Greetings

Greetings XXI

HisHoliness, Pope Francis

Dear friends, Ioffer youawarm welcome and thank youfor your presencehere. Iamgrateful for the noble aim that brings youhere: to reflect together, from varyingpoints of view,onthe responsibility of States, institutions and individuals in the struggle against and crimes associatedwith antisemitic hatred. Iwould like to emphasize one word: responsibility.Weare responsible when we are able to respond. It is not merelyaquestion of analyzingthe causes of violence and re- futing theirperverse reasoning, but of being actively prepared to respond to them. Thus, the enemyagainst which we fight is not onlyhatredinall of its forms, but even more fundamentally, indifference; for it is indifference that pa- ralyzes and impedes us from doing what is right even when we know that it is right. Idonot grow tired of repeatingthat indifferenceisavirus thatisdangerous- ly contagious in our time, atime whenweare ever more connected with others, but are increasinglylessattentive to others. Andyet the global context should help us understand that none of us is an island and none will have afuture of peace without one that is worthyfor all. The Book of Genesis helps us to un- derstand that indifference is an insidious evil crouchingatman’sdoor (cf. Gen 4:7). It is the subject of debate between the creatureand his Creator at the begin- ning of history,assoon as the Creator asks Cain: “Where is your brother?” But Cain, who has just killed his brother,does not replytothe question, does not ex- plain “where.” On the contrary,heprotests that he is autonomous: “Am Imy brother’skeeper?” (Gen 4:9). His brother does not interest him: here is the root of perversity, the root of death that producesdesperation and silence.Irecall the roar of the deafening silence Isensed twoyears agoinAuschwitz-Birkenau: adisturbing silence thatleavesspace onlyfor tears,for prayer and for the beg- ging of forgiveness. Faced with the virus of indifference, the root of hatred, what vaccine can we administer?The Book of Deuteronomycomes to our aid. After along journey through the desert,Moses addressed abasiccounsel to the Chosen People: “Re- memberyour whole journey” (Deut 8:2).Tothe people longingfor the promised future, wisdom was suggesting one look back, turning one’sglance to the steps alreadycompleted. And Moses did not simply say, “think of the journey,” but re- member,orbring alive;donot let the past die. Remember,that is, “return with your heart:” do not onlyformthe memory in your mind, but in the depths of your soul, with your whole being.And do not form amemory onlyofwhat youlike, but of “your whole journey.” We have justcelebrated International Hol- XXII Greetings ocaust Remembrance Day. In order to recover our humanity,torecover our human understanding of reality and to overcomesomanydeplorable forms of apathytowardsour neighbor,weneed this memory,this capacity to involve our- selvestogether in remembering. Memory is the key to accessing the future, and it is our responsibility to hand it on in adignified waytoyoung generations. In this regard, Iwould like to mentionadocument of the Commission for Religious Relations with the , whose twentieth anniversary of publication we celebrate this year.The title is eloquent: We Remember: aReflection on the Shoah (16 March 1998).¹ It was Saint John Paul II’sfervent hope thatit“would enable memory to playits necessary part in the process of shapingafuture in which the unspeakable iniquity of the Shoah will never again be possible.”² The text speaksofthis memory,which we Christians are called to safeguard, to- gether with our elder Jewishbrothers: “However,itisnot onlyaquestion of re- calling the past.The common future of Jews and Christians demands that we re- member, for ‘thereisnofuture without memory.’ History itself is memoria futuri.”³ To build our history,which will either be together or will not be at all, we need acommon memory,living and faithful, thatshould not remain imprisoned in resentment but,though rivenbythe night of pain, should open up to the hope of anew dawn.The Church desires to extend her hand.She wishes to remember and to walk togetherwith our Jewishbrothers and sisters.Onthis journey, “the Church, mindful of the patrimonyshe shares with the Jews and moved not by political reasons but by the Gospel’sspiritual love, decries hatred, persecutions, displays of anti-Semitism, directed against Jews at anytime and by anyone.”⁴ Dear friends, maywehelp one another in turn to grow aculture of respon- sibility,ofmemory and of closeness, and to establish an alliance against indif- ference, against every form of indifference.The potentialities of information will certainlybeofassistance; even more important will be thoseofformation. We need urgentlytoeducateyounggenerations to become activelyinvolvedin the struggle against hatred and discrimination, but also in the overcoming of

 Cf. “We Remember: aReflection on the Shoah,” Commission for Religious Relations with the Jews,accessed July 17,2018, http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/chrstuni/ documents/rc_pc_chrstuni_doc_16031998_shoah_en.html.  Ibid., “Letter of PopeJohn Paul II,” 12 March1998.  “We Remember:aReflection on the Shoah,” I:2.  His Holiness, PopePaulVI, NostraAetate: Declaration On TheRelation Of TheChurch To Non- Christian Religions,issued October 28,1965(accessed July 17,2018, http://www.vatican.va/ar chive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decl_19651028_nostra-aetate_en. html), 4. Greetings XXIII conflictingpositions in the past,and never to grow tired of seeking the other. Indeed, to prepareatrulyhuman future, rejecting evil is not enough; we need to build the common good together.Ithank youfor your commitment in all of these matters.May the Lordofpeace accompanyyou and bless every one of your good intentions.Thank you.

Pope Francis (JorgeMario Bergoglio)was elected Pope of the Catholic Church in 2013. He took the name Francis after SaintFrancis of Assisi, who was known for his embrace of poverty and chastity.

Bibliography

Commission forReligious Relations withthe Jews. “We Remember: aReflection on the Shoah.” Accessed July 17,2018. http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/ chrstuni/documents/rc_pc_chrstuni_doc_16031998_shoah_en.html. Commission forReligious Relations withthe Jews. “Letter of Pope John Paul II.” Issued 12 March 1998. Accessed July 17,2018. http:// www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_coun cils/chrstuni/documents/rc_pc_chrstuni_doc_16031998_shoah_en.html. Pope Paul VI. NostraAetate: Declaration On The Relation Of The Church To Non-Christian Religions. Issued October 28, 1965. Accessed July 17,2018. http://www.vatican.va/ar chive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decl_19651028_nostra-aetate_ en.html. XXIV Greetings

AlexanderVan der Bellen

FederalPresident of the Republic of Austria

It has been apleasure for me to attend the opening of the international confer- ence “An End to Antisemitism!” in February 2018. The theme of the conference has been timely: Although the horrors of the “industrialized” mass murder of the National Socialist Holocaust took place almostalifetime ago, antisemitism con- tinues to be an issue today. Hostility towards minorities is not athing of the past but still afrighteningpartofthe present,likelytochallengeusalso in the future.

Consequences of Racial Fanaticism

We are all painfullyaware of the devastating consequences of racial fanaticism in the 20th century.Weall know thatmillions of Jews and members of other mi- norities wereforcefullydisplaced and murdered in its name.Today, we are also aware of the extent of damagethatthe persecution of religious and ethnic minor- ities inflicted on society itself. This damageonour society—asociety,which had considered itself enlight- ened, modern and humanistic at the dawn of the last century—was enormous. When people are drivenout from our midst and murdered it changes the con- sciousnessofanentire generation and that of those who follow. After the end of the National Socialist reign of terror,perpetrators,but also those who had remained silent and inactive,who had not opposed this insanity —neither of them werethe sameasbefore 1938. Those ten thousands of people who weredisplaced and murdered—artists, intellectuals, writers and scientists, and all other parts of the Austrian Jewish society—left an enormous void. Our country has lost awealth of creativity and knowledge,ofspirit and culture, of diversity and togetherness.

Historical and Present Day Antisemitism

Forcenturies priortothe holocaust, antisemitism hadled to pillaging, persecution andforced displacement in Austriaand Europe.But it wasonlyinthe 20th century, that theNationalSocialistsperfected theirperverseregimeofinjustice,organized persecution, andmurderonanunprecedentedscale.The National Socialistsex- ploited theantisemitismpresent in wide circlesofsocietyfor theirpolitical goals. Greetings XXV

Agreat European, the Hungarian novelistand winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature, Imre Kertész, said:

Remembering is necessary.Inorder to prevent it fromhappeningagain.But sinceAuschwitz, nothinghappened which would makeanother Auschwitz impossible. […] BeforeAuschwitz, it was unimaginable. Now it is not anymore.⁵

Nowadays,new forms of antisemitism are emerging.Criticism of does not equate to antisemitism. But often, that criticism provides aplatform for antisem- itic ideas or clichés. This new antisemitismisaphenomenon which is cropping up and slowlytaking effect in our country.Our joint responsibility is to remain vigilant.

Challenges and the Fight against Antisemitism

The lesson to be drawnfrom the pogroms and the Holocaust is the unconditional recognition of human rights and human dignity.However,the great challenge ahead of us is: How do we conveythese principles?How do we reach young peo- ple on these issues?Can schools fulfil this task?Can visitstomemorial sites do so?What responsibilitycan be assumed by the media?What role does political discourse play? We need to confront not onlyantisemitism but all forms of racism and hos- tility towards minorities in an open and critical manner.Weneed to sensitize our society to anykind of hostility towards minorities and anyform of racism. Human dignityand human rights must serveasthe foundations of our actions and our society.They need to become anchored in the mindset of all people liv- ing here. It is in this spirit that Iwould like to thank the organizers of this conference and the authorsofthis present volume which is an essentialoutcomeofthe con- ferenceand all its thought-provoking discussions and astimulating exchangeof thoughts. And to all of us, Ihope for great momentum in order to come closer to our shared goal of aworld free of racism,free of antisemitism, free of hostility directed at minorities. Aworld wherethe understanding that all human beings are born freeand equal in dignity and rights is trulybeing upheld.

 I. Kertész, “Panne: Der Holocaust als Kultur,” in Jean Améry(Hans Maier): mit einem biogra- phischen Bildessay und einer Bibliographie,ed. S. Steiner (Basel: Stroemfeld, 1996), 16–17.Trans- lation by the author of this article. XXVI Greetings

Alexander Vander Bellen is the current President of Austria.Hepreviously served as aprofessorofeconomics at the University of Vienna, was amember of the Na- tional Council representing the Green Party there from 1994 to 2012, and servedas both leader of the party as well as its parliamentarygroup.AsPresidentofAustria, Vander Bellen’score value lies in the recognition of Austria as home of every per- son living in the countryand their righttoalifeinfreedom anddignity based on general human rights.

Bibliography

Kertész, Imre. “Panne: Der Holocaust als Kultur.” In Jean Améry (Hans Maier): mit einem biographischen Bildessayund einerBibliographie,edited by StephanSteiner,13–24. Basel: Stroemfeld, 1996. Greetings XXVII

TalyaLador-Fresher

Ambassador of the StateofIsrael to the Republic of Austria (2015–2019)

Iamdeeplyhonored to have taken part in such aunique conference on the fight against antisemitism taking place here in Vienna.Asmanyesteemed experts have discussed in full detail the phenomenon of antisemitism and the appropri- ate means to fight it duringthe conference, Iwish to focus my shortremarks on the issue of anti-Zionism and anti-Israel agitation. On May26, 2016,the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance—which incorporates twenty-seven countries includingAustria and Israel—adopted in Bucharest aworkingdefinition of antisemitism. Thisresolution includes exam- ples to illustrate antisemitism, including “denying the Jewish people the right to self-determination” by claiming that the sheer “existenceofthe State of Israel is aracist endeavor” and by “applying double standards” by requiringIsrael “a behavior not expectedordemanded from anyother democratic nation.”⁶ Israeli diplomats are often confronted with these phenomena. While in the first case—the denial of Israel’sright to self-determination—it is relatively possi- ble to build coalitions against it,itisextremelydifficult to fight against the ex- pectations regardingIsrael’smoral ground. The double standard and hypocrisy poses ahugechallengetoIsrael’sdiplomats and well-wishers. These manifesta- tions maybefound in universities, NGOs, media outlets, and political parties in manycountries across Europe on the bilateral front—and most troublesome are its manifestations on the multilateral agenda. Israel is the onlylong-term memberofthe United Nations that was never elected as amember of the UN security council.⁷ There are seven well-known protracted conflicts worldwide, including for example Northern Cyprus, Western Sahara, or Georgia. Throughout the years, in the UN resolutions that dealt with the Israeli-Palestinianconflict,the terminologyof“occupied territories” has been used. All in all, this terminology appears 2,342timesinthe context of Isra- el, while in all other six protracted conflicts combined the wording “occupied ter-

 “WorkingDefinition of Antisemitism,” International Holocaust RemembranceAlliance, issued May26, 2016,https://www.holocaustremembrance.com/news-archive/working-definition-anti semitism.  Cf. “Countries Never Elected Members,” United Nations Security Council,accessedJanuary 12, 2018, https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/content/countries-never-elected-members-security- council. XXVIII Greetings ritories” appears onlysixteen times.⁸ This bringsusbacktodouble standards and the fertile ground whereantisemitism is growing. Iwish to thankthe manyorganizers for puttingthis serious and alarming issue in the spotlight,for bringingawide array of speakers and experts, and for all of youfor taking the time to focus on this ever burningtopic.

Following her studies of business administration and political sciencesatthe Hebrew University of Jerusalem, TalyaLador-Fresher entered the diplomatic serv- ice of the State of Israel in 1989. She has servedasIsraelidiplomat in Jamaica, New York and London. Since 2015, sheisIsraeli Ambassador in Austria and has been representing Israel in various international organizations in Vienna, among them UNIDO and OSCE.

Bibliography

International Holocaust RemembranceAlliance. “Working Definition of Antisemitism.” Issued May 26, 2016. https://www.holocaustremembrance.com/news-archive/working-defi nition-antisemitism. Kontorovich, Eugene, and PennyGrunseid. “At the U.N., Only Israel Is an ‘Occupying Power’.” The Wall Street Journal,September 13, 2016. https://www.wsj.com/articles/at-the-u-n- only-israel-is-an-occupying-power-1473808544?mod=e2two. Kontorovich, Eugene. “Unsettled: AGlobal Study of Settlements in Occupied Territories.” The Journal of Legal Analysis 9, no. 2(2017): 1–66. UnitedNations Security Council. “Countries NeverElected Members.” Accessed January12, 2018. https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/content/countries-never-elected-members-se curity-council.

 Cf. E. Kontorovich, and P. Grunseid, “At the U.N.,OnlyIsrael Is an ‘Occupying Power’,” The Wall Street Journal,September 13,2016,https://www.wsj.com/articles/at-the-u-n-only-israel-is- an-occupying-power-1473808544?mod=e2two; E. Kontorovich, “Unsettled: AGlobal StudyofSet- tlements in Occupied Territories,” TheJournal of Legal Analysis 9, no. 2(2017): 1–66. Greetings XXIX

Moshe Kantor

President of the European JewishCongress

Alittle more than acentury ago, aman was elected mayorofVienna. His name was Karl Lueger.Eventhough the emperor refused to confirm him due to his ag- gressive antisemitism, he came to power by using prejudice. He spread false claims against the Jews and madeantisemitism politically acceptable. Let us also think of the famous town of Linz. Forever we shallremember a modest artist whose ‘art’ brought sixty millioncasualties to the world, and who rose to power less than acentury agothrough ideological antisemitism. Today, we see adifferent path. Only in 2017,atthe Vienna City Hall,across- party monitoringcommittee against antisemitism wasintroduced by the Mayor of Vienna.⁹ With the internationalconference “An End to Antisemitism!” backin February 2018, we have taken on avery ambitiousobjective—to plantthe seeds that will endantisemitism. We,Jews, saythe seedsofsalvation should be planted in the soilonlybyourselves. Iinviteall Europeans to join thisprocess. Talking about antisemitism is not enough.Wemust be determined to find pragmatic solutions to this problem. We need first of all to recognize the full ex- tent of the issue today. Radical forces, both on the right and on the left,are gain- ing strength. In some countries,nationalists are alreadyinpower.Afar-right party now sits in the German parliament.InHungary, currentlycom- mands the highest number of seats among all opposition parties in Hungary’s National Assembly. In Austria, the FPÖ recentlyjoined the governmentcoalition. The European JewishCongress and its Austrianaffiliate,the IKG, have been publiclyvoicing their oppositiontothis political situation in Austria. We are still sceptical about the motivesofthe FPÖ and its links to Nazi ideol- ogyand antisemitism.Wewelcome the recent decision by the FPÖ to create a commission of historians to investigate its history,inanattempt to distance itself from antisemitismand racism.¹⁰ We hope that this commission will remain inde- pendent and that results will be made public.

 Cf.Presse-Service Rathauskorrespondenz, “Häupl präsentierterstesMonitoring-Komitee gegen Antisemitismus im WienerRathaus,” issued April18, 2017,https://www.wien.gv.at/ presse/2017/04/18/haeupl-praesentiert-erstes-monitoring-komitee-gegen-antisemitismus-im- wiener-rathaus.  Cf. “Die braunen Flecken der FPÖ,” Wiener Zeitung,January 29,2018, https://www.wiener zeitung.at/nachrichten/wahlen/landtagswahlen/niederoesterreich/944032-Die-braunen-Fleck XXX Greetings

We have an obligation not to give antisemitism anyspace in the public sphere. All around Europe the demons of xenophobia and antisemitism are on the rise. In 2017,the number of antisemitic incidentsescalated in the UK, France, Germanyand Sweden.¹¹ LastApril in , a66year-old Jewish woman, Sarah Halimi, wasthrown to her death from her ownbalconybecause she was Jewish.Nevertheless, aFrench court recentlyrefused to recognize an anti- semitic motive in this case.¹² Thisiswillful blindness. In December 2017,synagogues in Malmöand Gothenburgwerefirebombed because of the absurdbelief that European Jews are to be blamed for adiplomat- ic statement from anon-Jewthousandsofmiles away telling the self-evident truth that Jerusalem is the capital of Israel.¹³ These attacks do not take place in apolitical vacuum. People marchinginthe streets of European capitals shout- ing “Death to Jews!” has led to the death of Jews, and it will do so in the future again if Europe does not react. Because of the constant threat,synagogues and Jewishcommunity centres in manyEuropean countries are under 24-hour police and military protection. The truth is that we have movedontorelymore and more on hard power. This is of course necessary,but it is ashameful fact! The rise of antisemitism is one of the main security challenges of our time. Yetitisanattack on the most reliable and lawabiding, active element of society. The fight against antisemitism is an indicatorofthe ability of democratic states to protect their citizensagainst the main security challenges of our time.

en-der-FPOe.html; “Ex-Nationalratspräsident Brauneder leitet blaue Historikerkommission,” Der Standard,February 13,2018, https://www.derstandard.at/2000074161664/FPOe-stellt-Histor ikerkommission-zur-Aufarbeitung-der-eigenen-Geschichte-vor; “VonStenzel bis Mölzer:FPÖ präsentiert Historikerkommission,” Die Presse,February 13,2018, https://diepresse.com/ home/innenpolitik/5370762/Von-Stenzel-bis-Moelzer_FPOe-praesentiert-Historikerkommission.  Cf. e.g. F. Jansen, “Pro TagimSchnitt vier antisemitische Straftaten,” Der Tagesspiegel,Feb- ruary 11, 2018, https://www.tagesspiegel.de/politik/hass-gegen-juden-in-deutschland-pro-tag- im-schnitt-vier-antisemitische-straftaten/20949750.html; N. Khomami, “Antisemitic Incidents in UK at All-time High.” TheGuardian,February 1, 2018, https://www.theguardian.com/society/ 2018/feb/01/antisemitic-incidents-in-uk-at-all-time-high; Sh. Sitbon, “Antisemitic Attacks Surge in France,” TheJewishChronicle,February 9, 2018, https://www.thejc.com/news/world/anti semitic-attacks-surge-in-france-1.458478.  Cf. A. Devecchio, “Le meurtredeSarah Halimi, une tragédie contemporaine,” Le Figaro,July 17,2017, http://www.lefigaro.fr/vox/societe/2017/07/17/31003-20170717ARTFIG00277-sarah-hal imi-une-tragedie-contemporaine.php.  Cf. Ch. Anderson, “Three Arrested AfterFirebomb Attack on Swedish Synagogue,” TheNew York Times,December 10,2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/12/10/world/europe/sweden-syn agogue-molotov-cocktail.html. Greetings XXXI

Jews constitute less than 1percent of the European population. We have been, and still are, an integralpart of Europe’ssocieties. But we should never have to justify the right of Jews to be part of Europe. Jewishlife in Europe cannot be poisoned by the pessimistic dilemma of staying and living with the challenges of antisemitism or finding asafer place elsewhere. The onlyway to oppose hostile ideologies of Islamism, the far right and far left,and all other forms of extremism is to develop anew ideology, which we call the secure tolerance concept.Wemust move towards an understandingoftoler- ance, conscious of the new challenges that society faces. We need to find ways of making tolerance more sustainable in the face of Islamism, the rise of political extremism, the increasing pressureofimmigration, and persistent social,culturaland economic inequalities. In the German-speaking countries,the concept of “defensive/fortified de- mocracy” is well known. But every powerful fort in the world is destined to be destroyed. It is onlyamatteroftime. Strategies to survive and win should be an organic part of an active frontline! This is avision of democracythat is able to defend itself, through strong in- stitutions that demand respect for fundamental rights. Secure tolerance is a paradigm and ideologyofthe 21st century.Itisabout limits,dimensions and pa- rameters of relations inside European society.You, politicians and academics, are obliged to make ahugecontribution to its development for the benefit of fu- ture generations of all Europeans,and not onlyJews. Therefore, Iampleased to announce astart-up of the European Council on Tolerance and Reconciliation to create an institution that will bring togethera panel of international experts includingtop historians and philosophers. It will work towards elaborating general guidelines on this securetolerance con- cept,which finally should lead to fundamental reform of legislation. Hard power alone cannot deliverlong-term security. It is onlyincombination with soft power that society will be able to triggeranirrevocable legal framework that will guarantee security,not onlyfor Jews, but also for society as awhole. We cannot wait for conflict to become so bloody, thatthe price of civil peace becomes unmanageable. We have to move fast and not wait for anew catastro- phe which unfortunatelyisafine teacher of history. The academic conference “An End to Antisemitism!” has been an extremely valuable opportunity. Through numerous studies and reports,wehavegradually come closer to understandingthe dynamics of antisemitism. One thing is very strange! Until now,there has been much less effort in elab- orating practical solutions to fight this evil effectively on the ground. Therefore, academic analysis must be followed by avital synthesisthat is so essential! We XXXII Greetings hope to have set the first step in this new and highlyimportant direction with the present catalogue. Afew words about Poland: as President and Deputy Chairman of YadVashem, Ipromise to help the Polish government to clarify the historical truth about the participation of Polish citizens in the Holo- caust—both positively and negatively. Iwould like to end with the words of Shimon Peres: “Forme, dreamingis simplybeing pragmatic.”

Dr.Moshe Kantor is aprominentpublicfigure, international philanthropist and sci- entist whohas served as the Presidentofthe European JewishCongress since 2007. He is known worldwide for his fightagainst antisemitism, racism,neo-Nazism, neg- ationism and intolerance. Theprosperity,freedom and security of the Jewishpeople are his first priorities.Under his leadership,EJC has become auniversal recognized unified voice of European Jews.

Bibliography

Anderson, Christina. “Three Arrested After Firebomb AttackonSwedish Synagogue.” The New York Times,December 10,2017.https://www.nytimes.com/2017/12/10/world/europe/swe den-synagogue-molotov-cocktail.html. Devecchio, Alexndre. “Le meurtre de Sarah Halimi, unetragédie contemporaine.” Le Figaro, July 17,2017.http://www.lefigaro.fr/vox/societe/2017/07/17/ 31003-20170717ARTFIG00277-sarah-halimi-une-tragedie-contemporaine.php. Jansen, Frank. “Pro TagimSchnitt vier antisemitische Straftaten.” Der Tagesspiegel,February 11, 2018. https://www.tagesspiegel.de/politik/hass-gegen-juden-in-deutschland-pro-tag- im-schnitt-vier-antisemitische-straftaten/20949750.html. Khomami, Nadia. “Antisemitic IncidentsinUKatAll-timeHigh.” TheGuardian,February1,2018. https://www.theguardian.com/society/2018/feb/01/antisemitic-incidents-in-uk-at-all-time-high. N.N. “Die braunen Flecken der FPÖ.” Wiener Zeitung,January29, 2018. https://www.wiener zeitung.at/nachrichten/wahlen/landtagswahlen/niederoesterreich/944032-Die-braunen- Flecken-der-FPOe.html. N.N. “Ex-Nationalratspräsident Brauneder leitet blaue Historikerkommission.” Der Standard, February13, 2018. https://derstandard.at/2000074161664/FPOe-stellt-Histor ikerkommission-zur-Aufarbeitung-der-eigenen-Geschichte-vor. N.N. “VonStenzel bis Mölzer: FPÖ präsentiert Historikerkommission.” Die Presse,February 13, 2018. https://diepresse.com/home/innenpolitik/5370762/Von-Stenzel-bis-Moelzer_ FPOe-praesentiert-Historikerkommission. Presse-ServiceRathauskorrespondenz. “Häupl präsentiert erstes Monitoring-Komitee gegen Antisemitismus im Wiener Rathaus.” Issued April 18, 2017.https://www.wien.gv.at/ presse/2017/04/18/haeupl-praesentiert-erstes-monitoring-komitee-gegen-anti semitismus-im-wiener-rathaus. Greetings XXXIII

Sitbon, Shirli. “Antisemitic Attacks Surge in France.” The Jewish Chronicle. February9,2018. https://www.thejc.com/news/world/antisemitic-attacks-surge-in-france-1.458478. XXXIV Greetings

Ariel Muzicant

Vice-President of the European JewishCongress

After the Shoah, European Jews believed that antisemitism would decrease and disappear and in fact,specificallyinGerman speakingEurope, efforts to reduce this sickness showed at least partial success. Big was the shock,whenapproxi- matelyseventy years after the Shoah, antisemitism in its old and new forms, started to rise again. Jews wereattacked and even killed. As aresult, the majority of the remaining1.5 million Jews of Europe are contemplating leaving the con- tinent.Inthis situation, the European JewishCongress has launched anumber of initiativestodiscuss how to successfullyput an “end to antisemitism.” The conference in Vienna in February 2018 had—amongst others—the goal to pro- duceahandbook includingall possiblemeans and strategies for this fight. One-hundred-fifty speakers and more than 800 participants met for four days in Vienna.The resultscan be seen in this book,and we are thankful to all those who made this possible.¹⁴ When youfight the sickness of antisemitism, youdescribe it alsoasasick- ness of the antisemites, the problem being that most of the actionsare to treat the symptoms and not the real causes. In my opinion, protecting values such as democracy, human rights, freedom of speech, rule of law, tolerance and re- spect are the real base to evict anykind of antisemitism. If youattack or question these values,itislike taking away the oxygen which we need to survive.When we see the increaseofilliberal democracies in Europe, this is adirect threat to the Jewishpeople, because these new tendencies are accompanied by waves of antisemitism. If we are not able to find ways and means to stop antisemitism, xenophobia, racism,and illiberal democracy in Europe, Jews will leave this continent.

Ariel Muzicantisthe honoraryPresidentofthe Jewishcommunity of Vienna and was its president for manyyears. He servesasaVice-Presidentofthe European JewishCongress and is amember of the WorldJewishCongress Executive Commit- tee.

 Cf. A. Lange,A.Muzicant, D. Porat,L.H.Schiffman, and M. Weitzman, An End to Antisem- itism! ACatalogue of Policies to Combat Antisemitism (Brussels:European Jewish Congress, 2018). Greetings XXXV

Bibliography

Lange, Armin, , DinaPorat, LawrenceH.Schiffman, and Mark Weitzman. An End to Antisemitism! ACatalogueofPolicies to Combat Antisemitism. Brussels: European Jewish Congress, 2018. XXXVI Greetings

Oskar Deutsch

President of the Jewish Community of Vienna

On the same daythat this lecture wasgiven, another Nazi scandal came to light: The nationalist German fraternity Bruna Sudetia,whose constituents are FPÖ members and officials, is allegedlyusing abook of songsthat is not onlyclearly antisemitic but also glorifies the Shoah. The songstell of drowning Jews and the murder of aseventh million through gas.¹⁵ As President of the Jewish Community of Vienna,one thing is clear: as long as officials of the Austrian Freedom Party are making antisemitic statements,we will not have anycontact with this party! In the short time since the inauguration of the new government,therewere no less than sixteen incidents whereparty officials acted in ways that wereanti- semitic, racist or right-wingextremist.The best known case concerns the front- running FPÖ official in the elections of Lower Austria, who wasamember of a German nationalist fraternity that is publishing abook of Nazi songs.¹⁶ Another FPÖ official posted about “Untermenschen [subhumans]” on social media,¹⁷ and the FPÖ suggested extremist candidates for the university council.¹⁸ These are not isolated incidents—this is systematic. In this country,the FPÖ carries the responsibility for this network of inci- dents, but if their partners in government are not standing up to fight—and they have not yetdone so—then the responsibility for normalising these inci- dents will be on them. We all have to be vigilant. Afew days ago, the Forum gegenAntisemitismus [Forum against Antisemit- ism] presented the report on Antisemitism for the year 2017 to the public. The

 The original German text reads “Gebt Gas, ihr alten Germanen, wir schaffen die sieb’te Mil- lion.” Cf. N. Horaczek, “Neues Liederbuch mit antisemitischen Texten,” FALTER,February 20, 2018, https://www.falter.at/archiv/wp/neues-liederbuch-mit-antisemitischen-texten.  Cf. “Nazi-Lieder bei Burschenschaft vonFPÖ-Kandidat Landbauer,” Der Standard,January 24,2018, https://derstandard.at/2000072861626/Nazi-Lieder-bei-Burschenschaft-von-FPOe-Kan didat-Landbauer.  Cf. K. Riss, “Tullner FPÖ-Funktionärin postet über ‘Untermenschen’,” Der Standard,Febru- ary 7, 2018, https://derstandard.at/2000073825654/Tullner-FPOe-Funktionaerin-postet-ueber-Un termenschen.  “Neue Uni-Rätewerden zur Zeit mit der FPÖ abgestimmt,” Die Presse,January 31, 2018, https://diepresse.com/home/bildung/universitaet/5363645/Neue-UniRaete-werden-zur-Zeit-mit- der-FPOe-abgestimmt; “Uni-Räte: ÖVPverhandelt zweiBurschenschafter raus und Eva Dichand rein,” Der Standard,February 20,2018, https://derstandard.at/2000074673280/Wie-die-Regier ung-die-Uni-Raete-umbaut. Greetings XXXVII number of documented instances of antisemitisminthis reporthas doubled within onlythree years. This statistic can onlyshow us the cases that have been reported, but we have to assume that there is avast number of cases that are never reported. These developments are not exclusively an Austrianphe- nomenon but can be recognized in nearlyall European countries.¹⁹ The one criticizingright-wingantisemitism is just as justified in his anger as the one criticizingIslamic antisemitism.Often overlooked are the stereotypes of Jew-hatred that rear theiruglyheads from the swamps of the extreme left.For years, we have been seeing astrengthening in the phenomenon of antisemitism under the guise of criticizing Israel, astrategyused by all camps. But the lastfew years have brought with them aswelling of terrorist activity that givesIslamic antisemitism amore urgent sense of danger,especiallytoorthodoxJews that are recognizable in the streets due to their kippot and other religiouslysignificant garments. No matter from what direction antisemitism is coming, the right,the left,tra- ditional or Islamic antisemitism—it is time to stop this spiralling menace. This will need actiononall levels of society and in all institutions, from the kinder- garten to schools and job training centers,adulteducation, and social media, in the field of criminal policy and others. Educatingabout antisemitism, visitsof formerconcentration camps with intense preparation and post processing should be afirm component of schooleducation. TheJewish Community takes part in this effort with the project “LIKRAT”—the Hebrew word likrat here means “moving towardseach other.” Jewish teenagers with special training visit schools and other groups of theirpeers wherethey introduce them to Juda- ism in an authentic way, leading them to see the multiple facets of culture and religion. This in-depth look into what Judaism is, that the students receive,al- lows them to learn facts and thus prevent and counteract stereotypes and prej- udices.²⁰ This conference is awonderful initiativeand achance to start the process with analyzingthe roots and causes of antisemitism and reaching all the way to concrete courses of action. We have to succeed in anchoringthe ostracizing of antisemitism in society to apoint when society develops methods of self-regulationthat no longer accept anyform of antisemitism. Not onlypoliticians, but every member of civil society

 Forum gegenAntisemitismus,ed., Antisemitismusbericht 2017,https://www.fga-wien.at/fil eadmin/user_upload/FgA_Bilder/Berichte/Antisemitismusbericht-2017_FgA.pdf (last accessed February 19,2018).  Cf. “LIKRAT. Dialogprojekt mit Jugendlichen der Jüdischen Gemeinde Wien,” LIKRATÖster- reich, accessed February 19,2018, http://likrat.at/lassunsreden.html. XXXVIII Greetings carries ashare of the responsibility and each and every one needs to ask them- selvesthe question: “How and when are we affecting change?” The German government has reacted to the rising number of antisemitic in- cidentsand installedacommissioner for combatingantisemitism.²¹ Icannot and do not want to judge this initiative in anyway,but Iwant to share my thoughts with you: In the end, the problem of antisemitism cannot be combated by an ex- ternal forceonly. What it takes is sensitization, higher awareness,and moral courage. This is whyIsaythatevery man and woman who livesinEurope is a commissioner for combatingantisemitism. Antisemitism is not onlyathreat to Jews and Judaism, antisemitismisone of the biggest threats to democracy.

Oskar Deutsch was born in Vienna and has been active in various Jewishorgani- zationsand associations, among them the Vienna Maccabi SportsClub.In1993, he becamehead of cultural affairsofthe JewishCommunity Vienna. In 2012, he followed Ariel MuzicantasPresidentofthe JewishCommunity Vienna and head of the JewishReligious Community of Austria,the umbrella organization of all AustrianJewishCommunities.

Bibliography

FederalMinistryofthe Interior,Building and Community. “FederalGovernment Commissioner forJewishLifeinGermany and the Fight against Anti-Semitism.” Accessed February19, 2018. https://www.bmi.bund.de/EN/ministry/commissioners/anti-semitism/anti-semi tism-node.html. Forum gegen Antisemitismus, ed. Antisemitismusbericht2017. https://www.fga-wien.at/fil eadmin/user_upload/FgA_Bilder/Berichte/Antisemitismusbericht-2017_FgA.pdf. Horaczek,Nina. “Neues Liederbuchmit antisemitischen Texten.” FALTER,February20, 2018. https://www.falter.at/archiv/wp/neues-liederbuch-mit-antisemitischen-texten. LIKRATÖsterreich. “LIKRAT. Dialogprojekt mit Jugendlichen der Jüdischen Gemeinde Wien.” Accessed February19, 2018. http://likrat.at/lassunsreden.html.

 Followingthe results of an extensive report on antisemitism in Germanyfrom2017, the German governmentdecided to establish aspecial commission against antisemitism. In April 2018, the officeofthe Federal Government Commissioner for Jewish Life in Germanyand the Fightagainst Anti-Semitism was createdand is based at the Federal Ministry of the Interior, Buildingand Community.Felix Klein was appointed the first holder of this commission effective May1,2018. Cf. “Federal Government Commissioner for Jewish Life in Germanyand the Fight against Anti-Semitism,” Federal Ministry of the Interior,Buildingand Community,accessed Feb- ruary 19,2018, https://www.bmi.bund.de/EN/ministry/commissioners/anti-semitism/anti-semi tism-node.html. Greetings XXXIX

N.N. “Nazi-Lieder bei Burschenschaft vonFPÖ-Kandidat Landbauer.” Der Standard,January 24, 2018. https://derstandard.at/2000072861626/Nazi-Lieder-bei-Burschenschaft-von- FPOe-Kandidat-Landbauer. N.N. “Neue Uni-Rätewerden zurZeit mit der FPÖ abgestimmt.” Die Presse,January31, 2018. https://diepresse.com/home/bildung/universitaet/5363645/Neue-UniRaete-werden-zur- Zeit-mit-der-FPOe-abgestimmt. N.N. “Uni-Räte: ÖVPverhandelt zwei Burschenschafter raus und EvaDichandrein.” Der Standard,February20, 2018. https://derstandard.at/2000074673280/Wie-die-Regierung- die-Uni-Raete-umbaut. Riss, Karin. “Tullner FPÖ-Funktionärin postetüber ‘Untermenschen’.” Der Standard,February 7, 2018. https://derstandard.at/2000073825654/Tullner-FPOe-Funktionaerin-postet- ueber-Untermenschen. XL Greetings

Heinz Engl

Rectorofthe University of Vienna

Givenits history,Austria has aspecial responsibility to fight antisemitism. In the beginning of the twentieth century—decades before the Shoah—the University of Vienna had alreadybeen ahotbed for antisemitism. The poisoned atmosphere culminated in the murder of our professor Moritz Schlick, an important propo- nent of the Wiener Kreis.²² Unfortunately, antisemitic resentment at Vienna University had an even lon- gertradition.²³ One example for the widespread antisemitism in the nineteenth century is the formerRector EduardSuess. The famous geologist suffered from antisemitic agitation against him and left office onlyafew months after his in- auguration in 1888.²⁴ Later,Wenzeslaus vonGleispach, afervent antisemite, be- came Rector in 1929.Gleispachlobbied for discriminating regulations against Jewishstudents.²⁵

 Germanphysicist andphilosopher Moritz Schlick(1882– 1936) was professor of philosophyat theUniversityofViennafrom1922until hisassassination in 1936.In1926, he foundedand became chairofthe Wiener Kreis [Vienna Circle]. Together with otherphilosophers, mathematicians,natu- ralscientists, andhumanitiesscholars, Schlickwas driven to developand to propagateascientific worldview. Thus,the circle quicklybecameastronghold of logicalpositivism. In 1936, Moritz Schlickwas murdered by Hans Nelböck on hisway to hislecture at themainbuilding of theUni- versityofVienna.Nelböck hadpreviouslystudied withSchlick andgraduated underhis auspices. He namedSchlick’santimetaphysical philosophy themaincoursefor thelossofhis social and moraldisintegration andsupport.Itis clearthoughthatanatmosphere of growingnationalism, fascism, racism,and antisemitism in Austriainthe 1930s that hadalready spreadatthe University of Vienna have contributedlargely to Nelböck’sintenttocommitthe homicidalact. Cf.K.Kniefacz, “DerMord an Prof.MoritzSchlick:AttentatimHauptgebäude derUniversität Wien,” accessedJuly 17,2018, http://geschichte.univie.ac.at/de/artikel/der-mord-prof-moritz-schlick.  Cf. K. Kniefacz, “Antisemitismus an der Universität Wien,” accessed July 17,2018, https:// geschichte.univie.ac.at/de/themen/antisemitismus-der-universitat-wien; K. Kniefacz, “ADark History:Anti-Semitism at the University of Vienna,” accessed July 17,2018, http://www.aus trianinformation.org/fall-2015/dark-history; O. Rathkolb, ed., Der langeSchattendes Antisemitis- mus:Kritische Auseinandersetzungen mit der Geschichte der Universität Wien im 19.und 20.Jahr- hundert (Göttingen: Vienna University Press,2013); K. Taschwer, Hochburgdes Antisemitismus: Der Niedergang der Universität Wien im 20.Jahrhundert (Wien: Czernin, 2015).  Cf. J. Seidl, “Eduard Suess,Prof.,” accessed July 17,2018, https://geschichte.univie.ac.at/de/ personen/eduard-suess-prof.  Cf. K. Kniefacz, “The Gleispach’sche Studentenordnung [Gleispach Student Regulation],” ac- cessed July 17,2018, http://geschichte.univie.ac.at/en/articles/gleispachsche-studentenordnung- gleispach-student-regulation. Greetings XLI

Fritz Knoll became thefirst Rector under national-socialist rule in 1938.OnNo- vember 5, asymbolic pogrom wasorganized at theUniversity of Vienna. Memorials andstatues honoring Jewish scholarsand scientists, like thebustsofSonnenfels, Wiesner, Mussafia, Bamberger,Zuckerkandl,Kaposi, Glaser,Goldschmiedt, Fleischl-Marxow,and Bickel in Vienna University’s Arkadenhof [“arcaded court- yard”]weredisfigured, smeared,and partly knocked over.Rector Knoll ordered an investigationtoremoveall fifteenmemorials.OnNovember11, 1938, Jewishstu- dentswereexcludedfromthe Universityand banished becauseofracist motives.²⁶ Antisemitism is acomplex phenomenon with manyfaces and facets.There- fore, it can onlybefought effectively when specialistsfrom abroad interdiscipli- nary rangework together in order to studyand better understand it.The UniversityofVienna is committed to this conference and its proceedings as a contribution to the fight against antisemitism. The topic of this conference and its proceedingsisofgreat importance for our University. Recent occurrencesinthe FacultyofLaw have shown once againthatthe fight against antisemitism haslostnone of itsrelevanceinour time.²⁷ The University of Vienna is thereforeproud to act as co-organizer of theconference “An End to Anti- semitism!” Itsmembers—faculty andstudents alike—must not cease to contribute to the fightfor an open,tolerant society.Tosay it with thewords of Sigmund Freud:

Die Stimme des Intellekts ist leise, aber sie ruht nicht,ehe sie sich Gehör verschafft hat.Am Ende, nach unzähligenoft wiederholten Abweisungen, findet sie es doch. Dies ist einer der wenigenPunkte, in denen man für die Zukunft der Menschheit optimistisch sein darf.²⁸

 Cf. K. Kniefacz, “Fritz (Friedrich) Knoll, Prof. Dr.,” accessed July 17,2018,http://geschichte. univie.ac.at/de/personen/fritz-friedrich-knoll-prof-dr.  In 2017,membersofagroup of the statutory lawstudents representation,the AG-Jus,posted abominable pictures and “jokes” such as an heap as “leaked Anne Franknudes” andother pictures showingswastikas and Nazi salutes. Allthis was shared in closed WhatsApp and Facebook Groups, but became public soon thereafter in May2017. Even though the AG-Jus has distanced itself from these imagesand theirdistributors andhas expelled anumber of people involved in the distribution of the imagesfromparticipation in theAG-Jus, theincidencegaveraise to mistrust in the AG-Jus as awhole. TheFaculty of Lawhas respondedtothis scandal by putting even more effort into research, informa- tion, education, and commemoration of the Shoahand theantisemitic history of Austria and theUni- versity of Vienna. Still, events like these show that racist and antisemitic ideas andconcepts have reached themiddleofsociety anddonot stop in frontofthe gatesofaliberal education institution suchasthe University of Viennaeventoday. Cf. S. Fellnerand O. Kroisleitner, “Antisemitische Post- ings in Gruppe der Aktionsgemeinschaft,” derStandard.at,May 9, 2017,https://derstandard.at/ 2000057250697/Antisemitische-Postings-in-Gruppe-der-Aktionsgemeinschaft.  S. Freud, Die Zukunft einer Illusion (Leipzig: Internationaler Psychoanalytischer Verlag, 1927), 90. XLII Greetings

The voiceofthe intellect is asoft one, but it does not rest until it has gained ahearing. Finally, after acountless succession of rebuffs, it succeeds.This is one of the few points on which one maybeoptimistic about the future of mankind.

Heinz Engl started his academiccareer as Professor of Mathematics at the Univer- sity of Linz. His research in this period concerned inverseproblems in industrial applied mathematics. In 2007, he became vice-rector for research of the University of Vienna and has been serving as rector since 2011.Engl has continuously made an effortinbringing the NationalSocialistheritage of the University of Vienna into consciousness,calling everyacademicdisciplinetoscrutinize their teaching and research during that era.

Bibliography

Fellner,Sebastian, and Oona Kroisleitner. “Antisemitische Postings in Gruppe der Aktionsgemeinschaft.” derStandard.at.,May 9, 2017.https://derstandard.at/ 2000057250697/Antisemitische-Postings-in-Gruppe-der-Aktionsgemeinschaft. Freud, Sigmund. Die Zukunft einer Illusion. Leipzig: Internationaler Psychoanalytischer Verlag, 1927. Kniefacz, Katharina. “Antisemitismus an der Universität Wien.” Accessed July 17,2018. https://geschichte.univie.ac.at/de/themen/antisemitismus-der-universitat-wien. Kniefacz, Katharina. “ADark History:Anti-Semitism at the UniversityofVienna.” Accessed July 17,2018. http://www.austrianinformation.org/fall-2015/dark-history; Kniefacz, Katharina. “Fritz (Friedrich)Knoll, Prof.Dr.” Accessed July 17,2018. http:// ge schichte.univie.ac.at/de/personen/fritz-friedrich-knoll-prof-dr. Kniefacz, Katharina. “The Gleispach’sche Studentenordnung [Gleispach Student Regulation].” Accessed July 17,2018. http:// geschichte.univie.ac.at/en/articles/gleispachsche-studente nordnung-gleispach-student-regulation. Kniefacz, Katharina. “Der MordanProf.Moritz Schlick: Attentat im Hauptgebäude der Universität Wien.” Accessed July 17,2018. http://geschichte.univie.ac.at/de/artikel/der- mord-prof-moritz-schlick. Rathkolb, Oliver,ed. Der lange Schatten des Antisemitismus: Kritische Auseinandersetzungen mit der Geschichte der Universität Wien im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert. Göttingen: Vienna UniversityPress, 2013. Seidl,Johannes. “Eduard Suess, Prof.” Accessed July 17,2018. http://geschichte.univie.ac.at/ de/personen/eduard-suess-prof. Taschwer,Klaus. Hochburgdes Antisemitismus: Der Niedergang der Universität Wien im 20. Jahrhundert. Wien: Czernin, 2015. Greetings XLIII

AndreasMailath-Pokorny

City Councilor of Viennafor Culture, Science and Sports (2001–2018)

Antisemitism is on the rise all over Europe—not onlyatthe extremist margins of the political spectrumbut also in ruling parties. Nowadays,antisemitism comes in different shapes and from different communities.HereinVienna, Austria, whereweare very happy and proud to have hosted the conference “An End to Antisemitism!” historically, antisemitism from right wing partiesisthe main po- litical concern, although we alsoacknowledge that different strains have devel- oped. The far-right antisemitism that led to the Holocaust is adefining legacyof our history.Ithas takenAustria apainfullylong time to face up to the respon- sibility and to deal with history and this difficult legacy. In the early1990s, chan- cellor Franz Vranitzky was one of the first in the Austrian parliament in Vienna to speak out and acknowledge Austria’srole in the Holocaust.²⁹ By accepting this legacy, we are obliged to ensure thatJews can feel safe and freeinour society, that Jewish life and culturecan be openlyexpressed,and thatthe community is an integral part of the Austrian society. All this seems currentlytobeatstake through the recent political changes. Some political actors are openly playing with antisemitic stereotypes, while most turn ablind eyetothe subjectmatter.Asaresult,itisnecessary to increase the budgets for more and better security measures to protect Jewish institutions. Antisemitism is lurkingamong Europe’sresurgent,nativist political move- ments, and it wins elections. This worries me and manyAustrians, too. Political antisemitic campaigns and the resulting events must serveasawake-up call. Ac- knowledging them is the first step. But more effortsare needed in education and more scrutinyonsocial media. The approach of the City of Vienna in dealing with the past has been very clear.Wehavebeen facing our past.The actionswehavetaken in the past few years and the developments speak for themselves. We have returned seized art objects to the rightfulowners and heirs. We have installed projects of remem- brance and restored Jewishcemeteries.Inaddition, manycommemoration and teachingprojects have been initiated in the past years.

 Cf. C. Zöchling, “Auschwitz: Jahrelang präsentierte sich Österreich als ‘ErstesOpferder Nazis’,” Profil,October 31, 2013,https://www.profil.at/oesterreich/history/auschwitz-jahrelang- oesterreich-erstes-opfer-nazis-368762. XLIV Greetings

There can be no justification for antisemitism. That maybestating the obvi- ous, but these days it seems that the obvious needs to be stated. Antisemitism is not onlyaJewish problem, it is aproblem for democracy;itisnot “only” threat- ening Jews, it is threateningour democratic system. If democracy is to be protect- ed, antisemitism needstobeexposed and combated much more actively.As Bernard Henri Lévy states in his recent book, “Judaism is strong,”³⁰—Iwant to add: and so is democracy.

Andreas Mailath-Pokorny holds aPhD in Legal and Political Sciencesfrom the Universtiy of Vienna as wellasadegree in Internatioal Relations from the Johns Hopkins University School of Advanced International Studies Bologna Center. From 2001 until 2018, Mailath-Pokorny has servedasCity Councilor of Vienna for Culture,Science and Sports. In September2018, he has beenappointedrector of the private Music and Arts University of the City of Vienna.

Bibliography

Lévy,BernardHenri. The Genius of Judaism. New York: Random House, 2017. Zöchling, Christa. “Auschwitz: Jahrelang präsentierte sich Österreich als ‘Erstes Opferder Nazis’.” Profil,October 31, 2013. https://www.profil.at/oesterreich/history/auschwitz-jah relang-oesterreich-erstes-opfer-nazis-368762.

 B. H. Lévy, TheGenius of Judaism (New York: Random House, 2017), 67– 8.