The Social Impact of Tourism on Small Rural Communities-Apuseni

The Social Impact of Tourism on Small Rural Communities - Apuseni Mountain Region, Romania

A thesis submitted to the Graduate School of the University of Cincinnati in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Architecture

in School of Architecture and Interior Design of the college of Design, Architecture, Art, and Planning

by Benjamin Romero B.A. Miami University

May 2018

Committee Chair: Michael McInturf, AIA

Abstract

Romania’s cultural heritage and natural environment are some of the country’s strongest assets. The country has several UNESCO World Heritage sites and the Transylvania region is rich with history. The natural landscape is home to almost half of Europe’s brown bears, wolves, and lynx. Though the rural regions of the country have these valuable amenities, it is challenged with many issues including illegal logging; poor public infrastructure; poverty; and depopulation. This thesis aims to review the possibilities that tourism has to improve the economy and welfare of local communities in the rural mountains of Romania.

Through the review of case studies and literature, the possible pros and cons of tourism on the environment and local host communities is established and is summarized. The findings suggest that when planned and managed properly, tourism has the capacity to elevate local revenue and ecological preservation.

This research is used to establish a responsive framework for a program and design proposal for sites located in and near the small commune of Pietroasa in Bihor County. A few miles outside of the commune, a previously disturbed site in the Apuseni Natural Park is proposed to be restored with environmental sensitivity as well as be the location of a lodge for tourists to experience the protected natural park and surrounding area. These buildings are proposed to be prefabricated off site, in the town of Pietroasa. This fabrication building has the capacity to also facilitate other program, including education and training space.

Additional program is proposed to further attract tourists, housed in mixed-use buildings, organized around a public square that will both benefit the local community and attract outside visitors.

iii

Table of Contents

Introduction / Brief Romanian History 1 Apuseni Mountain Region: Assets and Issues 3 Assets 3 Issues 3 Tourism: Types and Definitions 8 Rural Tourism 8 Agricultural Tourism 9 Ecological Tourism 9 Active Tourism 11 Volunteer Tourism 11 Slow Tourism 13 Sustainable Tourism 14 Case Studies: Effect of Rural Tourism on Local Households 15 Oolong Nature Reserve, China 15 Findings - Oolong Nature Reserve, China 16 Six Countries, Southern Africa 18 Findings - Six Countries, Southern Africa 19 Costa Rica 19 Findings - Costa Rica 20 Tourism Opportunities Appropriate For The Apuseni Mountain Region 22 Project Proposal 23 Bibliography 29

List of Illustrations

Illustration 1. Regional statistics - Illustration by Author. 5

Illustration 2. Ecological Tourism - Illustration by Author. 10

Illustration 3. Active Tourism - Illustration by Author. 11

Illustration 4. Volunteer Tourism - Illustration by Author. 13

Illustration 5. Slow Tourism - Illustration by Author. 14

Illustration 6. Apuseni Natural Park - Illustration by Author. 25

Illustration 7. Apuseni Natural Park, Tourist Lodging - Illustration by Author. 26

Illustration 8. Connectivity to Glăvoi campground and proposed lodging - Illustration by Author. 27

Illustration 9. Proposed site in Pietroasa - Illustration by Author. 27

Illustration 10. Proposed mixed-use buildings and town square - Illustration by Author. 28

Introduction / Brief Romanian History

The Apuseni region of Romania is full of rich culture, pristine landscapes, and is home to a large and biodiverse population of flora and fauna. The region also faces problems of illegal logging, poverty, and depopulation. This thesis aims to explore the possibilities that tourism can offer, to both be able to capitalize from the natural amenities offered as well as alleviate the pressures that simultaneously plague the region. To understand the current climate of the rural parts of Romania, a brief summary of recent Romanian history will help give context to both how the region is in its current state as well as help acknowledge and learn from the mistakes of the past.

In 1948, Romania, became a satellite of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, and was governed by a communist regime from 1948 to 1989.1 Teodorescu et al. state that “after 1960 there was the desire of territory systematization so that urban infrastructure costs should be optimal, being performed through reducing urban dispersion, by building vertically and by providing a large number of houses for a growing number of inhabitants”.2 There was a strong emphasis on the efficiency of infrastructure, mainly focused in urban areas, leaving rural regions of the country with little investment in regards to improved public infrastructure such as roads, schools, and utilities. Nicolae Ceauşescu, the communist regime leader from

1965 to 1989, was over thrown in 1989 during a country wide revolution. This revolution started the transition of Romania from a communist state to a more democratic republic.3 As of 2007, Romania has been part of the European Union.4

The rural mountainous regions of Romania make up 37.9% of the nation’s territory and is home to

15.4% of the country population.5 More specifically to the area of focus, The Apuseni Mountains, make up

1 David Turnock et al., Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. “Romania” December 2017. url: https://www.britannica.com/place/Romania

2 Camelia Teodorescu et al. “Proposal For Functional Conversions - Faur Area, Bucharest.” Urbanism. Arhitectura. Constructii 7, no. 2(2016): 137-38. url: https://search.proquest.com/docview/1771406219?

3 Turnock et al., Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. “Romania.”

4 Mariana Nae and David Turnock, “The New Bucharest: Two Decades of restructuring.” Cities 28, no. 2 (2011): 206. url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2010.04.004

15% of the rural mountain territory and about 22% of the total rural mountain population. The Apuseni region is made up of a total of 850 villages governed within 122 communes.6 In The Population In The Apuseni

Mountains Area: Past, Present and Perspectives (1900-2030), Plăiaş et al. describe the process in which small pockets of domestication occur throughout the region over the course of the past centuries, allowing for the formation of a cultural identity.

“This domestication of the mountain was initiated through, deforestation, by needs and means, the result being a void, a clean place, used for creating household and its dependencies, which then turned into pastures and cultivated areas. A more numerous family created another void, for another household and so, by successive steps a grove was created, which included all the members of the family with a common ancestor, common name, name that was then given to the location which turned into a village with a pastoral and forest base economy”.7 Knowledge of the demographic and historical context of the region is needed to properly understand how to leverage the amenities the region has to offer as well as address the issues that exist today.

5 Ioan Plăiaş et al., “The Population In The Apuseni Mountains Area: Past, Present and Perspectives (1900-2030).” Revista Română de Sociologie (2016): 279. url: https://doaj.org/article/121827bc17794a57a5d3bed2765540d0

6 Plăiaş, “The Population In The..,” 280. 7 Ibid: 280.

Apuseni Mountain Region: Assets and Issues

Assets The Apuseni region has many attributes that are unique from other European Union members and neighboring countries. “The Carpathian Mountains, sweeping in a big arc through Romania, have vast tracts of virgin forest, home to almost half of Europe’s wild population of brown bears, wolves and lynx”.8 The virgin forests and unique foliage not only create an invaluable habitat for the large mammals mentioned, but also for migratory birds. The entirety of the Apuseni Nature Park is designated as a Natura 2000 site to conserve the habitat and protect migratory birds. Natura 2000 is a directive of the European Commission that is applied to all European Union members. These designated sites are not strictly nature reserves but rather the “approach to conservation and sustainable use of the Natura 2000 areas is much wider, largely centered on people working with nature rather than against it”.9

In additional to the wildlife, the region is home to other amenities that tourists are drawn to. The karstic character of the landscape has allowed for the formation of complex cave systems and scenic gorges. Cocean states that “karstic gorges occupy one of the leading positions among the touristic resources, natural or anthropogenic, of the Apuseni Mountains. In fact, three main touristic resources can be identified in this region: caves, karstic gorges and cultural heritage”.10 One aspect of the cultural heritage that Cocean is referring to is the number of UNESCO world heritage sites in the region as well as the cultural richness of

Transylvanian.

Issues Though the Apuseni region has many strong assets and attractive qualities, it also faces many issues that would have to be addressed if some form of tourism is to be successful. The issues range from illegal logging, poor public infrastructure, poverty, and depopulation.

8 Laurence Peter, “Romania Acts to Save Forests from Logging Spree.” BBC News, May 21, 2015. Accessed December 2017. url: www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-32792314.

9 European Commission - Environment, Natura 2000. url: ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/natura2000/index_en.htm.

10 Gabriela Cocean, “The Current Touristic Capitalization Of The Karstic Gorges In The Apuseni Mountains.” Geographia Napocensis 7, no. 2(2013): 43. url: https://doaj.org/article/4d14ee331f8e41d39bb5105ecfa3a628

Currently, there is approximately 6,515,000 hectares of forest in Romania.11 “Agent Green reports that 366,000 HA (904,020 acres) of Romanian forest was illegally chopped down in 1990-2011”.12 Though

Romanian policies and EU regulations have tried to curb this number, it is hard to monitor when approximately half of all forests are on state property while the other half is held by private individuals.13 According to a survey done by Greenpeace, between the years of 2009 and 2011 a total of

31,456 cases of illegal logging were reported nationwide. This equates to an estimated 452,842 cubic meters of wood illegally profited from in a 3-year period.14 To make the issue more complicated, though the economic opportunities are incredibly limited in rural regions of Romania, “more Romanians work in forestry and wood processing than is the case in most other EU states”.15

Another major issue facing many rural mountain regions of Romania is depopulation. This trend can be linked to several factors including weak economy, changes in legislation preventing contraceptives, and increased social mobility.16 The weak economy can be assigned to the heavy reliance on subsistence farming.

The fall of communism in 1989 brought the end of large state-run cooperative farms. Since then,

“privatization has not advanced far enough to achieve a high level of capital investment along with comprehensive restructuring and modernization”.17 Additionally, because of topographic challenges in the region, only 31% of the territory is cultivable.18 Surd & Turnock express other difficulties the land presents to farmers. They claim, “the agricultural land is mainly pasture and while the arable component is usually less than one fifth only a fraction of this may be cultivated in any one year… podsolised soils on deforested land need heavy fertilizer dressings in the tradition of ‘infield’ cultivation”.19 Around 80% of those 15 years of age

11 Greenpeace. “Illegal Logging Cases in Romanian Forests 2009-2011.” Greenpeace (2012). June 23, 2015: 4. http://www.greenpeace.org/romania/ro/campanii/paduri/publicatii/illegal-logging-cases-romania-2012/

12 Peter, “Romania Acts to Save..,” 2. 13 Ibid: 3. 14 Greenpeace, “Illegal Logging Cases in..,” 12. 15 Peter, “Romania Acts to Save..,” 7. 16 Plăiaş, “The Population In The..,” 285-6. 17 Ioan Abrudan, “A rural development strategy for the Apuseni Mountains, Romania,” GeoJournal 46, no. 3(1999): 322. url: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:100693702345.

18 Plăiaş, “The Population In The..,” 280. 19 Vasile Surd and David Turnock, "Romania's Apuseni Mountains: Safeguarding a Cultural Heritage." GeoJournal 50, no. 2-3(2000): 285. url: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1007170018729

4 or older (48% of the rural population) primarily relies on subsistence farming while 20% rely on non- agricultural income and employment. Only a quarter of the rural communes report non-agricultural opportunities and “just 5.7% of the rural economy is made of industrial actives and 9.3% by services".20

Popescu et al. also proclaims that all forms of tourism makes up only .1% of the rural Romanian economy, where the average of other European Union members is 4.4%.21

Illustration 1. Regional statistics.

Another factor that has led to depopulation is policy changes that have occurred since the fall of the communist party and the effect it has had on the rural youth. During the beginning years of communism

“Ceausescu borrowed the 1930s Stalinist dogma that population growth would fuel economic growth” and issued Decree 770 “which outlawed abortion for women under 40 with fewer than four children”.22 Later, more extreme policies were put into place that raised the birth rate, such as taxes on childless individuals and banning abortions and contraceptives all together.23 Knowing that many were struggling to meet the needs and care for these children because of poverty, the government pledged to take care of the children through state-run orphanages.24 These policies became even more extreme during Ceausescu’s rule, but were abolished when the communist state fell in 1989.

20 Liliana Popescu et al., "Can Rural Tourism Foster Local Development? Perspectives On The Future Of Rural Tourism In Romania." Journal of Tourism Challenges and Trends 7, no. 1(2014): 73. url: https://search.proquest.com/docview/1556080599?accountid=2909

21 Ibid: 73 22 Wendell Steavenson, “Ceausescu’s Children.” The Guardian, December 10, 2014. Accessed December 2017. url: https://www.theguardian.com/news/2014/dec/10/-sp-ceausescus-children

23 Ibid 24 Meghan Collins Sullivan, “Orphaned by History: A Child Welfare Crisis in Romania.” Sage Publications, Inc. 176, no. 6(2014): 79. url: http://www.jstor.org/stable/43555095

Though contraceptives and women’s rights were reintroduced and raising a child once again was encouraged to be the responsibility of the parent, poverty in rural areas has not improved or has been alleviated. Children under the age of 15 make up 50% of the rural population.25 According to an article by

The Guardian, 52.2% of Romanian children are vulnerable or at risk of poverty, while “40% of the population live under the poverty line”.26 Additionally, per capita, Romania is the poorest member of the European

Union, but social welfare spending is funded the least.27 So even though the birth rate has drastically decreased since the early 90s, the lack of economic opportunities and support for the younger generation has helped further out-migration from the mountains and worsen depopulation.

“The experience of other countries (France, Switzerland, Italy) shows that once the mountain dwelling people became aware of their situation, their frustration becomes more apparent as they are more isolated (at a higher altitude), and as a consequence of the massive migration depopulation occurs. This is done mainly by young people leaving to schools and workplaces which can provide them with a better standard of living. Young people leaving an area worsens not only the current demographic situation but also the future one”.28 For perspective, the census data for the year 1992 shows that the population of the Apuseni region reached

384,423, where the census data for 2011 shows a sharp decline of only 307,949 people.29 This data also shows that the younger generation is decreased the most, which is the most important demographic for maintaining a stable population.30 During the 2011 census, approximately more than 330,000 people were abroad for a minimum of 12 months at a time, 75% of this group being between the age 20 and 44.31 “The main cause from the registered exodus of young people is the low standard of living, based on very low income coming from agriculture, which is the central economic activity in the area.”32

25 Popescu, “Can Rural Tourism Foster..,” 73. 26 Rory Truell, “Social workers help Romania’s abandoned children off the streets.” The Guardian, November 24, 2016. Accessed December 2017. url: https://www.theguardian.com/social-care-network/2016/nov/24/social-workers-help-romanias-abandoned- children-off-the-streets

27 Steavenson, “Ceausescu’s Children”.

28 Plăiaş, “The Population In The..,” 287. 29 Ibid: 285 30 Ibid: 289 31 Popescu, “Can Rural Tourism Foster..,” 75.

32 Plăiaş, “The Population In The..,” 297.

As stated previously, the region has many amenities that could attract tourists while simultaneously suffering from issues including environmental degradation, poverty, and depopulation. If tourism has the capacity to alleviate these issues, an understanding of the different forms of tourism is needed.

Tourism: Types and Definitions

To reiterate, the focus of this paper is to understand the appropriateness of tourism in the Apuseni region of rural Romania, both in understanding what amenities the region has to offer as well as its capacity to offset or alleviate the issues previously mentioned. To do this, an understanding of the various types and forms of tourism is important. Defining which forms of tourism are appropriate for the region as well understanding the benefits and possible negative consequence are essential to possibly address social, economic, and environmental issues the region faces.

Rural Tourism Rural tourism, like many other forms for tourism appropriate for this region of Romania, capitalizes and focuses on the existing environment and culture with little impact to the character. Tangit et al. states

“rural tourism should be functionally rural, small in scale, traditional in character, organically and slowly growing and controlled by the local people, apart from being located in rural areas”.33 Tangit et al. goes on to say that rural tourism is not specific to “farm-based tourism” but also encompasses aspects of ecotourism, adventure activities, and local culture and heritage.34 Kastenholz et. al believe that rural tourism has the capacity to regenerate economic development where “traditional economic activities, such as agriculture, forestry and grazing, are in decline”.35 But Kastenholz et. al also caution of the economic dangers of over reliance on tourism, listing seasonal flows, inflation, and an increase of imports as possible consequences.36

The benefits of this type of tourism include improved public services, local traditional arts are valued, and the cross-cultural social interaction between the host and guest is beneficial for both parties.37 Mismanagement and unplanned rural tourism can lead to negative impacts on the environment such as disturbance of fragile ecosystems especially near protected areas; air, water, and noise pollution; and deforestation.38 “Sustainable

33 Tania Maria Tangit et al., “Rural Tourism at its Peak: Socio-Cultural Impacts towards Host Communities of Kinabalu Park, Sabah (Malaysian-Borneo).” SHS Web of Conferences (2014): 2. DOI:10.1051/shsconf/20141201097

34 Ibid: 2-3. 35 Elisabeth Kastenholz et al., “Meeting Challenges for Rural Tourism through Co-creation of Sustainable Tourist Experiences.” 338. url: https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uc/detail.action?docID=4648780#

36 Ibid: 338. 37 Ibid: 339. 38 Kastenholz et al., “Meeting Challenges for Rural..,” 340.

8 rural tourism development only occurs when the host community is recognized as a relevant stakeholder in this development, when local residents’ interests are taken into account and when local community, in fact, benefits from tourism development, not being negatively affected by it, or at least positive impacts on the community outweighing possible negative ones”.39

Agricultural Tourism Agricultural tourism or agro-tourism is a form of rural tourism that focuses on the farming practices of a region. Though farming can now be thought to exist in many forms, i.e. roof gardens and urban farms, agro-tourism is thought of in the setting of rural environments. Pribeanu et al. define agro-tourism as “a form of rural tourism that uses for meal services and accommodation only rural tourist hostels and agro- hostel, benefiting from an unpolluted and picturesque environment, from the touristic natural attractions and from the historical-cultural values, from the traditions and customs of the rural environment”.40 The benefits and possible negative consequences are similar to rural tourism, but again, when properly implemented, agricultural tourism has the ability to improve living standards of rural communities, increase economic development, and protect the natural ecology of a region.41

Ecological Tourism As with all things, there are many ways to define what is known as ecological tourism or ecotourism. It is important to mention a few of these definitions to understand what the original intention of the term meant and how it is understood today. The first definition of ecotourism was coined by Ceballos-

Lascurain, who stated that “ecological tourism or ecotourism is that form of tourism that involves traveling to a virgin and uncontaminated natural habitat, in order to study and admire enjoy the scenery, flora, fauna and cultural resources existing in that area”.42 Today, this term has expanded to include the well-being of the visited community. The International Ecotourism Society defines ecotourism as “responsible travel in natural

39 Kastenholz et al., “Meeting Challenges for Rural..,” 338.

40 Gheorghe Pribeanu and Marius Boita, “Agro-Tourism - Active Role In Rural Developing.” Studia Universitatis "Vasile Goldis" Arad.Seria Stiinte Economice 23, no. 2(2013): 27. url: https://search.proquest.com/docview/1664922311?pq- origsite=summon&accountid=2909

41 Ibid: 28. 42 Bac Dorin Paul, “Forms Of Sustainable Tourism Suitable To Apuseni Mountains, Romania.” Annals of the University of Oradea: Economic Science 25, no. 1(2015): 666. url: https://doaj.org/article/f92c26b1212248a58725d02828d72296

9 areas, which protect the environment and increase the well-being of local people”.43 Liu et al. states,

“Tourism is arguably the world’s largest industry, and nature-based tourism (also often called ecotourism, although this term actually refers to a subset of nature-based tourism activities) is the fastest growing segment of the tourism industry”.44 Koens et al. mentions that the model of ecotourism can be seen as being a “win- win development strategy, especially for underdeveloped areas”.45 One must be careful not to “green-wash” the principles of ecotourism, because mismanaged and unplanned development can exploit the environment and have very real negative consequences on the fragile ecosystems. One example of a problem that can arise is how the construction of infrastructure and accommodations can disturb wildlife, damage habitats, and cause erosion.46 As there is an increase in tourist visitation, typically there is an increase in garbage and liter as well as air and noise pollution from more vehicular traffic.47 Koen et al. warn that “a larger scale of tourism activities would result in greater benefits, but also in more drawbacks”.48 But alternatively, and maybe more importantly, Koen et al. proclaim that “tourism has given nature an economic value”.49

Illustration 2. Ecological Tourism.

43 Paul, “Forms Of Sustainable Tourism..,” 666. . 44 Wei Liu et al., “Drivers and Socioeconomic Impacts of Tourism Participation in Protected Areas.” PLoS ONE 7, no. 4(2012): 2. url: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0035420

45 Jacobus Franciscus Koens et al., "Ecotourism as a Development Strategy: Experiences from Costa Rica." Environment, Development and Sustainability 11, no. 6(2009): 1226. url: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10668-009-9214-3.

46 Ibid: 1230. 47 Ibid: 1230. 48 Ibid: 1234. 49 Ibid: 1229.

Active Tourism As defined by the World Tourism Organization, Active Tourism is when tourists “engage in cultural, craft, sports, etc. activities, with the intention of personally realizing and developing their personality”.50 Activities can range from hiking, cycling, and horseback riding to cultural tours and participating in traditional crafts. Giddy et al. state that “Many tourism destinations and experiences are either based on or enhanced by the natural environment”.51 For example, hiking trails can be enhanced when they lead to scenic views and provide exposure to flora and fauna when done in an area where the environment is valued and is well managed and protected. Again, Giddy et al. warn “the increase in tourism in these environments could result in negative impacts such as the degradation of the natural features which attract participants”.52

Illustration 3. Active Tourism.

Volunteer Tourism Annually, around the world an estimated 1.6 million people take part in volunteer tourism.53 Guttentag states “The generic term “volunteer tourism” applies to those tourists who, for various reasons, volunteer in an organized way to undertake holidays that might involve aiding or alleviating the

50 Manuel Rivera Mateos, "The Commercial Offer for Active Tourism Nature-Based in Spain: Structuring, Recent Trends and Territorial Context." Turismo y Sociedad 16(2015): 2. url: http://dx.doi.org/10.18601/01207555.n16.06

51 Kathryn Julia Giddy and Nigel Leigh Webb, “Environmental attitudes and adventure tourism motivations.” GeoJournal (2017): 1. url: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-017-9768-9

52 Ibid: 1. 53 Daniel A. Guttentag, “The possible negative impacts of volunteer tourism.” International Journal Of Tourism Research 11, no. 6(2009): 538. doi:10.1002/jtr.727

11 material poverty of some groups in society, the restoration of certain environments or research into aspects of society or environment”.54 Some examples of the type of work a volunteer may participate in include: community development and welfare, environmental protection and conservation, construction projects for community needs, disaster relief, and teaching and education.55 There are many benefits that can be listed including the generation of revenue and awareness of issues, personal growth, and intercultural exposure and understanding.56 Guttentag well summarizes the possible negative side effects of volunteer tourism as:

“a neglect of locals’ desires, caused by a lack of local involvement; a hindering of work progress and the completion of unsatisfactory work, caused by volunteers’ lack of skills; a decrease in employment opportunities and promotion of dependency, caused by the presence of volunteer labour; a reinforcement of conceptualizations of the ‘other’ and rationalizations of poverty, caused by the intercultural experience; and an instigation of cultural changes, caused by the demonstration effect and the actions of short term missionaries”.57

To help curb these possible negative side effects, many authors have defined or pointed to situations to avoid. For instance, Guttentag references another author who claims that volunteer work should meet the requirement that the job is not “within the domain of paid workers”. This is important because the unskilled labor of volunteers can possibly take away job opportunities from host communities.58 Volunteer tourism is intended to help alleviate issues in host communities, but this is only possible when the possible negative impacts are known, and proper planning tries to avoid such issues.

54 Guttentag, “The possible negative impacts..,” 538.

55 Ibid: 538-9. 56 Guttentag, “The possible negative impacts..,” 539. 57 Ibid: 537. 58 Ibid: 544.

Illustration 4. Volunteer Tourism.

Slow Tourism Slow tourism derives from the slow food movement, which was introduced with the concept of

Cittaslow. “The concept of Cittaslow is based on Carlo Petrini’s principles: pleasure before profit, human beings before head office, slowness before speed”.59 The cittaslow movement is a doctrine or manifesto that has been integrated into the philosophy of politics at the city level. Member cities pledge such ideas as

“cutting noise and reduce traffic; increasing green spaces; supporting local farmers and the shops, markets and restaurants that sell their produce; promoting technology that protects the environment; preserving local aesthetic and culinary traditions; and fostering a spirit of hospitality and neighborliness.”60 These principles have been implemented into the food industry (farm-to-table) as well as the tourism industry, known as slow tourism. Slow tourism makes up 10% of the tourism market in Europe.61 With slow tourism, the journey and travel become part of the experience, helping to alleviate the stress between home and destination.62

Because of this, travel distances are typically shorter and stay time is typically longer, which can in turn help

59 Bac Dorin Paul, “From Slow Food To Slow Tourism.” Annals of the University of Oradea: Economic Science 24, no. 2(2014): 140. url: https://doaj.org/article/db11c9cbe0e9417d9301e7e8efc2fdd4

60 Ibid: 140. 61 Paul, “From Slow Food To..,” 141.

62 Ibid: 140

13 destination communities generate more revenue as opposed to day-time tourists. There is also a strong focus on quality over quantity.63 The downside of slow tourism is not so much the negative effects, but the limited opportunities to generate economic revenue or stability for a region. Principles, such as farm-to-table, do not have the capacity to feed the world population, and by reducing the allowable capacity or scale of tourism in a region, the economic benefits will be limited for destination communities.64

Illustration 5. Slow Tourism.

Sustainable Tourism Though all the previous mentioned forms of tourism may be appropriate or have potential to alleviate issues facing the Apuseni region, they all have a common thread - that they must be sustainable.

Sustainable tourism is defined as “tourism that takes full account of its current and future economic, social and environmental impacts, addressing the needs of visitors, the industry, the environment and host communities”.65 According to UNESCO, sustainable tourism is defined as “tourism that respects both local people and the traveler, cultural heritage and the environment”.66

63 Paul, “Forms Of Sustainable Tourism..,” 667.

64 Paul, “From Slow Food To..,” 142. 65 Tangit et al., “Rural Tourism at its..,” 2. 66 Ibid: 2.

Case Studies: Effect of Rural Tourism on Local Households

To understand what the potential social benefits or negative consequences are when tourism is introduced to a rural community, a review of the following case studies can help give insight. The following case studies look specifically at locations where the environment and ecological biodiversity are the main attraction but located in rural and remote regions of the world where similar issues such as a weak agriculturally-based economy, poverty, and a lack of public investment exist.

Oolong Nature Reserve, China The Oolong Nature Reserve in China is one of the first areas in the country designated as a protected area for the purposes of developing a tourism industry. Today, tourism has been practiced in an estimated

80% of the 2,500 nature reserves in China.67 Tourists list giant pandas, mountain forests, and bird watching as the main reasons for visiting the region.68 Before tourism was introduced to the Oolong region, the local people primarily relied on subsistence-farming which heavily relied on the natural resources provided by the reserve. Because of the lack of additional economic opportunities, illegal logging and poaching were seen as alternative sources of income that the reserve could provide. By the end of the 20th century, the results of subsistence farming and logging were seen as highly destructive to the habitat for such animals as the giant panda.69 Through development plans such as “Integrated Conservation and Development Projects (ICDP) and Payment for Ecosystem Services”(PES)”, communities were included in the conservation process, and the destruction of the forest was slowed because the community could see the economic value of ecological biodiversity.70

Liu et al. present the case that for tourism to be sustainable and alleviate poverty, the local people are best off when they can diversify their sources of income, assets, and other forms of capital. They refer to this

67 Liu et al., “Drivers and Socioeconomic Impacts..,” 3.

68 Ibid: 3. 69 Ibid: 3. 70 Ibid: 1.

15 capital as “livelihood assets” which they define as “the capital endowments owned by a household and include financial, human, natural, physical, and social capital”.71

“Financial capital refers to savings, credit and income; human capital refers to the education, skills, knowledge, and the ability household members to work; natural capital refers to natural resources owned by a household such as land, forests and fisheries; physical capital refers to a household’s access to basic infrastructure, such as roads and schools, and tools and equipment; and social capital refers to the social resources of the household, such as membership in organizations and connections to others in power.”72

Similar to the possible benefits that most forms of tourism promote, Liu et al. believe that nature-based tourism has the capacity to alleviate poverty while also protecting biodiversity in conservations.73 They argue, when done correctly, tourism has the potential to create job opportunities, improve public infrastructure

(benefiting both locals and tourists), and provide human capital to the locals with their inherent knowledge of the region, on top of environmental protection.74 By introducing job opportunities in the service industry, the pressures on the environment caused by subsistence farming can be alleviated.75 But, the authors of this study caution that the lack of community involvement can lead to what is known as the “tourism area life cycle theory”. This theory walks through the stages of development of tourism in a rural area, describing how the local community is part of the development process in early stages, but as the number of tourists increase the development tends to be more in the control of outside developers and investors with more wealth, possibly destabilizing an economy that the locals were previously over-relying on.76

Findings - Oolong Nature Reserve, China This case study surveyed local households that both did and did not participate in the tourism industry and questioned how the industry effected the local economy. The findings showed that over three- quarters of those surveyed had received financial benefit, either directly or indirectly, from revenue generated from tourism.77 Medicinal herbs, local honeys, and meats were listed as ways that locals generated income

71 Liu et al., “Drivers and Socioeconomic Impacts..,” 2. 72 Ibid: 2. 73 Ibid: 2. 74 Ibid: 2. 75 Ibid: 1. 76 Ibid: 2. 77 Liu et al., “Drivers and Socioeconomic Impacts..,” 10.

16 indirectly from tourism as these products were sold to restaurants and tourists shops.78 Similarly, those who did not directly participate in tourism and relied on farm income switched from subsistence crops to cash crops to be sold to restaurants.79 The physical location or proximity to tourist attractions greatly influenced the likelihood that a household benefited from tourism, giving those in this situation physical capital.80 According to the authors, “almost everyone interviewed agreed that tourism development improved public services and living conditions, enhanced most families’ quality life, and built a good image of the reserve among outside people”.81 Additionally, those interviewed acknowledged that the wildlife and forests were the reason that tourists visited, and because over three-quarters of those surveyed financially benefited from tourism, “the link between the economic value of the natural ecosystems and conservation success” is understood.82

Not all findings showed that tourism benefited the local community. As mentioned, the physical capital of proximity to tourist destinations overwhelming benefited those closer to tourists site and reduced the likelihood that those living further away would be able to benefit from tourist revenue. “Financial and physical limitations were mentioned most often, including lack of start-up funds, household location being far from key tourism sites, and lack of land and housing to start a tourism business”.83 Another finding showed that as tourism reached its height in 2006, economic leakage was identified as most restaurants sourced their meat and produce from outside the local community.84 Those households who participated in tourism also were found to have less cropland, indicating that their reliance on income from tourism could put them at risk of financial instability as there are seasonal fluctuations with tourism.85

The authors of this study indicate that it appears that all five forms of capital influenced the chance that a household participated in tourism at some capacity, highlighting the importance that community

78 Liu et al., “Drivers and Socioeconomic Impacts..,” 7. 79 Ibid: 7 80 Ibid: 11 81 Ibid: 9 82 Ibid: 11 83 Ibid: 7 84 Ibid: 4 85 Liu et al., “Drivers and Socioeconomic Impacts..,” 7.

17 members must be included in the planning of tourism if it is to be a development strategy.86 “The long-term sustainability of nature-based tourism in the near protected areas is strongly dependent on its ability to improve the livelihood of local communities and to enhance local residents’ attitudes and behaviors toward conservation.”87

Six Countries, Southern Africa Through surveys and reviews of six different southern African countries, Susa Snyman studies the impact that tourism, specifically ecotourism, has on the employment, income and welfare on rural households. Snyman describes rural African communities as having issues of poverty, unemployment, lack of skills or formal training, and over dependence on natural resources.88

“There will sometimes be an immediate need for poverty alleviation in order to save lives, but strategies should largely aim for poverty reduction and long-term solutions. Ultimately, as highlighted by Jones (2004), development strategies should aim to deal with the root causes of poverty and develop ways to lift people out of poverty for the long term”.89

Snyman believes that tourism has the capacity to alleviate issues of poverty in rural agriculturally based areas.90 Similar to Liu et al., Snyman stresses the importance of asset diversification, listing human, physical, financial, natural, and social capital all as ways one can diversify assets.91 Again, similar to Liu et al., Snyman argues that “ecotourism has the ability to add to each of these ‘capitals and, therefore, to provide individuals and households with a broader range of livelihood options in the long run.”92 Ecotourism provides more than just the opportunity for employment, but can provide training and education which in turn empowers locals with marketable skills.93

86 Liu et al., “Drivers and Socioeconomic Impacts..,” 7. 87 Ibid: 2. 88 Susan Snyman, “The impact of ecotourism employment on rural household incomes and social welfare in six southern African countries.” Tourism and Hospitality Research 14, no. 1-2(2014): 1. DOI: 10.1177/1467358414529435

89 Ibid: 3. 90 Ibid: 4. 91 Ibid: 3. 92 Snyman, “The impact of ecotourism..,” 3. 93 Ibid: 9.

Findings - Six Countries, Southern Africa Through the surveying of 30 rural areas, across six countries, 1,785 interviews with community members were conducted.94 The findings showed that ecotourism had a positive impact on household incomes, but the findings also showed that there was a decrease in asset diversification and less reliance on farm revenue.95 Ninety four percent of those surveyed who participated in tourism stated that the household’s main income came from ecotourism salary, where 59% stated that 100% of their income came from the tourism industry and 93% claimed that more than half their income came from tourism.96 The findings also showed that those community members that did not directly participate in the tourism industry generally had a higher number of income sources.97 Additionally, data showed that tourism indirectly benefited community members not employed by the industry in the case where those who were employed by ecotourism spent their salaries within the community on goods and services.98 The data also showed that in most cases, those who were staffed by the tourism industry had more cattle, which was seen as a way to invest their income and diversify their capital. Because the environment provides economic value to these communities, educating the community on best conservation practices is important if ecological tourism is to be a sustainable form of income in rural areas. The findings showed that there is still an over reliance on natural resources. In conclusion, Snyman feels that governments should invest in “infrastructure, such as hospital, schools, road networks, provision of safe drinking water and communications: benefitting local communities as well as the tourism industry”.99

Costa Rica Koen et al. reviewed and studied the possible negative outcomes of ecotourism on the environment, economy, and local society, in Costa Rica. More than one million tourists visit Costa Rica annually and the country has used ecotourism as one of its primary development strategies.100 The case study reviews four

94 Snyman, “The impact of ecotourism..,” 14. 95 Ibid: 10-12. 96 Ibid: 8-9. 97 Ibid: 8. 98 Ibid: 2. 99 Snyman, “The impact of ecotourism..,” 13. 100 Jacobus Franciscus Koens et al., "Ecotourism as a Development Strategy: Experiences from Costa Rica." Environment, Development and Sustainability 11, no. 6(2009): 1225-6. url: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10668-009-9214-3.

19 different regions, Manuel Antonio, Monteverde, Tortuguero, and ASCOMAFOR, all in different stages in development.101

Findings - Costa Rica The authors of this study found that in general, “tourism resulted in benefits on the environmental balance” because, like previously mentioned case studies, “tourism has given nature an economic value”.102 In addition to benefits for the environment, job opportunities were perceived. Part of the profit generated from tourism was also found to go into environmental education in local schools.103 Not all findings were positive. “The most important drawbacks of ecotourism development were sewage problems, lack of sufficient water management, uncontrolled building of tourist facilities and the disintegration of local communities’ social and cultural structure”.104 The scale of tourism was found to have an important influence on the potential for positive results. Though small-scale tourism has a smaller impact on job opportunities and economic benefit, it was found that negative consequences occurred on environmental, economic and social aspects with larger tourism operations. 105

In a separate case study, on the possible negative side effects of volunteer tourism, Guttentag refers to a scenario worth mentioning regarding Costa Rican tourism. The situation highlights the issue of when a tourist’s desires are met before the needs of the local community. In Costa Rica, conservation efforts are made to protect wild life, in particular sea turtles, not only for biodiversity conservation, but because they are an attraction for tourists visiting the area. It was found, though, that poaching of the sea turtles “provided a livelihood for some locals, and turtle products were sold by various market stallholders”.106 Guttentag is not promoting the poaching of sea turtles, but is rather cautioning that there are possible negative consequences to ecological preservation and if not planned for, ecotourism has the capability of damaging a community’s livelihood and economy.

101 Koens et al., “Ecotourism as a Development..,” 1225. 102 Ibid: 1229. 103 Ibid: 1230. 104 Ibid: 1234. 105 Ibid: 1232. 106 Guttentag, “The possible negative impacts..,” 542.

The benefits and negative consequences surveyed through these case studies are important to acknowledge when considering the appropriateness of tourism for the Apuseni mountain region.

Tourism Opportunities Appropriate For The Apuseni Mountain Region

Much has been written about the potential and appropriateness of introducing tourism as an economic development plan for the Apuseni Mountain region. Abrudan & Turnock state “Until agriculture becomes more efficient and export-oriented, commerce and tourism are seen as being among the best avenues for investment”.107 Tourism has the capacity to both capitalize from the natural assets of the region, as well as alleviate issues of poverty, economic development, and environmental degradation. Candrea writes

“tourism can be an important catalyst for the development of other economic sectors within Romania, such as manufacturing, construction and the service industries. It can also help to conserve the country’s primary assets, namely its natural and cultural environments, which have in the past been largely unrecognized and unprotected”.108 Plăiaş et al writes, “One of the solutions to the critical situation presented by depopulation is to significantly increase the inhabitants personal income, by diversifying the available human activities (such as industry, tourism, services and others), modernizing the economy, implicitly the agriculture and the habitat, including here the infrastructure as well”.109 According to the World Travel & Tourism Council, in 2011 it was reported that tourism made up 1.4% of Romanian GDP but was estimated to increase 14.8% in 2012 and will continue to increase through 2022.110

In an analytical study of the region, Bac Dorin Paul identified ecotourism, volunteer tourism, and slow tourism as the most appropriate forms of tourism for the region.111 Though volunteer tourism has the capacity to bring revenue to the area, the negative consequences such as displacement of job opportunities for locals, seem to outweigh the positives. Slow tourism seems to be appropriate and would have minimal negative consequences, but at the same time the economic benefit of slow tourism on the local economy

107 Ioan Abrudan, “A rural development strategy for the Apuseni Mountains, Romania,” GeoJournal 46, no. 3(1999): 328. url: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:100693702345.

108 Adina Nicoleta Candrea, “Ecotourism development in Romania – A possible contribution to the fulfilment of the real convergence criteria for Euro Adoption.” Bulletin of the Transylvania University of Brasov. Economic Sciences. Series V 6, no. 1(2013): 89. url: https://search.proquest.com/docview/1510290408?accountid=2909.

109 Plăiaş, “The Population In The..,” 282.

110 Candrea, “Ecotourism development in Romania..,” 91. 111 Paul, “Forms Of Sustainable Tourism..,” 663.

22 would be minimal. “Given the fact that much of the area is part of the protected area Apuseni Natural Park, ecotourism seems the most important form of tourism that can be practiced here”.112 When locals can feel the positive economic effects of ecotourism, the environment holds value, which in turn can help reduce illegal logging and encourages residents to switch from unsustainable and destructive environmental practices to understanding nature as an asset.113 In regards to the Apuseni Mountain region, Drâgan and Cocean expresses the importance of accessibility and transportation for tourists to visit a site.114 If tourism is to be used as an economic development plan for the Apuseni region, infrastructure, such as roads and utilities, must be improved to both benefit tourists visiting the region and locals in the existing communities.

“As ecotourism is mainly developed in the proximity of natural protected areas, it could be a possible solution for several problems of Romanian rural communities: the lack of competitiveness of agricultural products on the European market, unemployment, the migration of the young population to urban areas or even abroad, unsustainable exploitation of natural assets (e.g. illegal logging, hunting). Consequently, ecotourism development in Romania could stimulate employment, GDP per capita, the growth of agriculture share in GDP, thus contributing to the fulfillment of the real convergence criteria for euro adoption”.115

Project Proposal This thesis is one part of a 4-person research and design team. The purpose of this research has been to look at how new development and tourism can both protect the natural resources of Romania and strengthen the local economy. To responsibly propose the development of tourism for profit – the opportunities and infrastructure for the surrounding local area needs to be intimately engaged through the entire process.

Due to the relative untouched nature of the Apuseni Natural Park the surrounding region is left vulnerable to both cultural and physical exploitation (figure 6). A few miles outside of the commune of

Pietroasa, a previously disturbed site in the Apuseni Natural Park is proposed to be restored with

112 Paul, “Forms Of Sustainable Tourism..,” 668. 113 Candrea, “Ecotourism development in Romania..,” 93. 114 Magdalena Drâgan and Gabriela Cocean, “Constraints On Tourism Development Caused By The Road Network In The Apuseni Mountains.” Romanian Review of Regional Studies 11, no. 2 (2015): 85. url: http://rrrs.reviste.ubbcluj.ro/arhive/Artpdf/v11n22015/RRRS11220158.pdf

115 Candrea, “Ecotourism development in Romania..,” 90.

23 environmental sensitivity as well as be the location of a lodge for tourists to experience the protected natural park and surrounding area (Figure 7). Developing lodging for tourism in the park has the possibility to disrupt the natural landscape that tourists would be attracted to. The prefabrication of buildings off site in

Pietroasa can minimize disturbance to the site as well as create income opportunities for locals. This fabrication facility can also provide space and opportunity for vocational training and learning. Other local income opportunities can include food production for both the lodging and a restaurant/brewery that could further attract tourists as well as create jobs and help curb depopulation in the region. The tourists that currently drive through Pietroasa to visit the existing Glăvoi campground would help ensure the success of a restaurant/brewery (figure 8). Through analyzing vernacular planning and building techniques – it has been concluded that most homes are arranged around a central exterior courtyard. This principle can be applied to the new proposed development, which can be arranged around a small public town square. The proposed site for this development is at the center of town, adjacent to the public elementary school at the intersection of 763 and 266 (figure 10). Careful consideration to create a civic district through views across the Crişul

Pietros River to the town hall and adjacencies to the school will be important to the success of creating a public space for both tourists and the local community.

Throughout this paper, multiple authors have expressed the potential that tourism has to alleviate social issues, not just in rural Romania, but as well as other rural countries as described in the highlighted case studies. The possibility is apparent, but proper planning that takes into consideration the local community is the only path where ecotourism in the Apuseni region of rural Romania can be successful and sustainable.

Illustration 6. Apuseni Natural Park.

Illustration 7. Apuseni Natural Park – Tourist Lodging.

Illustration 8. Pietroasa road connectivity to Glăvoi campground and proposed lodging in the Apuseni Natural Park.

Illustration 9. Proposed site in Pietroasa at the intersection of main thoroughfare and bridge linking both sides of the Crişul Pietros River.

Illustration 10. Proposed mixed-use buildings and town square.

Bibliography

Abrudan, Ioan, and David Turnock. “A rural development strategy for the Apuseni Mountains, Romania.” GeoJournal 46, no. 3(1999): 319-336. url: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:100693702345.

Andrei, Daniela Ruxandra, Rodica-Manuela Gogonea, Marian Zaharia, and Jean-Vasile Andrei. “Is Romanian Rural Tourism Sustainable? Revealing Particularities.” Sustainability 6, no. 12(2014): 8876- 8888. DOI:10.3390/su6128876.

Candrea, Adina Nicoleta. “Ecotourism development in Romania – A possible contribution to the fulfilment of the real convergence criteria for Euro Adoption.” Bulletin of the Transylvania University of Brasov. Economic Sciences. Series V 6, no. 1(2013): 89-96. url: https://search.proquest.com/docview/1510290408?accountid=2909.

Cocean, Gabriela. “The Current Touristic Capitalization Of The Karstic Gorges In The Apuseni Mountains.” Geographia Napocensis 7, no. 2(2013): 43-50. url: https://doaj.org/article/4d14ee331f8e41d39bb5105ecfa3a628

Cocean, Gabriela. “Guidelines For Including Gorges In The Tourist Offer Of The Apuseni Mountains.” Romanian Review of Regional Studies 10, no. 2(2014): 95-102. url: http://rrrs.reviste.ubbcluj.ro/arhive/Artpdf/v10n22014/RRRS102201410.pdf

Drâgan, Magdalena, and Gabriela Cocean. “Constraints On Tourism Development Caused By The Road Network In The Apuseni Mountains.” Romanian Review of Regional Studies 11, no. 2 (2015): 85-94. url: http://rrrs.reviste.ubbcluj.ro/arhive/Artpdf/v11n22015/RRRS11220158.pdf

Giddy, Julia Kathryn, and Nigel Leigh Webb. “Environmental attitudes and adventure tourism motivations.” GeoJournal (2017): 1-13. url: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-017-9768-9

Greenpeace. “Illegal Logging Cases in Romanian Forests 2009-2011.” Greenpeace (2012). June 23, 2015. http://www.greenpeace.org/romania/ro/campanii/paduri/publicatii/illegal-logging-cases-romania- 2012/

Guttentag, Daniel A. “The possible negative impacts of volunteer tourism.” International Journal Of Tourism Research 11, no. 6(2009): 537–551. doi:10.1002/jtr.727

Kastenholz, Elisabeth, Maria João Carneiro, and Celeste Eusébio. “Meeting Challenges for Rural Tourism through Co-creation of Sustainable Tourist Experiences.” 337-340. url: https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uc/detail.action?docID=4648780#

Koens, Jacobus Franciscus, Carel Dieperink, and Miriam Miranda. "Ecotourism as a Development Strategy: Experiences from Costa Rica." Environment, Development and Sustainability 11, no. 6(2009): 1225-1237. url: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10668-009-9214-3.

Lenka, Sarat Kumar. "Socio-Economic Impact of Rural Tourism: A Study on Padmanavpur Village of Odisha." Handbook of Research on Strategic Business Infrastructure Development and Contemporary Issues in Finance (2014): 98-106. DOI:10.4018/978-1-4666-5154-8.ch008

Liu, Wei, Christine A. Vogt, Junyan Luo, Gungning He, Kenneth A. Frank, and Jianguo Liu. “Drivers and Socioeconomic Impacts of Tourism Participation in Protected Areas.” PLoS ONE 7, no. 4(2012): 1-13. url: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0035420

Mateos, Manuel Rivera. "The Commercial Offer for Active Tourism Nature-Based in Spain: Structuring, Recent Trends and Territorial Context." Turismo y Sociedad 16(2015): 1-17. url: http://dx.doi.org/10.18601/01207555.n16.06

European Commission - Environment, Natura 2000. url: ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/natura2000/index_en.htm.

Nae, Mariana and David Turnock. “The New Bucharest: Two Decades of restructuring.” Cities 28, no. 2 (2011): 206-219. url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2010.04.004

Paul, Bac Dorin. “Forms Of Sustainable Tourism Suitable To Apuseni Mountains, Romania.” Annals of the University of Oradea: Economic Science 25, no. 1(2015): 663-670. url: https://doaj.org/article/f92c26b1212248a58725d02828d72296

Paul, Bac Dorin. “From Slow Food To Slow Tourism.” Annals of the University of Oradea: Economic Science 24, no. 2(2014): 137-144. url: https://doaj.org/article/db11c9cbe0e9417d9301e7e8efc2fdd4

Peter, Laurence. “Romania Acts to Save Forests from Logging Spree.” BBC News, May 21, 2015. Accessed December 2017. url: www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-32792314.

Plăiaş, Ioan, Mircea Andrei Scridon, and Lăcrămioara Radomir. “The Population In The Apuseni Mountains Area: Past, Present and Perspectives (1900-2030).” Revista Română de Sociologie (2016): 279-299. url: https://doaj.org/article/121827bc17794a57a5d3bed2765540d0

Popescu, Liliana, Amalia Badita, and Mirela Mazilu. "Can Rural Tourism Foster Local Development? Perspectives On The Future Of Rural Tourism In Romania." Journal of Tourism Challenges and Trends 7, no. 1(2014): 69-88. url: https://search.proquest.com/docview/1556080599?accountid=2909

Pribeanu, Gheorghe, Marius Boita. “Agro-Tourism - Active Role In Rural Developing.” Studia Universitatis "Vasile Goldis" Arad.Seria Stiinte Economice 23, no. 2(2013): 26-33. url: https://search.proquest.com/docview/1664922311?pq-origsite=summon&accountid=2909

Snyman, Susan. “The impact of ecotourism employment on rural household incomes and social welfare in six southern African countries.” Tourism and Hospitality Research 14, no. 1-2(2014): 1-16. DOI: 10.1177/1467358414529435

Steavenson, Wendell. “Ceausescu’s Children.” The Guardian, December 10, 2014. Accessed December 2017. url: https://www.theguardian.com/news/2014/dec/10/-sp-ceausescus-children

Sullivan, Meghan Collins. “Orphaned by History: A Child Welfare Crisis in Romania.” Sage Publications, Inc. 176, no. 6(2014): 78-84. url: http://www.jstor.org/stable/43555095

Surd, Vasile and David Turnock. "Romania's Apuseni Mountains: Safeguarding a Cultural Heritage." GeoJournal 50, no. 2-3(2000): 285-304. url: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1007170018729

Tangit, Tania Maria, Ahmad Khairuman Md Hasim, and Akmal Adanan. “Rural Tourism at its Peak: Socio- Cultural Impacts towards Host Communities of Kinabalu Park, Sabah (Malaysian-Borneo).” SHS Web of Conferences (2014): 1-8. DOI:10.1051/shsconf/20141201097

Telbisz, Tamás, Zoltán Imecs, László Mari, and Zolt Bottlik. “Changing human-environment interactions in medium mountains: the Apuseni Mts (Romania) as a case study.” Journal of Mountain Science 13, no. 9(2016): 1675-1687. url: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-015-3653-0

Teodorescu, Camelia, Radu Vânturache, Octavian Teodorescu, and Daniel Constantin Diaconu. “Proposal For Functional Conversions - Faur Area, Bucharest.” Urbanism. Arhitectura. Constructii 7, no. 2(2016): 137-146. url: https://search.proquest.com/docview/1771406219?

Truell, Rory. “Social workers help Romania’s abandoned children off the streets.” The Guardian, November 24, 2016. Accessed December 2017. url: https://www.theguardian.com/social-care- network/2016/nov/24/social-workers-help-romanias-abandoned-children-off-the-streets

Turnock, David, Ernest Latham, Keith Arnold Hitchins, Vasil S. Cucu. Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. “Romania” December 2017. url: https://www.britannica.com/place/Romania