figur e9.17) . cessiono fgras smixe dwit hshrub soccupie smos to fth e lando fhill san dmountains ,wit hlimite dforeste darea s The main types of vegetation correspond to the climatean d may be divided intoevergree n broadleaf (Figure9.18) . forest,evergree nmixe dforest ,an drai nforest .Natura l According to "Vegetation of Guangdong"(Insti ­ savannasar elocate di ncertai narea se.g .wester nHai ­ tuteo fBotan yo fGuangdong ;Anon. , 1976),ther ear e nanIslan dan dLeizho uPeninsula .Secondar ysavanna s 16 formations,bu tgrass ycove ri sth emai n type,a si t arewidel ydistribute ddu et oth edestructio no f forests iswidel y distributed andoccupie sth elarges t propor­ byover-loggin gan dfires . tion of the areas. Only the savanna vegetation isde ­ scribedher e(Chan ge taL ,1957 ;Grubov ,1969) . Theformatio n anddistributio n ofsoi lar eclosel y related toclimat ean dvegetation .Th eyello weart hi s Ofth ePoacea e(Gramineae) ,specie so fPanicum found on mountains with forests mostly in thenorth , andAndropogon ar eabsolut edominants .I nth eCyper - whilere d earth isdistribute d widely, mostly onhills . aceaefamily , thegener ao fFimbristylis ,Cyperus, an d Latente soil is distributed in the southern areas,an d Scleriaar e also dominants. Leptocarpus disjunctus paddysoi li nth evalley san dalluvia lplains . Mountain may form a pure stand association for thousands of meadow soil and coastal sand are limited to thehig h hectaresi nth esouth .I ncertai nlocations ,som especie s mountainsan dse acoasta lzone ,respectively . offern san delement so fth ePontederiaceae ,Juncaceae , Compositae, Papilionaceae, , and Asi nothe rregions ,th evegetatio nzone san dtype s Chenopodiaceaefamilie sma yb eth edominants . are related to climate, soil, and human activity. The flora of Guangdong is related to that of neighboring Theheigh to fgrasse svarie saccordin gt oth eenvi ­ regions:th epaleotropic si nth esout har erelate dclosel y ronmentalconditio n and associations.Th edominant s toIndo-Chines eflora ; the subtropics in the north are of associations ofImperata cylindrica, Eulaliaphae- relatedt onorther npart so fYunnan ,Hunan ,an dJiangx i othrix, Ischaemum arundinaceum, Dicranopteris provinces;th emiddl eo fGuangx ian dFujia nprovince s linearisgenerall yar e50-10 0c mtall ;Miscanthus flori- andth emountainou sare ao fVietna mar erelate dt oth e dulus, Phragmites Karka, and Saccharum arundina­ florao fHimalaya-China . ceumar e about 200 cm tall; and the species of Eremochloa,Eragrostis, an dAristida chinensis ar eles s Human activity has been the main influence on than3 0c m tall. vegetation.Sinc eth eHa nDynast y peoplehav eculti ­ vatedrice an dfrui t treeso nth eplain san dhill ylands . The plant density of savannas and grassy slopes Over-loggingan dfire sdenude dth eforest san dgreatl y rangesfro m30 0t o80 0plant si nlm 2an d50-20 0plant s influenced thenatura l vegetation. Plant introductions

Table 9.4. Thegndiea t of temperaturean drainfal l from north tosout h inGuangdon gan d Hainan provinces.(Adapte dfro m H.T.Chan ge t al., 1957)

Location Latitude Meanannua l Daystempératur e Sumo f annual temp. Annual rainfall temperature(° Q above 10°C above 10°C (mm)

Shaoguan 24'48' 23.2 287 6,592 1,523 (valley)

Guangzhon 23*07' 21.9 327 7^15 1,680 (Canton) (sea coast6. 3 m)

Zhanjiang 21"12' 23.2 359 8377 1,440 (sea coast 13m )

YuliB(Hailan) 18-14' 25.5 365 9,265 2,243

242 CHAPTER 9

Figure 9.17. Landslide causedb yerosio n inth eLeizho u Peninsula inGuangdon g Province.(Phot oreproduce d from HT. Change tal. , 1957, with permission from Science Press)

Figure 9.18. Eroded podzolic red yellow earthsoi l derived from granite located in Swatow, eastern Guangdong Province.Grasse s andtree s areneede d toimprov e the use of thisarea .(Phot o by J.Thorp ;reproduce d fromJ .Thorp , 1936) of psammophyticvegetatio n in 1 m . Theplan tcove r LowlandSavannas isgenerall y60-90% . There gre thfee types Qf lowland savannas:xero - According to the topography, savannas may be phytic-mesophyticsavanna ,mesophyti csavannah ,an d dividedint otw ocategories :th elowlan dan dth emoun - hydrophyticsavanna , tainsavannas .

243 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Xerophytic-mesophytic Savanna. The general Flacourtia indica Pandanus tectorius characteristics of this type are: low density, 20-40 cm Gymnosporia of plant height, 30-60% plant cover, a few trees and diversifolia shrubs, and distinguishable seasonal phases.Th e spe­ cies include:Aristida chinensis, Eriachne pallescens, Some treesinclude : andHeteropogon contortus. Albizzia procera Streblus asper Buchanania microphylla Tamarindus indica Eremochloa ciliaris +Aristida chinensisassoci­ Calophyllum inophyllum ation mixed with shrubs. This association is found in the areas of rolling and table lands of southeastern Baeckeafrutescens +Eriachne pallescens asso­ GuangdongProvinc ean dth enorther nseacoas to fHai ­ ciationmixed with Pinus (P.massoniana, P. ikedai.). nan Island, northern Leizhou Peninsula, and the sea- Thisassociatio ni sfoun do nhill salon gth ecoast .I tma y coast of the continent. Soils include yellow-red earth invadesubtropica lgrass yslope swit ha we tclimat ean d and latentes. Due to digging of grasses and shrubs, latentiere dsoi lwhic hwer eseriousl yerode ddu et oth e plantcove ri sabou t30-40% ,bu ti nsom elocation sma y activitieso fman .Plant so fth eassociatio nar eloos ean d reach 80%.Th e height of grasses is about 30 cm with dwarf,wit hplan theigh to fherb s20-3 0c man d30-80 % small shrubs of 60-100 cm height scattered in the plant cover. Inadditio n toth edominants ,othe r impor­ association. tantspecie s include: Eragrostis nutans Panicum trypheron Inadditio n toth e dominants, other important spe­ Fimbristylis dichotoma Rhynchospora rubra cieso f grasses include: Ischaemum aristatum Schizachyrium Cymbopogon caesius Ischaemum aristatum Ischaemum aristatum sanguineum Eragrostis pilosa Panicum trypheron var. barbatum Eragrostis cylindrica Perotis indica The shrub Baeckea frutescens may be the domi­ Digitaria sanguinalis Schizachyrium nant and otherspecie s include: Eremochloa pallescens sanguineum Breynia fruticosa Morinda parvifolia and2 0 additionalspecie s of grasses and herbs. Cratoxylon ligustrinum Rhodomyrtus tomentosa The shrubs include: Helicteres angustifolia Wikstroemia indica Baeckea frutescens Desmodium Shrubsgro wt oa height of 25-50cm ,wit h acove r Cassia mimosoides reticulatum of 25-40%.Th esubtropica l treesof Pinus massoniana Croton crassifolius Helicteres angustifolia arescattered , with poorgrowth ,a heigh t of 4-7m ,an d and others. a breast height diameter of 5-10 cm. North of the Thisassociatio n isth emai n typeo fsavann a of the Leizhou Peninsula,Pinus massoniana and the tropical tropicalare aan ddevelope da sa resul to fman' sactivity . coniferous speciesPinus ikedaiar e found, which indi­ catestha t theare a isa transitionalzon efro m subtropic Heteropogon contortus + Aristida chinensis + totropic . Eragrostis elongata association mixed with shrubs. This association is also a main type of savanna in MesophyticSavanna .Mesophyti csavann ai sdis ­ tropical Guangdong Province and is a natural vegeta­ tributed in the center and south of Leizhou Peninsula, tion found in the areas of the western coast of Hainan northan deas to fHaina nIsland ,alon gth ecoas to ntabl e Island on level land (Grubov, 1969). The climate is lands with ferric, latentie red earth, while some are dry-hot with annual rainfall of 800-1,000 mm, but the found onhill swit hlatenti ere dearth .Soi ltype sar ewe t evaporation isdoubl eth erainfall .Th esoi li sred-brow n and fertile. earth.Grasse sar eth eabsolut edominan t withver y few trees and shrubs. The species are mostly xerophytic- The physiognomy of the savanna appears as mesophytes.Th eheigh to f thegrasse si s30-4 0c mwit h grasses mixed with shrubs and with a few scattered plant cover of 80-95%. In addition to the dominants, trees.Th eheigh to f thelaye ro fgrasses ,i sabou t5 0c m themai n specieso f grasses include: withcove r40-70% .Th edominant so f grasses include: Cynodon dactylon Fimbristylis eragrostis Cymbopogon spp., Ischaemum aristatum, and Im­ perata cylindrica. Dominant shrubs include: Aporusa Digitaria longiflora (of Cyperaceae) angustifolia,Dodonaea viscosa, and Rhodomyrtus to­ Imperata cylindrica Alysicarpus vaginalis mentosa with varying density. The general height is Paspalum orbiculare (of Papilionaceae) 70-160 cm with cover of 20-50%. Three associations Thebush yshrub sar ethorn yspecie san d thecom ­ are distinguished. monone s include: Imperata cylindrica+ Cymbopogon caesius asso­ Ehretia microphylla Harrisonia perforata ciation. North of Hainan Island and at the center of

244 CHAPTER 9

LeizhouPeninsula ,thi sassociatio n iswidel ysprea do n Glochidion Rubus succedanus tablelan dwit h ferric redeart hsoil .Th eclimat ei scoo l hongkongense Symplocos racemosa in the winter and hot in the summer with an annual Helicteres angustifolia rainfall of 1,400-1,800mm .Thi sassociatio n iso f mid­ andothers . dle height (50 cm) with a cover of 69-70% and forms Imperata cylindrica +Ischaemum aristatum as­ an open landscape. In addition to the dominants, the sociation mixed with Pandanus tectorius. This common speciesinclude : association is limited to hills along the sea coast and Desmodium Panicum trypheron islandswit h hotweather , influenced by typhoons (Fig­ heterophyllum Pycnosporalutescens ure 9.19). The cover is 80-90%. In addition to the Eremochloa ciliaris Schizachyrium dominants,Dicranopteris dichotomama y be thedom ­ Eulaliaphaeothrix sanguineum inant in certain locations. Other grasses and herbs Fimbristylis dichotoma Sorghum nitidum include: Ischaemum ciliare Cymbopogon tortilis Fimbristylis dichotoma and many others. Ophiurosexaltatus Scleria ciliaris Thecommo n shrubs include: Setaria geniculata Antidesma ghaesinbilla Helicteres angustifolia Shrubs include: Aporusa chinensis PhylUmthus emblica Aporusachinensis Psychotria rubra Dodonaea viscosa Rhodomyrtus tomentosa Breyniafruticosa Sageretia theezans The height of theshrub s is70-10 0 cm. andothers . Thisassociatio n isfoun d on abandoned farmland, Hydro-mesophytic Savanna. This type of sa­ onth eto po fslopes ,wher eth elan d isno tfavorabl e for vanna is found mainly on alluvial land influenced by cultivation but hasbee n disturbed by man resulting in floods where the soil is usually wet. Grasses are tall erosion and low fertility. The species of Cymbopogon with no trees and few shrubs. The following associa­ caesius,Eulalia quadrinervis, andSchizachyrium san­ tions are found. guineum mixedwit h species form twoassociations . Vetiverianigritiana association. Thisassociatio n Imperatacylindrica + Cymbopogon caesius asso­ is limited to the Maoming area southwest of Guang­ ciationmixed with shrubs. This association ischarac ­ dong Province, where there is an alluvial land with terized by a mixtureo f shrubs found on table land and seasonal floods from the rivers. The soil is clay with hills in the areas of the northern table land and eastern brown yellow color and a pH of 4.7-5.1. This area seacoast of Hainan Island; and in thesouther n and the covers about 7,000hectares .Th estructur e of theasso ­ northern part of Leizhou Peninsula. The soil is ferric ciationi ssimpl ewit honl ytw olayers .Th eheigh to fth e latente.Th eannua l rainfall is 1,500-1,700mm . tallgrasses , including inflorescences, isgenerall y 140 The total cover is 60-80%. The grassy layer is cm to 2 m, and the cover is 30-40% to a maximum of 30-60 cm in height with a cover of 40-60%. The total 60%. number of species in samples is more than 60. The The short grasses are 70 cm tall, with a cover of dominant speciesare : 50-70%. The total cover is85-100% .Seasona l phases Cymbopogon caesius Eulaliaquadrinervis aredistinct .Tal lgrasse sar emainl y Vetiverianigritiana Imperata cylindrica Ischaemum aristatum andothers , including: var. major Capillipedium Saccharum spontaneum In some locations,Dicranopteris linearis may be parviflorum Sorghumpropinquum thedominant .Th ecommo n species include: Saccharum narenga Miscanthusfloridulus Paspalum orbiculare Lower grasses include: mollicoma Schizachyrium Hemarthriacompressa Ophiopogon spp. sanguineum (dominant) Panicum spp. Theheigh to fth eshrub si s80-16 0cm ,wit ha cove r Hymenachne assamica Paspalum orbiculare of30-50% .Mos tar ei nth efor m ofa compac tbush .Th e Ischaemum aristatum dominant species of these shrubsare : and other herbs of: Aporusa chinensis Rapenealinearis Helminthostachys zeylanica Dodonaea viscosa Rhodomyrtus tomentosa Viola inconspicua Othershrub s include: Tylophora spp. Breyniafruticosa Phyllanthusemblica

245 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

jtftt

Figure9.19 .Savann a grasslandwit hImperata cylindrica andIschaemum aristatum o nth e Leizhou Pennisulao fGuangdon gProvince . (Photo reproduced from H.T. Change tal. , 1957,wit h permission from Science Press)

A smallare a of association of Sorghum nitidum+ found on slopes and valleys, and in basins with eleva­ Imperatacylindrica isfoun d onheap swit h few shrubs. tions of 200-600 m.Th e physiognomy of the associa­ Onth elowland ,th esmal lgrasses an dgrass-lik especie s tioni sa savann awit hsom etree san dshrubs .Th eheigh t of the Cyperus rotundas + Hemarthria compressa + ofgras sis70-100cmwith acove ro f70-90% .Imperata Hymenachne assamicaassociatio n are found. cylindricai sa nabsolut edominan t specieswit ha cove r of 52% of thetotal .I nadditio n toth edominants , other Mountain Savanna important speciesinclude : Thistyp eo fsavann a ismainl y found inth emoun ­ Cymbopogon caesius Schizachyrium tainare ao fcentra lHaina n Island.Th eelevatio n ofthat Ischaemum aristatum sanguineum mountain land is 500-1,200 m. The savanna is found Ischaemum ciliare Scleria ciliaris below 800-900m ,o n slopesan d inbasin san dvalleys . Miscanthus sinensis Themeda gigantea Theclimat ei scoole r than the lowland, with rainfall of Panicum montanum var. villosa 1,600-2,000 mm. The soils are latentie red earth and Paspalum orbiculare Themeda triandra yellow earth on topo f the mountains. Saccharum var. japonica arundinaceum Thysanolaena maxima Owingt oth ewe t climate, plantsgro w luxuriantly and the height of herbs usually is 70-100 cm with a The common trees are of various densities with a cover of 80-90% (Figure 9.20). Plants are mesophytic height of 3-10 m and breast height diameter of 10-40 without apparent seasonal phases, although they are cm. They are tolerant of fire and deciduous species yellow-green during the dry season. Trees and shrubs during thedr y season. are fewer because of the continuation of fires. On the Shruban d treespecie s include: bottom ofth emountain ,seasona lphase so fsavann a are Callicarpa longifolia Helicteres hirsuta distinguishable due todr y and wet seasons. var. lanceolata Lannea grandis Mountain savanna usually connects with tropical Desmodium dunnii Liquidambar formosana seasonal rain-forest or mountain rain-forest, which is Helicteres angustifolia Quercus kerri an unstable type of savanna and could form forests andsom eothers . when therei sn ofire . There areprimaril y threeassoci ­ Imperata cylindrica + Ischaemum ciliare + ations. Arundinella nepalensis association. This association Imperata cylindrica + Arundinella nepalensis is found mostly between 500 and 600 m, with a uni­ association mixed with Lannea grandis, Siaygium formityo fphysiognom y ofperennia lgrasse san dwith ­ cumini, and DUleniapentagyna. This association is out treesan d shrubs.Th e common species include:

246 CHAPTER 9

Figure 9.20. Tropical pasture ofMacroptilium atropurpureum andSetaria spp.i nHaina n Province.(Phot o courtesy of Y. F.Chang , 1985)

Cymbopogon caesius Scleria ciliaris Theenvironmenta l conditions of these a coast are Eulalia phaeothrix Sorghum nitidum severedu et ohig htemperature ,stron gwinds ,an d poor Ischaemum aristatum soil resulting in a simple vegetation with few species. Three typeso f vegetation may bedistinguished ; herbs Some small plants are in the lower layer. They andgrasses ,shrubs ,an d trees. include: Chrislia obcordata Oldenlandia uncinella Therear ethre eassociation s of herbsan d grasses: Elephantopus Phyllanthus urinaria Vitextrifolia var. unifoliolata +Spinifex littoreus tomentosus + Fimbristylis sericea + Ipomoea pres-caprae, Im­ Eupatorium lindlayanum perata cylindrica + Fimbristylis sericea + Lactuca Saccharum arundinaceum +Miscanthus sinen­ repens, and Eragrostis cylindrica + Fimbristylis sisassociation .Thi sassociatio n isfoun d onth eborde r sericea +Ipomoea pres-caprae. of forests and in valleys with fertile, wet soils. The height of grasses reaches 1.5-2 m,wit h inflorescences Generally, the height of plants varies from 10-30 reaching 2-3 m.Plan t cover reaches 90-100%.Bot h of cmwit h 10-40%plan t cover.Th evaluabl e forage spe­ cies include: thedominan tspecie sma yfor m amono-specie s(mono - topic) association. The upper grasses include Hetero- Aristida chinensis Imperata cylindrica pogon contortus and Themeda triandravar . japonica. Cynodon dactylon Ischaemum aristatum Thelowe r layer plants commonly include: Digitaria violascens Panicum spp. Eragrostis cylindrica Erechtites Imperata cylindrica Perotis indica Eremochloa ciliaris Sporobolus virginicus valerianaefolia Scleria ciliaris Fimbristylis sericea Zoysia matrella Gynura crepidioides andsom eothers . Seacoast Grassland Most land of the northern, western, and eastern The grassland of the sandy sea coast in tropical partso fGuangdon gProvinc ei shill yan dmountainous , South Chinai sfoun d widelyi nth earea sfro m southern especially in the north, where the Nanling Range has Guangxi to southern Taiwan. The width of the beach elevations of 800-1,500 m and a peak of 1,922 m. varies from tens to hundreds of meters. On the outer Farmland inthos earea si slocate do nlo wleve lhill san d margin of thebeach ,ther ear eshiftin g sand duneswit h valleys.Annua l rainfall is 1,500-2,000mm .Th e mean ahig hsal t contentwher eherbaceou splant sgrow ,suc h annualtemperatur ei s18-22°C ,th eannua laccumulate d as Ipomoea pres-caprae and Sporobolus spp. Shrubs temperatureabov e 10°Ci s5,5O0-7,000°C .Th enatura l arefoun d on thebeac h and trees farther inland. vegetation is subtropical evergreen broadleaf forest,

247 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

evergreenseasona lrainforest ,an dtropica lrainfores t in Generally, subtropical climate is in the north and valleys.Th e natural vegetation hasbee n disturbed and tropicalclimat e isi n thesouth . The main difference is hasdevelope da widel ydistribute dhill yan d mountain­ the rainfall; 3,345 mm at Tainan and 2,068 mm at ous grassland found from 800 m to higher elevations. Taibei. The annual mean temperature of Taipei is These grasslands are underutilized. The grasses are 21.6°Can d of Tainan 20.6°C. mainly tropical species including: Andropogonchinensis Heteropogoncontortus Theevergree n sclerophyllous broadleaf forests of oakan dlaure lar efoun d mostly between50 0an d 2,000 Aristida chinensis Imperata cylindrka m, whereas evergreen tropical rainforest occurs on Arundinellanepalensis Ischaemum aristatum lowlands,especiall y inth eextrem esout h of the island. Cymbopogoncaesius var. major Dipterocarpaceae have been found only in a petrified Digitaria longiflora Miscanthus floridulus state, indicating the former direct connection with the Digitaria sanguinalis Miscanthus sinensis . Due to long insular isolation, it has now Eragrostis pilosa Saccharum changed to a large degree and is not at all like the Eremochloa ciliaris arundinaceum Philippines(Merrill , 1923). Eulaliaquadrinervis Vertical Vegetation Zones The percentage of farmland of Guangdong Prov­ ince is about 10-15%o f the total land. Most farmland Namata(1974 )mentione d thatther eare ,o na larg e is located on the Zhu (Pearl) and other scale, four vertical vegetational zones on high moun­ valleys and is used for intensive farming with three tains in Japan and Taiwan: 1) piedmont or hill zone cropseac h year. (1,500 m), 2) montane zone (1,500-2,200 m), 3) sub- alpinezon e(2,200-3,20 0m) ,an d4 )alpin ezon e(abov e Soil erosion is serious, particularly on Hainan Is­ 3,200 m). The position and width of each zone is land and Leizhou Peninsula, where plant cover isonl y affected not only by elevation and latitudebut also by 10%. This area has a great potential for developing slopeexposur ean dth eeffect s ofextrem eenvironment . forages and grasslands. The piedmont zone inTaiwa n is similar totha t of Grasslands of Taiwan Province Japan, but the higher zones, including the montane The total land area of Taiwan is 3.6 million hect­ zone, are similar to those of the humid Himalayas. In ares of which 300,000 hectares areclassifie d as grass­ Taiwan, the differences of vertical vegetational zones land.On e third of thegrasslan d islocate d above 2,000 between thenortheaster n and southwestern mountains m (Liu, 1963). The percentages of sloped land on werenote d bysom ebotanist s(Ito , 1929;Suzuki ,1953 ; mountainsan d hills,an d flat land in plains, are 74an d cited by Namata, 1974).Th emai nspecie so f grassland 26%, respectively (Williams, 1979, 1981). Owing to include: the increase of population and the development of the 0-1,500m Arundinella,Miscanthus economy, the use of slopeland has been intensified. 1,500-3,000m Deschampsia, Festuca, Poa This, hascause d serioussoi l erosion. Mountain Meadow Four typeso f climatear e distinguished according The mountain meadow on Mt. Hsiao-Hsueh, in toth evariatio no felevation .Nuttonso n (1963)reporte d central Taiwan, was studied by Liu (1963).Th e study the altitudinal and climate forest zones which indicate the ecoclimatic and topographical conditions (Table area was on the southern slope surrounded by conif­ 9.5). erousforests ,a t2,500-2,90 0m .Th eannua lmea ntemp ­ erature is 9-11°C, with a maximum of 25.4°C, and a

Tabic 9.5.Altitudina l andclimati c forest zones inTaiwan . (Adapted from M. Namata, 1974)

Type Percentage of the totalare a Altitude innort h Altitude insout h (m) (m) Tropical 56 2-300 0-600

Subtropical 31 300-1,500 600-2,000

Temperate 11 1,500-2,700 2,000-3,500

Cool temperate 2 2,700-4,000 3,500-4,000

248 CHAPTER 9

minimum of -3.7°C.Winte r lasts two monthswit h the Indocalamus niitakayamensis + Miscanthus temperature between -1.9 and 3.7°C. The annual rain­ transmorrisonensis association. This association is fall is 3,380 mm, and the mean relative humidity is found above2,70 0 m.Du e toth eincreas eo f humidity, 80%. thedominanc e ofIndocalamus spp. increaseswit h ele­ vation.Th e main species include: Therear e two main associations. Anaphalis Gentiana formosana Miscanthus transmorrisonensis + Pteridium morrisonicola Pteridium aquilinum aquilinum association. This association is found at Cirsium kawakamii Solidago virga-aurea 2,500-2,750 m (Figure 9.21). The main companion Some shrubsinclude : speciesinclude : Berberis kawakamii Rosa morrisonensis Aletris foliata Gentiana arisanensis Gaultheria borneensis Spiraea morrisonicola var. glabra Gentiana formosana Juniperus formosana Veronica Anaphalis morrisonicola Solidago virga-aurea Polygala japonica morrisonicola Cirsium kawakamii Swertia randaienis Meadowsar ea resul to fth eburnin go fth eorigina l On lowland areas, the dominant species include coniferous forest which have been replaced by sec­ Agrostis morrisonensis andJ uncus effusus. ondaryp yrophyte ssuc ha sIndocalamus niitakayamen­ The dominant species of the border of swamps sis, Miscanthus transmorrisonensis, and Pteridium include Brachypodium kawakamii, Carex kawakamii, aquilinum. With protection from fire, ecological suc­ andDeschampsia caespitosa. cession ischaracterize d by therapi d invasion of Pinus armandii, Pinus taiwanensis, Tsuga chinensis, and Indocalamusniitakayamensis grow sluxuriantl yi n Abies kawakamiiabov e2,80 0 m.Th epioneerin g pines thesemishad e at the edges of forests. do not form much of a canopy because the matted Onth ebank so fstreams ,th emai nspecie sinclude : grasseshinde rgerminatio no fth efe wtre eseed s(Figur e Indocalamus niitakayamensis 9.22). Corydalis camulicarpa The succession of the meadows and forests was Galium rotundifolium described by Liu (1963) (Table 9.6). Pyrola morrisonensis Accordingt oth edat ao fth eMountai nAgricultura l Resource Development Bureau (1977, cit. Williams,

Figure 9.21. Misctmihwt tranMm'rriiorien.vi.\ is Ihf dominant species of the high mountain meadow of Hsiao-Hsueh Mountain in Taiwan. (Photo courtesy of T. Liu; reproduced from T. Liu, 1963)

249 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Figure 9.22. Natural revegetation of pine in the mountain meadow area of Hsiao-Hsueh Mountain in Taiwan. (Photo courtesy of T. Liu; reproduced from T. Liu, 1963) 1981),al l hill land pastures are found below 1,000 m. farmers have organized their grazing animals into a InTaiwan , only 2,500 hectareso f slopeland cultivated group to graze on hills. It is easy to manage animals area is devoted to pastures for beef and dairy cattle. whereth epasture s arenea r thevillages . Animal industry cannot compete with plantations, es­ pecially tree , because of the lower economic An estimate of land suitable for forests in Central return from livestock (Figure 9.23). In the long term, andSout h China,includin gsmal lportion so f southeast particularly for the conservation of soil and economic Tibet and the southern border of the North China re­ balanceo f diverse farming; however, it isnecessar y to gion, is about 144 million hectares, but there are only developgrassland s for the animal industry. 55 million hectares used for growing forests (Wang, 1961).Ther ei sa grea t potential for thedevelopmen t of The main species of grass on lower slope lands forest range areas toproduc ewoo d and livestock. includeImperata cylindrica,Miscanthus sinensis,an d There is an immediate need to conserve soil, to many species common to Centralan d South China. improve the fertility of farmland, to improve food and Therear ecertai ndifficultie s indevelopin gpastur e feed quality,an d torais eth eeconomi cconditio n of the crops and grasslands in Taiwan. Although many dif­ rural population. The most important step in this pro­ ferent species may beneede d to revegetate the various cessi st oconserv epastur eland sb yprope r management areas, forage specialists have narrowed their experi­ systemsan dstoppin gth edestructio no fgrasslan dareas . mentst oth emor epro misin ggrasse san dlegu mes .The y Secondly,i ti snecessar y toselec t highqualit ysee d have discovered three to five species of grasses and ofadapte dforag eplants ,especiall ycoo lseaso n grasses legumes that can grow well in each of the different and legumes, to improve the quantity and quality of areas.Mor ewor k will be needed toevaluat e abroade r forage and extend the grazing period. The grazing rangeo f species. period could be extended to last the entire year in this region duet oth e mild winters. SUMMARY Thegrassland so fCentra lan d SouthChin aoccup y SPECIES LIST a large area with many forage species, forming a valu­ Grasses ablenatura l resourcet ob euse d for thedevelopmen t of Agrostis spp. Lolium spp. an animal industry. The climatic conditions are favor­ Brachiaria spp. Melinis minutiflora able for plant growth,makin gpossibl e greaterproduc ­ ciliaris Panicum maximum tivity than in any other region of China. Traditionally, Chloris gayana Paspalum purpurascens

250 CHAPTER 9

Table 9.6.Successio n of mountain vegetation at high altitude on Hsiao-Hsueh Mountain in Taiwan. (Adapted from T. IJu ,1963 )

Succession A, above 2300 m Succession B,belo w 2,800 m

Original forest Original forest Tsuga chinensis +Abies kawakamii association Tsuga chinensis +Chamaecyparis taiwanensis association

Burn Burn 1 \ Pyric subclimax vegetation Miscanthus transmorrisonensis + Indocalamus niitakayamensis + Indocalamus niitakayamensis association Miscanthus transmorrisonensis association

Burn Competition I Indocalamus niitakayamensis + Pyric subclimax vegetation Miscanthus transmorrisionensis association Miscanthus transmorrisionensis + Pteridium aquilinum association

Protection from burn Burn I i Climax forest Miscanthus transmorrisonensis + Tsuga chinensis Pteridium aquilinum association Abies kawakamii

Burn

Pinus taiwanensis + Pinus armandii association

Protection from burn 1 Tsuga chinensis +Chamaecyparis taiwanensis association

Cynodon dactylon Digitaria decumbens Anon. 1979. Grazing Land Map of China. Bureau of Euchlaena mexicana Digitaria clandestinum Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine, Min­ Festuca spp. laxum istryo f Agriculture. (In Chinese) Hyparrhenia rufa Urochloa Buck, L.J. 1937. Land Utilization in China. Univ. of Hierochloe occidentalis mosambicensis Chicago Press.49 4pp . Legumes Centrosema pubescens Macroptilium Chang, H.T., C.C. Chang, P.S. Wang, and H.M. Wu. Desmodium aparines atropurpureum 1957. The vegetation of Leizhow Peninsula. Plant Indigofera endecaphylla Pueraria phaseoloides Ecol. and Phytogeog. Res. Ser. 17:94. Science Lotonoms Bainesii Stylosanthes humilis Press,Peking . (In Chinese) Leucaena glauca Stylosanthes guianensis Chang,P.K. ,Y.H .Tuan ,an dL .Cheo .1956 .A tentativ e Leucaena leucocephala Trifolium spp. scheme of climatic regions, p. 37-49. In: K.F. Lou (ed.).A Tentativ eSchem eo fth eNatura lRegion so f REFERENCES China.Scienc ePress ,Peking . (In Chinese) Anon. 1976. Vegetation of Guangdong. Institute of Cheo, S.Y., S.T. Teng, and C.C. Li. 1980.A survey of Botany of Guangdong. Science Press, Peking. (In grassyhill so nth eborde ro fSichuan .Bull ,o fGrassl . Chinese) Sei.2:25-32 . (In Chinese)

251 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Figur« 9.23.Slopelandpastur ewit hcattl e grazing Insoutheas tTiiwin . (Photob yJ .F .Williams ;reproduced fro mJ.F .Williams , 1981,wit h permission from C.W. Panned)

Cheo,T.R. ,Y.F .Si ,an dS.P .Cheng .1956 .A tentativ e soiltypes .Act aPedo LSinic a5:19-49 .(I nChines e scheme of relief regions, p. 21-37.In: K.F.Lo u withEnglis hsummary ) (ed.).A Tentativ eSchem eo fth eNatura lRegion so f Hou,S.Y. , andCK .Li . 1945.Soil so f Szechuan.Soi l China.Scienc ePress ,Peking .(I nChinese ) Bull.24 .Geologica l Survey, Chungking. (InChi ­ Chien,S.S. ,Y.C .Wu , andC.T .Cheng .1956 .A tenta ­ nese) tive scheme of phytogeographical regions, p. 83- Hsu,S.H .1980 .A preliminar ystud yo fth echaracteris ­ 142.In: K.F . Lou(ed.) .A Tentativ eSchem eo fth e ticso fgrass yslope si nSout hChin aan dthei rutiliza ­ Natural Regions of China. Science Press,Peking . tion, p. 178-181.In: Proc .3r dNortheaster nGrassl . (InChinese ) Conf.,SocofBot . ofKirinandHeilongjiangProv., Chu,P.C .1979 .Th egrazin glan dresource so fGuizho u Changchun.(I nChinese ) Provincean d theirutilization .Bull ,o f GrassLSei . Hsu,Y.S .1979 .A preliminar ystud yo fth egrazin glan d 1:21-27.(I nChinese ) resourceso fHunan .(Unpublished )(I nChinese ) Fochler-Hauke,Gustav . 1935.Th e Sikiang Regiono f Hu,H.H .1926 .A preliminar ysurve yo fth efores t flora SouthChina .Geog . Gesellsch.i nWie n78:158-75 . ofsoutheaster n China.Contr .Biol .La bSoc . China Good,R .1974 .Th eGeograph yo fth eFlowerin gPlant s 2:1-20. (4thed.) .Longman ,Inc .Ne wYork .55 7pp . Hu, S.T. 1946.Th e grassland of Wenchuan, Sichuan Grubov,V.l .1969 .Flor aan dvegetation ,p .265-364 .In: Province.Borde rService . (InChinese ) USSRAcad .Sei .Inst . Geog.Th ePhysica lGeogra ­ Hu, S.T. 1948.Annua lrepor to fforag eexperiment so f phyo fChina . Vol1 . F.A.Praege rPublishers , New 1948. NationalAgric .Res .Bur. ,Nanking .(I nChi ­ York. nese) Handel-Mazzetti, H. 1930. The phytogeographical Hu,S.T .1951 .Grasslan dan dforag eproblem so fChin a structurean daffinitie so fChina .5t hInt .Bot .Congr . M.S.Thesis .Univ .o fNanking .33 0pp .(I nChinese ) Abstr.p .315-319 , Cambridge. Hwang,P.V .1941 .Natura lregion so fChina .Rev .Hist , Hou,S.Y. ,CT .Chen ,an dH.P . Wang.1957 . Theveg ­ andGeog .3:19-29 .(I nChinese ) etationo fChin awit hspecia lreferenc e toth emai n

252 CHAPTER 9

Jin,C.C. 1980.Som eproblem so f thecharacteristic so f Kwangsi Province. China Nanking Journal 5:173- subalpine meadow innortheaster n Yunnan,p .171 - 195. 177.In: Proc.3r d Northeastern Grassl.Conf. , Soc. Thorp,J . 1936.Geograph y ofth eSoil so f China.Com ­ ofBot .o fKiri nan dHeilongjian gProv. ,Changchun . mercial Press,Shanghai .55 2pp . (In Chinese) Tu, C.W. 1936. Climatic provinces of China, a new Lee, S.T. 1947. Delineation of geographic regions of map.Meteorol .Mag . 10:487-518.(I n Chinese) China.Annal sAssoc .Amer . Geographers 37:155- 168. Tuan,Y.F .1969 .China .AldinePubl .Co. ,Chicago .22 5 pp. Li,S.Y . 1956.Plan tassociation so fsouthwester n Long- jing,Guangxi .Plan t Ecol.an dPhytogeog .Res .Ser . Van Dyne, G.M., and S.H. Van Dyne. 1981.Observa ­ 8:35.Scienc e Press,Peking .(I n Chinese) tionso f ChineseGrazin g Lands:Ecology , Manage­ ment, Research and People. Range Science Dept., Liu, T. 1963. Ecological study on the high mountain ColoradoStat eUniversity .9 5pp . meadowo f Mt.Hsiao-hsueh .Bull .Taiwa n Forestry Research Institute.No .2 .p . 16.(I n Chinese) Walker, E.H. 1944.Th e plants of China and their use­ fulness to man. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. Lou,K.F .(ed. )1956 .A Tentativ eSchemeo fth eNatura l 1943:334-349. Washington. Regions of China. Science Press, Peking. (In Chi­ nese) Wang, C.W. 1961.Th e forests of China with a survey of grassland and desert vegetation. Maria Moors Lou, K.F. 1956. A tentative scheme of the natural Cabot Found. Pub. No. 5. Harvard Univ., Cam­ regions of China, p. 1-21. In: K.F. Lou (ed.). A bridge,Mass .31 3pp . Tentative Schemeo f theNatura l Regionso f China. SciencePress ,Peking .(I n Chinese) Whyte, O.R. 1968. Grasslands of the Monsoon. F. A. Praeger Publishers, New York. Merrill, E.D. 1923. The correlation of geographical distributions with the geological history of Malay­ Williams, J.F. 1979.Th e use of slopelands in Taiwan: sia.Proc .Pan-Pacifi c Sei.Congr. , 2.1923. aforeigner' s perspective.J .Chines eSoi lan d Water Conser. 10:13-18. (In Chinese with English sum­ Merrill, E.D., and E.H. Walker. 1938.A bibliography mary) ofEaster nAsiati cBotany .Arnol dArboretum .Jam ­ aica Plain, Mass.71 9pp . Williams, J. F. 1981.Agricultura l use of slopelands in Taiwan,p .89-111 .In: C.W.Pannel lan dC.L .Salte r Metcalf, F.P. 1942. Flora of Fukien and floristic notes (eds.). China Geographer No. 11: Agriculture. onsoutheaster n China.Lingha n University, China. Westview Press,Boulder , Colorado. Numata, M. 1974. The flora and vegetation of Japan. Wu, C.L. 1950. Forest regions in China with specific Kodansha Ltd.,Tokyo ,Elsevie r Sei.Pub .Co. ,Am ­ reference tonatura ldistributio no fpines .Ph.D .The ­ sterdam, NewYork . 294pp . sis,Duk e University. Nuttonson, M.Y. 1963. The physical environment and Wu, Y.Z. (ed.) 1980. Vegetation of China. Academia agricultureo fCentra lan dSout hChina, Hon gKong , Sinica, Inst. Bot. Science Press, Beijing. (In Chi­ andTaiwan .Agric .Inst ,o fCro pEcology .Washing ­ nese) ton,D.C . Richardson, H. 1946. Grassland in south China. (Un­ published) Steward, A.N. 1934. The burning of vegetation on mountain land and slope cultivation in Ling Yuin Hsien, Kwangsi Province. Lingnan Sei. J. 13:1-4. China. Steward, A.N. 1958.Manua l of Vascular Plants of the Lower Yangtze Valley, China. International Aca­ demicPrintin g Co.,Tokyo .62 1pp . Steward,A.N. ,an dS.Y .Cheo . 1935.Geographica lan d ecological notes on botanical explorations in

253 Chapter 10

OTHER FORAGE CLASSIFICATIONS

Aquatic, saline-alkaline, and marshy vegetations The Seacoastal Area of Northern Jiangsu areazona li ndistribution ,bein gsprea dwidel yfro m the Province lowlands in the east to the highlands or plateau and In theeastern part of northern Jiangsu Province is mountains in the west of China according to local adelt aforme d bythre elarg erivers: th eYangtze ,Huai , conditions.Thes e"othe rforag eclassifications " occupy andYello wrivers. Th eYello w Rivermad eth egreates t a largeare a and arevaluabl e forage producers. Gener­ contribution to the delta before 1852 when it changed ally, thesear e similar vegetation types but are without its channel from eastern Henan Province, and moved distinguishable boundaries. Saline-alkaline tolerant northeast through Shandong Province to the seacoast. vegetation is found particularly in thedr y areas of the This delta is about 850 km long from the north to the west,du et opoo rdrainag ean d high evaporation. southan dabou t5 0k mwid efro m thewes t toth ecoast . Inth eeast ,saline-alkalin evegetatio ni sdistribute d During the past thousand years, much of the delta has mostly along the seacoast from northern Zhejiang emerged from the sea. Since the Sung Dynasty (960- throughJiangsu ,Shandong ,Hebei ,an dLiaonin gprov ­ 1226 A.D.), a large dike was built along the coast to inces. Due to the dry winters, sea water seeps into protect the land in the west for cultivation. The delta- coastal land during thewinte r and springseasons . The deposited soil forms an almost perfectly level plain capillary movement of salt water from the high water with slight undulations, with the surface of the land table results in salt accumulation. The salt may be only a few metersabov ese a level in thehighes t parts. washedout b yheav yrain sdurin gth ewar mseason .Th e Easto fth edike ,th ewate ri nth editche si sbrackish . useo f ditches tocu t off theseepin g water from these a Eastwardtowar d theseacoast ,th ewate rbecome smor e makesth e land suitable for crop production. salty, particularly during dry winters. Salt water brought by high tides or seepage into the coastal soil SALINE-ALKALINE AND MARSHY forms a high water table which creates saline soil. VEGETATION IN THE SEACOASTAL AREAS Capillary action and evaporation have brought the sa­ line subsoil water to the surface, leaving the salts to Thelengt ho fth eseacoas to fChin ai sabou t 18,000 accumulate asa crust, especially during thedrie r peri­ km, from southeastern Guangxi in the south to south­ odso f winteran d spring.Durin g thesummer , theriver easternLiaoning .Th esoutheaster nseacoas ti sa sunke n floods and frequent rains may wash out the salt from reliefo f mountainswithou tbroa d coastalplains .I n the the soil. Consequently, the soils are partly saline and south,th ePear l(Zhujiang ) Riverdelt aha sbee n mostly partlysalt-fre e withalmos t equaldivisio naccordin g to cultivated.Ther ei sa larg eare ao fth enorther nseacoast , the seasons and localities. The water table of the soil from Hangzhou Bay (eastern Zhejiang) in thesout h to and seasonal climategreatl y influence thesal t content Liaoningi nth enort h(includin gth eseacoas to fJiangsu , and land utilization. In places where the water table is Shandong and Hebei provinces), which was formed 1 to 2 m below the surface during the dry season, the primarilyb yth eYangtze ,Yellow ,Huai ,Hai ,Luan ,an d salt content in the uppersoi li slo w and cropso f wheat Liao rivers. Within this area, we will confine our dis­ and barley can be cultivated. Where the water table is cussionst oonl y themos t important partso f thenorth ­ lesstha n 1 mdurin gth edr yseason ,th esal taccumulate s ern area. as a crust. During the wet season, the water table is raisedconsiderabl ybu tfrequen t rainsdissolv eth esalt s The northern seacoast section isalmos t a continu­ andleac hthe mdownwar dint oth esubsoi lo rcarr ythe m ous belt from north of Zhejiang Province to south of awayb ydrainage .Th ehumi datmospher eals oreduce s Liaoning Province. There are two particularly large evaporation, which makes it possible to grow cotton areaswhic h arelocate d inth enorther n parto f Jiangsu, and rice. and in the northern part of Shandong, extending into Hebeian dLiaonin g provinces. Salt-tolerant species form different associations withseasona lsuccession .Th esalin esoil sar e stratified intofin esand yloams ,silt yloams ,silt yclays ,an dclays .

255 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Theyinfluenc eth esoi lpermeabilit yan dcapillarit yan d reliefan ddr yan dwe tseason sinfluenc eth esoils .Thus , affect the salt content of the soil by their different thespecie so f theassociation sar erelativel ysimpl edu e structurean dtexture ,eve no na fla tarea .Microrelie f of to these stresses (Table 10.1). Liu and Hwang (1980) the land surface has the same effect on salt content. studied the origin and dynamics of theassociation s of Since the properties of the soils differ, the vegetation thealluvia lare a and distinguished nineassociation s in varies, resulting in different associations according to the sites of the sea beach and salt ponds which were thesoil' s characteristics. named primary series, and five associations in re­ claimed land which were named secondary series. During the last several decades, many canals and These associations areoutline d in Table 10.2. irrigation-drainagesystem shav ebee nbuil tt oleac hth e saltsan dmak eth elan dsuitabl efo rcultivation .A larg e The barren beach land is characterized by a high area of thelan d is still native vegetation, however. salt content. Liu and Hwang (1980)describe d a possi­ blesuccession .Afte r ashor tperio do fleaching ,th esal t Theclimat eo f thealluvia l area isa war m temper­ content was lowered and plants such asRuppia rostel- atetyp ei nth enorth ,an da subtropica ltyp ei nth esouth , latabega n togro wan d thesoi lbecam e lesssaline .Th e witha mea n annualtemperatur eo f 13-16°C.Th e mean seedsoîSuaeda salsacarrie db yriver flood swer ethe n temperatures of the coldest and warmest months are able to germinate and grow as pioneer species, grad­ 0.3-3°C and 26-30°C, respectively.' The mean annual ually forming a pure stand association, which after rainfall ranges from 700 mm in thenort h to 1,000 mm several generations established a good plant cover. in the south. Whensoi lorgani cmatte raccumulate d andsal t content In the alluvial area, halophytic plants form the decreased, Zoysia macro-stachys developed on wet primary vegetation and are distributed widely. Long land, with Carex scabrifolia on lowland with water. ago, these plants were harvested annually as fuel for Both were replaced by Imperata cylindrica. Phragm­ household cooking and for the salt-making industry. itesaustralis immigrate d intoth earea ,formin ga Carex Thiswas ,an dstil lis , thelarges tsal t resourcei n China. +Phragmites association. Where the salt content con­ Reedsgre w abundantly on theles ssalin e marshy areas tinually decreased, Phragmites grew luxuriantly and and were harvested for awnings, matting, and houses. formed a pure stand association. In some salt ponds After severalyear so fgrowin g reeds,th elan dwas use d Ruppia rostellata is found as the pioneer species, re­ to cultivate farm crops. Cotton is the major crop, fol­ placed by Myriophyllum spicatum, and later followed lowed by wheat, barley, broadbean, green manures by a marshy association. West of the dike area, where (Astragalussinicus, Viciasauva), andrice, i firrigatio n the soil is comparatively dry, the pioneer species was ispossible . Suaeda salsa. It was replaced byAeluropus littoralis, and finally Imperata cylindrica developed to form an The types of vegetation and associations of the association. alluvial area are influenced by the soil structure, salt content, and water table of the soils.However , micro-

Table 10.1.Plan t communities in relation to soil characteristics in northern Jiangsu Province. (Adapted from F.X. Lin and Z.Y. Huang, 1980)

Plant Community Total percent salts Percent organic matter (0-60cm ) (0-20 cm)

Carex scabrifolia 1.20 0.60

Suaeda salsa 0.79 0.49

Suaeda gtauca 0.70 0.57

Aeluropus littoralis var. sinensis 0.36 0.58

Zoysia macrostaehys 0.33 0.60

Scirpus planicularis 0.28 0.67

Artemisia capillaris 0.37 0.88

Imperata cylindrica var. major 0.27 0.96

Phragmites australis 0.22 0.65

256 CHAPTER 10

Tabic 10.2. Primary and secondary vegetation types in northern Jiangsu Province. (Adapted from F.X. Lin and Z.Y. Huang, 1980)

Primary Serai Communities Secondary Serai Communities

Terrestrial Aquatic and Helobial Terrestrial Aquatic and Helobial Communities Communities Communities Communities

Imperata cylindrica Phragmites australis Imperata cylindrica PhragmUesaustralis var. major var. major

AeluropusHttoralis Phragmites australis Artemisia capillaris Scirpus planiculmis var. sinensis +Carex scabrifolia

Zoysia macrostachys Afyriophyllumspicatum Suaeda glauca

Suaeda salsa Ruppia rostellata Suaeda glauca

On the farmlands, when thefarmin g practiceal ­ Thesalin evegetatio no fth ecoasta lare ao fnorth ­ lowed salt to accumulate,Suaeda salsa developed in ern Jiangsu Province occupies moretha n onemillio n low places and Suaedaglauca develope d on high hectares. Prior to the 20th century, it was alan d rich places where the soil was drier. Following the accu­ with wildlife, a rangeland for grazing domestic ani­ mulationo fsoi lorgani cmatte ran ddesalinization , the mals,an da nimportan tare ao fth esal tindustry . Artemisiacapillaris association developed and was finally replacedb yImperata cylindrica. Whe nth e rice Asalt-toleran t specieso fgrass ,Spartina anglica, fields wereabandoned ,a Scirpus planiculmis associa ­ was introduced to China in 1963.Man y experiments tion developed, being replaced by Phragmites aus­ havebee nconducte d insixt ycountie salon gth ecoas t tralis. from JinxiCount y(40°45 'N ,Liaonin gProvince )i nth e south to Dianbai County (21°3r, Guangdong Prov­ Ingeneral ,ther ear etw onatura lsuccession so fth e ince)i nth enort h(Figur e10.2) .Thi splan tintroductio n seacoastalarea ;th eterrestria lan dth emarsh ysucces ­ has succeeded, particularly in the coastal area of sions. The Imperata cylindrica association and the Jiangsu and northern Zhejiang provinces where the Phragmitesaustralis associatio nar eth eclima x(Figur e grassi suse dt oprotec tagains tseawate rerosio ndu et o 10.1). Bothresul t inlo wsal tconten tan dhig horgani c itsextensiv eroo tsyste m (Figure10.3) .Th eus eo fthi s matterconten ti nth esoil . grassove rth epas t1 0year sha sresulte di nelevatin gth e soil15 5c malon gth eseacos t(Chung ,1989) .Professo r

Terrestrial Marshy

Imperata cylindrica Vhragmitesaustralis var. major

Artemisia capillaris Zoyzia macrostachys Myriophyllum Phragmites australis Scirpusplanicularis spicatum + Carex scabrifolia

Aeluropus littoralis var.sinensis Ruppia rostellata Carex scabrifolia

Suaedasalsa or Suaeda glauca

Figure 10.1.Terrestria l and marshy successions on theseacosta l area of northern Jiangsu Province.(Adapte d from F.X. Liu and Z.Y .Huang , 1980)

257 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Figure 10.2.Thre eyear sgrowt h from single plantso fSpartina anglica onth enorther ncoastlin eo fJiangs oProvince .(Phot ocourtes y of Y.S. Yang, 1985)

Chung and his colleagues have studied Spartina an­ erosion,2 )producin ggoo dforag e yieldfo r pastureo f glica for nearly 25years ,evaluatin g itssuitabilit y for cattle and sheep, and 3) reducing soil salinity after thecoastlin earea so f Zhejiang andJiangs uprovinces . several years so that barley and citrus can begrow n Theyhav efoun d thati ti scapabl eo f 1) stabilizingth e successfully (Chung, 1989).Pasture s of Spartina an­ coastlinean dimprovin gth efertilit y bypreventin gsoi l glicahav ea grazin gcapacit yo f0. 3h ape rsheep ,whe n

Figure 10.3.Th eextensiv e root system of Spartina anglica growingo n the coastline of northern Jiangsu Province.(Phot o courtesy of H.M. Chang, 1985)

258 CHAPTER 10

harvested hay isincluded .Th e yield of hay isapproxi ­ form, appearinga sa gree nbelt .Th emai n accompany­ mately 3,500-7,500 kg/ha, with a maximum of 9,000 ing species include Chenopodium glaucum, Poly­ kg/ha. gonum lapathifolium, andXanthium sibiricum. The Bohai Seacoastal Area ThePhragmites communis association isals odis ­ tributed on the higher places of the beach and grows Along the Bohai seacoastal area, which includes luxuriantly withplan tcove ro f60 %an dplan theigh to f northernShandong ,easter nHebei ,an dsouther n Liaon- 1.5-2 m.Th e main accompanying species include Ca­ ingprovinces ,ther ei sanothe ralluvia l plainwhic hwas lystegia hederacea, Chenopodium glaucum, Echino­ formed by the Haihe, Luanhe, Liaohe, and Yellow chloa spp., Polygonum aviculare, and Polygonum rivers.Th e Yellow River haschange d itschanne l sev­ lapathifolium. Phragmites communis usually forms a eral times and returned tothi sare a again in 1852 from purestan dassociatio n withdens eplan tcove ran dwit h northern Jiangsu Province. Coastal seawater contains aheigh to f2- 3m wher esoi lwate ri sabundan to rwher e manysal tcompound smakin gth eBoha iseacoasta lare a seasonalflood s occur.Thi sspecie si sals oa nimportan t an important salt industry area. crop for localpeople .I t isharveste d for paper making, Kung et al. (1981) and his coworkers studied the awnings, matting, houses,an d is planted especially to plant associations on the beach of Ji Canal which is protectcro pseedbed sdurin g winter and earlyspring . located near . The vegetation is typical of a Other important specieso fsalin evegetatio n in the saline estuary. From winter to early summer, most of seacoastal area include Aeluropus littoralis, Agrostis the beach land appears above water and annuals grow stolonifera, Carex disions, Crypsis aculeata, Festuca luxuriantly. The number of main species of the area is rubra,Imperata cylindricaJuncus gerardi,Puccinellia about 40 and most belong to the Gramineae, Poly- maritima,Salicornia herbacea, Scorzonera mongolica, gonaceae, Chenopodiaceae, and Cyperaceae families. Suaeda maritima, Triglochin maritimum, and some Theassociation sfor m different belts,dependin go n the shrubspecies oïNitraria Schoben andTamarix spp .O n distance from the riverbed. sand dunes,th emai n speciesinclud eCarex kobomugi, TheScirpus triqueterassociatio n isdistribute d on Glehnia littoralis, and some others. the lower part of the beach or near the water area. Duringth elas tfe wdecades ,man ystat efarm swer e Scirpus triquetergrow swel l toa height of 50cm . The established by developing irrigation-drainage systems accompanying species include Carex spp., Chenopo­ for crop production, particularly rice. diumalbum, Digitaria sanguinalis, Oenanthejavanica, Polygonum lapathifolium, Xanthium sibiricum, and some others. The plant cover is generally 50-90%. SALINE AND ALKALINE VEGETATION IN Sometimes thisassociatio n alternateswit h aXanthium THE INLAND AREAS sibiricum association. The North China Plain was formed by theYello w TheChenopodium albumassociatio n isdistribute d River and is described in Chapter 5. A large area of onlowe r landwher e thewate rha s receded and thesoi l western Shandong, northern Jiangsu, eastern Henan, is wet. This species has a stunted growth habit and and southern Hebei provinces has been silted by the usually forms a purestan d association with plant cov­ Yellow River for several thousand years. There are erageo f 25-45%.Chenopodium spp.gro w 25-40c mi n manylarg ean dsmal larea so flowland swit hsalin esoil . adisperse d habit.Som eaccompanyin gspecies include Salineland sar eals odistribute d inth eYuchen gdistric t Carex spp., Polygonum lapathifolium, and Xanthium at thesouthwester n cornero f Shanxi Province and the sibiricum. Sometimes Echinochloa crusgalli, Oenan- Wei River valley of Shaanxi Province in the Loess thejavanica, andPolygonum aviculare are found. Plateau on lowerlan d with poordrainag e (Figure 5.1). Ingeneral , thesalt sar ecomprise d of sodium chloride, TheXanthium sibiricum association is distributed sodium sulphate,an dsodiu mbicarbonate ,wit ha smal l widely in the beach area on sites that are higher than amount of sodium carbonate in some limited spots the Scirpus spp. association. Plants grow luxuriantly (Thorp, 1936).Th e distribution of saline tolerant spe­ with aheigh to f45-5 0c man da plan t covero f60-80% . ciesmainl y include: The accompanying species include Calystegia heder- Agriophyllum spp. Peganum spp. acea, Chenopodium album, Echinochloa crusgalli, Aeluropus littoralis Phragmites communis Phragmites communis,an dPolygonum lapathifolium. Artemisia anethifolia Puccinellia spp. The Calystegia hederacea association is distrib­ Carex spp. Salicornia herbacea uted on higher placeso f thebeach .Plant sgro w luxuri­ Crypsis aculeata Salsola spp. antly with plant cover of 50-80% and plant height of Eleocharis acicularis Scorzonera mongolica 10-15cm .Th e physiognomy of the association isuni ­ Fimbristylis dichotoma Suaeda spp.

259 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Eurotiaspp . Tamarix spp. There are many various sized lake depressions in Nitraria Schoben Tribulusterrestris Alashan, especially in thevalley s of the and Tarimrivers. Larg estri pgrove sof Populus diversifolia, Theyar emixe dwit hsom egrasse san dherb s form­ salinemeadows ,an d othersalin evegetation s are often ing belts or spots which are used for grazing and feed encountered. The number of Populus trees may reach accordingt oth egrowth o fth eplants ,determine db yth e several million.Th eothe r common species include: salt content of the soils. During recent years, many Elaeagnus angustifolia Lycium turcomanicum irrigationproject shav ebee ndevelope dfo rreclamatio n Halimodendron Salix spp. andfar m crop production. argenteum Tamarix spp. Northeast Region Populus alba Inth enortheaster n region,a larg eare ao fsal t soils Themeado wspecie sar edistribute d inth earea so f developed in the central plain mainly along the Nen lesssal t content and include: River in northwestern Jilin Province and along the Calamagrostis spp. Phragmites communis watershed of the western part of the Liao River. The Kalidium cuspidatum Scirpus spp. dominant species is Calamagrostis hirsuta. Common Kalidiumfoliatum Typha minima species include: Adenophora pereskiifolia, Lathyrus Kalidium gracile quinquenervius, Lysimachia dahurica, Polygonum nodosum, Sanguisorbaparviflora, Saussurea amuren- In thearea sdistan t from water, and whereth esoi l sis,Slum suave, an dTrifolium lupinaster. InChapte r3 , hasa higher salt content, salt tolerant plants with suc­ thesalin egrazin g land in thecol d temperate grassland culent, small leaves, or plants without leaves such as in thenortheas t hasbee n described. Halocnemum strobilaceum, Halogeton glomeratus, and Halostachys caspica are found. Where the sandy InInne r Mongolia,Iris spp.(particularl y I. ensata soil contains less salt, Comulaca spp., Bassia spp., andI. lactea)ar eth edominants ,formin g variousasso ­ Eurotiaspp. ,Salsola Kali, andsom e species ofKalid­ ciationswhic har ewidel ydistribute d onpoorl y drained iuman dReaumuria ar efound .Th esalin emeadow san d saline soil. The number of species, including small othersalin evegetatio ni nKashgari aar esimila rt othos e grasses and herbs, and plant growth and cover are of Alashan.The y arefoun d along river valleysan d are varied and depend on soil water and salt content. confined toth earea swit h ahig hwate r table.Thi sare a Achnatherum (Lasiagrostis)splendens is alsoa nindi ­ is on the boundary of the sandy Taklamakan Desert. catoro f salinesoil . Populus and other saline-tolerant vegetation iscontin ­ uous with changes only in width. On the sandy-clay In the Yellow River Valley, which included saline soils,Populus (P. diversifolia andP. pruinosa) Ningxia and (part of Inner Mongolia), alkali forests have developed well, with crown closure of 40 meadows have spread widely and are mainly covered to 60%. by thefollowin g species: Aeluropus littoralis Nitraria sibirica Theassociat e species include: Calamagrostis epigeios Nitraria sphaerocarpa Elaeagnus moorcroftii Lycium ruthenicum Carex spp. Reaumuriasongarica Halimodendron Nitraria roborowsldi Cyperus spp. Salixcheilophila halodendron Nitraria sibirica Kalidium cuspidatum Suaeda spp. Halostachys caspica Poacynumhendersonii Kalidiumfoliatum Tamarix chinensis Hippophaerhamnoides Tamarix ramosissima Lasiagrostis splendens and are mixed with: For many years, the large meadow areas were Clematisorientalis Karelinia caspica cultivated by irrigation projects towas h thesal t out of Cynanchumpubescens Sophora alopecwoides thesoil .Som etre especie soïPopulus, Salix,an dUlmus The main associations in large areas of seasonal were planted which grew well, particularly Populus. flood plains with salinesoi l include:Phragmites com­ Northwest Region munis + Calamagrostispseudo-phragmites, Kalidium (K foliatum,K gracile), Nitraria (N. roborowskii,N. In the northwest, there are many large areas of sibirica), and in certain meadow areas, the Aeluropus saline vegetation along the rivers, lakes, and marsh­ littoralis and Lasiagrostis splendens association is landswher eth esal tconcentratio ni shig han dth eplant s found. Thecommo n grassesinclude : arescattered .Thes ear ename dth esalin egob ian dalkal i Achnatherum splendens Leymus dasystachys gobiregio ni nChin a(Chie ne tal. , 1956).Here ,w ewil l Cynodon dactylon Puccinellia disions provide only a brief description of the most important salinevegetatio n of this region. Some legumes include:

260 CHAPTER 10

Melilolusspp . Thermopsis lanceolata Incompariso nwit hKashgari a(Chapte r8) ,ther ei s Sophora alopecwoides a smaller area of saline vegetation in Dzungaria be­ causeo f the Ili and Ertix rivers,whic h flow north and Some herbs include: west into the . The main area of saline Poacynum hendersonii vegetation isdistribute d south of Dzungaria along the Xanthium sibiricum foothillso fth eTianshan ,an dadjacen t toEb ian d Kara- Some shrubsinclude : may lakes in thewest ,an d Barkol Lake in the east. Alhagi pseudoalhagi Halocnemum InDzungaria ,th ecommo nsal ttoleran tspecie sar e Elaeagnus angustifolia strobilaceum always linked with marshy or swampy sites.Th e com­ Gfycyrrhiza glabra Halogeton glomerulus monsal t tolerant species include: Halimodendron Lycium ruthenicum Anabasis salsa Kalidiumfoliatum argenteum Lycium turcomanicum Artemisia borotalensis Nitraria sibirica Halimodendron Tamarix spp. Carexphysodes Populus diversifolia halodendron Halimodendron Stipa glareosa The unique feature in the Tsaidam Basin is an halodendron Suaedaphysophora abundanceo f swampsan d salinesoil swhic h cover the Halocnemum Tamarix laxa southeastern and central portion. They are especially strobilaceum Tamarix ramosissima common in the central portion because of high eleva­ Kalidiumcaspicum tion, high relative humidity, and the absence of drain­ The main association is Populus diversifolia, agedu e to thesurroundin g mountains. Largearea s are which may form pure forest stands in old river chan­ covered mainly by patches of Lasiagrostis splendens nels, on saline soils, and on margins of alluvial fans. and Elymus dasystachys. Species of saline marsh and Thedistributio n isrelate d togroun d water. Forests are swamps include: mixed with the following common species: Phragmites communis Carex spp. Elaeagnus angustifolia Salix songarica Saussurea salsa Calamagrostis Hippophae rhamnoiaes Spiraea hypericifolia Thermopsislanceolata pseudophragmites Rosa platyacantha Ulmuspumila Centaurea Trichophorum pumilum atropurpurea Triglochin striatum Tamarixlaxa ma y form purestan d associationso r Glauxmaritima Typha laxmannii be mixedwit hHalimodendron halodendron andPop­ Juncus gerardi Typha minima ulus diversifoliawhic h aredistribute d along thebank s of rivers orstream swit h salinesoils . Brush vegetation includes: Poacynum hendersonii The Halostachys belangeriana +Halocnemum Tamarix spp. strobilaceum association is mixed with the main spe­ Trachomitum lancifolium cies of Kalidium caspicum, Kalidium foliatum, and Salsola spp.o n the lakebeaches . Except for the barren areas, the saline soils are covered with a sparse growth of Lycium ruthenicum, Theassociation s of herbs and grasses mixed with Lycium turcomanicum,an d Nitraria tangutorum,o r shrubsar eespeciall y significant for grazing.Th e main withassociation soi Kalidium foliatum, Kalidium grac­ speciesinclude : ile, Salsola spp., and Salicornia europaea along the Calamagrostis Lasiagrostis splendens borderso f lakes.A bel t of Tamarixvegetatio n hasals o pseudophragmites Leymus dasystachys developed. Carexan dTrachomitum lancifolium cover Gfycyrrhiza glabra Phragmites communis the border of the vast saline-lake basins, especially in Gfycyrrhizauralensis Poacynum hendersonii thesoutheas t portion of theTsaida m Basin. Irispallasii isa common speciesi nsalin esoils .I t Around the salt lakes where the ground water is may form a pure stand or be mixed with some herbs relatively fresh, good stands of Leymus dasystachys, andgrasses .Th eIrispallasii formation isfoun d widely Bolboschoenus affinis,Hordeum juncea, Phragmites in China,especiall y in Inner Mongolia. communis,Saussurea glomerata, an dTypha angustata, have developed. Most of the salt tolerant species are valuable for­ ages for grazing. The leaves, twigs, and branches of Thesalin e flora of Tsaidam issomewha t like that treesan dshrub sals oar evaluabl efo r sheep,goats ,an d of Ordos and Gansu (Chien et al., 1956) but with camels. characteristic species ofHalogeton tibeticusan d Sym- The chemical composition of saline meadow pegma regelii. plantswithi n species is varied with the environmental

261 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

conditions between areas.Th e figures of some species good resource of forage and industrial material for are provided in Table10.3 . paper making, awnings, matting, etc.Th e following is a brief description of the main formations of swampy vegetations in China.I t isadapte d from Hou (1960). MARSHY AND SWAMPY VEGETATION Marshy Vegetation of Woody Plants Mixed Therear eabou t2 6millio n hectareso frivers ,lake s With Herbs andponds ,an dreservoir s(12,8 ,an d6 millio n hectares respectively)i nChina, wit h92 %o fthi sare adistribute d Themarsh yvegetatio no fwood yplant si stypicall y insoutheaster n China(Hou , 1980).Th ewate rland sar e mixed with herbs and is distributed in the mountain used as natural reservoirs for irrigation and waterstor ­ areas of the northeast, particularly in the broad river age during flooding periods. Water covered lands are valleys of the Great Khingan and Lesser Khingan an important base for agricultural production, espe­ ranges. ciallyi nCentra lan dSout hChina .Ther ear ea tleas ttw o Twoprincipa l formations are described. pondso f considerable sizealon g each village. 1. Salix brachypoda and Lonicera caerulea var. Marshy vegetation occupies an area of about edulis formation. Other important species in this 100,000 km2, from the lowlands of the Three Rivers formation are Betula fruticosa, Ledum palustre, Plain in the northeast (Chapter 3), to the high plateau Sphagnum spp., Carex globularis, Carex meyeri- in Tibet (Chapter 6), extending across various climate ana, Carex schmidtii, Comarum palustre, and zones, from tropical to cold, including temperate, and Eriophorum vaginatum. The shrubs grow to 1m alpine.Becaus eo fth evarie denvironmenta lconditions , with a plant cover of 30-60%. Carex spp. are 101 families are represented in the swamp vegetation. predominant. Most of the species found are from the Araceae, 2. The Betula fruticosa and Eriophorum vaginatum Cyperaceae, Gramineae, Juncaceae, Lemnaceae, and formation. Thisformatio n isdistribute d mostlyo n Pontederiaceae families. Most types of marshy and the northern slopes of the Great Khingan Range. swampyvegetation sar eazonal .Fo rinstance ,Phragm- Carex spp.ar e also important species of this for­ ites communis is a cosmopolitan species which is mation. adapted in various climatic types.Marsh y plants are a

Table 10.3 . Thechemica l composition of the herbaceous plantspecie s onsalin e meadows inth enorthwester n region.(Adapte d from H.Y. Hou, 1982)

Species, numbero f Chemical composition (%') analyses, andlocatio n collected Ash N SiCh ' Fe Na Ca Cl SO4

Achnatherumsplendens 2,491,Alasha n 9.80 1.4 0.06 0.50 2.98 0.01 2.19 0.33 0.29 2,523,A lasha n 8.05 1.37 0.15 0.17 3.46 0.00 1.48 0.21 0.18

Aeluropus littoralis 254,Turfan 13.24 2.22 0.19 0.34 5.86 0.02 1.22 1.79 0.52 225 0.95

Phragmitescommunis 4,241,Alasha n 20.30 - 0.11 0.15 14.81 0.00 1.72 1.05 0.01 1.16 1.48 961,Tsaida m 12.57 - - 0.10 9.53 0.18 - 0.49 0.30

Gîycirrhizainflata 2,458, Turfan 7.21 1.97 0.15 0.19 0.55 0.03 1.54 0.28 1.73 0.96 0.19

Melilotus alba 2,467, Turfan 12.89 5.05 0.05 0.58 1.00 0.10 2.77 0.38 3.29

Melilotus suaveolens 2,667, Alashan 15.88 2.86 0.17 1.39 0.56 0.04 3.76 0.14 8.29

Triglochinstriatum 970, Tsaidam 23.64 2.93 0.11 0.52 0.59 0.01 2.33 2.82 1.68 9.87 1.57

Alhagi pseudoalhagi 2,470,Tari m 16.37 278 0.11 2.55 0.38 0.03 1.20 0.32 4.49 - 1.68

262 CHAPTER 10

Carexspp. Formations formis, Echinochloa crusgalli, Glyceria spiculosa, Leersiaspp., Phalaris arundinacea, Polygonum hydro- Formations of Carex rmdiensis are distributed on piper, andZizania caduciflora. the Tibetan Plateau, including western Sichuan and Qinghaiprovinces .Othe rspecie sinclud eChamaesium Zizania caduciflora Formation paradoxum, Kobresia tibetica, Poa pratensis, Poly­ The Zizania caduciflora formation is distributed gonumviviparum, Ranunculus pulchellus, an d Thalic- from the north to the south of China, particularly in trumalpinum. Th e plant height is30-4 0c mwit h cover lakes in the northern part of Jiangsu Province. Some­ of 40-50%. timesi ti smixe dwit hPhragmites communis.Th emai n Formations of Carex lasiocarpa aredistribute d in species include: Alisma orientale, Sparganium the Three Rivers Plain in the northeast. The main as­ stoloniferum, and Trapa bispinosa (and several other sociate species are: Carex lemosa, Equisetum heleo- specieso f Trapa). Plant height rangesfro m 1-2 mwit h charis, Glycerin spiculosa, , Salix denseplan t cover. brachypoda, and others.Th e height of herbs is 30-50 Typhaspp. Formation cm and plant cover is60-80% . The Typhaformatio n includes several species(T. TheCarex spp . andDeyeuxia angustifoliaforma ­ angustata,T. angustifolia,T. davidiana,T. lalifolia, T. tion is distributed in the Three Rivers Plain in the minima, and T.orientalis) and iscommo n on beaches northeast. The main associate species include Juncus of lakes and ponds,an d near streams. Plants of Typha effususan dSpiraea salkifolia. Averageplan theigh ti s spp. form a dense plant cover with few, if any, other 60-100cm ,Deyeuxia is the highest species, and plant species.Th eplant s arecoars e for forage when mature. cover is60-70% . Polygonum lapathifoluim Formation On the beaches of rivers in the northeast, Carex meyerianaca n form apur estan d formation. The Polygonum lapathifolium formation is dis­ tributed on beaches of ponds, streams, and lakes with The Carex spp. andJuncus effusus association is accompanying species of Digitaria sanguinalis and distributed on the beaches of lakes, lowlands, and ba­ Paspalum thunbergii.Plan tcove r is50-80% . sinsi nth emiddl ean dlowe rYangtz eValley .Th emai n associatespecie sar eHemarthria altissima, Polygonum Philydrum lanuginosum Formation hydropiper,an dScirpus yagara. The Philydrum lanuginosum formation is distrib­ Scirpus spp. Formations uted in the southern part of China, including Guang­ dongan dGuangx ian dTaiwa nprovinces ,wit hth emai n The Scirpus tabernaemontani formation is dis­ associatespecie so fDigitaria sanguinalis, Eriocaulon tributed on lakesan d ponds from temperate to tropical truncatum,Ischaemum spp.,an dOplismenus undulat- climates and in some areas of the northeast. The main ifolius. The plants grow 30-50 cm with plant cover of associate species include:Carex rugulosa, Glaux ma­ 70-80%. ritima,Inula salicina, Phragmites communis, Scirpus lucidus,an d Triglochinpalustre. Sometimes this for­ All of the marshy and swampy type vegetation mationalternate swit h thePhragmites communisasso ­ formations arevaluabl e for forage. On lakebeache s in ciation.Th e height of thedominan t species is 130-200 Central and South China grasses grow luxuriantly, cm and plant covero f theformatio n is70-90% . forming excellent pasturesfo r water buffalo. The Scirpus cyperinus formation is distributed in subtropicalan d tropicalareas . Itha sa plant height of 2 CULTIVATED HYDROPHYTIC FORAGE man dplan tcove ri s80-90% .Th edominan tspecie san d PLANTS Phalaris arundinacea grow somewhat higher. The othermai nspecie sinclude :Ischaemum ciliare,Leersia Traditionally, Chinese peasants have used the hexandravar .japonica, andSaururus chinensis. watersurfac e extensively toproduc eforage , especially for theswin e industry inCentra lan d South China.Th e Phragmites communis Formation watersurface s ofChin a area larg e resourcefo r fishing and fertilizer (green manure) production. More re­ Phragmites communis is a cosmopolitan species cently, some of the hydrophytic species have been which is distributed widely from the northeast to the introduced toNort h China for thesam epurpose .Ther e south and to the northwest. It is a very important re­ are about 100 species. Only a few will be described source,sinc e it can be used as forage and as industrial here. material,e.g .fo r papermakingan dhous ebuilding .Th e main associate species include: Beckmannia erucae-

263 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Eichhornia crasdpes tively, on a fresh weight basis.I t may be used as fresh silageo ra s hay, if allowed todry . This species is a perennial that tolerates floating androotin gi nmud .I twa soriginall y formed intropica l Alternanthera philoxeroides can grow in moist and subtropical America and was introduced to China soil and in water with a depth of 3-5 m and is most in the 1930's. It is now widely distributed in ponds, productivei nwar m andfertil ewate rwit hful l sunlight. streams, and lakes, particularly in southeastern China It cannot endure heavy frost but the old stems and (Figure 10.4). In a favorable site, a stock plant may fibrous roots survive in water through winter without produce 1,200plant si nfou rmonth swit ha fres h weight freezing. yield of 350,000-600,000 kg/ha. It has a crude protein Nuphar pumilum and Nymphaea tetragona and crude fat of 1.19-2.09% and 0.24-0.6%, respec­ tively, on a fresh weight basis. Its other nutrients, the Nuphar pumilum and Nymphaea tetragona may low fiber, and high digestibility make it a desirable form anassociation .Th efirs t speciesi sa naquati cher b forage for cattle,sheep ,swine ,an d fish. with thick,cylindric , horizontal root stocks, and large floating leaves. It is distributed in temperate regions. Eichhornia crassipes, which may form associa­ Thesecon dspecie si sals oa naquati cher bwit h floating tions with Pistia stratiotes, favors warm and fertile leaves produced from creeping rhizomes. It is dis­ water with adept h of 30-100 cm but may endure cold tributed mainly in East Asia. Both are widely dis­ weather toa temperature of 7-10°C. It reproduces rap­ tributed in ponds, streams, and lakes in Central and idly during the hot season at temperatures of 30-35°C South China. andi scultivated widely inth esouther npart so f Jiangsu and Zhejiang provinces. Monochoria spp. AUernanthera philoxeroides Monochoria korsakowii andMonochoria vagina­ lisar e widely distributed in ponds, streams, and lakes Alternanthera philoxeroides was introduced from of areas of South China with subtropical and tropical several decades ago into areas with climates. In recent decades, Monochoria spp. have subtropical and tropical climates. It is now widely spread widely in Central China. They grow best at cultivated in ponds,streams , and lakes in the Yangtze temperatures of 30-35°C, but endure temperatures River watershed. It is very productive, with fresh above 40°C.The y cannot survive temperatures below weight yieldso f 25,000-70,000 kg/hao fwate r surface. 5°Can d favor fertile water with 60-120c m depth. The forage contains crude protein, crude fat and carbohydrate, of 1.5-3.2, 0.3, and 1.5-13.5%, respec­ A common reproduction method is to overwinter the vegetative plant in a greenhouse or in a seedling

Figure KM. A plantation olEichornia crassipes ina pond.Plant sar e usedfo rfeedin g pigs.(Phot ocourtes y of Y.S. Yang, 1990)

264 CHAPTER 10

bed. Otherwise it is necessary to collect seeds before Other Water Species frost for spring planting. The following water tolerant species are also Spirodela spp., Wolffia spp., and Lemna spp. grown for feed and other usesi n China. Submersed species: Spirodelapolyrrhiza, Wolffiaarrhiza, an d Lemna Batrachium Ottelia esquirolii minor belong the Lemnaceae family. All grow on trichophyllum Ottelia yunnanensis ponds, lakes, and streams from temperate to tropical Ceratophyllum Potamogeton crispus climatesan dar ewidel ydistribute d inChina .The y form purestand so rassociations .Thes efloatin gplan tspecies demersum Ruppia rostellata arewidel ycultivated ,particularl yt oproduc eforag e for Hydrilla verticillata Vallisneria gigantea swine, fowl (ducks, geese), and fish. The forage of Myriophyllum spicatum Spirodela contains crude protein, crude fat and carbo­ Floating species: hydrate concentrations of 0.17, 0.26, and 3.1 percent Euryale ferox fresh weight, respectively. Hydrocharis dubia Nymphoides peltatum AzoUa spp. Moist ground and water plants: Colocasia esculenta Leersia hexandra Azolla imbricataan dSalvinia nutansbelon gt oth e Cucurbita pepo Oenanthe stolonifera Salviniaceae family. Azolla is a small floating fern Echinochloa crusgalli Sagittaria sagittifolia which turns purple in the fall, thus itscommo n name, "Whole River Red". It has been cultivated on ponds, Theus eo f watersurface s and wet land to produce ricefields , and streamsfo r years,particularl y insouth ­ forage in China is common and results in good pro­ eastern China. Many local cultivars have been devel­ ductivity.Ther e is agrea t potential,however , to make oped, such as the cold-tolerant variety "" from even greater use of water surfaces for forage produc­ Jiangsuan dth eheat-toleran tvariet y "Nanchong " from tion. Sichuan.I nrecen tyears ,a specie swa sintroduce d from the United States and tested at several locations. It is REFERENCES used asa nutritiona l feed for swinean d ducks and also as a fertilizer for rice due to the symbiotic blue algae Cao, K., H.Y. Wang, and Y.W. Chao. 1983.Th e Cul­ whichca nfi x atmosphericnitrogen .Muc hresearc hha s tivationo fWate rCro pPlants .Shangha iScienc ean d been done on the nitrogen fixation of the blue-green Technology Press.(I n Chinese) algae in China (Cao etal. , 1983). Chien, S.S., Y.C. Wu, and C.T. Cheng. 1956.A tenta­ tive scheme of phytogeographical regions, p. 83- Azolla startst ogro w at8° Can d reaches maximum 142.In: K.F.Lo u (ed.).A Tentativ e Scheme of the growth at 20-25°C, when the growth mass doubles in Natural Regions of China. Science Press, Peking. 3-5 days. There are many technical methods for the (In Chinese) cultivation,reproduction, an dprotectio nfro m pestsan d diseases of this plant (Caoe t al., 1983). Chung,C.H .1989 .Ecologica lengineerin go fcoastline s with salt marsh plantations, p. 255-289. In: W.J. Salvinia notons Mitsch and S.E. Jorgensen (eds.).Ecologica l Engi­ Salvinia natansi sa smal l floating plant with slen­ neering: An Introduction to Ecotechnology. John derrhizome swhic h areeasil ybroken .Th eplan trepro ­ Wiley and Sons,Ne w York. duces vegetatively, often rapidly covering whole Hou, H.Y. 1960. The Vegetation of China. People's ponds.I tma y form purestand so rb efoun d mixed with Education Press,Peking .(I n Chinese) Azolla imbricata. Hou, H.Y. 1980. The modernization of Chinese agri­ Ipomoea aquatica culturebase do nnatura lan dsocial-economi ccondi ­ Ipomoea aquatica is a species of the Con- tions, p. 1-41. In: Agricultural Conference of the volvulaceae family. It is widely cultivated in Central Northwest, Lanchow. (In Chinese) and South China for feed, anda sa vegetabl ewhe n iti s Hou, H.Y . 1982.Th e Vegetation Geography of China tender.I tfavor sshallo wwate ran dwe tsoil ,an dendure s with Reference to the Chemical Composition of hotweather .Th egree nmatte rcontain sprotein ,fat ,an d Dominant Plants. Science Press, Beijing. (In Chi­ carbohydrateso f2.3,0.3 ,an d3. 9percent ,respectively . nese) Hu,S.T . 1956.Wate rforag e plants.Bulleti no f Popular Science.(I n Chinese)

265 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Kung,L.C. ,L.Z .Chen ,Y.Q .Yao ,an d R.Z.Han .1981 . Mercury absorbtion and accumulation by thedom ­ inant specieso f plant communities on thebank s of theJ iCana lnea rTianjin .Act aBot .Sinic a23:66-69 . (In Chinese) Liu, F.X., and Z.Y. Huang. 1980. Observations on the genesis and dynamics of coastal solonchak vegeta­ tion on the northern coast of Jiangsu. Acta Bot. Sinica 22:63-66. (In Chinese with English sum­ mary) Steward, A.N. 1958.Manua l of Vascular Plants of the Lower Yangtze Valley, China. International Aca­ demicPrintin g Co.,Tokyo .62 1pp . Thorp,J . 1936.Geograph y ofth eSoil so f China.Com ­ mercial Press,Shanghai .55 2pp . Wu, Y.Z. (ed.). 1980. Vegetation of China. Academia Sinica, Inst. Bot. Science Press, Beijing. (In Chi­ nese)

266 Chapter 11

GENERAL DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Grasslands in China cover approximately 50%o f desert areas.However , thedecreas ei nrainfal l from the thetota llan darea ,involvin g400-54 0millio n hectares. west toeas t in Dzungaria, (Xinjiang Autonomous Re­ Due to the complexity of relief, climate, and the long gion) has resulted in steppe in western Dzungaria, period of human activity, the type and productivity of desertstepp efurthe r east,an ddeser ti nth eeasternmos t the grasslands varies widely. Although grasslands are area. In the northwest, there is a large desert encom­ heavily utilized in China, their productivity is low, passingwester n InnerMongolia ,part so fGansu ,Ning - accountingfo ronl y 17.6%(includin gagricultura larea ) xia, Qinghai, and most of Xinjiang provinces. The of thetota lagricultura l production (People's Daily). Tibetan Plateau generally contains alpine vegetation (Figure2.6) . There is a great opportunity to improve China's grasslandutilization ,develo pa mor eproductiv eanima l Influence of Relief and Elevation industry, and improve grassland conservation, all of Relief greatly influences the distribution of Chi­ which willad d to thewealt h of the nation. nese grasslands. Most of the grassland areas occur in Most Chinese people are not familiar with the the plateau and mountain areas of higher elevations. value of forage plants in restoringan d improving crop Mountains and hills comprise about 65% of the total production,anima lproduction ,an dconservin gsoi lan d landare a of China.Th eTibeta n Plateau stretches from water, which helps in preventing floods, drought and Kangding to Gar. Elevations in the eastern valley are erosion. Traditionally, the agricultural philosophy of 2,000-3,500m .I nth ecentra lregio nelevatio ni s4,000 - theChines epeopl eha sbee n tocultivat ecrop s in every 4,500 m, and in the western region 5,000-6,000 m conceivable place, regardless of whether the land is (Figure 2.1). The types of vegetation accordingly are steeply sloped, arid, or generally unsuitable. One rea­ forest, grassland, alpine meadow mixed with shrubs, son for this land overuse has been the increasing pop­ alpine semi-desert, and desert (with some exceptions ulation in recent centuries. Certainly, crop production due to geographical variation). In the northwestern provides necessary food, and provides itdirectl yt oth e mountain area the vertical distribution of vegetation people. However, much of the abused land which is typesi sgenerall ydeser t orsemi-deser tbelo w 1,200 m, unsuitable for cultivation could be used for forage grasslando rstepp efro m 1,200-1,800m ,fores t between production, which would then provide valuable foods 1,800 and2,50 0m ,an dalpin emeado wabov e2,50 0m . and materials from theanimal s consuming the forage. In eastern China, most mountains are below 2,000 m. The emphasis on crop production alone must be Large areas of grasslands mixed with treesan d shrubs changed to a more diversified agricultural system in­ haveresulte d after logging of theforeste d regions. cluding animal and forest production. The nomadic peoples depend solely on animal production for food, Role of Climate clothing,shelter ,an dtransportation .Th eprope rus ean d Rainfall is the determining factor in the distribu­ management of the grassland resources of China pro­ tion ofgrasslands ,i nth enumbe ro fforag especies ,an d videsa challeng ean da tremendou sopportunit yt omee t in the productivity of grasslands, with relief and the needs and increasing expectations of the Chinese geography having an influence in specific locations people. (Figure2.2) .Annua lherbag e yieldo f forest grasslands is3,000-3,50 0kg/ha .Productio n decreasest o 100-200 kg/ha in desert vegetation areas. The distribution of CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION vegetation types influences the distribution of animal OF CHINA'S GRASSLANDS types,e.g .cattl ean d horsesar eprevalen t inth eeastern TheGrassland so fChin aar ecomplex ,wit ha larg e tall grassland, but sheep, goats, and camels are found number of forage species due to the differences in the inth estepp ean d desert vegetation regions inth e west. relief, climate, and soil as well as the country's large Variation in annual rainfall affects forage production size. Generally, the farther west and north one travels, and therefore creates instability in the production of the colder and drier the climate becomes, creating animals.Generally ,th erang eo frainfal lvariatio ni sles s forest, grassland (prairie), steppe, desert steppe, and inth e east than in the west. For example,accordin g to

267 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

the 20 year records of annual rainfall in the Ulanqab less than average rainfall during the growing season, district, Inner Mongolia, about 55% of the years are combined with limited storage, result in especially average,25 %ar eabov eaverage ,an d20 %belo w aver­ heavy losses ofanima l production. age.Wit h theaverag eannua l forage yield peruni tare a Severestress t ograzin ganimal sresult swhe n deep takena s100% ,yield sma yincreas e30-40 %wit habov e snowburie sforag eplants ,especiall ylow-growing one s average rainfall but may decrease 40-60%wit h below orthos eshortene d from grazing.Durin glat espring ,th e average rainfall. The difference in hay yield between melting of surface snow isofte n followed by freezing, above average years and below average years is 70- causing more forage shortages. 100%o r more(Hsu , 1980).I nth eHulunbui r grassland (prairie, mostly Leymus) in Inner Mongolia, a change Winds are always very strong during the winter of5 0m mrainfal lca ncaus e50 %forag eyiel d difference and spring, blowing away withered forage plants and (Liu, 1980).Th e forage yield of desert vegetation may resulting in a bare surface without value for grazing. vary by several fold because of extreme variation in Soil erosion from wind also contributes to rangeland annual rainfall. This variation in annual rainfall com­ deterioration. bined with severeweathe r inth ewinte r and springca n causedamag et oanimal si njus ta fe w daysdu et ocold , Geographical Location snow-storms, and therestrictio n of feeds. Becauseo fthei rgeographica llocation ,mos to fth e grasslands inInne rMongolia ,Tibet ,an d thenorthwes t Nearly70 %o fth eannua lrainfal loccur sdurin gth e areno taffecte d bymonsoons .Thi si sa nextensiv eari d three summer months,excep t in Dzungaria where it is area with limited hay production potential. For exam­ more evenly distributed. The hot, wet summer is fa­ ple,i nth eeaster n part of Inner Mongolia, the meadow vorable to plant growth. If the forage produced in the grassland suitable for making hay accountsfo r 8-10% summer months is indexed at 100%, then the yield in of thetota lgrassland , while only 4%o f thestepp e and the autumn months would be 60-70%, while spring only 0.7% of the desert steppe areas can be used for production would be only 40%. In winter, and during makinghay .I nnomadi carea sa swell ,ther ei sgenerall y most of thespring , only withered forage can be found, only asmal l proportion of land suitable for hay (Chia, with available forage less than 40% of the available 1981). summerforage .Th edecrease i nnutritiona lvalu eo fthi s withered forage during the winter is dramatic. For Unstable production ofseasona lgrassland s is fur­ example, crude protein may decrease from 14.3% in ther aggravated by topographical variation. Inner hay inth esumme r to3.9 %i nth ewinte r inth eUlanqa b Mongolia is a rolling plateau where the ubiquitous grassland (Hsu, 1980). In some areas of Xinjiang, the deficiency of winter forage limits the development of crude protein content may be seven fold higher in the animal production. For example, the summer-autumn summertha ni nth ewinte r(Cheng ,1980) .Lo wquantit y grassland productionma y provide 100%o fth egrazin g offorag ecombine d with lowqualit y isth emajo r factor animal'snutritiona lneeds ,but thes esam earea sprovid e contributingt oth elo wproductivit yo fgrazin ganimals . less than 40% of the nutritional needs during the six Annual carcass production of 2-3 year old sheep per winter-spring months. Under these circumstances a headpe ryea ri sonl y 10k gan dwoo lproductio n isonl y cycle of "fattening in the summer, thinning in the 2 kg (Hsu, 1980). Because of the deficiency of high winter, and dying in the spring" often develops. Five quality forages, individual animal development and hundred thousand grazinganimal sdi ei nInne rMongo­ growth is slow, resulting in small body sizes and low lia during the winter and spring months every year. In productivity. a severe winter, the cold and snow may double this number. The carcass weight lost during such a severe Low temperatures also are disadvantageous to year isgreate r than that which issol d (Hsu, 1980). plant growth and development of nomadic animal production.Th elong ,col dwinter san dspring sresul ti n Classification of Grasslands short growing seasons of 100-140day s inth e northern grasslands and less than 100day s in the central Tibet- Grassland vegetation of China may be classified Qinghai plateau. Even though there may notb ea defi­ into two general categories: natural grasslands and nite frost period in northern and western Tibet, the secondarygrasslands . growing season is limited by sudden changes in The climate of the natural grassland areas is weather. High temperaturescombined with highevap ­ characterized by cold, dry winters and springs and orationrate scaus eextrem eplan tstress ,resultin gi nlo w semi-humid toari d summers.Th e main typeso f grass­ forageproduction .Sever ecol dan dstron gwind sdurin g lands include prairie, steppe, semi-steppe, desert, and the long winter season also limit the development of alpinedeser t and includegener a of the following fam­ grazing animals. Reductions in available forage from ilies: Gramineae (Agropyron, Aristida, Bromus,

268 CHAPTER 11

Cleistogenes,Calamagrostis, Elymus, Festuca, Koele- LIVESTOCK CONSIDERATIONS ria,Ley mus, Poa, Stipa), Compositae(Anaphalis, Ar­ Water for Stock temisia, Aster, Tanacetum), (Allium), Leguminosae (Astragalus, Caragana, Medicago, The drinking water supply occurring naturally in Oxytropis, Thermopsis, and Trifolium),Cyperacea e native grazing lands is generally inadequate and un­ (Carex, Kobresia), and Chenopodiaceae (Eurotia, evenly distributed. The rainfall often occurs in down­ Kochia). Natural grasslands are distributed from the pourswhic hrun sof fquickly .Groun dwate rma yb e10 0 northeast through Inner Mongolia to Xinjiang and mbelo w thesurfac e and thewate r from shallow wells south toth eTibeta n Plateau. normally is not adequate for the large population of grazing animals. Snow provides thewate r source dur­ Secondary grasslands may also be called forest ing the winter-spring season. Because of the uneven grasslands. They are formed by over-logging of for­ distribution of water, grazing always concentrates in ested areas and by abandoning cultivation and aredis ­ one area for a longer time than the forage supply can tributed from the northeast, through North China tolerate.Wher eth ewate ri slimited ,th egrasslan di sno t (including the Loess Plateau) and Central China, to fully used. There simply are not enough deepwell s to South China. The climate varies greatly (from cool meet thedemands .Therefore , thelocatio nan d amount temperate through warm temperate, subtropical, to of animal drinking water are the primary limiting fac­ tropical), resulting in varied vegetation, including co­ tors for the full use of grazing lands. Water develop­ niferous trees mixed with grasses, deciduous trees mentwithou tprope rmanagement ,however ,wil lresul t mixed with grasses, shrubs mixed with grasses, and in rangeland deterioration. purestand so f grasses.Th emai n genera include: Coniferous trees Grazing Animal Population Abies Picea Before China's revolution in 1949, most of the Larix Pinus grasslandsbelonge d tofeuda l feoffees andlamaseries , Deciduous trees each owning a considerable area and number of live­ Acer Quercus stock. When combined, they controlled most of the Castanea Salix grazing animals. After the revolution, all grasslands Populus Ulmus became public property and the nomads dominated Shrubs animal ownership. They grazed their animals in the Caragana Prunus traditional areas or in the areas now delineated by the Corylus Rosa local governments. The government encouraged the Cotoneaster Sophora development of animal husbandry, even giving sub­ Lespedeza Spiraea sidies.Fo rexample , thegovernmen t helped to develop Grasses water resources, helped to hunt dangerous wild ani­ Agropyron Heteropogon mals, and supplied veterinarian care. These factors Arundinella Imperata combined toproduc erapi ddevelopmen to fth egrazin g Bothriochloa Ischaemum animal industry. By the late 1970's, the number of Calamagrostis Leymus grazing animals had increased two to threefold from Cynodon Miscanthus before the revolution, with increases of 203% in Deyeuxia Panicum Xinjiang; 290%i nQinghai ;250 %i nGansu ;an d290 % Digitaria Saccharum in Inner Mongolia reported by Wang (1980). The in­ Eragrostis Setaria creasei nth enumbe ro f grazinganimals ,however , has Eulalia Spodiopogon been proportional to the increasing grazing land dam­ Festuca Themeda age.Thi s indicates the grazing pressure has surpassed Legumes the land's capability. The capacity of China's grazing Astragalus Medicago lands tosuppor t livestock must beevaluate d and mea­ Desmodium Trifolium sures taken topreven t overstocking. Lespedeza Vicia Lupinus Seasonal Grazing Lands The characteristics of the various types of grass­ The nomadic peoples of China have traditionally landsar eliste d inTable s 11.1., 11.2,11.3, and 11.4. carried their homes and articles of living from one grazing land to another as seasons changed. The dis­ tancean d frequency of migration havebee n dependent on local forage conditions, seasons, grazing land to­ pography,an dwate rresources .Thes epeopl egenerall y

269 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Table 11.1.A summar yo f climatic andsoi l conditions in relation tovegetatio n and agriculture from west toeas t in the latitudeso f 42-45' N.(Adapte d fromJ.R . Borehert , 1946)

Arid Region ExtremelyAri d Arid Region Semi-arid Region Semi-humid Humid Region Region Region Tianshanan d Beishan Alashan Plateau Middle Parto f NortheastPlai n ChangbaiMts . Dzungaria Basin InnerMongoli a (Eastern North­ Plateau east)

Longitude(° ) 80 94 100 107 118 124

Altitude(m ) 500-3,500 1,000-2,500 1,000-1,500 700-1,500 200-400 1,000-2,800

Climate type Bwk Bwk Bwk BSKw Daw Dtw

Annual rainfall 100-500 50-80 80-200 200-450 450-650 650-1,000 (mm)

Meanannua l 4 to 8 9 to 10 4to7 2to6 6 to 8 5lo7 temperature(°C )

Mean tempera­ -21 to -16 -20 to -16 -10 to -8 -23 to -10 -21 to -16 -19 to-12 tureo f coldest month(°C )

Annual sum tem­ 1,500-4,000 1,500-4,000 3,000-3,600 1,600-3,500 2,500-3,500 1,500-3,000 perature 2 10°C

Frostlessperio d 110-150 110-140 130-140 140-180 140-180 150-200 (days)

Soil Gray desert Browndeser t Browndeser t Chestnut Chernozeman d Darkbrow n darkchestnu t

Vegetation Deserto n low­ Desertvegetation . Desert vegetation Desertsteppe ; Prairie mixed Broadleafdecidu ­ landsteppe , conif­ andfewe r areas steppe andstepp e with treesan dsa ­ ous andneedle - erousfores tan d of desertsteppe . forest in the east linemeadows . leaved forestsan d meadowo n alpine meadows. higherelevation .

Agriculture Nomadic grazing Nomadic grazing Nomadicgrazing . Nomadicgrazing , Agriculture with Farmingo f spring withdr yirriga ­ andmuc h less dry farmingo n nomadic grazing; wheat, millet, tion farming; farming. southernborder , springwheat , mil­ corn,an dsoy ­ wheat,corn ,cot ­ springwhea tan d let,an dcorn . beans. ton, etc. oats. have divided their time between different seasonal used for spring grazing if thegrazin g land islimite d in grazinglands . a particular year. The autumn grazing period is from lateAugus t to November. The summer grazing lands are in the mountains and on shady slopes where the weather is cooler and Winter grazing land is the same as the spring where there issufficien t water and forage. The migra­ grazing land and it is located in the lowlands, basins, tiondistanc ebetwee nsu mme ran dwinte rgrazin gland s valleys, and sand dune areas where the weather is may be as much as 100 km (as in Xinjiang). The warmer than at higher elevations. Forage plantsavail ­ summer grazing period is mostly from mid-May to ablea tthi stim ear etal lan dreac habov eth esno w cover. mid-August. During this time, animals feed on this Exampie sinclud eAchnatherum an dArtemisia. Achna- grazinglan dt ogai nweigh tan dt orecove rfro m thenea r therum is a coarse, tall grass, while Artemisia has a starvation of thelat ewinter-sprin g months. distinctiveodo rdurin gth esumme rperiod .Durin gwin ­ ter, however, both species are soft and palatable to Autumn grazing occurs on the middle elevations grazing animals. The tall plants provide good shelter of themountain so rhighlands .Durin g theearl y parto f for animals. The grazing period is from November to this season, most forage plants are maturing and dis­ March but occasionally extends to May. The distance persing seeds. These plants still have sufficient nutri­ and frequency of migration are less than during the tional value for livestock weight gains, enabling the summero rautum n seasons. animals to overwinter. Autumn grazing land is also

270 CHAPTER 11

Table 11.2.A summary of climatic and soil conditionswit h relation tovegetatio n and agriculture from north tosout h ineaster n China for 110-120° longitude. (Adapted from J.R. Borehert , 1946)

Great Changbai NorthChin a Qinling-Daba South Yangtze Nanling Hainan KhinganMts . Mts. Plain Mts. Hills andMts . Mts. Island

Latitude (°) 53-50 5045 45-35 35-30 30-25 25-20 20-18

Altitude (m) 1,000-2,000 1,000-2,800 50-200 1,500-4,300 500-1,800 1,000-2,000 200-2,000

Climaticregio n Cold Cool Warm Transitional Subtropical Transitional Tropical temperate temperate temperate subtropical tropical

Climatic type Dew Dbw BSKw Caw Caf Caw Aw

Annual rainfall 450-550 650-1,000 500-800 1,000-1,200 1,000-1,600 1,600-2,200 1,600-2,400 (mm)

Meanannua l lto-3 5 to 7 8 to 14 14 to 16 16 to 21 19 to 23 23 to 24 temperature

Mean tempera­ -23 to -28 -19 to -12 -8 to-2 2to8 6 to 12 8 to 16 17 to 21 tureo f coldest month("C )

Ainual sum 1,100-1,700 1,500-3,000 3,500-4,500 4,000-5,000 5,000-6,500 6,500-8,000 8,000-9,500 temperature alO°C

Frostlesspe ­ 70-110 150-200 180-240 220-280 270-320 320-350 365 riod (days)

Soil Brownan d Darkbrow n Brownearth , Brown andyel ­ Redan d yellow Redan d yellow Laterite meadow korichnevye, low earths earth, rendzina alluvial andpurpl e

Vegetation Needle-leaved Broadleaved Broadleaved Broadleaved Evergreen Evergreen Rainforestan d deciduous for­ deciduousan d deciduousfor ­ deciduous for­ broadleaved broadleaved savanna on est andalpin e needle-leaved est andmoun ­ est. forest andtus ­ forest andtus ­ lowlands. meadow. forest andal ­ taingrasslan d sock grassland sock grassland pine meadow. (2ndsucces ­ (2ndsucces ­ (2ndsucces ­ sion). sion). sion).

Agriculture Agroforestry, Springwheat , Winterwheat , Winterwheat , Rice,wheat , Rice,wheat , potatoeswit h corn,soybean . corn,cotton , corn,swee t po­ rapeseed,tea. rapeseed,beans . some spring sweet potato, tato,an dbeans . wheat. soybean. 1cro ppe ryear . 1cro ppe ryear . 2 cropspe r 2 cropspe r 2 or3 cropspe r 3crop spe r 3 cropspe r yearo r3 per2 yearo r3 per2 year. year. year. years. years.

Adequate winter-spring grazing land iscriticall y andhill sdurin gsumme ran dautum nan do nfield swit h important forgrazin ganimal st oavoi dstarvation .I ti s cropresidue sdurin gth ewinte ran dspring . theseaso no fpregnanc yan dbirt hfo rlamb san dcalves . Unfortunately, winter-spring grazingi scommonl yin ­ InNort h China andth eLoes s Plateau,individua l adequate in China. In some grazing areas where the farmers raiseshee pan dgoat san d organize them into topography does not vary much, grassland cannot be small flocks for grazing on the mountains, hills,an d dividedint oseasona lgrazin glands .Th enomad sgraz e saline land. Overgrazing and the collecting of fuel, theiranimal sove rth ewhol eare abu treserv ea par tfo r however, have caused serious deterioration and ero­ winter-springgrazing . sion. InCentra lan dSout hChina ,th egrassland sar eno t Largearea sbetwee nfar man dnomadi cland swer e yetfull y utilized.Farmer sgraz ethei rworkin ganimal s oncerich grassland ,bu t nowar emostl y cultivatedb y (cattle andwate r buffalo) on pastureswhic h arenea r farmers.Farmer sgraz ethei ranimal so nth emountain s thevillages . Theshee pan dgoa tindustr y isdevelope d

271 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Tabic 113. Types of grasslands and their distribution and environmental conditions,valuabl e forages, andproductivity . (Adapted from H.Y. Ho», 1960)

Climate

Type Distribution Type Annual Maximum and Annual sum of Growth rainfall minimum tem- daily tempera- season perature lure (mm) £ÇJ a 10°C (days)

Forest Grassland Common in eastern half of China Monsoon and 800-1,500 39 to -45 1,500-4,500 120-250 mixed with shrubs with elevations of 1,000-2,000m Continental andscattere d in northwest on higher in the west 500-800 20 to-49 1,500-3,500 100-150 mountains with elevations of 1,800- 2,500 m.

Prairie Northeast plain, Monsoon and 350-800 39 to -35 1,500-4,500 120-220 mixed with treesan d North China Loess Plateau, Continental 500-800 shrubs Inner Mongolia (East),an d some 300-500 other areas

Steppe Inner Mongolia (middle and west), Continental 150-350 40 to-40 1,500-3,500 120-160 Dzungaria, and scattered in Kashga- ria, Qilian Mountains, and Tibet

Cogonal Central and South China Monsoon 1,000-1,800 40 to -5 4,500-6,500 250-300 (including mixed trees and shrubs)

Savanna Tropical South China Monsoon 1,300-2,000 40 to -50 6,500-8,500 300-365

Meadow Tibet and Qinghai plateau, and scat- Monsoon 400-650 20 to -35 500-2,500 100-150 Alpine meadow tered on other high mountains Northeast, north, and northwest Monsoon and 100-800 30 to -35 1,500-3,500 100-250 Lowland meadow Continental Sea coast and scattered in inner land Monsoon and 100-800 35 to -35 1,500-4,500 100-250 Saline meadow Continental

Desert vegetation Mainly in northwest with elevation Continental 25-150 40to-3 5 1,500-3,500 100-150 (not including barren from 500-1,500 m desert) Alpine desert West and northwest of Tibet with el- Continental 25-170 1210-35 very few 0-90 evation above 5,000m

Farmland Widely distributed in East China Monsoon 400-2,000 40 to -35 variable 120-365 onlyi ncertai nareas ,e.g .wester nGuizho uan dnorther n depends on the breed of sheep. The improved wool Yunnan provinces. Most grasslands in Central and producing breeds receive better care, are grouped in South China are not fully used. smaller flocks, and receive moresupplementar y feeds. Horses are generally fewer in number, are located far­ Current Grazing Methods thest from the camp, and do not require a shepherd. Generally, there is no controlled grazing method Dogsar e used for guarding. and grazing is carried out according to the nomads' Nomads change the grazing route and direction experience andcustom . When theycam pa ta site ,the y from thecam pever y day. Because there isn o fence or graze the animals in a 5-7 km radius around that site. distinguishable line to divide the grazing land into In Inner Mongolia, several families camp together for blocks, nomads cannot control the animals and there­ mutualassistance .I nXinjian g largergroup so f families fore letthe m grazefreely . Thisresult si nuneve n distri­ usually camp together. bution of grazing pressure.Whe n nomadsbeliev e that Cattlear egenerall y held nearth ecam p for easeo f mosto f theforag e hasbee n grazed,the y movecam pt o milking and watering and do not require a shepherd. another place. The grazing period of a camped area Sheep and goats are placed farther from camp and varieswit h thekind so f grazing land and thegrowth of requiretendin gb y ashepherd . Flockso f sheepvar y in forage plants.Generally , thetim ea teac h campi s from number from 200 to 400. Generally, the flock size 5-10day si nth esummer ,longe ri nth eautumn ,an dstil l

272 CHAPTER 11

Table 11.4. Forages found IDvariou sassociation s and theirproductivity . (Adapted from H.Y. Hou, 1960)

PlantAssociatio n Characteristics

Main soil types Genera of valuable forages Plantcoverag e Plantheigh t Succession Productivity (%) (cm) (hay,kg/ha) Chernozem pod- Agropyron,Agrostis, Arundinella, 80-95 60-80 Natural or2n d 3,000-4,000 zolic, Brown for­ Calamagrostis, Carex, Dactylis, succession (partic­ est, and Yellow Desmodium, Deyeuxia,Festuca, ularly inNorth , Lathyrus,Lespedeza, Lolium,Pen- Central,an d nisetum, Poa, Spodiopogon, Trifo­ SouthwestChina ) lium, Kobresia, and many herbs

Chernozem Agropyron, Arundinella,Artemisia, 80-95 60-80 Natural orSucces - 2,500-4,000 Astragalus, Bothricohloa, sional Calamagrostis, Cleistogenes, Deyeuxia, Elymus,Festuca, Koeleria, Lespedeza, Leymus,Medicago, Oxy- tropis, Pennisetum,Phragmites, Poa, Pocockia, Stipa, Tanacetum, Trifo­ lium,Vicia

Chestnut Achnatherum,Agropyron, Allium,Ar­ 40-70 20-60 Natural 2,000-3,000 temisia,Astragalus, Carex, Cleistogenes, Elymus, Festuca, Hedysarum,Koeleria, Medicago, Oxytropis, Poa, Stipa

Red, Yellow Arundinella,Eulalia, Festuca, Im- 60-85 60-100 Succession«! 10,000-20,000 earth,an dLatent e perata, Ischaemum,Lespedeza, Miscanthus,Paspalum, Pueraria, Spodiopogon, Themeda, Trifolium

Red, Yellow Cymbopogon, Digitaria, Eragrostis 70-90 100-200 Naturalo rSucces - 12,000-20,000 earth,Latent e Eremochloa,Heteropogon, Imperata, sional Saccharurn

Meadow Alopecurus, Bromus,Carex, Dactylis, 70-90 20-40 Natural 2,500-3,500 Festuca,Kobresia, Phleum,Poa, Stipa, and many herbs

Meadow Agrostis, Calamagrostis, Carex, 70-95 30-70 Natural 3,500-5,000 Leymus,Phragmites, Poa, Scirpus, and many herbs

Saline andalka ­ Achnatherum,Agrostis, Phragmites, 65-80 20-50 Natural 2,500-3,500 line soils Puccinellia,Iris, Equisetum

Calcareousdeser t Allium,Aristida, Artemisia, Astraga- 5 10-20 Natural 200-500 soil lus, Caragana, Cleistogenes, Eragrostis, Haloxylon, Koeleria

Steleto nsoi l Agropyron, Allium, Astragalus, 5-15 Natural 100-250 Elymus,Festuca, Oxytropis, Poa, Stipa

Chernozem to Agropyron, Alopecurus,Bromus, 30-60 Red, Yellow Chloris, Cynodon, Digitaria, earth,variabl e Echinochloa,Eleusine, Lespedeza, Medicago, Poa

longer in the winter-spring season due to the limited Hay Production for Winter Feeding wintergrazin gland ,difficultie s of moving,an d lacko f Hay production is much less than the need of the shelters.A seasona lgrazin glan dma yb egraze dsevera l current animal population. This is due to the small times ina season. amount of land suitable for hay production, the under-

273 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

development of tame pastures, and the lack of hay In the last ten years, the state has given large makingequipment .Muc ho fth eha yi sover-matur ean d subsidies for building fences in certain demonstration of low quality. Consequently, there are extreme defi­ areas.Recently , the nomadic policy has been changed ciencies of hay for winter-spring feeding when snow to allow individual nomads increased freedom for storms and other conditions create a need for supple­ meetinganima lneeds ,an di nth euse ,management ,an d mental feed. Pregnant animals and improved breeds improvement of grazing lands. receive priority for supplemental hay, followed by This responsibility system is preferable to what horsesan d cattle. wento nbefore . Nevertheless,i fth enumbe ro f animals Inadequate winter nutrition is currently the most isincreased ,an d thenomad sar eunabl e tomanag ean d important factor affecting livestock productivity,espe ­ improveth egrazin gland ,the nth egrazin g landwil lb e cially protein and energy. If adequate winter nutrition continually degraded. In fact, private reserve herds in could beprovided , then productivity could be doubled communes andstat efarm s haverapidl y increased with on most grazing lands without changing animal num­ a growth rate of 15-20% a year in many areas.I f this bers. growthrat econtinue sunchecke d inth enex tfe w years, it will have a devastating impact on the grassland Because the grazing animal population has in­ resource of China.System s for regeneration and man­ creased rapidly without proper management of the agement of grazing lands must be developed and im­ grazing lands, the grazing pressure has multiplied, plemented. causingseriou sdeterioratio n of thegrazin g lands(Fig ­ ure 11.1).Immediat e measures are needed torehabili ­ The agricultural policy of the state has been tate these grazing lands. The improvement of grazing changed since 1979,an dth eresponsibilit y forth eman ­ landsi srequire d for rehabilitation of theanima lindus ­ agement and use of vegetation on the mountains and try. hillsha sbee nredistribute d toindividua lfarmers .Farm ­ ers welcome the new policy because they can use the Government Policies and Practices land to plant more profitable crops, such as trees and More than twenty years ago, the state encouraged forage. The state has recommended that farmers plant nomadst osettl ei na certai n placean dbuil d permanent forages such asMedicago, Melilotus, and some others housesfo rth epeopl ean dshelter sfo rth eanimals .Thus , for feed, home fuel, soil conservation, and to convert thegovernmen t sought tosimplif y theherdin g taskso f steepcropland sint opasture ,particularl y inth earea so f lambing, calving, and nursing of weak and pregnant theLoes s Plateau. animals, and generally improve the nomads' life. The Airplane seeding of forage seeds began several herdsmen, however, continue their nomadic grazing years ago in certain small areas on sandy land, and system.

Figure 11.1 Steep grazingdeteriorate dgrassland s nearHohhot , InnerMongolia . (Photocourtes y of D.B. Hannaway, 1987)

274 CHAPTER 11

mountain and loess grassland. Good results have been including Australia, Canada, Denmark, Great Britain, achieved. Airplane seeding of forage seeds, such as Holland, and the United States. These cultivars have Astragalus adsurgens, Medicago sativa, Melilotus been used for small plot experiments in different re­ spp., and Caragana spp. in the northern areas, and gions,an dfo rpastur eimprovemen tan derosio ncontro l Dactylisglomerata, Lolium perenne, Trifolium repens, (Figure 11.2). Some cooperative projects of rangean d and Trifoliumpratense inCentra lChin a hasbee nprac ­ pasture management have been initiated with foreign ticed. organizations, e.g. the project of the World Bank in Wongmute County, eastern Inner Mongolia, and the Toobtai ngrasslan d improvement andmor e forage IBPprogra m of theUnite d NationsEducationa l Scien­ conservation,th egovernmen t providedsubsidie st oth e tific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in Inner nomadic people to establish enclosures in different Mongoliaan dth eNortheast .Severa lexperimenta l for­ areaswit hirrigatio nb yriver o rwel lwate raccordin gt o age farms have been established by Australia, New local conditions. Many grassland stations were estab­ Zealand, and Holland. In addition, experiments with lished for forage plant experiments, conservation of Oregon forage seeds have been conducted in several hay,an dextensio n ofgrasslan d management methods. locations in China. AHo f those practices achieved good results.T o better serve the vast grassland areas, these efforts should be To learn of the advances of forage and grassland expanded. science,Chin a hassen tsevera l foragescholar st oothe r countriesfo rstud yan d hasha dsevera lgroup so fgrass ­ During the last 20 years,man y projects to control land scientists visit in foreign countries during the last desertification have been implemented and resulted in fewyears .Man yforeig n foragean dgrasslan d scientists some achievements. The establishment of tree wind­ haveals ovisite d China for short periods ofwor k (Fig­ breaks isworkin g on theborder s between grassland or ure 11.3). steppe and farmland from southwestern Heilongjiang Province in the east to the Hexi Corridor of Gansu In spite of these improvements and current work, Provincei nth ewest .I nth esand ylan dareas ,introduce d theus eo fth enatura lgrassland so fnorther nan dwester n specieso ftrees ,shrubs ,forag e plants,an deve n cereals China is still fundamentally following the historical have been planted in many places to stop the shifting practiceo f nomads.Nomadi c people movefro m place of sand dunes. New oases, enlarged pastures, and in­ to placei n search ofwate r and forage without consid­ creased hay making haveresulte d (Walls, 1982). eringth estockin grate ,grazin gmanagement ,her dman ­ agement,grazin gsystems ,o rha ymakin gimplications . Duringth elas tdecade ,almos t20 0forag e cultivars In central and southern China, in contrast, grasslands havebee n introduced into China from manycountries , are not fully used for the development of the animal

Figare 11.2.Variou sglasse s havebee n testedfo rus ei nreducin gerosio nan dimprovin gth egrazin gpotentia lo fslop eland saroun dChangsh a inHuna n Province. (Photo courtesy of D.B. Hannaway, 1987)

275 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Figure 1U. Chinesean dAmerica n scientistsdiscussin gforag e evaluation trialsi nHuna n Province.(Phot ocourtes yo f D.B.Hannaway , 1987) industry, even though they have a high potential pro­ economicconditions .Durin gth elas t threedecade s the ductivity. agriculturalpolic yo f Chinawas essentiall y focused on food crops;"th efoo dcro pi sth elin eo fagriculture "an d Proper Range Management vs. Overgrazing "theraisin go fpig si sth efirs t amongthos eo fcattl ean d Range management is the science and art of opti­ others." These policies pressured farmers to cultivate mizing the returns from rangelands in those combina­ hill and mountain slopes, even those that were not tions most desired by and suitable to society through suitable, and to break out large areas of grassland for the manipulation of the range ecosystem (Stoddart et cultivation. For the nomadicareas ,thi spolic y focused al., 1975). Range management involves habitat man­ on the number of grazing animals rather than on their agement, including management of vegetation, water, productivity and quality, and did not consider thesus - soil, grazing animals, and wildlife to obtain optimum tainability'öf thegrasslan d productivity. Overth eshor t production and sustained forage use. term, production of food crops and the number of grazing animals were increased more than twofold. Range management isth eapplicatio n of scientific This resulted in many longter m problems,suc ha s soil principles and practices to land ecosystems which re­ erosiono ffarmland san dth edeterioratio no fgrassland s sults in both a healthy, desirable plant population, and in thenomadi careas . high animal production through proper grazing. For each site, an essentially stable plant species composi­ Init snatura lconditio n theecosyste m isessentiall y tionemerge swhic h should yield thehighes t long-term inequilibrium ,bu tman' sactivitie shav ebee n changing plant and animal production. In arid areas, especially, it. This change can be either for good or bad. Today, overgrazingca ncaus ever yrapi ddeterioratio nwit hfe w mantend st oabus ehi senvironment .I nChina, nomadi c intermediatestage sbetwee ngoo dan dver ypoo rcondi ­ animalhusbandr y hasdevelope d overa thousan d years tions.Thi si swh yChina' sgrassland shav edeteriorate d andi sessentiall y based on "natural management." The in such a short period. Therefore, range management grassland ecosystem was maintained inequilibriu m as mustinvolv emanipulatio n oftime ,duration ,an dinten ­ Chinese literature described the rich grassland in the sity of grazing which matches the season and phenol­ early times. Mongolia established a powerful military ogy ofdesirabl e and undesirable species. Yuan Dynasty (1206-1368) which conquered Central and Middle Asia and reached to and The development of a grazing animal industry in Chinaprope r(1280-1368 )whe nth eItalia nMarc oPol o China mustb ebase d on thevarie d environmental con­ visited Mongolia (now Chahar) and other parts of ditionso fChina' sgrasslan dareas .An yon eagricultura l China.Durin gtha tperiod ,th egrassland so fInne rMon ­ policy willno t be adequate for the entire country, due golia were intact and productive. For example, Ordos toth evariatio no fclimate ,soil ,vegetation ,cultural ,an d andeaster n Mongoliaha dproductiv eforest s duringth e

276 CHAPTER 11

Yuandynast yan dman yo fth eemperors 'hors efarm s in 1961.I n Xianghuang Qi, one-half of the grazing werelocate di nChaha rdurin gth eQin gDynast yi nth e animalsdie d from starvation in 1962;th eincreas ei n laterpar to fth e19t hcentury .Whe nma ndisturbe dthi s the number of grazing animals has been slow since grassland equilibrium, particularly during the recent then.Th eaverag eannua lyiel do fforag e peruni tare a threedecades ,th enumbe ro fgrazin ganimal sincrease d decreased 30-50%.Fro m 1949t o 1961,th edominan t twot othreefol d andth egrassland sdeteriorated . specieso fth egrasslan dchange dfro m Stipat oArtemi­ sia and weeds, and dust storms and rodent damage Effects of Grazing Animal Population increased(Hsu ,1980) . Somerang escientist san dnomad scalle d forpro ­ Deterioratedgrassland si nChin ano waccoun tfo r cedurest oovercom edeterioratio no fgrassland sdurin g aboutone-thir do fth etota lare a(10 0millio nhectares ; theearl y 1950's. Unfortunately, their advicewa sno t official statistics of total grassland area is about 333 implemented.Instea d therewa sa continue demphasi s millionhectares) . Deterioration iscontinuin ga ta rat e on increasing the number of grazing animals. As a of about 670,000 ha per year. The productivity of result, the grasslands continued to deteriorate. Al­ grassland has decreased 30-50% since the 1950's thoughth eincreas ei nth enumbe ro f grazinganimal s (Chen,1984) ,althoug hthi svarie sfro m placet oplace . hasbee nver yslo wsinc eth e1960's ,th equalit yo fth e During 1965 to 1975,th e productivity decreased 40- grazinganimal sha scontinue dt odecrease . 60% in Inner Mongolia (Hsu, 1980) and 50%i n the Increasing the population of grazing animals in­ Xinjiang region. For instance, during 1963-1973,i n creases the grazing pressure and decreases grazing OtogCount yo f InnerMongolia ,th eyiel do fth eArte­ capacity.Durin gth elas tthre edecade si nInne rMon ­ misia frigiaagrasslan d decreased from 432 to 144 golia, the number of grazing animals has increased kg/ha,th ecoverag edecrease dfro m 40t o13% ,an dth e almost threefold. The average stocking rate (original yield of grasses decreased 65%(Figur e 11.4). In the datadi dno tdistinguis hbetwee ncattl ean dsheep )wa s Qinghaialpin emeado wgrasslan darea ,th egoo dforag e 2.3hectare spe rhea di n 1952an donl y 1.2i n 1962. In species Cyperus was 33-51% and has decreased to theOrdo sgrasslan dare a(no wstepp ean ddeser tsteppe ) 4-19.2%,whil e poisonous plants and weeds havein ­ of InnerMongolia , theaverag estockin grat ewa s3. 5 creased from 9 to29 %durin gth esam eperio d(Chia , hectarespe rhea di n1949 ,bu tonl y1. 6hectare si n 1973. 1980). It is estimated that the recovery process for InXianghuan gQ iCount y(prairie )o fInne rMongolia , deterioratedgrazin gland srequire s15-2 0year swithou t theaverag egrazin gpressur ewa s3. 9hectare spe rhea d anydisturbanc ei nth eTibet-Qingha ialpin egrassland . in194 9bu tincrease d to1. 1hectare spe rhea di n 1961. Accordingt oa detaile dsurvey ,deteriorate dgrasslan d areasmad eu p62 %o fth etota lgrasslan do ftha tcount y

*£

Figarc 11.4. Deteriorated grasslands of Inner Mongolia near Hohhot (Photo courtesy of D.B. Hannaway, 1987)

277 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Plant Cover hectares,o f which 4.4millio n hectareswer e cultivated bystat efarms . Mosto fth enewl ycultivate d landswer e Plant cover and plant height decreases and plant developed from good grasslands which further in­ composition changeswhe n grasslands deteriorate.Th e creased the stocking rate on other grasslands and ground surface may become barren, which induces caused even more deterioration. Soil fertility also de­ aridity, desertification, and dust storms. Scientists of creased with increases inerosio n and saline content. the Institute of Desert Research at Lanzhou recently calculated that50,00 0km 2o f formerly productive land Government Policy inChin ahav ebee ndesertifie d within thepas t5 0 years due to misuse. They considered 170,000 km to be The "grain isth elin eo f agriculture" policy drasti­ desertified and an additional 170,000 km2 to be in cally disturbed the agricultural economy and the danger of desertification (Walker, 1982; Hendry, ecosystem. A good example is in southern Chahar 1984). Most of these lands are located on the border where there was a rich grassland area with diverse between grasslands and farmland. In the Ordos grass­ farming several decades ago. Nearly 730,000 ha of land area, the desertified area is 45,000 km which grassland was reduced to 226,000 ha by cultivation decreased theaverag e grain yield and number of graz­ since 1949, especially in the 1960's. The grazing ca­ inganimal s percapit a 40%an d30% ,respectively . Per pacitywa s 1.1 sheep/ha in the 1950'san d decreased to capita income also was reduced drastically (People's 0.25 sheepfta in the 1960's. The rates of animal in­ Daily, 1982). creaseperyea rwere :3.5 %i nth e50's ; l.l%inthe60's; and 0.2% in the 70's. Commercial animal sales and Soil Erosion grassland productivity decreased, and grain yield per unitare awas reduce dt osuc hlo wlevel stha tfield s were Soil erosion through both water and wind action abandoned (Chi, 1981).Thi s occurrence was common increased greatly due to overgrazing and changing in grassland areas and fortunately served as a good grassland areast ocultivate d land.Man yarea so f China lesson to educate the people of that area, resulting in suffered erosion due to adverse climate conditions in­ policy changessinc e that time. cluding prolonged droughts, high-intensity rainscaus ­ ing erosion and flooding, and strong winds causing Rodent Damage much land damage. Particularly in the dryland agri­ Deteriorated grasslands haveha d increased rodent cultureareas ,win d erosion wascause d by lacko fplan t damagei nman yareas .Thi swas du eprimaril y toover - cover for soil protection during the critical erosion season.Fo rexample , in theJuu d district (upperpar to f hunting of yellow weasels, which resulted in higher theX iLia oRiver )i neastern Inne rMongolia ,an di nth e rodent populations. Rodent damage occurred on 30% Ordosdistric t ofsouther n InnerMongolia , many large of the total grasslands of China according to one esti­ shifting dunesan dgull y erosion havedevelope d duet o mate.Accordin g toa surve y atFiv eStar s Communei n the disturbance of grasslands. Based on current esti­ Taibus County of Inner Mongolia, there were 18,000 mateso fth eMinistr y ofAgricultur e ofChina, a nacre ­ rodent holeslocate d inon ehectar eo fgrazin gland .O n ageo f 1.3millio n km iscurrentl ysubjec t towate ran d the entire commune the total weight of forage con­ wind erosionwhe nvegetatio n isremove d from thesoi l sumed byrodent swoul d havesupporte d 21,000sheep . forfoo d production,hous efuel , compost,an dfo r graz­ In theOrdo s grassland area, the weight of forage con­ ing. This may be compared with 1.5 million km in sumed by rodentswa sestimate d tob e 14%o f the total 1950.Hil llan dwhic hwa sno tbenc hterrace dwa sbein g forage production, enough feed for 1 million sheep farmed up and down the slope rather then on the con­ annually (Hsu, 1980). The same condition exists in tour, resulting in significant erosion. On the Loess Qinghai. According to the data of the Mongolian Re­ Plateau, water erosion isstil l particularly serious. The public, rodents do a great amount of damage to the Yellow River in China produces the largest sediment range through the destruction of forage. In drought loado fan yriver i nth eworld ,wit ha nannua lsuspende d periods,hoardin go fgras sseed sb yrodent sbring sabou t load of over 1.7 billion tons from the Loess Plateau critical conditions for revival and replenishment of (McCracken et al., 1982). range. As an example, a single Kangaroo rat burrow may contain as much as 50bushel s of grass seed. The In central and southern China, soil erosion and huge number of such rodents which reproduce at a serious floods occur.I n Sichuan Province,soi l erosion tremendousrat ehav ele d toth eseriou sdeterioratio n of occurso nabou t60 %o fth etota lland ,wit h0.6 4billio n ranges in Mongolia. tonso f silt per year removed because of abusiveculti ­ vationo fstee phil llan dan dloggin go fforest s (People's Grasshoppers and Fuel Collection Daily, 1981). Since 1949, the area taken from grass­ Grasshoppers also commonly cause deterioration lands tocultivated status in China is about 8.9 million ofgrasslands .Fo rexa mpie ,a populatio n of 96/m was

278 CHAPTER 11

estimated on a damaged southern Inner Mongolia head of sheep to be49. 2 kg/head in 1963.I n 1974 the grassland. liveweigh t was only 43.1 kg, although the number of sheep had decreased to 2,136.Th e output of commer­ Thesoi lfertilit y levelso fbot hgrasslan dan d farm­ cialanima l products per unit area and labor efficiency land also have deteriorated. Nomads collect dung for have decreased 28% and 60%, respectively, in ten house fuel butthe y haven ofertilizer s toad dt oth esoil . years. During the past 30 years, using hybrids of fine Therei sver y littlelitte raccumulated ,an dunde rth edr y woolsheep ,onl y 5%o f thetota lwoo lcoul d be classi­ climateessentiall y noorgani c matter isbein gadde d to fied asfin e wooldu et odeficiencie s inth equantit yan d thesoil . Farmers collect wild herbs, grasses, and even quality of forage in Chita County. shrubs for homefuel . Cropstra w isuse d asfodde r and home fuel, thusreducin g thecro presidu eavailabl e for Presently,grassland sar econtinuin gt odeteriorate , soil incorporation. while the number of animals is increasing. If patterns areno tchanged ,continue ddeterioratio ni sassured .Th e Farm manure is used with straw tomak e compost most important objective ist osimultaneousl y raiseth e containing 2% N,2 %P ,an d 4%K whic h is applied in quality of grazing animals and decrease the number of amountso f20-2 5tons/ha . Incertai narea swher eric ei s grazing animals to save and improve the grasslands, grown, some chemical fertilizer is used. Rates of 100 and to compensate farmers for the economic loss of kgN , 15k g P,an d 26k gK/h a are common. animal numbers. For thecountr y asa whole , more use Damage to Animals could be made of the grasslands in Central and South China to increase animal products. At the same time, Nomadic grazing animals in China are quite de­ proper management and improvement of grassland ar­ pendent on natural environmental conditions, and are easo f northern and western China is needed. particularly influenced by climate. Fluctuations of an­ nual rainfall, a long, cold, winter-spring season, and low storage of hay usually cause damage to grazing RECOMMENDATIONS animals. Commonly 6% of the total number die by starvation in a normal year. More than 24% have per­ Proper management and improvement of grass­ isheddu et odrought si nsumme ran dheav ysnowstorm s land areas are two large and tremendously important in winter (Liu, 1980). In Inner Mongolia, 500,000 tasks for the Chinese people. The importance of these grazing animals havedie d by starvation inman y years tasks is not yet recognized by most of the Chinese (Hsu, 1980).Deat h of one million grazing animals has people. Education, research, and extension of range occurred several times in the last thirty years in Inner sciencean drang e management techniquesar eneeded . Mongoliaan dals oi nQinghai .I n 1979,40%o fth etota l Modern agriculture, including animal production, grazing animals in Xilingol District and 90% of those ischaracterize d by continuously increasing productiv­ in Abaga (a county of Xilingol) died from starvation ity in terms of yields or output per worker. In China, and exposure in snow-storms within a short period agriculturalproductivit y islo wbecaus eo f a deficiency (Chia, 1980). In early 1984, about 20% of grazing of modern technology. The technology that does exist animals in Hulunbuir, which has thebes t grassland of is slow to be transferred to "on-the-ground action." Inner Mongolia, died from starvation in heavy snow Although numberso fstoc k haveincrease d greatly (es­ (Chen, 1984).Furthermore , liveweigh t lossdurin g the pecially in nomadic areas), this has not contributed to winter-springseaso ndu et ostarvatio nwa sone-thir do f nomadic economic well-being. Rather, large animal thetota lliv eweigh to fgrazin ganimals ,o rsi x timesth e losses coupled with lowered grassland production are annualsal eo f carcassweigh t (Liu, 1980). the real causes of weakness of the nomadic economy. Therefore,education , research,an dextensio no fgrass ­ Because of grassland deterioration and lowered land science is immediately needed for a continuous forage availability, the quality of grazing animals has increase of productivity of grasslands and the animal decreased.Compare d with the1950's ,th eaverag ebee f industry.Educatio n isessentia lt omak eth efarme r and and mutton yield of fine-bred cattle and sheep has nomadicpeopl ecapabl eo facceptin gth ene widea san d decreased by 20% on the average (Chen, 1984). Gen­ applying new technologies; research is needed to pro­ erally, the live weight of grazing sheep has decreased videth enecessar y know-how;an da nextensio nservic e 5k gpe rhead ,wit hwoo lyiel donl y 1 kgpe rhea di nth e is needed to provide a link between research informa­ last ten years. Lamb birth weight has decreased 20% tion and the farmer and nomadic people. andth equalit yo fwoo lha sdecrease d (Chia,1980) .Th e carcassweigh to fshee ppe rhea d was 12k gi n 1964bu t Education decreased to 7 kg in 1978(Li , 1979).A survey from a The primary audience of educational efforts state farm (with better conditions) in Chitai, Xinjiang should be nomads and farmers. Even those who work Province, showed the average live-weight of 2,618

279 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA directly with theman d plan the useo f rangeland and training programsa tinstitute swit hsimila recologica l landresources ,however ,hav elittl eknowledg eo frang e zonesar emos teffective .Th eresearc hprogram sshoul d andanima lmanagement .Therefore ,educatin gth ede ­ beclosel yrelate dt oChines eproblems ,i fpossible .A n cisionmaker si nrang escienc eprinciple san dconcept s important part of this educational system will be to isth efirs tpriority . inviteforeig n professors of grassland and forage sci­ encet ogiv electure sfo rgraduat eeducatio nan dhel pt o Mass education in range management must be build up laboratories and field experimental stations madeth ehighes tpriority .Nomad san dfarmer smus tb e (Figure115) . taughtho wt omanag eth erange, pasture ,an dlivestock . Useful methodswil lb esmal lgrou pmeeting so rshor t Range science education on these three educa­ coursesan dpublication sdevelope do na practica lbasis . tionallevel si scriticall yneeded .Currently ,ther ei sn o activity on the first two educational levels and that Middle level education is needed for training providedo nth ethir dleve li slimited . Booksan djour ­ extension workers whose primary audience are live­ nals of range science are also limited and laboratory stockproducers .Rang e(an dpasture )managemen tan d equipmenti soutdate dan dinadequate . forage production courses must be taught in agricul­ tural high schools or junior colleges. These courses Range Research mustb epractical . Highereducatio nals oi sessentia lt o improveth eleve lo frang escienc eknowledg eo fteach ­ Duringth elas tthirt yyears ,man yextensiv ebotani ­ erso fmiddl eleve leducatio nan dresearc hassistants . cal surveys have been conducted in many grassland areasi nChina .Unfortunately , theresult sdi dno thel p Range Science is fundamentally based on plant understand the productivity, plant composition, and ecologyi nrelatio nt oanima lhusbandry ,includin gwil d succession of thegrassland s inrelatio n toth egrazin g animals.Therefore ,th estudent so frang escienc emus t animalsdu et obot ha shor tseasona lsurve yan dincor ­ betraine d with abroa d understanding of botanywit h rectmethods . Thisle dt oerroneou spractice si ndeter ­ specific instruction in animal and cropsciences .Th e miningth estockin grate .Fo rexample ,whe nclippin g undergraduate range science courses should beprac ­ current annual growth to estimate stocking rates, no ticalan dno tunnecessaril ybasi co rsophisticated . allowanceswer emad efo rth eamoun to fresidua lveg ­ etationo rfo rregrowth .Mos tstudie smentione dtha tth e Graduate education is needed for range science productivity ofa give nrang eare aha ddecline dove ra teachers and researchers. Some of these instructors periodo ftime ,bu tther ewer en ospecifi c productivity shouldb esen tabroa dfo radvance dstud yt owide nth e levels given and there were no species composition basisfo racceptin gth ene wtechnologies .Carefu lselec ­ shiftsquantified . Rangeresearc hmus tb einter-relate d tion of theuniversitie s abroad isver y important.Th e

Figure 11.5. Grassland management and seed production short course for forage workers held at Beijing Agricultural University in 1987. (Photocourtes y of D.B.Hannaway , 1987)

280 CHAPTER 11

with plant, soil, and livestock management. Research 4. The use of correct methods to measure the pro­ mustb edesigne d tosolv eth efundamenta l problemso f ductivity and grazing capacity of grasslands. certainarea san d mustb econducte d with standardized 5. Theecologica lan dgeneti cstudie so fforag e plants scientific methods. and theirselectio n for breeding,plantin gan d seed multiplication. It is preferable to conduct rangeland research 6. The investigation of revegetation and improve­ undercontrolle d conditionswhe n possible.Ordinarily , ment of range and pasture, and soil and water wirecage so rfence d enclosureso fa fe w square meters conservation (Figure 11.6). in size can be helpful, but they are not altogether 7. Theinvestigatio n ofrang ean dpastur eecono mics . adequate because they are too small to allow many organisms to exist under the population controls and Due to the deteriorated condition of many of the because they lack the genetic and species diversity of grasslandso fChina, i ti sparticularl yimportan tt ostud y larger areas.I n the United States, natural research has the causes of deterioration. Some particularly impor­ beenuse dt oestablis hbenchmar ko rreferenc e informa­ tant research areas are listed. tion(Hulbert , 1978).I fthi sapproac hi sused ,th enatura l 1. The relative effects of different levels of grazing researchare ashoul db ea watershed ,s otha tth equantit y misuse and weather variation on species compo­ of erosion and quality of runoff data (produced under sition and productivity. controlledconditions )ca nb euse dt odevelo plong-ter m 2. The cause, speed, and successional pathways of rangemanagemen t procedures. grassland deterioration. 3. Longter m changes invegetatio n as influenced by Some research topics of importance are listed climatean d management. below. 4. The effect of grazing animal management and 1. The influence of grazing animals and the grazing weather onsoil-wate r relations. system on the growth and productivity of forage 5. The effect of grasshoppers and other insects on plants,specie scomposition ,an dgrasslan dsucces ­ grassland productivity in relation to climatic sion. condition. 2. The influence of environmental factors, particu­ larlyth evariation si nclimate ,o ngrowt h of forage Extension plants,phenology ,productivity , andsuccessio no f Extension is the linkage between research and thegrasslan d and pasture. application. Extension workers find the results of new 3. Therelationshi p ofgai n peranimal ,gai n per area, research and adapt them to agricultural practices. Al­ and stocking rate. ternatively, Extension workersbrin g theproble m(s )o f

Figure 11.6.Ptnnisetum americanum x Pennisetumpurpureum hybrid grass produced by scientists at theJiangs u Academy of Agricultural Sciences.(Phot o courtesy of D.B. Hannaway)

281 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

the farmers (and nomads) to the research worker for 5. Establishment of tame pastures, experimental en­ solution.Fo rthis ,a stron g Extensionservic ei sneeded . closures,an d hay storage facilities are all needed. Furthermore, Extension work inagricultur e isno tonl y Today, the most important objective is tosto p the to improve agriculture and animal industry by the use of science and technology, but also to promote the increaseo fth enumbe ro fgrazin ganimal san dt oreduc e social and cultural life of the ruralo r nomadic people. a certain proportion of them by increasing the rate of turnover to the market. Extension programso frang ean d pasturemanage ­ Improvement and Development of Grasslands ment are extremely weak in China due to the lack of technical manpower, particularly thosespecialist swh o Recommendations for improving and developing workclosel ywit h nomadsan d farmers.Th e adaptation grasslands areliste d below. ofne wknowledg ean dtechnolog y forth eimprovemen t 1. Select and multiply long-lived, highly competi­ of the traditional systems of range and pasture man­ tive,an d nutritious forage species. agement depends primarily on the availability of 2. Reseed adapted forage plantsan dmaintai n certain trained workerswh ounderstan d the nativecultur e and areas without grazing by fencing for hay making speak native dialects where they work. They must be and emergency use. ablet owor kwit h and obtainth erespec to fth e nomads 3. Researchan ddevelo pth eexistin gwate rresource s and farmers. Extension worker training and education including transportation and storage of runoff must be given ahig h priority. water,exploratio n and management of groundwa­ ter, use of saline water, and irrigation technology Many scientific results and experiences of range for the full useo f grazing lands. management from domestic and foreign countries 4. Control parasites and diseases and reduce poi­ could be selected and put into practice under local sonous and injurious plants. conditions. Particularly, the range literature of Aus­ tralia, Canada, and the United States with similar eco­ 5. Improve the soil by mechanical soil treatment, logical zones as China are useful for reference. nitrogen fertilization, and incorporation of le­ gumes (Figure 11.7). Proper Management of Range and Pastures 6. Establish asyste m of hay storage and shelters for protection from severecol d and snow storms. The goal of range and pasture management is to maintainth eecosyste m equilibrium between rangean d Survey of Grassland and Pasture Vegetation grazinganimal san dt odevelo pth eproductivit yo fboth . At present, it is very difficult to achieve this goal in Range Science is an interdisciplinary science China due to theseriou s deterioration of rangeland by which includes many areas of inquiry, including bot­ thelarg e number of grazing animals. any, ecology, animal husbandry, climatology, agron­ omy,an dsociology .Therefor e rangesurvey san drang e Range management should be based on the management should be based on an interdisciplinary phenologyo fth edesirabl especies .Rang emanagemen t approach to form and usea balanced ecosystem. should reduce deterioration in poor seasons to a mini­ mum, so that maximum improvement can be obtained Standardized methodso fsurveyin ggrassland san d in subsequent seasons. Five important principles of pasturesshoul db eused .Publishe dreport so nsurveyin g range management are listed. grasslands and pasture vegetation which exist in vari­ ous languages can be used as references according to 1. Thekind s and proportion of grazing animalsm us t local conditions. Data must be based on high quality be assigned according to thecharacteristic s of the work of experts using exact observations, measure­ plant community, growth season, kind of forage, ments, and interviews. The collection of detailed data and area preferences of different grazing animals. should includeabiotic ,biotic ,an dcultura lfactors . The 2. The stocking rate and grazing season must be analysisan dinterpretatio no fthes edat ashoul d describe determined by the productivity of the rangeland a clear relationship between vegetation type and envi­ andth ephenology ,nutritive value ,an d palatability ronment,betwee n plantsan d theanimal stha t consume of suitable forage species. them, and man's influence on those factors. 3. The distribution of grazing animals must be con­ trolled by fences and/or herding as well as by Theconservation , management,an d improvement distance from water and minerals. ofgrassland san dpasture si sfundamenta l toth ecultur e 4. Grazing systems used must be adjusted according and economy of the Chinese people. Thus, a plan for toth edegre e of deterioration of grazing land, e.g. theus e of grasslands should be developed which con­ deferred, deferred-rotational, and rotational graz­ siders the cultural and economic aspects of China in ing. additiont oth emanagemen t ofvegetation ,anima lgraz ­ ingan d technology.

282 CHAPTER 11

M äsT^ry.*. ,

F%MK 11.7. Evaluation of Viciaspp .fo r usea sgree n manurecrop si aJiangs a Provisos.(Phot o courtesy of D.B.Haaaaway , 1987)

Agroforestry developedt osuppl yfoo dan dothe rproducts .I nminin g areas,disturbe dvegetatio nshoul db ereestablished . Agroforestry systemso fcultivatio n (grazing for­ ages in the understory of forests) should be put into practicebot hi nth emountai nan dhill yarea so fCentra l THE FUTURE and South China and in formerly forested semi-arid grassland areas which are now deforested. Rapidly- Thedevelopmenta lpossibilitie sfo rrangelan dan d growing trees, shrubs, and forage may be planted to pasture resources in China are vast. Their potential stabilize the soil, supply forage for livestock, and to benefiti smuc hgreate rtha ni sbein grealize da tpresent . providera wmateria lfo rwoo dproducts .Specie ssuc h Defining thatpotentia lmus tb edon ebefor e plansca n asAcacia and Leucaena kucocephala i nth esout hwil l bemad et outiliz ethos eresources .Th ehighes tpriorit y supplyforage ,fuel ,fertilizer , andwood . shouldb eassigne dt oinvestigatin g theseresource so n thebasi so frange ,soil ,an danima lecology . Emphasis should be given to the use of woody plants for revegetation of semi-arid and arid areas. Today,China' sfundamenta lneed sar et oconserv e Severalproject so fplantin gtree san dshrub shav ebee n hernatura lresources , theland ,soil ,water , andvege ­ tation,an dmanag ean dus ethe mo nth ebasi so fsoun d usedsuccessfull ya swindbreak st ostabiliz esan ddune s scientific principles. This is a complex and difficult andconserv esoi lan dwate rt orais elan dproductivity . task,bu t it mustb edone .Otherwise ,erosio n andde ­ InIsrael ,Atriplex bushe shav ebee nteste dfo rshee pan d sertificationwil lresul tno tonl yi nth elos so fproductiv e cattleproductio nwit hyield so f1 2ton so ffres hweigh t resourcebase sbu tals oi nth elos so fvaluabl egeneti c perhectar ean d1 5% protei nconten ti na 20 0m mwinte r resources. Manylesson sca nb elearne d from thepast . rainfall area (Forti, 1970).Prosopis, Simmondsia and If thenatura l resources areconserve d and improved, manyothe rshrub shav ebee nobtaine di nhig hyieldin g the beauty of the landscape with clean water andre ­ varietiesfo rmultipl eus e(Schachter ,1978) .Thos ewil d generatedproductivit yo fplant san danimal swil lresult , types with a wide ecological range and spectrum of and people's liveswil lb eimproved . Webeliev etha t geneticcharacteristic sar evaluabl efo rselecte dreveg ­ thisdifficul t taskca nb eaccomplishe di fdecision sar e etation. Forth ehill y andmountainou sarea si nNort h madeno wt omak eth eprotectio n andregeneratio no f Chinaan dth eLoes sPlateau ,shrub sar eals ousefu l to China's grasslands an immediate and high ranking revegetatea sth efirs tste po f afforestation. priority. Infores trangelands ,particularl yi nconiferou sfor ­ ests,ther ei splentifu l forage productionwhic hca nb e used for livestock development. In forest areas and somegrasslan d areas,wildlif e mayb econserve dan d

283 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

REFERENCES McCracken,R.J. ,H.I .Barrows ,R.J .Miller ,W.R .Osch - wald,T.N . Shefler, and R.R. Willis. 1982.Repor t Anon. 1981.Th e floods with relation to the forest in on China: an American view of how that nation Sichuan.People' s Daily, Oct.31 . (In Chinese) manages its soil resources. J. Soil Water Conserv. Anon. 1982. The responsible system of range man­ SoilCons .Soc .Amer .37(6):315-318 . agement in Ordos. People's Daily, March 20. (In Schechter, J. 1978.Th e rate of research in combating Chinese) desertification andi nth edevelopmen to fari dzones . Anon.1984 .Agricultura lproductio n inChina .People' s S. American Regional Seminar, Agriculture Re­ Daily,Apri l30 . (In Chinese) search in Arid and Semi-Arid Zones. Santiago, Chile. Biswas, M.R., and A.K. Biswas (eds.). 1980. Deser­ tification.Vol . 12.Environmenta lScience san dAp ­ Stoddart, L.A., A.D. Smith, and T. Box. 1975.Rang e plications.Pergamo n Press,Oxford , NewYork .52 3 Management. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York. pp. 532pp . Borchert, J.R. 1946. A new map of the climates of Walls, J. 1982. Combating Desertification in China. China,p .169-176. In: R.H.Brow n(ed.) .Ann .o fth e United Nations Environment Programme. Nairobi, Assoc,o f Amer. Geog.Vol .XXXVI . Kenya. 70pp . Chen,Q . 1984.Improvemen t of pasturesurgent . China Wang, M.C. 1980. Discussion of the speed of mod­ Daily.Aug .7 .(I n Chinese) ernization of animal industry, p.232-237 .In: Proc . 3rdNortheaster n Grassl.Conf. ,Soc .o fBot .o fKiri n Cheng, S.C. 1980.A genera l view and some problems and Heilongjiang Prov., Changchun. (In Chinese) of Xinjiang grasslands, p. 287-301. In: Proc. 3rd NortheasternGrassl .Conf. ,Soc .o fBot .o fKiri nan d Walker, A.S. 1982. Deserts of China. Amer. Scientist Heilongjiang Prov., Changchun. (In Chinese) 70:366-376. Chi, Z.W. 1981.A discussion of the development of animal industry in south Chahar. People's Daily, August 9.(I n Chinese) Chia, S.S. 1980.Th e proper use and reconstruction of grassland resources.(Unpublished ) (In Chinese) Chia, S.S. 1981.China' s grassland types: the locality and improvement, p. 598-600. In: Proc. 14th Int. Grassl.Cong. ,Lexington , Kentucky. Forti, M. 1970. Grazing trials on fodder bushes in the Migda Farm. Negev Institute for Arid Zone Re­ search Publication. Beer-Sheeva, . Hendry,P . 1984.Wher eth edeser tstops .CERES ,FA O Review on Agriculture and Development. No. 98 (Vol. 17:2)20-24 . Hsu, Z.X. 1980. The problem of the deterioration of grasslandsi nInne rMongolia ,p .90-97 .In : Proc .3r d NortheasternGrassl .Conf. ,Soc .o fBot .o fKiri nan d Heilongjiang Prov., Changchun. (In Chinese) Hulbert, L.C. 1978. Natural area needs for range re­ search,p .263-265 .In: Proc .o f theFirs t Int.Range - land Cong., Denver, Colorado. Liu, CS. 1980.Acceleratin g the reconstruction of the tamegrasslan d for themodernizatio n of the animal industry, p. 248-254. In: Proc. 3rd Northeastern Grassl.Conf. ,Soc .o fBot .o fKiri nan d Heilongjiang Prov., Changchun. (In Chinese)

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eastern GrassL Conf., Soc. of Bot. of Kirin and Zhou, X.M., andJ.H .Li . 1980.Th eprincipa l typeso f Heilongjiang Prov., Changchun. (InChinese ) vegetationan dthei rgeographica ldistributio na tth e HaibeiResearc hStatio no fAlpin eMeado wEcosys ­ Yin,T.S. ,an dD .Y .Hong . 1978.A preliminar ystud yo f tems. Northwest Plateau Institute of Biology.Aca - the major plant communities andthei rvertica l dis­ demiaSinic aFasc .1:9-19 .(I nChines ewit hEnglis h tribution in the Guhsiang region of southeastern abstract) Tibet. Acta Phytotax. Sinica 16:49-60. (In Chinese with English abstract) Zhou,X.M. ,F.T .Yang ,B.W .Li ,an dJ.H .Li . 1978.Th e interrelationship between vegetation and per­ Yule, Henry. 1903.Th e Book of Sir Marco Polo the mafrost along the south section of the Qinghai- VenetianConcernin gth eKingdom san dMarvel so f Xizang highway. Acta Bot. Sinica 20:13-19. (In the East. 3rd ed.Revise d by Condin, 2vols. , Lon­ Chinese) don. Zhu, CD. 1980.Th e fundamental characteristics of Yunatov, A.A. 1950.Th e basic features of the plant vegetation of Mazong Shan, Gansu.p .136-138 .In: cover of the Mongolian People's Republic. Tr. Proc. 3rd Northeastern Grassl. Conf., Soc.o f Bot. Mongol.Kom .39:223 .USS RAcad . Sei.,Moscow , of Kirin and Heilongjiang Prov., Changchun. (In Leningrad. (Trans, from Russian, 1959). Science Chinese) Press, Peking.(I nChinese ) Zou, H.Y., Y.M. Liang, and G.T. Sun. 1980.A pre­ Yunatov, A.A. 1954. Forage Plants of Pasture and liminary study on vegetation regionalism in the Meadow in the Mongolian People's Republic. LoessPlatea uo fnorther nShaanxi .Acta .Bot .Sinic a (Trans, from Russian). Science Press, Peking. (In 22:399-401.(I n Chinese) Chinese) Yunatov,A.A . 1960.O ncertai n ecological-geographic patterns of the vegetation cover of the Sinkiang- UigurAutonomou sRegion .USS RAcad .Sei. ,Mos ­ cow. (InRussian ) Yunatov,A.A . 1961.O nth eunderstandin g of theveg ­ etation coveri nth ewester n Kunlun Mountainsan d the nearby part of the Tarim Depression. USSR Acad. Sei.,Moscow . (In Russian) Yunatov,A.A. , B.Dashnyan , andA.A .Helbich .1979 . In: F.M. Lavrenko (ed.). Vegetation Map of the Mongolian People's Republic. USSR Acad. Sei. Inst.Bot. , Leningrad. Zhao, S.L.,F.X .Yang ,an dQ.C . Chen. 1982.A tes to f usingth emetho d of fuzzy mathematics tostud yth e grazingretrogressibl esuccessio nstage so fth eStipa steppe.Act a Bot. Sinica 24:366-373.(I nChinese ) ZhengD. ,an dW.L .Chang . 1981.A preliminar y study on the vertical belts of vegetation of the eastern Himalayas. Acta Bot.Sinic a 23:228-234. (In Chi­ nese) Zhou, X.M. 1979. A preliminary study of morpho­ logical-ecologicalcharacteristic so feigh tspecie so f Kobresia on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Acta Bot. Sinica 21:135-142.(I nChinese ) Zhou, X.M. 1982.Basi c characteristics and principal typeso fKobresia meadowso nth eQinghai-Xizan g Plateau. Acta Biol. Sinica 1:151-161. (In Chinese with English abstract)

296 INDEX OF GEOGRAPHIC NAMES

Barkol 141,156,181 BarkolLake 261 Aba 97,105 Batang 97,101 Abag 143 Bayan HarMountain s 97,116,119,121 Abaga County 279 Bayanbulak 167 Abagnar 52 Bayanhot 141,153,182-183,185 Agsu Bayannur 146,148,150,188 See Aksu Beijing 4,8, 75-76, 78-79,28 0 Aksu 181,202,204,212 Beilingmiao 146 Aksu River 164,184, 211 Beishan 145,182-183,185-186,191,193,207,270 Alashan 47, 145,182-183,185-192,194,196-197, Seeals o Peishan 207, 212, 260,262 ,27 0 BelKum 202 Seeals oBadai n Jaran Desert Bogda Mountain 164,199 Alatau Mountains 141,154-155, 160,182,197-198 Bogda Mountains 155,160,166,168,194,198, 207 Altai Mountains 141-142,155-159,182,194-196, Bohai 22,259 198,211 Bokedu 30 Altay 181 Bole (Bortala) 166,181 Altun Mountains 97,170-172, 182,206 ,21 0 Bomi 97,99,109,125 Altyntag Borohoro Mountains 160 See Altun Mountains Borten Gobi 198 AlxaZuoqi Bowo See Bayanhot See Bomi Amdo 97, 122-123,133 BuirLake 147 Amur River Bulgan 154 See Heilongjiang Burang 125,128 Anda 19,21,30,37 Burhan Budai Mountains 116 Anhui 74,76-77 ,81-82 ,220 ,234 , 236 Burqin 141,155-156,159,181 Ansi Butha Qi SeeAnx i SeeZalantu n Anxi 141,181-183,185,192-193 Butong 97 Anyemaqen Mountains 106,116 Aydingkol Lake 207 B Caspian Sea 160 Chahar 45, 54-55,60-62,65,146,278 Bachu (Maralwexi) 201 Chamdo 101,120,124 Badain Jaran Desert 185,187 See also Qamdo Baicheng 19,141,164,166,212 Chang Tang 98,125,130,133,145 Baikal 20,31 Seeals oInne r Plateau Bailingmiao 143,146,148 Changbai Mountains 21-22,27-29,270-271 107 Changbaling 81 Baima Mountains 111 Changchun 19,30 Baingoin 131 Changjiang 100 Baingon Lake 99 Seeals oYangtz e River Bairin Youqi County 36,38 Changsha 219,221,275 Bairin Zuoqi Changwu 90 See Lindong Charchan BangongLake 132-133 SeeQiemo Baochang 45,47,65 Chengde 73 Baoqing River 40 Chengdu 97,104,219,221,224 Baotou 45,47 Chialin River 107 Barkam 97,105 Chicheng 66

297 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Chidain River 114 Dzungaria 141-142,144-146,154-157,159-160, Chien-an County 29 182-185,194-201,206,211-212,214,261,267-268, Chientang River 219-220 270, 272 Chifeng 19,24,30,47 Chilien See Qilian 5,219 Ching-lyk 202 Ebi Lake (Ebinur) 194,196,198,261 Chinling Ejin 141,212 See Qinling Emin (Dorbiljin) 160 Chitai 156,183,279 Enshi 236 Seeals o Qitai Erenhot 143 Chiuchuan Ergun Zuoqi See Jiuquan See Genhe Chongli (Xiwanzi) 66 Ertix 211-212 Chongtein Ertix River 155,261 See Zhongdian Everest,Mt . 128 Chungwei () 143 Chuxian 81-82 D Faizabod 202 Fen River 74 DaHsuehShan 113 Formosa 236 Da'an County 37 Seeals o Taiwan Da-an 30 Fujian 219-220,236-237,242 DabaShan 271 Fujin 30,38 Dabie Mountains 74,81 Fukang 141,181 Daching Mountain 67,153 Fukang County 195 225 Fukien Dahuria 24 See Fujian Dairen 30 Funiu Mountains 74,77 Dalandzadgad 143,154 Fuyu 19 Fuyuan 19,38 See Dairen Fuyun (Koktokay) 141,155-157,181 Damxung 97,126 Fuzhou 219,221 Dandong (Antung) 19,30 G Danghe Nanshan 173 Dao-hsien County 230 Gan River 48,234 Darhan Muminggan United Banner Gandise Mountains 97,116,125,130 SeeBailingmia o Gansu 8,14,16,19,74-75,86-87,90-91,97,100- Datong 74 101,105-107,115,124,141-143,145-146,151-152, Daxue Mountains 11 171-172,174,187,190,201,214,261,267,269,275 DeleiRive r 110 Gaolan 152 Dengqen 123 238 Denning 110 GaoyouHu 82 Derong Basin 116 Gar (Gartok) 97,99,125,129-130, 267 Dianbai County 257 Garze 97,105-106 Dihang River 108,110 GashunGobi 207 Dirangzong 111 GashuunNur 207 Dong-Ujimqin 45 Gaxun Lake 188,190 Dongling Mountain 78 Gen River 48-51 Dongsheng 47 Gengma 239 Dongtai (Huyin) 73,75 Genhe 45-46 DongtingLake 220,233 Gerze 97,131 Dunhuang 141,143,171,181,192 Gobi Desert 141-143,148,155,189 Duolun (Dolonnur) 45-46,63 Golmud 97,141,143,181,183 Durbuk 133 Gongbo Gyamda 126

298 INDEX OF GEOGRAPHIC NAMES

Gongga (Minya Gongkar) 107 Hotan 141,143,171-172,181,183,212 Gongliu (Tokkuztara) 163 Hotan River 200-202,211 Gongzhuling 8,19, 30 Hoxud 168 Guancen Mountains 73-74 Hsiao-Hsueh,Mt . 248-251 Guangdong 219-220,222 ,236-237 , 241-248,257 , Hsing-Hsing-hsia 193 263 Huade 45 Guangming Ding Huai River 76,255 See Huang (Yellow) Mountain Huaiyang Mountains 74,219-220 Guangxi 8,219-220, 222,236-242,247,255, 263 Huajialing 88 Guangzhou 219,221,242 Huang (Yellow) Mountain 220 Guiping 239 Huang He 100 GuixiCount y 235 Seeals oYello w River Guiyang 219,221,229 Hubei 102,220,235-236 Guizhou 14,220-223 ,228-231,235-236,239 , 272 Huhetao 183 Gulja 160 HulunLake 147 See also Yining Hulunbuir 45-48,50 ,53,55,60-61,146-148 , 268, Gyemdong 126 279 Hunan 220,222-223,230-234, 242, 275-276 H Huocheng 181 Habahe 143,157 Hupeh 255 See Hubei Hailar 45-50,55 I Hailiut 143, 149 Hainan 220,222 ,236-238 ,241-242 , 244-246,248 , Ili 142,160 271 Ili Kazakh Autonomous Zhou 212 Hami 141,181,184,192-193,200, 207 Ili River 142,155,160-163,211-212,261 HamiBasi n 200,207-208,211-212 Indian Ocean 100,226 Hangayn Mountains 125,129 See Khangai Mountains Inner Mongolia 1,14,16-17,19-21, 24, 32,45-46, Hanggin 188 53-54, 56-62,64, 66-68,73-74 , 90,115,133,141- Hangzhou 219,221 146,154,181-182,188, 214,260-261 , 267-270,272 , HangzhouBay 255 275-279 Hantengri Mountain 166 Inner Plateau 16,46,97,99,120,126,131-133,135 Haibin 19,30 Seeals o Chang Tang Hebei 25,54,73-79,81-82, 255,259 Irrawaddy River 107-108,111,238 Hefei 73 Heilongjiang 20,22,26, 31, 35,42, 275 Helan Mountains 141-142,152-154 Jekundu 120 Helishan Mountain 190 Jeminay 141 Henan 74-77,79,81-82, 255,25 9 Jiangsu 7,74,76-77, 79,81-82,234, 236,255-259, Hengshan 73-74 263-265, 281, 283 Hetau (Hetao) 142,153,260 Jiangxi 220,222-223,234-235, 242 Hexi Corridor 142,145,172,174,183,185,190- Jiaolai River 33 192,200-201,211-212,275 Jiaxing 236 Hexingten Qi Jilin 8,260 SeeKeshiketen g (Jingpeng) 76 Himalayas 12,97-99,101,107-111,125,127-129, Jinan 73,75,221 133,141 JingRive r 90 HkakaboRazi Jinghe (Jing) 141,164,166 SeeKakarporaz i Mountain Jining 45,47,64 Hobq Desert 87,152 JinshaRiver 111, 114-115,226-227,239 Hoehot 45-47,63,148,191-192 Seeals oYangtz e River Hohhot 274,277 Jinxi County 257 See Hoehot Jiuquan 141,143,181,183,190-192 HongzeHu 82

299 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Junggar Pendi Kunes River 163 See Dzungaria Kunlun Mountains 97-98,130-134,141,168,170- Juud 24,146 172,182,184,200-201,206,209-210 Kunming 219,221,227-228 K Kuqa 168, 181,183, 212 Kaidu (Karaxahar) River 211 Kuruktag Mountains 207 Kakarporazi Mountain 108 Kuytun 181,197 Kangding 97,101,267 Kuyuan 45 Kapin 167 Kwangtung Karakax River 211 See Guangdong Karakoram Range 98,125, 129, 131-133,170 Kweichow Karamay 141,181-183 See Guizhou Karamay Lake 261 KyagarTso 134 Karlik Mountains 155,160,194, 198,20 7 Karze SeeGarze Labrang 97,107 Kashgar 182-183,206,212 LajiShan 107 Kashgaria 145,154-155,160,164,183-185,198, LamakLa 134 200, 202-203,205-209,211-212 , 260-261, 272 Lancang River 100, 111, 116,120,131,237, 239 Kashi 141,143,166, 181, 200 Lanzhou 8,11,75,97,133,141,191-192 Seeals o Kashgar Laoha River 33 Kawa Karpo Taniantawcng Mountains 108 Leichow Kaxgar SeeLeizho u Peninsula See Kashgar Leizhou Peninsula 220,237-238,242-246, 248 Kaxgar River 171,201,211 Leng Hu (Lake) 209 Kenchiyumpo Mountains 108 Lenghu 141,143,172,181 Keriya River 211 Lhasa 97,99 , 101,116,122,125-126 Keshiketeng (Jingpeng) 19 81 Khangai (Hangayn) Mountains 141 LiaoRive r 22,255,260 Kharaharin Ula Liaodong Peninsula 21,74-75,77, 79 See Longshan Liaoning 22, 27,79,255,257,259 Khingan Mountains, Great 11,19-24, 41, 45-48,52 , Lijiang (Likiang) 97,112 54-55,77,141,262,271 Un-Xi 24 Khingan Mountains, Lesser 20-22,26-27,42, 262 Lincang ..238 Khotan 212 Lindong 19,24 SeeHotan LitangRive r 114-115 Kiangsi Loess Plateau 11-12,16-17,19,65,73-76,83-84, See Jiangxi 86,88,92-94,230,259,269, 271-272, 274,278,283 Kinsha River Lohit River 107-108,110 SeeJinsh a River Longshan 141,146,148,152 Kirin 27,42 Longshou Mountain 190 See alsoJili n Longzhou 240 Kokonor (Qinghai) Lake 119-120,136 Lop Nor 192-193,200-202, 207-208 Kokonor Depression 173 Loulan 208 Korla 181 Luan River 54,255 Kuche Luliang Mountains 74 SeeKuqa Lunan County 227 Kuldja 160 Lunan Mountains 219 Seeals o Yining 81,90 Kuldja River 212 Luochuan 90 KumTagh 202 Luodiang County 229 Kumkatti 202 Luoma Hu 82 KumutageDeser t 207-208 Lupan Mountain 74,90 See also Kum Tagh Luxi (Mangshi) 238 Kunes 141,181

300 INDEX OF GEOGRAPHIC NAMES

M NiaoshuShan 107 Ningjing 108 Maidhe Ningxia 14,16,67,74,86-87,141-143,145-146, See Mianduhe 148,151-153,187,214,260,267 MalianJing 192 NominGobi 198 Manas 156 North China Plain 73-76,81,83,93 Manasarowar Lake Nujiang 100, 111, 116,120,131,222,239 See Maparn Yumco Seeals o Manchuria 19,42 Nuluerhu Mountain 21 Manzhouli 20,23,45,47 Nuomin (Nomin) Gobi 198 Maoming 245 Nurnu 157 Maowusu Desert 87 Nyainqentanglha Mountains 97,116,119,125-126 Mapam Yumco (Lake) 125,128 Nyalam 127 Markit 141,181 NygangRive r 126 Mazong Shan 183,186,193-194 Medog 97 O Mekong River 100,107-108,111 Ongniud Qi See also Lancang River SeeWuda n Menyuan 97,99,117-119 Ordos 16,83,86-87, 146-153, 184-185, 188, 190, Mianduhe 23,45 261,276-278 Miao Ling (Mountains) 239 Ordos Plateau 73,87 219,225 Min Shan 97,100,106,219 Orindag 52 Minqin 143,181 Orxon River 147 Mishmi 110 Otog 143 Otog Banner 146 Mongolia 8, 21, 24,28 ,38,144,154-155,183-184 , Otog County 277 194,206 ,209 , 276, 278 Outer Mongolia 31,46,67,143,145,181-182,188, Mongolian People's Republic 20,42,46,67-68, 196,198 142,154,181,278 Outer Plateau 16,97 , 99,120,127,129,131,133 Mongolian Plateau 20,23, 29,47,52,67,141 MoriRive r 197 Moyu (Karakax) 141,181 30 Paima Mountains 108 Muli 97,112 Pamir 97,131,141,166,169 38 Panggong Range 133 Muzat Mountain 168 Pangong Lake Muzat River 201,211 See Bangong Lake PanKiang 146 N Pearl River 219,255 Seeals o Zhujiang Na-chu Peishan 155,198,200 See Nagqu Seeals o Beishan Nagqu 97,99,116,122-123,133 Nagri 129 Peking Nangxian 126 See Beijing Nanjing 4,8,73,81,219 Peti 110 Nanking Pingliang 90 Piqan See Nanjing See Shanshan Nanling 12, 219-220,222,232,236,247,271 Nanning 219 Pishan 141,181 PoyangLake 220,234 Nanshan 97,173-174,190-191,194,211,232-233 Pulu 171 Nanyang-Choayang 82 Nanzhang 219 Puma Yumco (Lake) 125 Naqu 122 Narin-HuGobi 198 Nen (Nun) River 22, 29-31,33-34,260 Qaidam 182-185, 196-198,208-211 Nenjiang 19,30 Seeals oTsaida m

301 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Qamdo 97,99,101,115,121,126 SertangShan 173 Qarqan Sha River 81 See Qiemo Shaanxi 8,16,19, 74-76,79-81,86-91, 93-94, 259 Qarqan River 201,211 ShakyaLa 133 Qi-an County 37 Shandian River 54,61 Qian Mountains 21 Shandong 74-77,79,82,255, 259 239 Shanghai 73,219 Qiemo 141,170-171,181,200, 212 Shanshan (Piqan) 141,181 Qilian Mountains 97,116-117,119,135,142,171- Shanxi 16,19,73-75,77,79,81,83-87, 259 175,182,190-191,211,272 Shaoguan 242 Qimantag Mountains 210 Shaoyang Qinggil 157 See Baoqing River Seeals o Qinghe Shenyang 19,30 Qinghai 8,19,86,97,101,105-107,115-116,118- Shigatze 121,135-136,141,143, 214,263 ,267,269 , 272,277 - See Xigaze 279 Shijiazhuang 73 Qinghai Lake 117,119-120 Shuangjiang 239 Seeals o Kokonor Shugden 110 Qinghe 141,143,157,182 ShuleRive r 191,201,208 Seeals o Qinggil Shyok-Harong River 133 QingloCount y 89 Sichuan 1,7,11-12,14,97,99-102,104-105,107- Qingning County 91 108,112-116,219-222,224-225,235,263,265,278 Qinling (Chinling) 12,74,81,93 , 219-220,271 Simao QinYang 90 SeeXimao 219 Sitsang Plateau 123 Qiqihar 19,30-31 Sivatow Qitai 181,183,196 See Swatow See also Chitai Siziwang (Dorbod) Qi 65-66 Qjiangxi 234 SogoLake 188,190 Qomolonqma 22, 29-31, 33-34 SeeEverest ,Mt . Songpan 97,105 Qoqek 141-142,156,158, 211 Sonid 143,148 Seeals o Tacheng Soongaria Qumarleb 121 See Songhua South China Sea 5,219,241 R Suifenhe 20,23 Rabgola 127 Sunan 173 Red River 237-239 Sunghua Riukiu Islands 236 See Songhua RongToch u River 110 Sutlej River 125,129-130 RuoRive r 184,190-191 Swatow 243 RuoShu 212 Szechuan, see Sichuan 102 RuoShu i River 260 Ruoqiang (Qarkilik) 141,170-171,181, 200,212 Ruoxi River Tacheng 141-143,156,158,160,181, 211 See Ruo Shui Seeals o Qoqek Taching-Wula Mountains 146 TaghKum 202 Salween River 100,107-108,110-111,238 Taibai Mountain 93-94 Seeals o Nujiang TaibusCount y 278 Sanlim Lake 155 Taibus Qi SanWan 165 See Baochang Saur Range 155,158 Taihang Mountains 73-74,79,81 Selengel TaiheCount y 234 SeeXilingol Tainan 248

302 INDEX OF GEOGRAPHIC NAMES

Taipei 219,221,248 TumShuk 202 Taishan 74 TuotuoHeyan 97 Taiwan 219-220,222 ,236-237 , 247-252, 263 Turfan 141,143,181, 183, 200,207 ,26 2 Taiyuan 73,75 Turfan Basin 141,164, 200,207,211-212 Taklamakan Desert 181-183,185,200-204, 207, 211,260 See Turfan Takyr 197 U Tangar 120 97,116 Uch Turfan 212 Tangtse 133 Ujimqin 143 107 Ulan Bator 61,143 Tao'an 30 Ulan Buh Desert 152,185,187 Tarbagatay 142,154,158 Ulanhot 47 Tarbagatay Basin 197,199, 211-212 Ulanqab 45,54-55,61,65-66,144,146-150,268 Tarbagatay Mountains 155,157-158,160 UlungurRive r 196-197 Tarim Basin 142,182-183,186,200-202, 205,207, Urad 149-150 211,262 Urumqi 141,143,161,165-166,181-183,195,198 Tarim River 184,200-201 , 206, 208,26 0 Urungur River 197 Teh Xin County 235 UssuriRive r 38 Tekes 141,162,181 Usu 141,155 Tengger (Tengri) Desert 185-187 Uxin 47 TengriLake 131 Uyanga 52 Three Rivers Plain 16,19, 22,38 ,40 , 113,262-26 3 W Tianjin 259 Tianmu Mountain 220 38 Tianshan 131,141-142,154-157,160,164-169, Wanquan Basin 67 171,182,194,196-198, 206-207,211-212 , 261,270 Wanyuang 224 Tianshui 8 Wei River 76,93,259 Tibet 1,97,99-101,107,110-111,115,128-129, Weichang 25 133-135,143,145,170,209,219,250,262, 268, Weining County 230-231 272, 277 WeishanHu 82 Tibetan Plateau 11,13-14,16-17,76,97-101,106, Wenchuan County 225 115-116,124,128,134-136,141,145,185, 208,219 - Wensu 164 220, 263,267-26 9 West Liao (XiLiao ) River 22,29-30,33,35-36 Tingri 127 Wongmute County 275 Tokkuztara Wonguite 36 See Gongliu Wudan 24 Toksu River 201 Wugong 8 Toksun 181,183, 207 Wuhan 219 Tomur,Mt . 164,166 Wulanhua (Siziwang Qi) 45 Tongbai Mountains 74,81 77 Tongliao 19,21,47 Wushaoling 190 Tongtian River 116,121 Wushen County 90 Tongwei Wutai Mountain 73,79-80,83-84,86 See Huajaling Wuwei 141,171,181,190 Toxkan River 211 WuyiShan 220 Tsaidam 16,116,145,172, 261-262 Tsaidam Basin 141-142,172, 261 See alsoQaida m Xar Manor River 33 Tsangpo River 98,100,107-108,110,116,125- XiLia o River 127,129-130 Seeals oWes t Liao River Tsinan Xi-Ujimqin 45-46 SeeJina n Xiahe Tsitsihar See Labrang SeeQiqiha r Xian 73,75,221

303 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Xianghuang Qi County 277 Yenmakui 183 Xiantan County 230 Yi River 81 Xiao Wutai Mountains 73 Yilan 19 Xiaoxiang Mountains 219 Yinchuan 73,141,143,153 Xigaze 97,125 Yining 141,143,160,181 Xijiang 219,239 Seeals oGulja , Kuldja Xikong 1 Yinshan 20,45-47,54-55,61,63,65,67,141,146 Xilin River 57 239 Xilingol 45,52,55-61,146-150,279 Xilinhot 19,21 , 45-48,56,58-59 See Red River Seeals o Abagnar Qi Yucheng 259 Ximao 238 Yuli 200 Xin Kai River 33 Yulin 88,242 Xinghai 97,119 Yulongxue Shan 112 Xining 8,97,133 Yumen 143,171,191 Xinjiang 1,14,16,47,141-143,145-146,154-156, Yun-Gui Plateau 220,228 160,162,167,169-171,182-183,195,200,204-205, Yuncheng 74,85 211-214,267-270,272,277,279 Yunnan 8,14,97,100-101,107-108,110-115, 219- Xinjiang UygurAutonomou s Region 154,159,161, 223,226-228,230, 236-239,242,272 182,267 YuntaiMountain s 79 Xinyuan Yunwu Mountain 73 SeeKunes YurtusBasi n 167 Xiqing Mountains 106,135 Yushu (Jye-Kundo) 97,115,121,125 Xisungbana 239 Yutian (Kenya) 141,171,181 Xuanhan 224 Xuguit Qi See Yakeshi Zalantun 19,21,30 Xuzhou (Hsuehow) 73,75 Zanda (Tolling) 130 Zangbo SeeTsangp o River Ya-an 225 Zanskar Mountains 134 Yadong 99,111 Zayu Yak-Kukuk 205 See Zayul Yakeshi 19,21,45 Zayul (Gyigang) 97,110 114 ZayulRive r 110 Yan-an 73,87-89 Zhangbei 45 Yanchi Hsien 152 Zhangjiakou (Kaigan) 45,61,66-67,146 Yangshu County 230 Zhangye 141,181,190-192 Yangtze River 6,12,14,107-108,111-112,114- 242 116,120-121,131,219-220,222,234,236, 255,263- Zhaosu (Monggolkire) 164 264,271 Zhaozhou 37 Seeals o Changjiang Zhejiang 7,219-220,222,236,255, 257-258,264 Yanqi 166 Zhengxiangbai (Qagan Nur) 45 Yanshan 45-47,54,66,73,75,77,141 Zhengzhou 73 YanzhoLake 125 Zhongdian 97,112 Yarkant 201,212 Zhongqing 219 Yarkant River 171,201,211 74 Yarlung Zhongwei See Tsangpo River See Chungwei Yecheng(Kargilik ) 141,181 Zhujiang 248 Yellow River 74-76,82,87,93,100,107,116,119, Seeals oPear l River 131,142,152-153,255,259-260,278 Zinenquan 165 5,73-74,76 Zoige 97,105-106 Yen Mountains 20,24 Yengisahr 202

304 INDEX OF SCIENTIFIC PLANT NAMES

Agropyroncapillari s 81 Agropyron chinensis 213 Abeliabiflor a 77 Agropyron cristatum 21, 25-26, 33-34, 41, 51, 54, Abiesgeorge i 113 56-57,60,63,65,67-68,85-87,117,136,147-149,152, Abiesgeorge i var.smithi i 126 154,156-157,165,168,172,213 Abies kawakamii 249,2S 1 Agropyron czimganicum 213 Abies spp. 78,101,103,111-112, 226, 269 Agropyron desertorum 57,68,136,148-149,209,213 Abieswebbian a 103 154 Acacia farnesiana 237,239 Agropyron geniculatum 63 Acaciaspp . 283 Agropyron komarovii 213 Acanthaceae 108 Agropyron longearistatum 63 Acantholimon 204 Agropyron macralepis 213 Acantholimon diapensioides 132 Agropyron mongolicum 68,149,186,213 Acantholimon lycopodioides 130 Agropyron pectiniforme 166,213 Acanthopanax giraldii 92 Agropyron propinquum 213 Acerspp . 78,117,175,269 Agropyron pseudoagropyron 63 Achillea acuminata 64 Agropyron repens 209,213 Achillea millefolium 163,165-166 Agropyron schrenkianum 213 Achnatherum 168,189 Agropyron semicostatum 82,225 Achnatherum avinoides 23,26 Agropyron sibiricum 68,122,213 Achnatherum chingii 113,115,226 Agropyron spp. 23,55,63,67-69,77,85,89,94,103, Achnatherum extremioriental e 107,119 107,125,164,169,171,183, 213,225,268-269,273 Achnatherum sibiricum 23 Agropyron thoroldianum 132 Achnatherum splendens 26, 34, 60, 63,68 , 88, 119, Agropyron turczaninovii 213 136,147,152-153,168-170, 174, 183, 187, 190,209 - Agrostis alashanica 213 211,260,262 Agrostis alba 23,26 ,41,64-65,68 , 85,161, 213 Achnatherum spp. 69,270,273 Agrostiscanin a 213 Aconitum gymanandrum 118 Agrostis capillaris 213 Aconitum songaricum 160 Agrostis clavata 33-34 Aconitum spp. 54,107,115,121,154,225 Agrostis telodendron 33 Acrocarpus spp. 110 Agrostis hissarica 213 Adenophora elata 232 Agrostis mongolica 68 Adenophora pereskiifolia 260 Agrostis morrisonensis 249 Adenophora spp. 32,52 Agrostis perlaxa 113,213 Aegopodium podagraria 162-163 Agrostis sikkimensis 109 Aegopodium spp. 163 Agrostis spp. 58,69,164,213,250,273 Aeluropus littoralis 82,184,193, 207,256, 259-260, Agrostis stolonifera 86,213,259 262 Agrostis tenuis 213 Aeluropus littoralisvar . sinensis 189,256-257 Agrostis trinii 54,68,213 Aeluropus scoparia 82 Agrostis turkestanica 213 Aeschynanthus spp. 108 Ajania achilleoides 149-151,173,186,189,194 Agrimonia pilosa 77,85,163 Ajania fastigiata 173 Agriophyllum arenarium 34, 61,87 , 152, 183, 187, Ajania fruticulosa 130,132,151-152,194 189-190,207-208 Ajania scharnhorstii 172 Agriophyllum gobicum 183-184 Ajania spp. 67,149-150,170 Agriophyllum spp. 259 Ajania trifida 149-150 Agriophyllum squarrosum 37,82,208 Albizzia procera 244 Agropyron abolinii 213 Albizziaspp. 225 Agropyron angustiglumis 213 Alchemilla spp. 130,160 Agropyron batalinii 213 Alchemilla vulgaris 166 Agropyron breviglumis 85 Aletris foliata var. glabra 249

305 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Alhagi kirghisorum 195 Anaphalis morrisonicola 249 Alhagipseudalhag i 183-184 Anaphalis nepalensis 109 Alhagipseudoalhagi 88,192,262 Anaphalis spp. 103-106,115,118,158,269 Alhagisparsifoli a 193,195,202, 207-208 Anaphalis xylorhiza 127 Alhagispp . 214 Andropogon chinensis 248 Alisma orientale 263 Andropogon spp. 85,109,125-126,240,242 Allium anisopodium 150 Andropogon yunnanensis 116,226-227 Allium cyaneum 175 Androsace alashanica 121 Allium jacquemontii 131 Androsace selago 127 Allium japonicum 229 Androsace spp. 117,127 Allium mongolicum 145,147-151,185,188-190,193 Androsace squarrosa 171 Allium odorum 56 Androsace tapete 123,126-127 Allium oreoprasum 171 Aneilema spp. 241 Allium polyrrhizum 69,148-149,151,154,157,172- Anemarrhena asphodeloides 32,65 173,185-186,189,194, 200 Anemone dichotoma 39 Allium prattii 93 Anemone imbricata 127 Allium przewalskii 173 Anemone narcissiflora 127 Allium rubcns 166 Anemonenarcissifloroide s 157 Allium sacculiferum 56,154 Anemoneobtusilob a 105-106 Allium semenovii 131 Anemonerupicol a 110 Allium senesoens 85,131 Anemonespp . 54,107,110,112,115, 225,22 7 Allium spp. 56, 58-60, 67-69, 80, 88, 99, 110, 112, Anemonetomentos a 79 117, 123, 129-130, 132, 147-151, 153, 156-157, 168, Anemone udensis 39 171,175,183, 203,214,269 , 273 Angelica spp. 40 Allium tenuissimum 23,147,150 Anisodus tanguticus 126 Alnushirsuta 39 Anisopappus chinensis 240 Alnusyunnanensi s 227 Anthoxanthum hookeri 109,115 Alopecurus aequalis 68,232,234 Anthoxanthum odoratum 166 Alopecurus brachystadiys 68 Antidesma ghaesinbilla 245 Alopecurus pratensis 68,157,161,166 Apocynum andersonii 206 Alopecurus songaricus 158,160 Apocynumspp. 205-206 Alopecurus spp. 27,82,165,171, 273 Apocynum venetum 210 Alopecurus ventricosus 161 Apophyllum dahuricum 167 Alpinia platychilus 239 Aporusa angustifolia 244 Alternanthera philoxeroides 264 Aporusa chinensis 238,24 5 Alysicarpus vaginalis 244 Araceae 262 Alyssum desertorum 159,165,199 Araliaceae 108 Amaranthaceae 242 Arenaria formosa 175 Amaranthus viridis 234 Arenaria holosteoides 132 Ammopiptanthusmongolicu s 151,184-185,188 Arenariajunce a 23 Ammopiptanthusnanu s 145,167,202 Arenaria kansuensis 105,174,210 Ammopiptanthus spp. 185,188 Arenaria monticola 127,132 Amorpha fruticosa 82 Arenaria musciformis 122-123,126,132,173 Amphicomespp . 103 Arenaria polytrichoides 121,127 Amygdalus ledebouriana 157,160 Arenaria przewalskii 126 Amygdalus mongolica 145,193-194 Arenaria pulvinata 127,172,174 Anabasisaphyll a 145,167,195,197-198,202,206 Arenaria spp. 127,129 Anabasis borotalensis 197 Arisaema Wilsonii 112 Anabasisbrevifoli a 167,186,188,193-194,197-198, Aristida adscensionis 68,88,150-151,153,183,190, 202, 206, 208 197 Anabasis eriopoda 198 Aristida alpina 126 Anabasissals a 195,197-198,261 Aristida brevissima 125 Anabasisspp . 171,188,205,214 Aristida chinensis 237-238, 244,247-248 Anabasis truncata 167,202 Aristida pennata 191,196-197,207-208 Anaphalis lactea 136,173

306 INDEX OF SCIENTIFIC PLANT NAMES

Aristida spp. 111, 126-127, 201,225 ,240 , 242,268 , Artemisia schrenkiana 165 273 Artemisia scoparia 24,59-60,69,136,147-153 Aristida triseta 99,125-127 Artemisia selengensis 34 Aristida tsangpoensis 125-126,136 Artemisia sericea 158 Armeniaca sibirica 23 Artemisia sieversiana 65-66 Armenica sibirica 34 Artemisia sieversiana var. acaulis 107 Arnebia spp. 203 Artemisia sphaerocephala 152, 184, 187, 189, 191, elatius 94 193 Artemisia 31-32,50,201 Artemisia spp. 26,29,54,58-59,61,67-69,78-79,87, Artemisia altaica 117 89,99,103,106-107, 111, 119,121-122,126-128,132, Artemisia anethifolia 33-34, 37-38, 65, 81,87 , 190, 145, 149-151, 156, 160-161, 165, 167-170, 172-173, 193,259 184, 189-190, 196-200, 204, 214, 225, 229, 233-234, Artemisia anethoides 147 269-270,277 Artemisia apiacea 229 Artemisia sublessingiana 159,165 Artemisia arenaria 26,197 Artemisia terrae-albae 196-198 Artemisia argyi 89 Artemisia vulgaris 81,170,225 Artemisia austriaca 165 Artemisia Wellbyi 126,130,132 Artemisia borotalensis 197, 261 Artemisia xerophytica 152,172-173,184,186,189 Artemisia capillaris 63,66,82,89,117,191,256-257 Artemisia younghusbandii 130 Artemisia capillarisvar . acaulis 107 Arthraxon hispidus 77,92,225 Artemisia commutata 147,151 Arthraxon lanceolatus 224-225 Artemisia dalai-lamae 107,151-152,173 ArundineUaanomal a 20,81,229,234,241 Artemisia desertorum 119,121 Arundinella bengalensis 239 Artemisia frigida 21,26,33,36,48,55-57,59-61,63, ArundineUa chenii 115 65-66, 69, 87, 92, 117, 147-151, 153-154, 156-157, Arundinella cochinchinensis 239 165,168,173,184,189-190,201,209,277 Arundinella decempedalis 237,239 Artemisia fruticosa 65 Arundinella hirta 20,23,26,29,32-34,41,48,55,65, Artemisia giraldii 88,90,92 67, 77,79,81,88,90 , 224-225,227 ,229 ,231 , 233 Artemisia gmelinii 23-24,48,54,69,79,81,151 Arundinella hookeri 125-126 Artemisia gracilescens 156,159 Arundinella nepalensis 246, 248 Artemisia halodendron 26,34,61,88,183 Arundinella setosa 81,238 Artemisia integrifolia 32 Arundinella spp. 20,32-33,109, 222, 225,232-233 , Artemisia japonica 24,32,81,225 238-239, 248,269,273 Artemisia kashgarica 197, 202 134 Artemisia laciniata 33,53,55,173 Asparagus gilbus 153 Artemisia lactiflora 32 Asparagus gobicus 149-151 Artemisia lessingiana 159 Asparagus scaberrimus 150 Artemisia macrocephala 34,119,149 Asparagus spp. 149-150,203 Artemisia maritima 165,168,195 Asperella duthiei 109,115 Artemisia mattfeldii 128 Asperula aparine 163 Artemisia minor 130,132 Aster ageratoides 80, 85 Artemisia mongolica 87 Aster alpinus 166 Artemisia moorcroftiana 107 Asteraltaicu s 32,92,121,153,165,193 Artemisia ordosic 90 Asterdiplostrephioide s 118 Artemisia ordosica 60, 69, 87, 147, 152, 184, 187, Asterfrutescen s 111,113 189-190 Aster spp. 54,65, 67,80 ,82,85,103,106-107 , 115, Artemisia parvula 171 127,166,225,269 Artemisia pectinata 119,149-151,168,184 Aster tataricus 229 Artemisia rhodantha 170 Asterothamnuscentraliasiaticu s 184,193,198, 209 Artemisia rutifolia 170 Asterothamnusfruticosu s 184,202,206 Artemisia sacrorum 23,25-26 , 65-66, 79-80, 85,88 , Asterothamnus spp. 171,175,184 90-92,130,225 Astilbe chinensis 78 Artemisia salsoloides 88,125,130,183,193 Astragalusadsurgen s 23,26,29,41,51,54-55,63,67, Artemisia salsoloidesvar . Wellbyi 132 69,86,94,213,275 Artemisia schischkinii 197 Astragalus arnoldii 132

307 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Astragalus cicer 94 Berberisvulgari s 65 Astragalus dahuricus 54, 86 Betula albosinensis 175 Astragalus ellipsoidens 169 Betula dahurica 22,26 Astragalus galactites 60,147-148 Betula fruticosa 24, 52,161,262 Astragalus gobicus 149 Betula humilis 164 Astragalus hendersonii 132 Betulajaponic a 175 Astragalus heydei 132 Betula platyphylla 21-26,39 ,48 ,5 5 Astragalus malcolmii 132 Betula spp. 39,54,64-65, 67,76 ,78 , 117 Astragalus melilotoides 41,56,60,65,147 Bidens parviflora 81 Astragalus membranaceus 41 Bidens tripartita 24 Astragalus polycladus 122 Blechnum orientale 239 Astragalus scaberrimus 41,152,234 Blymuscompressu s 129 Astragalussinicu s 7,225,236,256 Blymus sinoœmpressus 107,118-119,122,136 Astragalus spp. 27,32,56,60, 69,99,106,110,117, Blymusspp . 122 119, 121,123,131-132 , 136, 147, 157, 161,165-166 , Bolboschoenus affinis 191,261 168-170,175,184,202, 204,269 , 273 Bolboschoenus compactus 24 Astragalus strictus 130 Bolboschoenus maritimu s 34,5 1 Astragalus tanguticus 116, 129,22 6 Bombax malabarica 237,239 Astragalus tenuis 32 Boraginaceae 162, 203 Astragalus tibetanus 125 Bothriochloa ischaemum 76-81, 85,88,90-9 2 Astragalus tribulifolium 130 Bothriochloa spp. 33,88 , 163, 225,237 , 269, 273 Astragalus uliginosus 41 Brachanthemum 154 Astragalus yunanensis 127 Brachanthemum gobicum 154 Atractylischinensi s 23 Brachanthemum mongolicum 194 Atractylodes chinensis 79 Brachanthemum nanshanicum 172,191 Atraphaxis buxifolia 193 Brachiaria spp. 250 Atraphaxis frutescens 152,156,160,184 Brachypodium kawakamii 249 Atraphaxis mongolica 193 Brachypodium pinnatum 165 Atraphaxis pungens 184 Brachypodium sylvaticum 93,162-164 Atraphaxis spp. 168,20 4 Brassica campestris var. Rapa 103 Atriplex cana 195 Breynia fruticosa 244-245 Atriplex littoralis 189 Bromu sbenekeni i 162-163 Atriplex roseum 86 Bromu scatharticu s 213 Atriplex sibirica 153,184 Bromus gracillimus 130,136 Atriplex spp. 205,214,283 Bromus inermis 41,54,63,65,67-68,77,80, 84-86, Avena sativa 103 89, 91, 94,122,154,157,160-161,164-166,169-170, Avena spp. 119,227 213,225 Avena subspicata 132 Bromus inermisvar . longiflorus 85-86 Azolla imbricata 265 Bromus ircutensis 68 Azolla spp. 265 Bromusjaponicu s 81,213,229 Bromus oxyodon 213 B Bromus secalinus 199,213 Baeckea frutescens 238,24 4 Bromus Sewertezowii 213 Bambusa spp. 239 Bromus spp. 27,58, 67,69,103, 107,130,161, 213, Bambusoideae 134 268,273 Bassia dasyphylla 87-88,152 Bromus tectorum 165,21 3 Bassia spp. 260 Bromus tylolepis 213 Batrachium trichophyllum 265 Buchanania microphylla 244 Bauhinia spp. 110, 225 Buddleja alternifolia 92 Beckmannia erucaeformis 263 Buddleja spp. 107 Beckmannia syzigachne 41 Bupleurum chinensis 81 Berberis heteropoda 157-158 Bupleurum condensatum 118 Berberiskawakami i 249 Bupleurum scorzonerifolium 23,33,55,85,154 Berberis spp. 102-104,107,226 Bupleurum spp. 23,55-56, 65,147-148 Berberis thunbergii 107

308 INDEX OF SCIENTIFIC PLANT NAMES

Caragana leucophloea 157,193 Caragana litwinowii 61 Caesalpinia sepiaria 229 Caragana melanocarpa 158 Calamagrostisangustifoli a 24 Caragana microphylla 21,26 , 29,33 ,48 , 57-58, 61- Calamagrostis arundinacea 161 62,65,92,147-148,150,152-153,184 Calamagrostis chinensis 32 Caragana polyphylla 21 Calamagrostis emodensis 109,125-126 Caragana pygmaea 62,149-150,153,184 Calamagrostis epigeios 24, 26,31-34 , 37, 40-41,48 , Caragana rosea 79 54, 64,68,81,85 , 88-89,189, 260 Caragana spinosa 62 Calamagrostis giganlea 54,68 Caragana spp. 62, 69, 88, 91, 116, 128-130, 136, Calamagrostis hirsuta 40,260 147-148, 150,158, 165, 168, 183-184, 190, 194, 198, Calamagrostis langsdorfii 23-24,40,50-51 205,207,214,226,269,273,275 Calamagrostis macilenta 210 Caragana stenophylla 29,150-151,158 Calamagrostis meyeriana 24 Caragana tibetica 115,150,185 Calamagrostis pseudophragmites 41, 68, 187, 198, Caragana versicolor 128-130 200, 206,210 , 260-261 Carex alpina 159 Calamagrostisspp . 27,32, 38,40, 51-52, 67,69,103, Carex arnellii 54 164,184, 206-207, 232, 260,269 , 273 Carex aterrima 210 Calamus spp. 108 Carex atrata 158 Callianthemum pimpinelloides 127 Carex atrata var. glacialis 127,130 Callicarpa longifolia var. lanceolata 246 Carex atrofusca 107,118,127 Calligonum aphyllum 184 Carex caespitosa 158 Calligonum caput-medusae 184 Carex ciliatomarginata 77 Calligonum kashgaricum 171 Carex coriophora 54 Calligonum mongolicum 183,187-189,191,193-194, Carex crebra 136 196,201,206,208 Carex distans 259 Calligonum roborovskii 202 Carex duriuscula 31,34,56,59-60,69,147,156 Calligonum spp. 145,184,197,201, 204, 207, 214 Carex filiformis 107 Calligonum zaidamense 191,209-210 Carex globularis 262 Calophaca hovenii 160 Carex heterostachys 136 Calophaca sinica 156 Carex humilis 77 Calophyllum inophyllum 244 Carex inanona 119 Calotropis gigantea 239 Carex kansuensis 93 Caltha fistulosa 225 Carex kawakamii 249 Caltha palustris 40 Carex kobomugi 259 Caltha spp. 106,115 Carex lactea 109,130 Calystegia hederacea 259 Carex lanceolata 20,48, 77,79-81,92,107 Camelba cassidata 234 Carex lasiocarpa 40, 263 Camellia oleosa 233 Carex lemosa 263 Campanula glomerata 168 Carex melanantha 158,169 Campanul a grandiflorum 111 Carex melanocephala 158 Campanul a sacicola 113 Carex meyeriana 39-40,107,262-263 Campanula spp. 111 Carex microglochin 168 Campylotropismacrocarp a 26,85 Carex moorcroftii 117-118,127,130,132,136 Cancrinia maximoviczii 191 Carex muliensis 263 Capillipedium assimile 231-232 Carex nitida 165 Capillipedium glaucopsis 240-241 Carex ortnostachys 34 Capillipedium parviflorum 225,238-240,245 Carex oxyleuca 129 Capparisspinos a 130,184,207 Carex pachystylis 197-199 Capsellaspp. 131,234 Carex pallida 54 Capsella thomsoni 132 Carex pamirensis 118 Caragana brachypoda 149,188-189 Carex parva 93 Caragana bungei 184 Carex pauciflora 158 Caragana frutescens 156-157,160,184 Carex pediformis 20, 23, 48, 51, 54-55, 69, 157, Caraganajubat a 107,115,118,153,174 165-166 Caraganakorshinski i 92,145,149,152,184,190-191

309 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Carex physodes 156,198-199,261 Chenopodiaceae 186, 194, 198,200 , 209, 242, 259, Carex pseudocuraica 40 269 Carex mgulosa 263 Chenopodium acuminatum 82 Carex scabrifolia 256-257 Chenopodium album 82,165,170,234,259 Carex scabriostis 119,122 Chenopodium glaucum 169,259 Carexschmidti i 24,40,262 Chenopodium spp. 86,168,187, 259 Carex siderosticha 77 Chionanthus chinensis 108 Carex spp. 23-24, 26, 33-34, 38-40, 50, 54-55, 57, Chlorisgayan a 250 59-60,64,69,77,80-85,89-93,105-106,109-110,112, Chlorissetari a 58 115,117-119,123,126-127,130, 132,147, 149,151, Chlorisspp . 38,82,161,225,273 153, 160-161, 164-165, 167, 169-172, 186-187, 191, Chlorisvirgat a 31,38,82,149,189 193,225-226,232,256,259-263,269,273 Chlorisvividi s 225 Carex stenocarpa 166 Choerospondias spp. 76 Carex stenophylla 121,186 Chondrilla spp. 204 Carex subpediformis 77,79 Chorispora tenella 199 Carex tato 39 Christia obcordata 247 Carex ulobasis 24 Chrysanthemum gracilis 153 Caryopterismongolic a 151,184,193 Chrysanthemum rotundifolium 85 Caryota spp. 108 Chrysanthemum spp. 80,154 Cassia mimosoides 234,241,244 Chrysanthemum tatsienense 127 Cassiope myosuroides 110 Chrysopogon aciculatus 238,241 Cassiope palpebrata 111,113 Cicer arietinum 213 Cassiopewardi i 109-110,126 Cicer flexuosum 213 Castanea spp. 269 Cicerjacquemonti i 214 Castanopsisdelavay i 227 Cicersongaricu m 214 Castanopsishenry i 229 Cicutaspp. 40 Castanopsis hystrix 239 Cimicifuga palmata 24 Castanopsissequini i 229 Cinnamomum camphora 229 Castanopsis spp. 222 Cirsium bolocephalum 126 Cenchrusciliari s 250 Cirsium kawakamii 249 Centaurea atropurpurea 210,261 Cirsium palustre 161 Centaurea monantha 65 Cirsium spp. 89,170 Centaurea stachya 161 Claratiaspp. 29 Centrosema pubescens 251 Cleistogenes chinensis 32,41 Cerasus humilis 33 Cleistogenes epigeios 24,26 Cerasus tianshanica 156 Cleistogenes mutica 149-152,186 Ceratocarpusarenariu s 200 Cleistogenes serotina 78,89 Ceratocarpus spp. 159 Cleistogenes songarica 209 Ceratocarpus turkestanicus 200 Cleistogenes spp. 33, 54, 67, 69, 79, 147-150, 156, Ceratoidesœmpact a 132,171-173 269,273 Ceratoides latens 130,132,157,167,172,194, 209- Cleistogenes squarrosa 20-21, 23-27, 32-34, 41,48 , 210 54-56,59-60,68,79-80,85,91,147-150,153,156,168, Ceratoides papposa 131 189-190 Ceratoides spp. 132,161,170,214 Clematisaethusiaefoli a 65 Ceratophyllum demersum 265 Clematisangustifoli a 65 Ceratostigma griffithii 108 Clematis fusca var.violace a 24 Ceratostigma minus 126-127 Clematishexapetal a 23,33,55 Chamaecyparistaiwanensi s 251 Clematisorientali s 260 Chamaedaphnecalyculat a 24 Clematissongaric a 193 Chamaenerion angustifolium 24 Clematisspp . 103,107 Chamaesium paradoxum 263 Clerodendron Bungei 233 Charaspp. 210 Clerodendroncyrtophyllu m 238,241 Cheiranthus himalayensis 132 Climacoptera afflnis 200 Chenolea mollis 61 Climacoptera bracheata 200 Climacoptera ferganica 200

310 INDEX OF SCIENTIFIC PLANT NAMES

Climacoptera subcrassa 200 Crotalaria spp. 234,238 Clinelymusdahuricu s 23-24,33-34,41,55,64,68,85, Croton crassifolius 244 169-170 Cruciferae 99,103,115,162,169,184,203 Clinelymus nutans 105-107,117,121,130 Crypsis aculeata 259 Clinelymus sibiricus 105-106,158 Cucurbita pepo 265 Clinelymus spp. 136,169 Cudrania tricuspidata 82 Cochlearia himalaica 131 Cunninghami a lanceolata 234 Colocasia esculenta 265 Cunninghami aspp . 102 Colocasia spp. 111 Cupressusgigante a 126 Colpodium humile 199 Cyananthus incanus 113 Coluria longifolia 118 Cyananthus spp. 227 Coluria tenellum 118 Cymbaria dahurica 56,59-60,65,147-149 Colutea arboresoens 130 Cymbaria mongolica 152 Comarum palustre 40,262 Cymbopogon 237 Comostoma pulmanaria 118 Cymbopogon caesius 240, 244-248 Compositae 29-30,33,37, 56,63,65,67,85,90, 99, Cymbopogon goeringii 81 103,148,150,162,169,184,186,194,204,209,226, Cymbopogon oliveri 130 237, 242, 269 Cymbopogon spp. 109,125-126, 238-239, 241,244 , Convolvulaceae 186,203,265 273 Convolvulus ammanii 31, 117, 147-151, 154, 157, Cymbopogon tortilis 79,245 198 Cynanchum pubescens 184,260 Convolvulus gortschakovii 165,184,188 Cynodon dactylon 77,81-83,161,225,232,234,241, Convolvulus spp. 203 244,247,251,260 Convolvulus tragacanthoides 87,145,153,184 Cynodon spp. 269,273 Convolvulus traganthoides 185 Cyperaceae 30,99,209,226,237,242,244,259,262, Conyza canadensis 82 269 Coriaria sinica 229 Cyperus rotundus 89,225,246 Corispermum declinatum 187,189-190 Cyperus spp. 40,105, 225,234,242,260 , 277 Corispermum hyptapotanicum 200 Cyripedium tibeticum 105 Corispermum hyssopifolium 82,208 Cyrtococcum accrcscens 110 Corispermum spp. 34, 82,151,187,190,207 D Corispermum tibeticum 130 Corispermum tylocarpum 152 Dactylis glomerata 94, 158, 160-161, 163-165, 169, Comulaca spp. 260 213,225,237,275 Coronilla varia 87,94 Dactylis spp. 213,273 Corydalis camulicarpa 249 Dactyloctenium aegyptiacum 234 Corydalissikkimensi s 126 Danthonia cachemyriana 136 Corydalis spp. 175 Danthonia schneiden 127 Corylus davidiana 26 Daphne spp. 175 Corylus heterophylla 21-23,26,48,79,81,92 Dasiphora fruticosa 118,136,174 Corylus mandshurica 65 Dasiphora fruticosa var. tanguica 172 Corylus spp. 54,65-66,117,175,269 Deliphinium spp. 107 Cotinuscoggyri a 79 Delphinium brunonianum 132 Cotoneaster acutifolius 79 Delphinium confusum 160 Cotoneaster divaricatus 158 Delphinium glacialis 132 Cotoneaster horizontalis 115 Delphinium spp. 53-54,67,103,107,115,121 Cotoneaster melanocarpus 166,189 Delphinum grandiflorum 154 Cotoneaster spp. 90,164,194,269 Dendranthema indicum 81 Cotoneaster uniflora 158 Denis spp. 110 Cranosperm echinoides 156 Deschampsia caespitosa 107,168,249 Crataegusdahuric a 48 Deschampsia littoralis 93 Cratoxylon ligustrinum 238,241,244 Deschampsia spp. 109,115,119,123-124,136,248 Cremanthodium spp. 103,105-106,110,112,115 Desmodium aparines 251 Crépisspp . 103,115 Desmodium dunnii 246 Crotalariajunce a 82 Desmodium heterophyllum 245

311 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Desmodium reticulatum 244 Duchesnea indica 80,85 Desmodium spp. 225,234 ,238 ,241 , 269,273 Dunbaria villosa 234 Deutzia grandiflora 79 Duthiea brachypodiu m 126 Deyeuxia angustifolia 23,26-27,34,39-41,55, 263 E Deyeuxia arundinacea 77,81,93, 224 Deyeuxia arundinacea var. laxiflora 93 Echinochloa crusgalli 26, 41,82-83 , 225, 232, 234, Deyeuxia langsdorfii 80 259,263,265 Deyeuxia linshensis 125-126,136 Echinochloa spp. 259,273 Deyeuxia scabrescens 107,116,119,226 Echinopsgmelini i 150 Deyeuxia spp. 23,39-40,111,115, 263,269,27 3 Echinons latifolius 151,153,189 Deyeuxia sylvatica 79,84-85,109 Echinops spp. 165,168,204 Deyeuxia tibetica 109,136 Echinopsilon divaricatum 149,200 Deyeuxia zangxiensis 109 Echinospermum spp. 203 Diandranthusspp . 126 Ehretia microphylla 244 Diandranthus taylorii 125 Eichhomiacrassipe s 264 Diandranthus tibeticus 109,125 Elaeagnusangusüfoli a 184,190, 260-261 Dianthusamurensi s 79 Elaeagnus moorcroftii 194,260 Dianthus chinensis 56,150,154 Elaeagnus pungens 77 Dianthusversicolo r 24 Elaeagnus umbellata 81 Diapensia himalaica 109 Eleocharis acicularis 259 Dichanthium annulatum 225 Eleocharis pauciflora 129 Dicranopteris dichotoma 224, 245 Eleocharisspp . 153 Dicranopteris linearis 241-242, 245 Elephantopus scaber 241 Dicranopteris spp. 232 Elephantopus tomentosus 247 Dicranostigma leptopodum 81 Eleusinecoracan a 126 Digitaria chinensis 241 Eleusine indica 82-83,234 Digitaria ciliaris 41,59 Eleusine spp. 111,273 Digitariaclandestinu m 251 Elymusarenariu s 26,61 Digitaria decumbens 251 Elymus chinensis 213 Digitaria ischaeraum 82,213 Elymuscylindricu s 51 Digitaria longiflora 244,248 Elymusdahuricu s 65,80,84-86 Digitaria sanguinalis 79, 82-S3, 213, 225, 232, 234, Elymusdahuricu svar . oblongifolia 85 244, 248, 259, 263 Elymusdasystachy s 63,213,261 Digitaria spp. 213,238,269,273 Elymusgiganteu s 213 Digitaria violascens 213,247 Elymusjunceu s 94,132,165,195 Dillenia pentagyna 246 Elymus lanuginosus 132 Dilleniaspp. 237-238 Elymus nutans 118-119 Diplachne serotina 63 Elymus paboanus 213 Diplachne squarrosa 26 Elymus regelii 213 Dipterocarpaceae 248 Elymussibiricu s 68, 80,85-86,118 , 169 Dipterocarpus spp. 108 Elymusspp . 27,67,103,109,115,168,213,269,273 Dodartia orientalis 184 Elymus tianshanicus 213 Dodonaea viscosa 238,244-245 Engelhardia chrysolepis 238 Dontostemon dentatus 59-60,147-148 Engelhardia spp. 108 Dontostemon spp. 205 Ephedra arbuscula 115 Drabaoreades 112 Ephedra distachya 131 Drabaspp. 110,165 Ephedra equisetina 153,184 Dracocephalum diversifolium 130 Ephedra gerardiana 131,173 Dracocephalum heterophyllum 117,136 Ephedra intermedia 204 Dracocephalum moldayica 65 Ephedra przewalskii 167, 172, 184, 186, 188-189, Dracocephalum nutans 160 192-194,196-197,199,202,206-210 Dracocephalum paulsenii 170 Ephedra rhytidosperma 145 Dracocephalum spp. 112 Ephedra sinica 65,151,156 Dracocephalum tanguticum 173 Ephedra spp. 62,127,132,170,184,198, 205 Dryopteris sophoroides 241 Equisetum heleocharis 24,263

312 INDEX OF SCIENTIFIC PLANT NAMES

Equisetum limosum 40 Euphorbia rapulum 198 Equisetum patens 24 Euphorbia royleana 237,239 Equisetum ramosissimum 82 Euphorbia spp. 121,226 Equisetum spp. 170,232,273 Euphrasia regelii 129 Equisetum sylvaticum 24,52 Eurotia ceratoides 61, 132, 151, 168, 170-171, 188- Eragrosteae 134 189,196-197,209 Eragrostiscilianensi s 82 Eurotia spp. 131,201,260,269 Eragrostiscylindric a 244,247 Euryale ferox 265 Eragrostiselongat a 244 Eutrema edwardsii 169 Eragrostis megastachys 26 Eragrostis minor 149,151,189,198 Eragrostis nigra 225 Fabaceae 30,36,67,85,99,115,186,204 , 237 Eragrostis nutans 244 Fagopyrum esculentum 103 Eragrostispilos a 41,82,150,153,190,229,244,248 Ferruginea spp. 82 Eragrostisspp . 83,238,242,269, 273 Ferula dissecta 159 Erechtitesvalerianaefoli a 247 Ferula spp. 156,197-198 Eremochloa ciliaris 244-245,247-248 Festuca alaica 165,21 3 Eremochloa ophiuroides 83 Festuca amblyodes 213 Eremochloa pallescens 244 Festuca arundinacea 86,213,232 Eremochloa spp. 238,242,273 Festuca brevifolia 213 Eremochloa zeylanica 227,238 Festuca coelestis 213 Eremopogon delavayi 225,22 7 Festuca dessyi 213 Eremopogon spp. 109,125-126,136 Festuca eliator 237 Eremopyrum orientale 161,196,199 Festuca erectiflora 213 Eremopyrum triticeum 199 Festuca forrestii 213 Eremostachysmolucelloide s 198 Festuca gigantea 213 Eremurus inderiensis 198 Festucajacutic a 41 Eremurusspp . 103,160 Festucajaponic a 213 Eriachne pallescens 244 Festuca kryloviana 158,165,168,213 Ericaceae 99 Festuca kurtschumica 213 Erigeron aceris 232 Festuca leptopogon 109 Erigeron annuus 234 Festuca modesta 113,213 Erigeron spp. 241 Festuca mongolica 32 Eriocaulon truncatum 263 Festuca nitidula 123,136 Eriochtoa villosa 41 Festuca olgae 171,213 Eriophorum angustifolium 34 Festuca ovina 41,55,68, 77,80,84-86,99,105-106, Eriophorum comosum 93 115-118, 121-122,125,132,147,158,161,165,168- Eriophorum latifolium 24,40 169,172,213,226 Eriophorum spp. 23,79,115,123 Festuca parvigluma 81,109,115 Eriophorum vaginatum 40,50,262 Festuca pratensis 165,21 3 Erodium spp. 198 Festuca pygmaea 136 Erysimum canescens 165 Festuca ralesiaca 213 Eucalyptus spp. 242 Festucarubr a 41,68,80,85-86,94,118-119,136,158, Euchlaena mexicana 251 213,259 Eulalia contorta 240 Festuca sinensis 121,213 Eulalia pallens 238 Festuca spp. 20, 23, 27, 51,54-55 , 59, 67, 69, 109, Eulalia phaeothrix 239,242,245,247 112,115, 119,124,130,160-161,165-166,168, 170, Eulalia quadrinervis 227, 239,245,248 225,227,229, 232-233,248, 251,269,273 Eulalia speciosa 81,231-232 Festuca sulcata 24, 41, 156-159, 163, 165-166, 170, Eulalia spp. 222,227,269,273 198,213 237 Festucavalesiac a 132,213 Euonymus maackii 48 Ficusjaponic a 227 Euonymus phellomanes 92 Ficusspp . 108,110 Eupatorium lindlayanum 240,247 Filifolium sibiricum 20, 23,26,29,54-55,65 Eupatorium spp. 204 Filifolium spp. 20, 24,29,54-55

313 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Filipendula intermedia 39 Glycinesoj a 85 Filipendula palmata 24,52 Glycinespp . 27 Fimbristylis dichotoma 82,244-245,259 Glycine ussuriensis 41,234 Fimbristyliseragrosti s 244 Glycirrhiza inflata 262 Fimbristylis sericea 247 Glycyrrhiza glabra 200,261 Fimbristylis spp. 225,240-242 Glycyrrhiza inflata 207 Flacourtia indica 237,244 Glycyrrhiza spp. 206,208 Forsythia suspensa 81 Glycyrrhizauralensi s 33,151,194,200,207,209,261 Fragaria corymbosa 85 Gnaphalium multiceps 229 Fragaria spp. 80,157 Gossampinusspp . 237 Fragaria viridis 166 Gramineae 30,36,67,81,99,134,169,194,209,212, 242,259 ,262 , 268 Gymnocarpos przewalskii 167, 185, 193, 198, 202, Gagea bulbifera 165 205-206,209 Galatella songarica 158 Gymnocarpos spp. 171 Galium rotundifolium 249 Gymnosporia diversifolia 237,244 Galium spp. 58,166 Gynura crepidioides 247 Galium verum 23,32,39,53,55-56,64,157,165-166 Gypsophila acutifolia 117 Gallium spp. 69 Gypsophila dahurica 154 Garcinia spp. 108 Gypsophila oldhamiana 79 Garuga spp. 237 Gypsophila spp. 157 Gaultheria borneensis 249 H Gentiana algida 127,174 Gentiana arisanensis 249 Habenaria spp. 227 Gentiana aristata 118 Halerpestes ruthenica 153 Gentiana dahurica 63 Halerpestes sarmentosa 106 Gentiana decumbens 154 Halerpestes spp. 106 Gentiana formosana 249 Halimodendron argenteum 184, 260-261 Gentiana leucomelaena 118 Halimodendronhalodendro n 168,184,194,206,260- Gentiana phyllocalyx 109 261 Gentiana prostrata 157 Halimodendron spp. 207 Gentiana pseudoaquatica 117 Halocnemum spp. 191 Gentiana spp. 54, 67, 102-104, 107, 110-111, 122- Halocnemum strobilaceum 202, 207-208, 260-261 123,127,129-130,166,175,227 Halogeton arachnoides 152,186,188,198 Gentiana squarrosa 60,147 Halogeton glomeratus 206,208,260-261 Gentiana straminea 117,136 Halogeton spp. 188,208 Gentiana tsinglingensis 93 Halogeton tibeticus 184,261 Gentianaceae 99,115 Halostachys belangeriana 191, 202, 261 Geranium albiflorum 166 Halostachys caspica 260 Geranium collinum 160 Haloxylon ammodendron 61,145,183-185,187-190, Geranium dahuricum 27 193-194,196-198,202,205-210 Geranium maximowiczii 39, 52 Haloxylon arachnoides 187 Geranium pyzowianum 118 Haloxylon persicum 145,196 Geranium spp. 40,112,130,161,227 Haloxylon spp. 68,188,190-191,195-196, 200-201, Geranium vlassovianum 39 206,273 Geranium wilfordii 77,168 Haplophyllum dauricum 59,147-151,193,205-206 Gesneriaceae 108 Harrisonia perforata 244 Geum urbanum 163 Hedinia tibetica 133 Glaux maritima 118,170, 210, 261,263 Hedysarum alpinum 23,41 Glauxspp. 171 Hedysarum fruticosum 41,189 Glehnia littoralis 259 Hedysarum gmelinii 63 Glochidion honkongense 245 Hedysarum lignosum 34 Glyceria aquatica 27 Hedysarum limprichtii 136 Glyceria distans 132 Hedysarum mongolicum 38,94,152,184 Glyceria spiculosa 40,263 Hedysarum scoparium 69,152,184, 189,191,194

314 INDEX OF SCIENTIFIC PLANT NAMES

Hedysarum spp. 65,164,194, 205,27 3 Helianthemum songaricum 184 I Helicteresangustifoli a 238, 244-246 Helicteres hirsuta 246 Hex spp. 103 Helicteres spp. 238 Iljinia regelii 167,184,186,188,198,202, 206-207 Helictotrichon altius 116 Iljinia spp. 185 Helictotrichon asiaticum 160 Impatiensbrachycentr a 162-163 Helictotrichon schellianum 23, 26, 41,80 , 85, 157- Impatiens textori 79 158,164 Imperata cylindrica 34, 41,79 , 81-82, 89,125, 224- Helictotrichon spp. 52,115,123 225, 227, 229, 231,233-234 , 238-240, 242, 244-248, Helictotrichon tianschanicum 165-166 250,256-257,259 Helictotrichon tibeticum 105-106,116,118,136 Imperata cylindrica var. major 245,256-257 Heliotropium spp. 203 Imperata spp. 222,232, 237,269,273 Helminthostachys zeylanica 245 Incarvillea spp. 103,107,110-113 Helochris intersita 34 Indigofera endecaphylla 251 Helochris mamillata 34 Indigofera macrostachys 79 Hemarthriaaltissim a 234,263 Indigofera parkesii 234 Hemarthria compressa 33,245-246 Indigofera pseudotinctoria 225 Hemarthria compressa var. fasciculata 34 Indigofera spp. 26,79,238 Hemarthriajaponic a 34,37,41 Indocalamus niitakayamensis 249,251 Hemerocallis minor 23-24, 29,32,39, 52-53,64 Indocalamus spp. 249 Hemerocallisspp . 54,67 Inula britannica 37-38,82,92 Hemiscepta lyrata 80 Inula cappa 240 Hemisteptia lyrata 85 Inula linearifolia 32 Heracleum millefolium 133 Inula salicina 263 Heteropappus altaicus 56, 59-60, 81, 136, 147-150, Inula spp. 34,206 152,156-157 Ipomoea aquatica 265 Heteropogon contortus 225-227, 229,237 , 239,244 , Ipomoea pres-caprae 247 247-248 Irisbunge i 149 Heteropogon melanocarpus 229 Irischrysographe s 115 Heteropogon spp. 269,273 Irisdelavayi 225 Hierochloe occidentali s 251 Irisdichotom a 32 Hierochloe odorata 33,41,55,123 Iris ensata 34,37-38,63,65,184,187, 189-190,194, Hippolytia achilleoides 198 260 Hippophae rhamnoides 85,92,125, 260-261 Irislactea 26,34,80,260 Hippophae spp. 103 Irislacte a var.chinensi s 85,174 Hippophae tibetana 174 Irislaevigat a 263 Hippophae tibetica 118 Irispallasii 153,184,261 Hippurisvulgari s 210 Irispotanini i 117 Hiptagespp . 108 Irisruthenic a 24,166,168 Hololachna songarica 184 Irissibirica 40 Hololachna spp. 175 Irissongaric a 136 Hordeum brevisubulatum 26,33-34,41,65,158,161, Irisspp . 40,54 , 58, 67,82,107,187,260,273 169-170 Iris tenuifolia 147,149-150,189 Hordeum juncea 261 Isachnespp. 110-111,232 Hordeum pratense 119,175 Ischaemum aristatum 240,244-247 Hordeum spp. 27,58,126-127,161 Ischaemum aristatum var.barbatu m 244 Hordeum turkestanicum 170 Ischaemum aristatum var. major 248 Hordeum vulgare var.nudu m 103 Ischaemum arundinaceum 242 Hydrilla verticillata 265 Ischaemum ciliare 240-241,245-246,263 Hydrocharis dubia 265 Ischaemum imbricatum 81 Hymenachneassamic a 245-246 Ischaemum spp. 222, 238,240,263,269 , 273 Hyparrhenia rufa 251 Isopyrum grandiflorum 112-113 Hypericum spp. 54 Ixeris chinensis 82 Hypochoerisgrandiflor a 59-60

315 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Ixcrisdenticulat e 60,147 Kobresia setschwanensis 226 Ixiolirion tataricum 159 Kobresia sibirica 158 Kobresia smimovii 160 Kobresia spp. 93,103,105,107,109,111-112, 115, Jasminum multiflorum 108 117, 119, 127, 129-130, 132, 135-136, 159, 166-167, Juglans regia 162-163 169-170,174,226, 269, 273 Juglans spp. 162 Kobresia tibetica 118,128,174,263 Juncaceae 242,262 Kochia prostrata 149, 156-157, 162, 165, 168, 197- Juncusbracteatu s 109-110,126 198 Juncuseffusu s 168,232,249,263 Kochia spp. 86,130,161,214,269 Juncus gerardi 259,261 Koeleriacristat a 23,32,34,55-56,59-60,65,68,80, Juncusgracillimu s 92 83-85,117-118,147-148,157,165-166,172 Juncusspp . 106,112,226 Koeleriagracili s 63,163,165-166,168-170 Juncus thomsonii 129,132 Koeleria litwinowii 116,121 Juniperus chinensis 158 Koeleriasetchwanensi s 116 Juniperusformosan a 249 Koeleria spp. 54,68-69,160-161,169, 269,273 Juniperus rigida 154 Koelpinia linearis 199 Juniperus saltuaria 175 Koenigia islandic a 109,126 Juniperus sibirica 27 Kummerowia spp. 229, 234 Juniperus spp. 59,103,123 Kummerowia striata 225 Juniperus squamata 127,131 Juniperus tibetica 175 Jurinea mongolica 184 Labiatae 204 Jurinea spp. 193 Lactuca repens 247 Lagochüus ilicifolius 148,150,156,184 K Lagochilus spp. 168,20 4 Kalidium caspicum 195,261 Lagotis glauca 164 Kalidium cuspidatum 152, 172, 174, 185, 202, 209- Lagotis spp. 103 210,260 Lamium album 163 Kalidium foliatum 189,191,193, 260-261 Lannea grandis 238,246 Kalidium gracile 87, 153, 167, 185, 189, 209-210, Lannea spp. 237 260-261 Lappulaechinat a 82 Kalidium schrenkianum 167-168 Lapula echinata 82 Kalidium spp. 88,184,187,189-190,194, 208,260 Larix gmelinii 22-24,48,67 Karelinia caspica 189,202,206-208,260 Larix principis-rupprechtii 77 Karelinia spp. 206 Larixsibiric a 158 Kengiaserotin a 92 Larixspp . 52,54, 75,77-78,156-157,26 9 Kobresia angusta 109 Lasiagrostis longearistata 127 Kobresia bellardi 80 Lasiagrostis splendens 168,193,198, 200, 260-261 Kobresia bellardii 83,107 Lasiagrostis spp. 165,260 Kobresia bifurca 103 Lathyrusdavidi i 67 Kobresia capillifolia 103, 118, 121, 135, 164, 166, Lathyrus frolovii 214 169,171 Lathyrus humilis 41,52,69,214 Kobresia capillifolia var. nenella 107 Lathyrus komarovii 23,26 Kobresia esenbecbii 171 Lathyrus palustris 214 Kobresia filiformi s 158 Lathyrus pannonicus 214 Kobresia humilis 117-119,121-122,129 Lathyrus pilosus 214 Kobresia lehmanii 109 Lathyrus quinquenervius 26,32,41,55,260 Kobresia littledalei 122 Lathyrus sativus 86,214 Kobresia minhsienica 107 Lathyrus spp. 27,34,54,91,273 Kobresia pumila 135 Laurineae 102 Kobresia pygmaea 103,110-111,116-118,121-123, Ledum palustre 24,262 126-128,135,174,210,226 Leersia hexandra 265 Kobresia royleana 123,129,132,174 Leersia hexandra var.japonic a 263 Kobresia setchwanensis 115 Leersia spp. 240,263

316 INDEX OF SCIENTIFIC PLANT NAMES

Leguminosae 30, 36,67 ,85 ,99 , 115, 184, 194,204 , Ligularia macrophylla 158 209,237,269 Ligulariasibiric a 80,85 Lemna minor 265 Ligularia songarica 158 Lemnaceae 262 Ligularia spp. 106,130,160 Leonticeinsert a 198 Liliaceae 269 Leontopodium alpinum 124 Lilium concolor 53 Leontopodium japonicum 229 Lilium dauricum 24, 53 Leontopodium leontopodioides 33,59 ,63,80,85 , 92 Lilium longiflorum 240 Leontopodium nanum 117,122,127,136 Lilium spp. 24,54,67 Leontopodium ochroleucum 166 Limonium aureum 193 Leontopodium pusillum 127 Limonium spp. 151 Leontopodium spp. 65,99,103 , 107,115, 118,121- Liquidambar formosana 238-239,246 122,127,130,133,157-158,164 Littledalea przewalskii 99,126-127, 136 Lepidium apetalum 156 Lobelia sessilifolia 39 Lepidium latifolium 170,184 Lolium multiflorum 213,237,241 Lepidium perfoliatum 159,199 Lolium perenne 169,213,237,241, 275 Lepidium spp. 126 Lolium persicum 213 Leptaleum filifolium 199 Lolium remotum 213 Leptocarpus disjunctus 242 Lolium spp. 213,250,273 Leptochloa chinensis 232 Lolium temulentum 213 Lespedeza bicolor 20-21, 23-24, 48, 65, 77, 79,81 , Lomatogonium thomsonii 129 85-86,88,91-92 Lonicera caerulea var. edulis 262 Lespedeza buergeri 81,93 Lonicera hispida 77,105 Lespedeza cuneata 81,225 Lonicera maackii 92 Lespedeza cyrtobotrya 81,136 Lonicera microphylla 77 Lespedeza dahurica 27, 32-33,41,59,65,79-82,85, Lonicera semenovii 168 88-90,92,136,151,153 Lonicera spp. 103,164,194 Lespedeza daurica 20,23 Lonicera tatarica 160 Lespedeza davidii 234 Lonicera tibetica 105 Lespedeza floribunda 26,65,79,93 Lophanthus spp. 204 Lespedeza formosa 77,79,81,93 Loropetalum chinense 234 Lespedeza hedysaroides 20,27,41,85 Lotononis Bainesii 251 Lespedeza hedysaroides var. subsericea 20,33 Lotus corniculatus 161,214,225,231,23 7 Lespedeza inschanica 55 Loxostemon spp. 112 Lespedeza quinquenervius 23 Lupinus spp. 269 Lespedeza spp. 20,23, 26-27,32, 55,59,69, 77,79, Lychnis fulgens 24 82,94,214,225,229,232-234,269,273 Lycium chinensis 81 Lespedeza tomentosa 81 Lycium ruthenicum 193,207-208, 210,260-261 Leucaena glauca 251 Lycium spp. 184 Leucaena leucocephala 251,283 Lycium turcomanicum 184,193,260-261 Leymusangustu m 156-158,213 Lycopodium cernuum 241 Leymuschinens e 23,25-28,31-34,37-38,41,48,52, Lycopodium flexuosum 241 54-56,59-60,65,68,78,147-148, 213 Lyonia ovalifolia 227 Leymus dasystachys 41,65 ,88 , 117,130, 136, 153, Lysimachia barystachys 92 187,193,198,200,209-210,213, 260-261 Lysimachiadahuric a 260 Leymusgiganteu m 213 Lythrum salicaria 24,39 Leymusmulticaul e 213 M Leymus paboanum 213 Leymus raemisum 213 Macroptilium atropurpureum 247,251 Leymusregeli i 213 Magnolia globosa 103 Leymusskmalirensi s 213 Magnolia spp. 103,222 Leymus spp. 20, 23,31-33,38, 54-55, 57,61,67-69, Mahonia spp. 233 147-148,166,190,213,268-269,273 Malcolmia africana 199 Leymus tianshanicum 213 Malcolmiaspp . 203 Ligularia altaica 160 Mallotusspp . 238

317 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Malus baccala 48 Miscanthus sinensis 77, 81,231 ,233-234 , 246-248, Malusspp . 79, 163 250 Meœnopsis horridula 104-105,109-110 Miscanthus spp. 222, 225,233,238,248 , 269,273 Meconopsis impedita 111,113 Miscanthus szechuanensis 109 Meconopsisintegrifoli a 107,115 Miscanthus tinctorius 229 Meconopsis landfoli a 112,115 Miscanthus transmorrisonensis 249, 251 Meconopsis speciosa 113 Mnesithea mollicoma 245 Meconopsis spp. 102-103, 107, 111, 121, 123, 127, Monochoria korsakowii 264 225 Monochoria spp. 264 Medicagoagroyretoru m 214 Monochoria vaginalis 264 Medicago archiducis-nicolai 116,136 Morinda parvifolia 244 Medicago falcata 41, 55, 68-69, 86, 157-158, 161, Morus spp. 236 166,169,214 Mucuna sempervirens 234 Medicago hispida 234 Mulgedium tataricum 184 Medicago lupulina 41,69 ,85 ,91-92 , 117,136, 161, Musa spp. 108 214, 225, 229,23 4 Myosotis spp. 157 Medicago media 68 Myrica nana 227 Medicago minima 214, 234 Myricaria prostrata 131 Medicago orbicularis 214 Myricaria pulcherrima 145 Medicago rivularis 214 Myricaria spp. 172,184,205 Medicago romanica 214 Myriophyllum spicatum 256-257, 265 Medicago ruthenica 26, 41, 63,65 ,92 , 147 Myripnoisdioic a 79 Medicago sativa 7, 41, 63,86 ,94,158,169 , 214,27 5 Myrsine africana 227 Medicago spp. 27,69, 82,269 , 273-274 N Medicago subdicycla 214 Medicago vassilczenkoi 214 Nanophyton erinaceum 156-157,195,198 Melandrium apetalum 132 Nanophyton spp. 161 Melastoma candidum 238 Nardostachys chinensis 127 Melica altissima 165 Neopallasia pectinata 136, 209 Melica canescens 130 Neuburgia spp. 40 Melica gmelinii 65 Neyraudia arundinacea 239 Melica scabrosa 78 Nitraria roborowskii 260 Melilotus alba 86,158,262 Nitraria Schobert 153.Ï83,191,193-194, 259-260 Melilotus dentata 41 Nitraria sibirica 153-154,193, 209-210, 260-261 Melilotus officinalis 26,65,86,94,169, 225 Nitraria sphaerocarpa 167, 172, 184, 186, 188-189, Melilotus ruthenica 54, 67 192-194,198, 202, 207, 260 Melilotussativ a 67 Nitraria spp. 184-185, 187-190, 202, 204-206, 208- Melilotus spp. 27,161, 214,234 , 261, 274-275 209 Melilotussuaveolen s 41,158, 225,26 2 Nitraria tangutorum 187,209-210,261 Melinis minutiflora 250 Nomocharis spp. 103 Meniocus linifolius 196-197 Nuphar pumilum 264 Meniocusspp . 159 Nymphaea tetragona 264 Menyanthes trifoliata 24,40 Nymphoides peltatum 265 Messerschmidia sibirica 82 O Michelia spp. 103 Michelia yunnanensis 227 Oenanthejavanic a 259 Microstegium ciliatum 225 Oenanthe stolonifera 234,265 Microula spp. 131 Oldenlandia corymbosa 240 Microula tibetica 132 Oldenlandia uncineLla 247 Milium effusum 23 Olgaea leucophylla 61,151 Miscanthus floribundus 239 Onobrychis viciaefolia 94 Miscanthus floridulus 81,231,238,240,242,245,248 Ophiopogon longifolius 240 Miscanthusjaponicu s 81 Ophiopogon spp. 245 Miscanthus nepalensis 225 exaltatus 245 Miscanthus sacchariflorus 29, 240 Oplismenusundulatifoliu s 263

318 INDEX OF SCIENTIFIC PLANT NAMES

Opuntia monacantha 237,239 Pappophorum spp. 88,183 Origanum vulgare 160 Paraquilegia grandiflor a 175 Orinuskokonoric a 116,119,226 Paraquilegia microphylla 110 Orinusspp. 99,125,129 Pamassia palustris 40 Orinus thoroldii 111,126-127,130,132,136 Pamassiaspp. 227 Orostachys fimbriatus 55 Pasaniaspp. 222 Orostachysspinosu s 198 Paspalum orbiculare 244-246 Orthoraphium roylei 113 Paspalum purpurascens 250 Oryza sativa 7 Paspalum spp. 82-83,241,273 Oryzopsis munroi 118 Paspalum thunbergii 225,263 Osbeckia chinensis 240-241 Paspalum wettern' 241 Osyriswightian a 227 Patrinia heterophylla 65 Ottelia esquirolii 265 Patrinia intermedia 39 Ottelia yunnanensi 265 Pedicularis alaschanica 126,173 Oxalis repens 241 Pedicularis cheilanthifolia 132 Oxyria digyna 169 Pedicularis kansuensis 118,136 Oxytropisaciphylla 125,149-151,175,183-184,188, Pedicularis longiflora 118,129 190,194 Pedicularis longifolia 118 Oxytropi sbicolo r 117 Pedicularis oederi 118 Oxytropis chiliophylla 127,130 Pedicularis oederi var.sinensi s 105 Oxytropis coerulea 54,63,67,84 Pedicularis resupinata 52 Oxytropis Davidi 20,77,92 Pedicularis sceptrumcarolinum 52 Oxytropisdavidian a 24 Pedicularis sinensis 80 Oxytropis immersa 170 Pedicularis siphonantha 105 Oxytropis microphylla 129 Pedicularis spicata 63 Oxytropis myriophylla 29,55,60,147 Pedicularis spp. 39-40, 103-104, 106-107, 111-113, Oxytropisochrocephal a 117 118,127,227 Oxytropisoxyphyll a 63,88 Pedicularis striata 154 Oxytropis polypetala 109 Peganum Harmala 149,152,184,193 Oxytropis psammocharis 151 Peganum nigellastrum 88,153,184 Oxytropisspp . 56,60,65,69,99,119,121,123,130, Peganum spp. 183,259 132, 136, 147,156-158, 168-170, 172,175, 197,202 , Pennisetum alopecuroides 81,83,233-234 204,206,214,269,273 Pennisetum americanum 281 Oxytropis tatarica 132 Pennisetum flaccidum 65,99,103,125-127,130,153 Oxytropis thomsonii 130 Pennisetum glaucum 7 Oxytropis tungliaoensis 34 Pennisetum purpureum 237,241,281 Pennisetum spp. 103,273 Periploca sepium 34 Padus asiatica 48 Perotis indica 244,247 Paeonia lacitifolia 61 Phaenosperma globosa 115 Paeonia lactiflora 23,53 Phaenosperma spp. 109 Paeonia spp. 54,107 Phalaridinae 134 Panax ginseng 40 Phalarisarundinace a 80,85,158,237,263 Pandanusspp . 108,110 Phalaris tuberosa 94,237 Pandanus tectorius 244-245 Phaseolusaureu s 237 Paniceae 134 Phaseolusspp . 7,27 Panicum maximum 250 Philydrum lanuginosum 263 Panicum montanum 246 Phleum alpinum 41,165,213 Panicum spp. 242,245,247,269 Phleum phleoides 157-158,165-166,213 Panicum trypheron 244-245 Phleum pretense 86,104,160-161,165,213,234 Papaver nudicaule 53,166 Phleum spp. 27,213,273 Papilionaceae 103,242,244 Phlomis mongolica 60,117,147 Pappophorum boreale 198 Phlomisoreophil a 157,164 Pappophorum brachystachyum 149-151, 153, 189- Phlomisspp . 58,60,130,147 190 Phlomis tuberosa 160

319 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Phoenix hanceana 238 Poamalac a 93 Phragmitesaustrali s 256-257 Poanemorali s 132,162-163,165 Phragmitescommuni s 26,32-34,37-41,82,86,88-89, Poa palustris 54,67 153, 161, 170,184, 187, 189-190, 192, 194,206-208 , Poa planata 113 210,234,259-263 Poapratensi s 23,26-27,80,83-85,118,160-161,234, PhragmitesKark a 242 263 Phragmitesmaxim a 240 Poasibiric a 158 Phragmitesspp . 38,69,169,171,206-207,256,273 Poasphondylode s 21,34,41,65,117,148,154 Phyllanthusemblic a 237,239,245 Poaspp. 26-27,54-55,67-69,77-78,82,92,109-111, Phyllanthusurinari a 247 115, 117-119, 121-122, 124, 126-127, 130, 132, 147, Phyllostachys bambusoides 230 149,156-158,161,164, 169-170,175, 213, 225, 232, Physalisspp . 107 234,248,269,273 Piceaasperat a 154,156,175,193-194 Poatibetica 129 Piceacrassifoli a 173 Poaceae 30,36,67,81,99,134,169,212,226,242 Picealikiangensi s 110,126 Poacynum hendersonii 200, 202,208-210,260-261 Picealikiangensi svar .balfourian a 115 Pocockiaruthenic a 56,69,86 Piceapurpure a 107,119 Pocockiaspp . 273 Piceaschrenkian a 163-164,168-169,194 Poemecia spp. 67 Piceaspp . 25,67,101,103,112,117,155, 269 Polygalajaponica 249 Pinusarmandi i 249,251 Polygala tenuifolia 33 Pinusdensat a 126 Polygonaceae 186,204,259 Pinusdensiflor a 79 Polygonatum humile 29 Pinusikeda i 238,244 Polygonatum odoratum 33 PinusKhasi a 101,103,110 Polygonatum spp. 118 Pinusmassonian a 222-224,234-235,238-239, 244 Polygonum ajanense 55 Pinusspp . 25,77,103,113,126,238, 269 Polygonum aviculare 82-83,89,165,259 Pinussylvestri s 48 Polygonum divaricatum 23-24,59,64,158 Pinussylvestri svar .mongolic a 49,55 Polygonum hydropiper 263 Pinustabulaeformi s 67,76-78,107,154,175 Polygonum lapathifolium 259,263 Pinustaiwanensi s 249,251 Polygonum nitens 160 Pinusyunnanensi s 222,227 Polygonum nodosum 260 Piptanthusmongolic a 153 Polygonum paronychoides 130 Pistaciaspp . 130 Polygonum salinum 37-38 Pistaciaweinmannifoli a 237,239 Polygonum sibiricum 23,31,121,153,210 Pistiastratiote s 264 Polygonum sieboldi 24 Plantagoasiatic a 33,38 Polygonum sphaerostachyum 105,118-119,123,126- Plantagodepress a 92 127,136,174 Plantagomajo r 161 Polygonum spp. 33-34,103,111-112,124,130,157, Plantagominut a 159,184 160,174,225,234 Plantagospp . 199 Polygonum viviparum 80,83,104-107,109-110,118, Platycodongrandifloru s 23,33 123,126-127,136,164,166-167,169-170,174,263 Plumbaginaceae 204 Polypodiacea e 115 Poaalpigena 172 Polypogon monspeliensis 82 Poaalpina 132,158,165-166 Polystichum aculeatum 229 Poaaltaica 158 Pontederiaceae 242,262 Poaannu a 54,60,64,68,147,152,232 Pooideae 134 Poaattenuata 63 Populusalba 260 Poabomiensis 125 Populuscathayan a 173 Poabotryoide s 56,168 Populusdavidian a -21,24-25,39,48,55 Poabulbosa 119,165,197-199 Populusdiversifoli a 190,194, 206,260-261 Poabulbos a var.vivipar a 159 Populuseuphratic a 184,205,207 Poachalaranth a 107,113,119 Populuseuphratic a(diversifolia ) 202 Poacrymophil a 136 Populuslaurifoli a 158 Poalittorali s 153 Populuspruinos a 202,205,207,260 Poalitvinovian a 123,170

320 INDEX OF SCIENTIFIC PLANT NAMES

Populus spp. 54, 64-65, 67, 76, 103, 117, 154, 163, Psammochloa spp. 194,207 184,206,208,260,269 Psammochloa vülosa 145,152,184,187,191 Populus tremula 158,163-164 Pseudocbinolaena polystachya 110 Populustremul a var.davidian a 23,175 Pseudochinolaena spp. 111 Portulaca oleracea 82,234 Psidium quajava 242 Potamogeton crispus 265 Psychotria rubra 245 Potamogeton pectinatus 210 Pteridium aquilinum 249,251 Potamogeton spp. 85,106 Ptilagrostis concinna 123 Potaninia mongolica 151,154,184-185 Ptilagrostis dichotoma 115,117-119,127,136 Potaninia spp. 188,214 Ptilagrostis mongolica 93 Potentilla acaulis 55-56, 60, 87, 117, 147-148, 156- Ptilagrostis pellioti 186 157 Ptilagrostis purpurea 166 Potenülla anserina 31-32,34,122-123,129,153 Ptilagrostis subsessiflora 170 Potentilla arbuscula 115,129 Ptilotrichum canescens 56,129,148,150-151 Potentilla betonicaefolia 55 Puccinellia distans 33-34,82,132,153,260 Potentilla biflora 169 Puccinellia hauptiana 153,184 Potentilla bifurca 117, 121-122, 126, 129-130, 147- Puccinellia maritima 259 148,152,154,156-157 Puccinellia multiflora 132 Potentilla chinensis 23,33,59,64,85,154 Puccinellia spp. 38,259,273 Potentilla discolor 79,81 Puccinellia subspicata 170 Potentilla flagellaris 32,34,38, 54 Puccinelliatenuiflor a 27,31,33-34,37-38,41,68,190 Potentilla fragarioides 54,77 Pueraria lobata 93 Potentilla fruticosa 107,119 Pueraria phaseoloides 251 Potentilla heterophylla 65 Pueraria pseudo-hirsuta 225 Potentilla microphylla 130 Pueraria spp. 232-234,273 Potentilla multifida 53,122,152,157 Pueraria thunbergiana 229,233 Potentilla nervosa 166 Pugionium comutum 88,183-184,189,191 Potentilla nivea 118,122 Pugionium dolabratum 88,183 Potentilla pamiroalaica 170,172 Pugionium spp. 145,20 7 Potentilla spp. 33,38 , 56, 58, 65,69 , 79-80, 85,99, Pulsatilla chinensis 64 103,105,107,112,121,123,127,129-130,153,156, Pulsatilla turczaninovii 32 164,168,175,206,227,232 Pycnospora lutescens 245 Potentillastenophyll a 109 Pyracantha fortuneana 225 Potentilla tanacetifolia 55,65,92,147 Pyrethrum spp. 166,204 Potentilla viscosa 65 Pyrola morrisonensis 249 Pouzolzia hirta 240 Primula inolucrata 104 Q Primula maximowiczii 105-106 Quercus acutissima 230,238 Primula pseudosikkinensis 114 Quercus aquifolioides 126 Primula sibirica 118 Quercus glauca 110 Primula spp. 102-104, 107, 110-113, 115, 122, 127, Quercus hirsutula 229 169,175 Quercus kern 246 Primula tibetica 103 Quercus liaotungensis 24,54 Primula turkestanica 169 Quercus mongolica 21-2i 24-26,29,39,48,54,67 Primula vitata 106 Quercus semicarpifolia 227 Prinsepia uniflora 92 Quercus spp. 54,65,75-77,93,113,222, 238, 269 Prosopis spp. 283 Prunusarmeniac a 79,92 Prunusdavidian a 79,92 R Prunus humilis 21 Ranunculaceae 99,103 Prunus mongolica 65,184 Ranunculus brotherusii 105-106 Prunussibiric a 20-21,23,26,29,33,54-55 Ranunculus chinensis 24 Prunusspinosissim a 184 Ranunculus nephelogenes 118 Prunusspp . 59,92,269 Ranunculus pulchellus 263 Psammochloa mongolica 58,187,189-190 Ranunculus spp. 115,122

321 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Ranunculustricuspi s 132 Roegneria komarovii 213 Ranunculus tricuspisvar . nenella 107 Roegneria melanthera 172 Rapenea linearis 245 Roegneria mutabilis 213 Reaumuria kashgarica 145,167,171,202,205 Roegneria nutans 116,119,129,213,226 Reaumuria kashgarica var. nanshanica 209 Roegneria schrenkiana 213 Reaumuria kashgarica var. przewalskii 209 Roegneria spp. 27,67,106,115,126,169 Reaumuria mongolica 186 Roegneria tschimganica 213 Reaumuria songarica 150-152, 154, 167-168, 172, Roegneria turczaninovii 65 174-175, 184-185, 188-190, 192-194, 197-198, 200, Roegneria ugamica 213 202,206-210,260 Roegneria viriula 213 Reaumuriaspp . 150,154,175,184,188,196,209,260 Rosabella 77 Reaumuria trigyna 131,188,209 Rosa cautloides 113 Reynaudia reynaudiana 229 Rosa davurica 54,159 Rhamnuserythroxylo n 62,184 Rosahugonis 92 Rhamnus parvifolia 62,65 Rosa kashgarica 168 Rhamnusspp . 62, 79,194 Rosa microcarpa 229 Rhaponticum uniflorum 32 Rosa morrisonensis 249 Rheum alexandre 104 Rosa omeiensis 225 Rheum nanum 193,198 Rosa platyacantha 166,26 1 Rheum palmatum 125 Rosa roxburghii 225 Rheum pumilum 118 Rosa sericea 115 Rheum reticulatum 170 Rosa spinosissima 157-158 Rheum spiciforme 175 Rosa spp. 59,103,107,160,166,194,229,234,269 Rheum spp. 115,123,226 Rosaceae 85,99,115,162,209,226-227 Rhodiola quadrifida 169,173 Roscoea chamaeleon 112 Rhodiolaspp. 127 Rubus arcticus 23 Rhododendron anthopogonoides 174 Rubus palmatus 229 Rhododendron calostrotum 109 Rubus parvifolius 92 Rhododendron campylogynum 109 Rubusspp . 225 Rhododendron capitatum 174 Rubussuccedanu s 245 Rhododendron molle 230 Rumex acetosa 170 Rhododendron nivale 109 Rumex gmelinii 24 Rhododendron parvifolium 24 Rumex spp. 170 Rhododendron repens 110 Ruppia rostellata 256-257,265 Rhododendron simsii 223 Rhododendron spp. 27,102-105,107,110-113,115- 117,123,126-127,175,226-227,232,234 Sabina chinensis 173 Rhododendron thymifolium 174 Sabina komarowii 115 Rhodomyrtus tomentosa 238,241,244-245 Sabina pingiivar . Wilsonii 126 Rhuspalmatus 229 Sabina przewalskii 107 Rhusaponica spp. 229 Sabina saltuaria 115 Rhynchospora rubra 240,244 Sabina spp. 127 Ribesalpestr e 115 Sabina tibetica 115 Ribes meyeri 157 Saccharum arundinaceum 110, 234, 238-239, 242, Ribesspp . 103,117 246-248 Roegneria abolinii 213 Saccharum narenga 81,245 Roegneria angustiglumis 213 Saccharum spontaneum 245 Roegneria breviglumis 80,107, 213 Saccharum spp. 111,222,269,273 Roegneria ciliaris 225 Sageretia theezans 245 Roegneria ciliaris 92 Sagittaria sagittifolia 265 Roegneria curvata 213 Salicorniaeuropae a 210,261 Roegneria czimganica 213 Salicornia herbacea 82,153,184,207-208,259 Roegneria gmelinii 213 Salicornia spp. 86 Roegneria kamoji 79 Salix amygdalina 229 Roegneria kokonorica 122 Salixareophil a 110

322 INDEX OF SCIENTIFIC PLANT NAMES

Salix brachypoda 24,39-40,54,262-263 Saussurea nigrescens 118 Salix caspica 33 Saussurea salicifolia 157 Salixcheilophil a 184,260 Saussurea salsa 210,261 Salix flavida 61,184 Saussurea spp. 27,33,65,99,103,105,107,115,121, Salix florida 33-34 123,127,130,132,164,175,205,227 Salix hsinganica 54 Saussurea Stella 118 Salix matsudana 82 Saussurea superba 136 Saüx mongolica 34,48,88,183 Saussurea tridactilis 132 Salix oreophila 109,126 Saussurea wemerioides 127 Salix oritrepha 118,174 Saxifraga hirculus 164,166 Salix purpurea 92 Saxifraga melanocentra 127 Salix rosmarinifolia 24 Saxifraga montana 93 Salix songarica 261 Saxifraga spp. 105-107,111-113,174,225, 227 Salix spp. 21,24 , 27, 34, 48, 59, 76, 115, 123, 158, Saxifragaceae 99,115 161,184,190, 260,269 Scabiosa alpestris 160 Salix tenuifolia 168 Scabiosa comosa 24,32 Salsola abrotanoides 172,194,209 Scabiosa spp. 130 Salsolaarbuscul a 186,188,196,209 Scabiosa tschiliensis 23 Salsola beticolor 152 Schimaspp. 222,239 Salsola collina 149-151,172,189-190,196, 210 Schima wallichii 238-239 Salsola denoroides 145 Schismusarabicu s 159,199 Salsola Kali 260 Schizachyrium brevifolium 81,238 Salsola lariciflora 195 Schizachyrium sanguineum 244-246 Salsola laricifolia 185,193 Schizachyrium spp. 240 Salsola monoptera 130 Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani 191 Salsola passerina 150-152, 154, 173-175, 185-186, Scilla thunbergii 23 188 Scirpus cyperinus 263 Salsola rigida 152 Scirpus distingmaticus 118 Salsola ruthenica 152,187 Scirpus lacustris 206 Salsolaspp . 86,151,153,169,175,188-190,196-197, Scirpus lucidus 263 259,261 Scirpus maritimus 82,86,153,161, 232 Salsola yunatovii 167 Scirpus planicularis 256-257 Salsola zaidamica 209 Scirpus planiculmi s 257 Salvia spp. 110,115 Scirpus pumilus 210 Salvinia natans 265 Scirpus spp. 40,259-260,263 Salviniaceae 265 Scirpus tabernaemontani 34,263 Sanguisorba alpina 168 Scirpustriquete r 153,259 Sanguisorba officinalis 23-24, 29, 52-54, 58,63-64 , Scirpus yagara 263 80-81,85,154 Scleria biflora 240 Sanguisorba parviflora 39-40,260 Scleria ciliaris 245-247 Sanguisorba parvifolia 39 Scleria hebecarpa 225 Sanguisorba spp. 33-34,39-40,54,69,226 Scleria spp. 242 Sanguisorba tenuifolia 32,40 Scorzonera divaricata 149,151,193,207-208 Saposhnikovia divaricata 23,60,148 Scorzonera mongolica 189,25 9 Saururus chinensis 263 Scorzonera ruprechtiana 79 Saussurea amurensis 260 Scorzonera spp. 130,197 Saussurea arenaria 122,136 Scrophularia spp. 204 Saussurea eriocephala 112 Scrophulariaceae 99, 204 Saussurea eriolepis 65 Scutellaria spp. 204 Saussurea glandulifera 132 Scutellaria baicalensis 32 Saussurea glomerata 31,153, 261 Scutellaria cristatum 65 Saussurea gnaphalodes 132-133,169 Sedum aizoon 60,147 Saussurea inconspicua 174 Sedum fastigiatum 112 Saussurea leucopnylla 170 Sedum leucoma 112 Saussurea medusa 172,174 Sedum quadrifidum 175

323 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Sedumspp. 168,226 Spiraea sericea 20,23-24 Senecioscandera s 225 Spiraea spp. 24, 26,59,65,77,79-80,102,104,123, Seneciospp . 107,130 164,168,194,269 Serratula centauroides 56,59-60,147 Spiraea trilobata 77,79,81 Serratula coronatavar . manshurica 32 Spirodela polyrrhiza 265 Serratula hsinganensis 55 Spirodela spp. 265 Serratula spp. 204 Spodiopogon cotulifer 79,81,85,231,234 Sesbania cannabina 82 Spodiopogon sibiricus 20,23-24 , 29, 41, 48,55 ,59 , Setaria anceps 241 77,79,84-85,93 Setaria geniculata 245 Spodiopogon spp. 103,222,269,273 Setaria italica 7 Spodiopogon viridis 41 Setaria lutescens 26 Sporoboluselongatu s 229 Setaria spp. 233,269 Sporobolus spp. 247 Setaria viridis 63,65,81-83,151,225, 234 Sporobolus virginicus 247 Sibbaldia tetrandra 169 Stachysbaicalensi s 39 Sibiracaangustat a 118 Staticeaure a 153,183 Sibiraea laevigata 105 Staticebicolor 61,153,184 Silenejenisensi s 59 Staticeplatyhymeniu m 205 Silene repens 23 Staticespp . 198 Simmondsia spp. 283 Stellaria decumbens var. pulvinata 174 Sinarundinaria fangiana 226 Stellera chamaejasme 24,126 Sinochasea trigyna 123,126-127 Steilere spp. 65,103,125 Sisymbrium junceus 165 Stenoloma chusanum 241 Sisymbrium spp. 203 Stephanachne busiplumosa 132 Sium spp. 40 Stephanachne monandra 126-127,132 Sium suave 40,260 Stephanchne nigrescens 152 Solenanthus 203 Stipaalién a 107,117-118,123 Solidagovirga-aure a 249 Stipa baicalensis 20,26,29,32-34, 54-55,61,68 Sophora alopecuroides 161,198,200,260-261 Stipa breviflora 107, 117, 130, 149-152, 167, 172- Sophora moorcroftiana 111,125-127 175,186 Sophora spp. 269 Stipa brevifolia 169,209 Sophora vicifolia 81,92,108,225 Stipa bungeana 25-26, 62, 65, 77, 80-81, 85,88-92 , Sorbuspohuashanensi s 77 116,151,153,193,209,226 Sorbusspp . 78,194 Stipa capillacga 107,111,126-127 Sorbus tianschanica 164 Stipacapillat a 54,62-63,65,119,156-159,165-166, Sorghum fulvum 240 168,198 Sorghum halapense 237 Stipa caucasica 168-169 Sorghum nitidum 81,245-247 Stipa glareosa 107,129-130,132,147,149-151,153- Sorghum propinquum 245 157, 159, 167-168, 170-174, 184, 186, 188-189, 191, Soroserisspp . 105 193-194,197-198, 200, 261 Sparganium spp. 40 Stipa gobica 149-151, 154, 157, 159, 167-168, 184, Sparganium stoloniferum 263 186 Spartina anglica 257-258 Stipa grandis 21,29,34,48,55-56,59-60,68,80,85, Sphagnum spp. 262 147-148,153,156 Spinifex littoreus 247 Stipa inebrians 62,125 Spiraea alpina 118 Stipa kirghisorum 156-157,160,166,198 Spiraea cantoniensis 77 Stipa klemenzii 54 Spiraea chinensis 79 Stipa krylovii 21,55,60,68,107,117,119,147-148, Spiraea hyperictfolia 156-157,160,166, 261 151-152,168-169,172-173 Spiraea hypericiformis 166 Stipa lessingiana 195 Spiraea mongolica 116, 226 Stipa macroglossa 160 Spiraea morrisonicola 249 Stipa mongolica 62,91,104 Spiraea pubescens 65,79 Stipa orientalis 157,170,197-198, 200 Spiraea salicifolia 24,39,158,263 Stipa penicillata 107,172 Spiraea schneideriana var. amphidox 105 Stipa pennata 132

324 INDEX OF SCIENTIFIC PLANT NAMES

Stipa ptzewalskii 88,107,173 Tamarix ramosissima 193,198,207,210, 260-261 Stipapurpurea 111, 117,119,121-124,126-127,129, Tamarixsinensi s 86 132-133,168,171-174,210 Tamarix spp. 130,170,183-184, 189,196-198,201 - Stipa roborowskyi 129 202,205-208,210,259-261 Stipasabulos a 132 Tamarix taklamakanesis 145 Stipa sareptana 156,195 Tanacetum (Hippolytia) achilleoides 185 Stipa sibirica 54,63,92,119 Tanacetum chrysanpoides 153 Stipa splendens 62 Tanacetum fruticulosum 193 Stipaspp . 20,23,29,32,41,54-55,57,62,64,67-69, Tanacetum gobicum 185 77,80,85,88-89,99,103,117,119,129-130,136,145, Tanacetum pamiricum 170 147, 149-150, 154, 160-161, 165-171, 175,203 ,269 , Tanacetum sibiricum 20,33-34,65 273,277 Tanacetum spp. 32-33,175,269,273 Stipa stapfii 130 Tanacetum tanuifolia 121 Stipa subsessiflora var. plumosa 124 Tanacetum tibeticum 131 Stipa subsessiliflora 168,172 Tanacetum trifidum 185 Stipa subsessiliflora var.basiplumos a 130,132 Tanacetum vulgare 184 Stipa tianschanica 167-168 Tanacetum xylorrhizum 170 Stipodae 134 Taraxacum bicolor 131 Stirpus distigmaticus 118 Taraxacum dealbatum 129,157 Stracheya tibetica 129 Taraxacum mongolicum 82,154,169-170,234 Streblus asper 237,244 Taraxacum sinicum 38 Strobilanthes versicolor 112 Taraxacum spp. 122,125,127,130,171,232 Stylosantb.esguianensi s 251 Tauscheria lasiocarpa 130,159 Stylosantheshumili s 251 Taxus spp. 103 Suaeda acuminata 197,200 Tephrosia spp. 238 Suaeda corniculata 31 Terminalia franchetti 237 Suaedaglauc a 31,33,38,88,256-257 Tetrachnequadricorni s 159,196 Suaeda maritima 259 Tetrachnespp . 203 Suaeda physophora 195,261 Tetraena mongolica 151,184-185 Suaeda salsa 210,256-257 Tetraena spp. 185 Suaeda spp. 38,86,153,184,189,259-260 Thalictrum alpinum 109,118,127,157,263 Suaeda ussuriensis 153 Thalictrum baicalense 77 Suzygium cumini 246 Thalictrum petaloideum 53 Swainsona salsula 88,184 Thalictrum simplex 53 Swertia przewalskii 118 Thalictrum spp. 56,64,112,166 Swertia randaienis 249 Thalictrum squarrosum 29,56,147 Sympegma regeln 152,167-168,171-175, 184,192- Themeda floridula 78 194,198,202,206,209-210,261 Themeda gigantea 237 Sympegma spp. 152,185 Themeda giganteavar . caudata 239 Symplocos racemosa 245 Themeda gigantea var.villos a 246 Symplocos spp. 238 Themeda hookeri 237 Syneilesis aconitifolia 29 Themedajaponic a 85,92 Syringa microphylla 90 Themeda spp. 103,111,126, 222,232,269, 273 Syringa pekinensis 92 Themeda triandra 76-77, 79-81, 229, 231-232, 234, Syringa spp. 92,107 237,241 Themeda triandra var.japonic a 77-79,238,246-247 Themeda villosa 110 Tamaricaceae 186 Thermopsi salpin a 125 Tamarindus indica 244 Thermopsis chinensis 234 Tamarix ammodendron 191 Thermopsis inflata 125,131 Tamarix chinensis 185,206-207,210,260 Thermopsis lanceolata 60,63,118,187,261 Tamarix hispida 206 Thermopsis spp. 123,136,269 Tamarix Hohenackeri 207 Thlaspi avense 126 Tamarix laxa 198,207,210,261 Thuja orientalis 66-67,76,154 Tamarix psammophilla 207 Thylacospermum caespitosum 105,123,129,133

325 FORAGE RESOURCES OF CHINA

Thylacospertnum rupifragum 123,131,175 Trisetum sibiricum 23,26 Thylacospermum spp. 129,171-173 Trisetum spicatum 165 Thymusmongolicu s 92,156 Trisetum spp. 109,115,169 Thymusserphyllu m 23,26,32-33, 55, 79,148,156 Triticum aestivum 7 Thymusspp . 59,85,187 Triticum strigosum 119,175 Thypha angustifolia 206 Trolliusaltaicu s 160 Thysanolaenamaxim a 246 Trolliusjaponicus 92 Thysanolaena spp. 237 Trollius ledbourii 24,39,52 Tilliaspp. 78 Trollius pumilus 175 Timouria villosa 88,183 Trollius ranunculoides 225 Tomiophyllum 204 Trolliusspp . 54,67,110,115 Toonaciliata 239 Trollius yunnanensis 225 Toreniaspp . 240 Tsuga chinensis 249,251 Torularia humilis 117 Tsugaspp. Ill Tournefortia sibirica 187,193 Tulipa biflora 198 Trachomitum lancifolium 261 Tulipa halopakovkiana 198 Trachomitum spp. 184,208 Tulipa iliensis 165 Tragusberteronianu s 149,151,153 Tulipa schrenkii 159 Trapa bispinosa 263 Tulipa thianschanica 165 Trapa spp. 263 Tylophora spp. 245 Trema spp. 238 Typha angustata 261,263 Triadenium japonicum 40 Typha angustifolia 153,263 Tribulus terrestris 82,260 Typha davidiana 187,263 Trichophorum pumilum 261 Typha lalifolia 263 Trifolium alba 229 Typha laxmannii 261 Trifolium alexandrium 214 Typha minima 260-261,263 Trifolium eximium 214 Typha orientalis 263 Typha spp. 184,263 Trifolium flavescens 54 Typhea orientalis 34 Trifolium fragiferum 214 Trifolium hybridum 161,214 U Trifolium incamatum 237 Trifolium lupinaster 23, 26-27,41,52,55,63-65,67, Ulmusjaponic a 92 69, 214, 260 Ulmus macrocarpa 21,23-24,29, 34,54 , 79 Trifolium montanum 214 Ulmus propinqua 29 Trifolium pratense 86,158,214, 234, 236,275 Ulmus pumila 27,29,31,33-34,62,65-66,173,261 Trifolium repens 86,158,214, 229, 234,237,275 Ulmusspp . 34,57,59,61,65,76,110,126,146,184, Trifolium respudinatum 237 198,260 , 269 Trifolium sibiricum 65 Umbelliferae 40,115,162,184 Trifolium spp. 24,161,164,251,269, 273 Urochloa mosambicensis 251 Trifolium subteranneum 237 Urtica tangularis 126 Triglochin maritimum 127,129,136,153, 184, 210, Utricularia vulgaris 210 259 Triglochin palustre 34, 129,132,169-170, 191, 210, 263 Vaccinium spp. 28 Triglochin pamiricum 170 Vaccinium uliginosum 52 Triglochin spp. 105,171,210 Vallisneria gigantea 265 Triglochin striatum 261-262 Vernonia incana 55 Trigonella argenta 199 Veronica campylopoda 199 Trigonella ruthenica 65,84,118,136, 214 Veronica morrisonicola 249 Trigonella spp. 165 Veronica spp. 112,154,159 Trikeraia hookeri 126-127,132 Vetiveria nigritiana 245 Tripogon chinensis 23,4 1 Viburnum cylindricum 227 Tripogon spp. 127 Vicia amoena 26,34,41,53-55,63,77,79-80,84-86, Tripsacum laxum 251 214 Trisetum flavescens 63 Vicia amoena var.oblongifoli a 85

326 INDEX OF SCIENTIFIC PLANT NAMES

Vicia angustifolia 214 Zygophyllaceae 194 Vicia baicalensis 24,41,52-53 Zygophyllum gobicum 145 Vicia costala 214 Zygophyllum kashgaricum 184 Vicia cracca 23,26-27,41,52,158,214,225 Zygophyllum mucronatum 151-152,188,193 Vicia faba 7 Zygophyllum Potanini 198 Vicia lilacina 214 Zygophyllum sinkiangense 145 Vicia megalotropis 214 Zygophyllum spp. 151,168,170-171,185,188,204- Vicia pseudootobus 41,54,63 205,239 Viciasaüv a 7,158, 237,25 6 Zygophyllum xanthoxylon 150, 153-154, 167, 184- Vicia semenovii 214 186,188-190,193-194,202,204,206 Vicia sepium 214 Zygophyllum xanthoxylonvar .kashgaricu m 167,202 Vicia sinkiangensi s 214 Viciaspp . 26-27,31,39,55-56,64-65,67,69,94,136, 234, 269,273 , 283 Vicia subvillosa 214 Vicia sylvatica 214 Vicia tenuifolia 41,214 Vicia tetrasperma 214 Viciaunijug a 23,26-27,41,53-55,77,80,84-85,107, 119,214 Viciavillos a 41,214,225 Vicia villosa var. baicalensis 23 Viola inconspicua 245 Viola thianschanica 157 Viola tricolor 107 Vitex chinensis 65,76,81-82,85,92 Vitex negundovar . heterophylla 79 Vitex spp. 79,237 Vitex trifolia var. unifoliata 247 W Wikstroemia chamaedaphne 65,88 Wikstroemia indica 244 Wolffia arrhiza 265 Woodfordia fruticosa 237,239

Xanthium sibiricum 82, 259,261 Xanthoceras sorbifolia 92

Zingiberaceae 108 Zizania caduciflora 263 Zizyphusjujuba 79,81,85 Zizyphusjujub a var. spinosus 82 Zizyphus mauritiana 237 Zizyphus montana 239 Zizyphus spinosus 65 Zizyphus spp. 92 Zoysiajaponic a 77 Zoysia machrostachys 256 Zoysia macrostachys 78-79,256-257 Zoysia matrella 234,247 Zoysia spp. 83

327