ACADEMIA ROMÂNĂ – FILIALA CLUJ-NAPOCA COLECTIVUL DE GEOGRAFIE
GEOGRAPHIA NAPOCENSIS
An VII, nr. 2
2013
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EDITORIAL BOARD OF GEOGRPAPHIA NAPOCENSIS
Editor-in-Chief
Pompei COCEAN – Romanian Academy, Cluj-Napoca Subsidiary, Geography Section
Editorial Board
Dan BĂLTEANU – Romanian Academy, Institut of Geography, Bucureşti Phillipe BACHIMON –Avignon University, France Gyula HORVÀTH – Centre for Regional Studies, Hungarian Academy of Science Peter JORDAN – Institut of Geography, Viena, Austria. Erhard SCHULZ - University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany Nemes-NAGY JOZSEF - Lorand University, Budapest, Hungary Alexandru UNGUREANU – ,,Al.I.Cuza” University, Faculty of Geography and Geology, Iaşi, Nicolae CIANGĂ – Babeş-Bolyai University, Faculty of Geography. Ioan IANOŞ – Bucureşti University, Faculty of Geography Valerio BAIOCCHI - La Sapienza University, Roma, Italy
Executive Editors
CS III.dr. Ştefan BILAŞCO - Romanian Academy, Cluj-Napoca Subsidiary, Geography Section CS III.dr. Gabriela COCEAN – Romanian Academy, Cluj-Napoca Subsidiary, Geography Section
geographianapocensis.acad-cluj.ro
ISSN 1843-5920 ISSN online 1844-9840
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CUPRINS
Cercetarea dezvoltării ...... 5 Andrei Marga Deriving flash floods in the case of simulated precipitations ...... 11 Maria-Mihaela Győri, Joël Humbert, Ionel Haidu A comparative analysis of hungarian and romanian settlement development policies during the state socialism ...... 19 Zoltán Hajdú Identification of landslides susceptibility in the dobric catchment area using the frequency rate model...... 27 Roxana Văidean, Gheorghe Hognogi Where do the Alps' foothills end? The depths of the pre-cenozoic basement in the foreground of Vas-hegy– Alpokalja, Western Hungary...... 33 Bereczki László, Gärtner Dénes, Kemény Márton, Péntek András, Kovács Gábor, Timár Gábor, Molnár Gábor, Székely Balázs The current touristic capitalization of the karstic gorges in the Apuseni mountains...... 43 Gabriela Cocean Mapping archaeological sites using digital cartography. Roman settlements from Potaissa to Napoca ...... 51 Florin Fodorean, Ioan Fodorean, Iuliu Vescan, Ştefan Bilaşco Tipuri de produse cartografice specifice gurii Sulina, din perspectiva Comisiunii Europene a Dunării ...... 59 Marius Budileanu The challenge of keeping-up: current methodologies in analyzing the students recruiting area by universities ...... 71 Simona Mălăescu, Cristina Maria Speranza Metode de analiză a accesibilităţii populaţiei la mijloacele de transport în comun. Studiu de caz: Municipiul Iaşi ...... 81 Lucian Roşu Drăgoiasa-Tulgheş depression alignment. Approach model for the small depressions of the romanians Carpathians...... 91 George-Bogdan Tofan Using various visualization techniques to outline vulnerability to drought in the Republic of Moldova ...... 97 Constanţa Boroneanţ, Vera Potop, Mihaela Caian, Josef Soukup Urban green spaces – basic elements in sustainable tourism and urban development. Case study: the city of Cluj-Napoca ...... 109 Florina Cozea Consideraţii privind evoluţia vetrelor de sat din comuna Jilavele. O perspectivă cartografică...... 116 Andreea-Florentina Marin
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4 Geographia Napocensis Anul VII, Nr. 2, 2013
CERCETAREA DEZVOLTĂRII
1 ANDREI MARGA
Abstract - Development research. Development research needs conceptual clarifications. The present study tries to reveal them in the attempt to set up a research program based on the following options: a) diagnoses and forecasts are indispensable; b) data, development goals, development modeling, strategies and actors of development strategies need to be addressed in correlation; c) successful strategies in changing the situations may not to be suitable for the construction of new situations; d) the role of the institutions and of the State in development needs reassessment, both the “invading” and the “feeble” State being counter indicated; e) community culture is a premise of crucial importance in development; f) development cannot be achieved by simply restoring traditions, since, from, the very beginning, it involves historical innovation
Trei autori au reunit într-un volum (vezi nu ştiinţă a societăţii, şi pulverizează Georg Kneer, Armin Nassehi, Markus Schroer, cercetările sociologice în anchete de teren Hrsg., Klassische Gesellschaftsbegriffe der cu utilizare imediată (campanii electorale, Soziologie, Wilhelm Fink, Munchen, 2001) verificarea audienţei unor măsuri, prezentări micromonografice ale variantelor de optimizarea vînzărilor în supermarketuri societăţi profilate de sociologie, în scopul etc.). lămuririi cadrului în care se pot formula diagnoze Trebuie să constatăm că cercetarea şi prognoze privind societatea ca întreg. Au fost dezvoltării are de a face cu variante de societăţi, prezentate astfel societăţile “agrară”, “industrială”, încît recursul la conceptualizarea acestora este “burgheză”, “capitalistă”, “clasială”, “de masă”, nu doar de neocolit, ci şi util. Motivul este la “modernă”, “naţională”, “a organizaţiilor”, îndemînă – nu se poate stabili dezvoltarea (care “secularizată”, “tehnologică”, “totalitară”, “a implică, cum ştim, diagnoze) fără a recurge la cunoaşterii”, “a bunăstării”, “a opulenţei”. descrieri de stări care s-au succedat în timp, iar Inevitabil, abordarea diferitelor societăţi lua orice descriere de stare angajează concepte ce distanţă de cel puţin trei tradiţii: depăşesc datele empirice, oricum s-ar proceda. - cea a empirismului, care consideră că Din anii şaizeci s-a dezvoltat o amplă termenul de societate este prea pretenţios literatură a diagnozelor societale, ca rezultat al şi rămîne doar nominal, căci trăim, ca preocupării de a înţelege ceea ce se petrece în oameni, evenimente şi situaţii concrete, societatea modernă de după al doilea război dar nu ceva de genul “societăţii”; mondial şi mai ales în deceniile pe care le trăim. - cea ilustrată de Max Weber, care Am făcut inventarul lor succint (în Andrei considera că lanţurile condiţionale din Marga, Diagnoze. Articole şi eseuri, Eikon, societate sînt încă prea puţin captate de Cluj-Napoca, 2008), cînd am reţinut societăţile economie, de sociologie, de alte ştiinţe ”postliberală“, “asimetrică”, “a vidului sociale, şi nu este sigur că pot fi captate, valorilor”, “cinică”, “haotică”, “a minciunii”, fiind excesiv de complexe, încît rămîn “postseculară”, “invizibilă”, “a cunoaşterii”, realiste studii sociologice, dar nu “mediatică”, “a riscului” (împreună cu autorii şi pretenţioase studii ale “societăţii”; scrierile ce le reprezintă) şi am propus diagnoza - şi cea dominantă astăzi, care pleacă de la “societăţii nesigure”, ca fiind mai acoperitoare considerentul că sociologia este mai în raport cu faptele (vezi şi Andrei Marga, curînd ştiinţă a fenomenelor sociale , dar Consequences of the crises: new concepts, în 1 Romanian Academy Cluj-Napoca Subsidiary Geography Section 5 Andrei Marga
“Society and Economy”, Budapest, 2010, ipotezele”. De importanţă majoră a fost pp.179-194). Cercetarea dezvoltării are de a constatarea că „există o relaţie de dependenţă face cu diagnozele societăţilor contemporane cel între patru componente: puţin datorită faptului că acestea semnalează (i) teoriile şi modelele dezvoltării, probleme deschise ale evoluţiei din societăţile în (ii) obiectivele stabilite, care trăim. Pe de altă parte, ele ne indică, fie şi (iii) sistemele de date şi de măsurare a indirect, de ce fel de dezvoltări au nevoie chiar performanţei teoriile dezvoltării cu care operăm. (iv) politicile de dezvoltare, instituţiile Astăzi cercetările consacrate dezvoltării sînt şi strategiile respective”. extinse, iar teoria dezvoltării are în urmă ea însăşi Este important, pentru orice cercetare a o evoluţie semnificativă. Şi aceste cercetări şi dezvoltării, să ia în seamă delimitarea de mai sus a teoria însăşi – oricare au fost anticipările şi pilonilor de construcţie a strategiei de dezvoltare, premisele în literatura filosofică, economică, componentele construcţiei şi corelaţia lor. Trebuie sociologică anterioară – au luat avîntul în subliniat că fiecare este de sine stătător, este legătură cu procesul decolonizării postbelice: indispensabil şi are importanţă distinctă. Un atunci, în acest proces, pentru fostele colonii a institut de cercetare a dezvoltării trebuie să aibă de apărut şansa unui “nou început, care a inclus la început capacitatea de a capta în termeni evoluţia de la creştere simbiotică la creştere specifici fiecare pilon şi componentă. orientată spre interior şi de la dependenţă la o Desigur că accentele s-au pus variat în relaţie mai independentă faţă de puterile ex- diferite contexte. Un eminent cercetător (vezi coloniale” (Erik Thorbecke, The Evolution of Erik Thornbecke, op.cit.) a arătat că , de pildă, în the Development Doctrine, 1950-2005, în anii 50 ai secolului trecut , aş spune în perioada de George Marotas, Anthony Shorocks, eds., expansiune a teoriilor „societăţii industriale”, s-a Advancing Development, Core Themes in crezut că dezvoltarea se poate atinge plecînd de la Global Economics, Palgrave Macmillan, UNU investiţiile într-un sector considerat hotărîtor, care Press, New York, 2007, p.3). S-a trecut imediat ar genera creşterea economică, aceasta, la rîndul la cercetarea dezvoltării pentru a înţelege mai ei, fiind socotită capabilă să elimine dualismul bine ceea ce se petrece şi, mai cu seamă, ceea ce social şi inegalităţile. „Industrializarea a fost este de făcut pentru a optimiza evoluţia. concepută drept motor al creşterii, care va aduce Decidenţii noi ai fostelor colonii au resimţit în spatele ei restul economiei. Sectorul industrial a nevoia unor strategii de acţiune, care a încurajat fost creditat cu rolul dinamic, în contrast cu cercetările şi elaborarea teoriei dezvoltării. In sectorul agruiculturii, care a fost privit, în mod baza acestei experienţe de dezvoltare, acumulate tipic, ca un sector pasiv.... Şi mai specific, s-a pînă recent, s-a putut conchide: “selecţia şi perceput că industria, ca sector conducător, ar adoptarea unei strategii de dezvoltare – care oferi alternative ocupaţionale populaţiei din înseamnă un set de politici mai mult sau mai agricultură, ar asigura cerere crescîndă de hrană şi puţin interrelaţionate şi consistente – depinde de materii prime şi ar începe să alimenteze cu trei piloni de construcţie: imputuri industriale agricultura. Sectorul industrial (1) obiectivele de dezvoltare adoptate care, a fost echivalat cu înalta productivitate a la rîndul lor, sînt derivate din opiniile prevalente investiţiei – în contrast cu agricultura - şi, prin şi definiţia procesului de dezvoltare; urmare, investiţia majoră (bulk investment) a fost (2) starea de lucruri conceptuală, adică orientată spre activităţile industriale şi proiecte corpul existent de teorii ale dezvoltării, ipoteze, sociale ample (overhead). In mare măsură, modele, tehnici şi aplicaţii empirice; capitalul necesar pentru a alimenta creşterea şi (3) sistemul de date subiacent aflat la industrială trebuia să fie extras din agricultura îndemînă pentru a formula diagnoza situaţiei tradiţională” (p.6-7). Ulterior, în anii 60, dualismul existente, a măsura performanţa şi a testa industrie – agricultură a fost relaxat, după ce s-a
6 Cercetarea dezvoltării recunoscut că agricultura nu are doar un rol pasiv, In 1993 Banca Mondială a publicat un ci este parte componentă a unei economii raport cu privire la experienţa dezvoltării unor sănătoase, cel puţin din considerentul că ţări de Asia, precum Coreea de Sud, Taivan, alimentează cu materii prime industria. Tema Singapore etc. şi a tras concluzia după care din “creşterii economice (economic growth)” a intrat această experienţă se poate învăţa de către în avanscenă, iar dezvoltarea a fost legată de oricine. Cum s-a produs, aşadar, „miracolul “creşterea echilibrată (balanced growth)”, pe asiatic”? Este vorba de nouă condiţii: fondul căreia agricultura s-a bucurat de fundamente macroeconomice sănătoase şi revalorizare (p.8). Curînd, însă, în orizontul instituţii stabile, ce au ca scop bugete echilibrate analizei a intrat situaţia ţărilor slab dezvoltate, care şi dobînzi competitive; regimuri tehnocratice şi a obligat la luarea în considerare a stabilitate politică ce asigură credibilitate politică sărăciei(poverty) şi la trecerea de la tema creşterii şi nesiguranţă redusă - un factor important pentru economice la cea a “ocupării forţei de muncă investitorii străini; orientare spre export; (employement)”. Anii 70 au adus cercetarea încredere în piaţă; un set mai controversat de „interdependenţei dintre variabilele economice şi politici industriale, cu intervenţii guvernamentale demografice şi determinanţii migraţiei rural – selective folosind adesea „întrecerea” dintre urban” (p.13). firme drept proxy to competition; rate înalte ale Intre timp, criza datoriilor externe şi interne investiţiei în crearea capitalului uman; rate înalte ale statelor în curs de dezvoltare a intrat pe scenă, ale investiţiilor fizice; un proces de achiziţie încît „atingerea echilibrului extern (balance-of- tehnologică consistent cu avantaje comparative payements) şi a echilibrului intern (bugetar) au dinamice; şi tranziţie demografică lină (Apud fost considerate obiectivele cuprinzătoare şi Erik Thorbecke, op.cit., p.23). Nu este deloc condiţiile necesare ale restaurării creşterii sigur că „miracolele” istoriei sînt repetabile economice şi înlăturării sărăciei” (p.15). (ştim, de pildă, că miracolul creării SUA sau cel „Capitalul uman (human capital)” a început să fie al apariţiei societăţii moderne nu sînt caatare declarat „primul motor” al dezvoltării, cercetarea repetabile), dar se poate spune că din dezvoltarea ştiinţifică şi dezvoltarea (R&D) au fost legate, care a avut loc în Asia (şi care are loc şi astăzi, creşterea a început să fie pusă în funcţie de odată cu intrarea Chinei, după 1978, pe noul ei comerţ, iar „strategia ajustării ( adjustement curs!) sînt multe de învăţat, după cum sînt unele strategy)” a eclipsat-o un timp pe cea a dezvoltării opţiuni (de pildă, renunţarea la democraţie în (p.18). Iar survenirea neoliberalismului lui Reagan favoarea tehnocraţiei) care nu ar putea fi uşor şi Thatcher a încurajat la extinderea economiei de implementabile în cultura europeană. piaţă şi reducerea intervenţiilor guvernamentale în Care este situaţia de astăzi a conceperii tot mai multe domenii. In acest fel, s-a făcut dezvoltării? In decada cu care a început al treilea trecerea pragului pe care, în Europa Centrală şi mileniu nu s-au înregistrat schimbări Răsăriteană, l-a reprezentat colapsul economic al semnificative ale cadrului teoretic, ci mai curînd socialismului răsăritean, spre situaţia în care s-a relativizarea unor optici anterioare. De pildă, rolul asumat explicit dependenţa dezvoltării de instituţii decisiv al politicii de stat, elogiat cu cincizeci de şi nevoia păsăririi „economiei de comandă” spre ani în urmă, a fost contestat, în favoarea pieţei, din „economia de piaţă (market economy)”, socotită a 1985 încoace. S-au întreprins multe cercetări de fi condiţia indispensabilă a dezvoltării (p.19). Pe caz, s-au făcut experimente de dezvoltare, s-au acest fundament, în anii 90, diversele achiziţii ale extins cercetările econometrice, toate înăuntrul economiei dezvoltării, repusă în slujba „creşterii unei tendinţe empiriste, care a fost, totuşi, însoţită economice” şi a „reducerii sărăciei”, la care s-au de conştiinţa dependenţei inevitabile a descrierilor adăgat achiziţiile revoluţiei din informatică şi factuale de asumpţii teoretice. S-a reuşit noua statistică, au fost asamblate într-o concepţie articularea a ceea ce unii economişti (Erik multifactorială asupra dezvoltării. Thornbecke, de exemplu) numesc „noua
7 Andrei Marga economie politică a dezvoltării”, configurată în repede o criză economică, cu implicaţii sociale jurul recunoaşterii rolului crucial al instituţiilor în întinse şi cu o posibilă criză a resurselor şi, mai asigurarea dezvoltării şi al tematizării conexiunii mult, o „criză ontologică”, cum s-a spus. Nu este lăuntrice dintre creşterea economică, egalitatea vorba de o criză mondială (căci ţări precum China, şanselor şi înlăturarea sărăciei. Aceasta s-a Turcia, Polonia etc. au avut, în continuare, creşteri orientat spre punerea în relief a ceea ce trebuie economice), ci de o criză ce a afectat relaţiile evitat în politica economică: rente neproductive economice internaţionale şi nu s-a sfîrşit nici care pun în pericol proprietatea; instabilitate acum. Pe de altă parte, este vorba de o criză politică şi socială, care generează nesiguranţă şi economică ce are loc în condiţiile unei enorme descurajează investitorii; politici redistributive ce capacităţi de producere de bunuri (deci este criză încurajează acea inechitate care nu stimulează de supraproducţie, nu criză de subproducţie, ca bogaţii să acumuleze resurse şi să investească; pînă acum) şi pe fondul interacţiunilor, inclusiv pieţe de credit lacunare, care nu-l încurajează pe informaţionale , globalizate (fiind prima criză cel sărac să investească în sporirea capitalului internaţională de mare amploare în era uman; şi relativa micşorare a părţii din venituri globalizării), de o criză, în orice caz, structural ce revine clasei mijlocii (op.cit., p.28). S-a trecut, nouă în istoria modernă (cum am arătat în Andrei în acelaşi timp, la tematizarea mai largă a Marga, Criza şi după criză. Schimbarea lumii, globalizării şi a început, după o dogmatică Eikon, Cluj-Napoca, 2012). In cadrul acestei crize, exaltare a acesteia, să se pună întrebarea dacă conceperea dezvoltării nu rămîne neschimbată. globalizarea nu ar putea căpăta evoluţii care să-i Cred că trebuie trase consecinţe din cîteva fapte: reducă efectele negative pentru cei puţin criza s-a produs în condiţiile expansiunii competitivi (vezi Joseph E. Stiglitz, Making dereglementărilor elogiate necondiţionat în Globalization Work, Penguin, New York, ultimele decenii (vezi, de pildă, Alan Greenspan, London, 2006). Bunăstarea personală (vezi Marc The Age of Turbulence, 2006), încît rolul McGillivray, Mattew Clarke, eds., reglementărilor date de autorităţi naţionale şi Understanding Human Well-being, UNU Press, internaţionale se cere reevaluat; expansiunea pe Tokyo, New York, Paris, 2006; James B, Davies, plan virtual a operaţiilor financiare s-a dovedit a fi Personal Wealth. From a Global Perspective, sursă de criză; transformarea pe scară mare a Oxford University Press, 2008) şi vulnerabilitatea băncilor în investitori economici a sporit economică şi socială (vezi Wim Naude, Amelia importanţa capitalului financiar, pînă la nivelul la U. Santos- Paulino, Mark McGillivray, eds., care acesta ia sub control societatea Vulnerability in Developing Countries, UNU însăşi;disparităţile economice dintre ţări şi Press, Tokyo, New York, Paris, 2009) au intrat în inegalităţile de şanse înăuntrul societăţilor de avanscenă. Libertăţile au început să fie văzute mai astăzi favorizează crize de diferite feluri; cultura, precis în legătură cu normele convieţuirii şi ale începînd cu aspectul distribuirii informaţiilor şi activităţilor încununate de succes (vezi Douglas încheind cu cel al înţelegerii de sine a oamenilor şi B.Rasmussen, Douglas J. Den Uyl, Norms of a nevoilor lor, condiţionează performanţele de Liberty, Pennsylvania State University Press, orice fel ale sistemelor sociale; viziunile asupra 2005), iar noi teme de cercetare anunţau sfîrşitul comunităţilor şi societăţilor au efecte practice, creditării necondiţionate a dogmaticii neoliberale, adesea chiar economice. ce a marcat lumea de la Reagan şi Thatcher O situaţie aparte a reprezentat-o tranziţia de încoace. la socialismul răsăritean la societatea deschisă În 2007-2008 a început criza multora dintre de după 1989. Mă refer la patru aspecte economiile lumii, după ce Paribas Banque din hotărîtoare, pe baza cercetărilor, orientate spre Paris a semnalat că nu mai poate returna clienţilor pregătirea deciziilor de acţiune, ce au fost sumele dintr-un fond, iar Lehmann Brothers din consacrate dezvoltării din societăţile tranziţiei. New York s-a prăbuşit. Criza financiară a devenit Primul aspect este acela că tranziţia a
8 Cercetarea dezvoltării
însemnat, în mare, reluarea unui curs al (Douglas C. North, The Contribution of the dezvoltării ce fusese întrerupt în 1945, cu New Institutional Economics to an restabilirea proprietăţii private, drepturi şi Understanding of the Transition Problem, în libertăţi fundamentale ale individului şi Anthony B. Atkinson..., Wider Perspectives on cetăţeanului, pluralism politic, parlamentarism, Global Development, Palgrave,Macmillan, New diviziunea puterilor în stat. S-a spus că este vorba York, UNUPress, 2oo5, p.3). de „o lipsă aproape completă de idei inovative, Al patrulea aspect este acela că, în ce indică viitorul” (Jurgen Habermas, Die constelaţia factorilor ce condiţionează nachholende Revolution,Suhrkamp, Frankfurt dezvoltarea, cultura a cîştigat o importanţă am Main, 1990, p.181), tranziţia însemnînd mai hotărîtoare, încît asupra culturii trebuie ales „eliberarea căii pentru a recupera dezvoltări concentrat un interes mai mare. Ne aflăm, în omise” ca urmare a cursului luat de unele ţări din definitiv, după „cotitura culturală” a lumii Europa Centrală şi Răsăriteană, după 1945, în civilizate, din care trebuie trase consecinţe pentru prezenţa Armatei Roşii. De aceea, problema strategiile cercetării dezvoltării (vezi Andrei inovaţiei în materie de dezvoltare, luînd în Marga, Die kulturelle Wende. Philosophische considerare noul cadru al evoluţiei societăţii Konsequenzen der Transformation. Cotitura moderne în Europa, a rămas deschisă. culturală. Consecinţe filosofice ale tranziţiei, Al doilea aspect este acela că mijloacele Cluj University Press, 2004, pp.497-526). Nu care s-au dovedit eficace în demantelarea mai pare a fi posibilă dezvoltare competitivă fără socialismului răsăritean, precum, spre exemplu, cultură semnificativă. acţiunile punctuale cu normativitate scăzută, nu Ce reţinem din acest succint excurs pentru dau rezultate atunci cînd este vorba de punerea programul unui institut consacrat astăzi fundamentelor şi organizarea unei societăţi cercetării dezvoltării? Vreau să rezum deschise. Analize temeinice (vezi Guillermo O învăţămintele în forma, la rîndul ei succintă, a Donnell, Philippe C. Schmitter, Tentative unor teze. Astfel: Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies, a) diagnozele şi prognozele sînt The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore indispensabile; and London, 1986) au argumentat concludent că b) cercetările dezvoltării au o rădăcină în „acei factori care au fost necesari şi suficienţi pentru a provoca colapsul sau autotransformarea nevoi practice şi o finalitate acţională; unui regim autoritar pot să nu fie nici necesari, c) teoria dezvoltării fundamentează nici suficienţi să asigure instaurarea unui alt strategii de acţiune naţională şi locală; regim - şi cel mai puţin a unei democraţii d) datele situaţiilor, obiectivele de politice” (p.65). dezvoltare, modelările dezvoltării, strategiile şi Al treilea aspect este acela că, în asigurarea actorii iniţiativelor de dezvoltare trebuie dezvoltării, instituţiile joacă rolul crucial, încît abordate corelat; asupra lor este de concentrat în mare măsură e) pentru dezvoltare, în societăţile moderne, interesul atunci cînd se iau măsuri de dezvoltare. industria, agricultura, instituţiile, capitalul uman, Numai că instituţiile, care presupun reguli, depind calitatea conducerii, democratizarea şi motivarea de norme ancorate pînă la urmă în chiar cetăţenilor sînt componente indispensabile, ce percepţiile cuprinse în experienţele oamenilor. trebuie cercetate în interacţiune; Interfaţa dintre economie şi politică nu ne este f) sînt strategii de succes în schimbarea destul de cunoscută, dar este de admis că unor situaţii, fără să mai fie adecvate pentru ansamblul compus din percepţiile şi „modelele” construcţia situaţiilor noi; oamenilor, „nu numai că joacă un rol esenţial în g) piaţa este cel mai bun regulator al alegerile plitice, dar sînt şi o cheie a alegerilor economiei, dar dezvoltarea nu se lasă redusă la individuale ce afectează performanţa economică” liberalizarea pieţelor;
9 Andrei Marga
h) rolul instituţiilor, al statului, în dezvoltare locului inovaţie istorică. se cere reevaluat, atît „statul invadant”, cît şi De la acest pachet de teze este profitabil să „statul debil” fiind contraindicate; plecăm în investigaţiile consacrate dezvoltării. i) cultura comunităţilor este o premisă de In orice caz, tezele amintite stau la baza importanţă crucială a dezvoltării; programului şi organizării pe care le-am propus j) dezvoltarea nu se lasă atinsă prin simpla atunci cînd mi s-a cerut o conceptualizare restaurare a unor tradiţii, ci presupune din capul actualizată a cercetării dezvoltării.
10 Geographia Napocensis Anul VII, Nr. 2, 2013
DERIVING FLASH FLOODS IN THE CASE OF SIMULATED PRECIPITATIONS
1 2 3 MARIA-MIHAELA GYŐRI , JOËL HUMBERT , IONEL HAIDU
ABSTRACT. – Deriving flash floods in the case of simulated precipitations. The present study sets to determine the historical flash-floods on the Petriş watershed making use of the implemented mathematical models in a Hydrological Modeling System. In order to simulate the 1%, 2% and 10% exceedance probability flash-floods, the Intensity-Frequency-Duration (IDF) curves have been built on the basis of 22 years of precipitation records (1988-2009). They serve as input data together with the hydrological parameters identified by the means of a Geographic Information Systems. The results, computed mainly on the basis of the Soil Conservation Service (SCS) method, consist of hyetographs and hydrographs at the outlet of the main watershed, as well as to that of the ungauged tributaries of the Petriş River.
Keywords: Intensity-Frequency-Duration curves, Hydrological Modeling System, exceedance probability, Soil Conservation Service method, SCS Unit Hydrograph.
1. INTRODUCTION related to flooding. The Probable Maximum The Hydrologic Engineering Corps Precipitation values for the 1988-2009 period and Hydrologic Modeling System (HEC-HMS) their statistical analysis made it possible to build simulates the fluxes of mass and energy in the the IDF curves for the Petriş watershed. The hydrological cycle through the mathematical Hydrological Modeling System via the Soil models implemented. The modeling system has Conservation Service (SCS) method facilitated a wide range of applicability, being used for the transformation of the excess precipitation into balance water equations on large rivers, runoff, hence computing the 1%, 2% ,10% floodplain studies, or hydrograph estimation exceedance probability flash-floods hydrographs. studies in natural or urban watersheds (P. P Mujumdar et al., 2012). 2. METHODOLOGY It is due to its distributed-specialized The Unit Hydrograph will be generated with approach that the evolution of the discharge the help of the HEC-HMS that transposes the form the most remote corners of the basins, excess precipitation into direct runoff through its down to the outlet, can be analyzed even though transform component. Among the seven in reality gauged data exists only at a fixed transform methods available, the SCS Unit point, namely at the hydrometric post. Hydrograph was chosen for the present study, a The main purpose of the study consists of method that gives good results in scarce data two parts: the determination of Intensity- regions, such as the one under investigation. Duration-Frequency (IDF) curves for different The meteorological model incorporated return periods and the simulation of makes use of the Frequency Storm method so as corresponding hydrographs, both at the gauging to generate the rainfall depths for the 1%, 2%, post and at the ungauged tributaries’ outlets. 10% exceedance probability events. The Many of these outlets are situated in the vicinity resulting hyetographs are computed on the basis of human settlements posing at times problems of data provided by the Agency “Direcţia Apelor
1 Babeş-Bolyai University, Faculty of Geography, 400006 Cluj-Napoca, Romania, [email protected] 2 Laboratoire Image, Ville, Environnement, Université de Strasbourg, 67 083, Strasbourg, France, [email protected] 3 University of Lorraine, Dpartement of Geography, 57000 Metz, France, [email protected] 11 Maria-Mihaela Győri, Joël Humbert, Ionel Haidu
Române” that made possible the computation of The meteorological model is the Maximum Probable Precipitation depths for component that facilitates rainfall and various durations (5 min, 15 min, 1 h, etc.) evapotranspiration modeling in the HEC-HMS. Nevertheless in the simulation and modeling of short rainfall-runoff events the evaporation is considered negligible. The choice to be made for a meteorological model is between the seven existing ones. C. Diaconu and P. Şerban (1994) have established the manner of computing the Maximum Probable Precipitation on a watershed, using the temporal and spatial analysis of available data for 24 h precipitation provided by the National Institute of Meteorology and Hydrology. The method is recognized by R. Drobot (2007) as being applicable to the stations where only daily precipitation exist, such being the case of the hydrometric post of Petriş, in the study area. The shorter duration rainfall records (6h, 3h, 2h, 1h etc.) are of more recent date, in fewer observation posts and are not available for the
catchment under study. On the basis of the Fig. 1. The Petriş catchment and its main tributary available data (1988-2009 annual series) from rivers. the pluviometric post Petriş, the Maximum Probable Precipitation for various durations The Unit Hydrograph is generated for the have been computed as a first stage, followed by Petriş watershed (fig.1), situated in Western a frequency analysis. Romania, in the Săvârşinului Mountains. In There exists a link between the rainfall addition, the hydrographs for the tributary rivers events with duration of 24 h and those with have been simulated as well, helping to identify different durations (t) symbolized by Xt, the discharge values in ungauged locations, namely: during historical rainfall events . The main 2 XX= α (1) watershed has a surface of 109 km and a river tt24 length of 76 km. It is mainly covered by -where αt is a subunit of t < 24 h. deciduous forests (67%) and the C hydrologic soil group (67.77%), followed by 17.5% Hence five main areas described by the belonging to the B group, this being the primary same temporal-spatial curves have been data of outmost importance in the application of identified and can be viewed at page 243 in the the SCS Method. work of C. Diaconu and P. Şerban (1994).
Petriş, a tributary to the Mureş River, situated in 2.1. Meteorological data processing the Săvârşinului Mountains is situated in the For the present study case the Maximum Probable Precipitation depths for different area number two. The value of the annual durations (12 h, 6 h, 3 h, 2h, 1 h, 15 min and 5 maximum precipitation for 24 hours (X24) min), shorter than 24 hours will be determined. depends on the surface of the catchment (FB). These values are an essential input element for The relationship between areas described modeling maximum stream flow and are by the same temporal and spatial curves and the introduced at the level of the meteorological temporal percent (p%T) is given by the model, through the Frequency Storm method. mathematical expression: 12 Deriving flash floods in the case of simulated precipitations
[(X] )P%T=− A B log F + F (2) 25400 24 P P B 0 S254=− CN -where: AP and BP are constants depending on - P= total rainfall (mm) p%T and area; F0 is a constant depending on the area. The Curve Number (CN) parameter (fig. 2) is mandatory in the application of the SCS The parameters of the above formula can method. It is computed according to the basin be identified in the Tabel 3.34, page 249 in the characteristics that concur in runoff generation, same work of C. Diaconu and P. Şerban (1994). namely: the hydrological soil group, land use, It is worth mentioning that these parameters are land cover and antecedent moisture conditions. valid on the entire Romanian territory. For the computation of rainfall events of smaller duration than 24 hours (Xt), the results of the statistical temporal and spatial analysis have been used once more, as well as the data for shorter duration rainfall events (Xt) registered at more than 100 rainfall stations that had available data series (Xt ) for 20-35 years. The next step is the determination of the α coefficient as a ratio between Xt and X24 using the exceedence probabilities of Xt which have been determined on the basis of the highest rainfall depths registered (a number of 199 rainfall events). Hence in the present paper for the Petriş watershed, the afore-mentioned methodology has been applied. The maximum annual data series of 24 h rainfall events, registered between April and October have been taken into account, when the monthly average temperature is positive and the Fig. 2. Spatialization of the CN in the Petriş flash-floods registered in this interval are rainfall catchement. induced. Subsequently the computation of the 1%, 5% and 10% exceedance probabilities of the For a catchment composed of different soil Maximum Rainfall events have been computed and land use types a weighted value of the CN with the Hyfran software and the results can be can be computed on the basis of the formula (4) read in Table 2. and according to the AMC II (Army Corps of Engineers, 2010, 2000): 2. 2. Direct runoff generation ∑ ACN Once the rainfall amounts are introduced in i1 CNweighted = (4) the HEC-HMS meteorological component, the ∑ A1 excess of rainfall can be transformed in direct -where: - the CN = the weighted CN used runoff. Among the several implemented weighted for volume computation in the rainfall-runfoff methods, for the Petriş watershed the SCS Unit model; Hydrograph Method is selected. - i = an index of the subdivisions that have the The SCS formula can be expressed as (S. same type of soil and land use; K. Mishra, 1999, 2002, 2003): - CNi= CN belonging to the i subdivision; 2 (P− 0.25) - Ai= the catchment area of subdivision P = (3) e P+ 0.85 The resulted CN is a weighted value that -where:- Pe= rainfall excess (mm) represents the totality of possible combinations - S= maximum potential of retention (mm), between the soil groups and the land use that
13 Maria-Mihaela Győri, Joël Humbert, Ionel Haidu exist in a basin. This weighted CN should be (L0.8 ++ ([S 1)]0.7 ) computed without including the impervious Tlag = 0.5 (5) 1900× Y areas in a basin. These need to be specified separately nonetheless, in the database as -where: L= hydraulic length of the sections percentage from the total of the impervious where the direct runoff is concentrated; surface (Army Corps of Engineers, 2010). - Y= basin slope (%).
Tab. 1. Time of concentration (Tc) and Lag time For the ungauged basins, the SCS (National (Tlag) in the Petriş catchment. Engeneering Handbook, 2001) suggests that the
Tlag be correlated with the Tc as follows: Tc (h) Tlag (h) Petriş 5.2 3.2 Subbabsin T0.6Tlag = × C (6) W690 1.77 1.06 W590 1.07 0.64 3. RESULTS W580 1.33 0.80 W740 1.02 0.61 The statistical analysis of annual series W650 1.76 1.05 (1988-2009) for the probable maximum W760 1.65 0.99 precipitation of different durations shows a W810 1.14 0.68 good fit to the Gumbel law for the 1%, 2% and W820 1.04 0.63 W800 2.07 1.24 10% exceedance probability computations for W870 1.27 0.76 the 5 min, 15 min, 1h, 2h, 3h, 6h, 12 h, 24 h. W900 1.85 1.11 As an example the frequency determination W920 1.68 1.01 of the probable maximum precipitation of a 5 a minute duration is shown in fig. 3. It can be Knowledge of the time of concentration (T ) c seen that both the Gumbel Law and the Log- is of outmost importance as well and it can be Pearson Type III fit well the data, nevertheless estimated by measuring the time elapsed between the best fit is given by Gumbel Maximum the end of the net precipitation and that of the Likelihood Distribution. direct runoff. The Lag time (Tlag) has also been determined for the Petriş subbasin and its The values of the probable maximum subwatersheds, on the basis of a series of precipitation for different duration are shown in automated element extractions from a DEM via table 2. They represent input for the GIS. Hence the watershed area, medium slope, meteorological model in HEC-HMS and they river length etc. have been extracted to serve this make possible the subsequent building of the purpose IDF curves (fig.4).
Fig. 3. The Gumbel distribution fitting the Petriş Maximum Probable Precipitation data. 14 Deriving flash floods in the case of simulated precipitations
Tab. 2. Probable Maximum Precipitation (mm) in the Petriş catchment.
p T 5 min 15 min 1h 2h 3h 6 h 12 h 24 h (%) (years) 1 100 15.3 26.9 43.4 50.1 53.1 58.4 65.8 74.8
2 50 13.8 24.3 39.3 45.3 48 52.8 59.5 67.6
10 10 10.2 18.3 29.5 34 36 39.6 44.7 50.7
The IDF curves express the existing 24 h for urban watershed, or 4 times the time of relationship between rainfall intensity (i), concentration), nonetheless the abundance of duration (d) and the return period (T). The steps studies shows that it is the hydrologist’s for the determination of the IDF curves are the reasoning that have the last saying related to the preparation of the maximum precipitation matter. The storm duration is established after series, the fitting of a probability distribution having analyzed several result hydrographs and and determining of the rainfall depths (P. P their correspondence with the gauged data. For Mujumdar et al., 2012). The results for the study the present study case, a good correspondence catchment can be seen in figure 4 and represent exists for a 1 hour duration storm. the relation between maximum rainfall depth for each duration and an exceedance probability. There are numerous probability distribution functions that can be used (R. H. McCuen, 2003, S. McKillup, M. D. Dyar, 2010), the Gumbel being the best distribution for the Petriş data set, as indicated by the HYFRAN software.
Fig. 4. Intensity-Duration-Frequency curves for the Fig. 5. Stages in the building of a HEC-HMS model. Petriş catchment.
The meteorological data will be processed Once the meteorological model has been at the level of the meteorological component of established, the hydrological parameters of the HEC-HMS, within the Frequency storm model. Petriş basin and its subbasins need to be Values of the 5 min up to 1 hour probable determined. They are represented under the feature maximum data are used, on the grounds that classes River and Subbasin in the ArcGIS 33.6 mm of rain have been registered on the 29th geodatabase (fig. 6). Once the model and its of April 1995 a value that falls within the parameters have been transformed in a type of file confidence interval 23.6 mm- 35.3 mm of the 1 that can be read by HEC-HMS, the initial h maximum probable precipitation with a 10% parameters can be adjusted or changed completely. exceedance probability. The SCS-CN method The transforming process of an ArcGIS advises on the best way of determining the total model into a HEC-HMS (fig.5) project includes: duration for the rainfall based on the empirical the identification of subbasins, of the main studies made across time (namely a duration of catchment, river courses; determining
15 Maria-Mihaela Győri, Joël Humbert, Ionel Haidu hydrologic parameters such as river and basin on another small watershed nearby, from the slope, longest flow path, basin CN, Basin Lag; it Zărandului Mountains, for the historic flash- follows the transforming of the ArcGIS data flood registered on the 06th of August 2010 (M. structure in a model that can be read and used M. Győri, I. Haidu, 2011). A good fit between within HEC-HMS; the final step is composed of the registered and the simulated hydrograph was computations made in the HEC-HMS model in noticed, hence the underlying methods for order to obtain the hydrograph. building the hydrologic model have been A similar study and database has been built employed in the present study as well.
Fig. 6. Example of the GIS database for the Basin feature class, including hydrological parameters of the SCS method
The final results, the hydrographs of the As their flow path crosses a series of probabilistic flash-flood events of 1%, 2% and human settlements, their exceedace probability 10% for the Petriş catchment and its tributaries values represent a high interest as no gauging are determined. A 10% exceedance probability data exists. event was generated and calibrated with the Their exceedance values (fig. 8, 9, 10) 1995 event, which according to the statistical surpass the multi annual discharge values of the analysis of 22 years of streamflow data (1988- gauged river Petriş (Q = 0,913 m3/s), 2009), belongs to the 10% exceedance class. representing a threat of flooding. The calibration value resulted in a value of 4.8 m3/s, on the basis of the Peak Weighted Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) (fig. 7). We can observe a small overestimation of the peak of the simulated hydrograph and an earlier apparition of the Time of rise which can be due to a slight underestimation of the basin Lag time. After calibration, the 1% and 2% exceedance probability flash-floods hydrographs have been simulated, reaching peak values of 59.6 m3/s (fig.10) and 49.9 m3/s (fig. 9): The main tributaries that form the Petriş river are Fig. 7. Calibrating the 10% exceedance probability Valea Corbească and Valea Sântească. event.
16 Deriving flash floods in the case of simulated precipitations
Fig.8. Flash-floods hydrographs for the 10% Fig.10. Flash-floods hydrographs for the 1% exceedance probability. exceedance probability
The present discharge values, as stipulated in the above sections, are rainfall generated, hence their discharge values are situated under the warning discharge values issued by the local authorities habilitated such as SGA Arad. As it can be seen form table 3, the SGA Arad issues for the year 2007 higher discharge values of different exceedance probabilities than those modeled, as the discharge taken into consideration by the authorities is caused by mixed precipitation,. The values for the year 2011 for the same exceedance probabilities are Fig.9. Flash-floods hydrographs for the 2% even higher than those of 2007. exceedance probability All the modeled discharge values are very close to those obtained from a statistical analysis of the discharge measured values between 1988-2009, as illustrated in table 3.
Tab. 3. Discharges of different exceedance probabilities for the Petriş River; Q, m3/s; q, l/s/km2
Exceedance probability
Basin 1% 2% 10%
Statistical Statistical Statistical SGA SGA SGA Analysis Analysis Analysis Q q Q q Q q Q q Q q Q q Petriş 58.2 541 119 1107 50.6 470. 7 94 874 32.6 303 39 362
4. CONCLUSION precipitation due to fall is known, or even more A physically-based model has been applied on when meteorological precipitation warnings 2 2 2 the Petriş catchment despite several shortcomings (15.0 l/m /h; 25.0 l/m /3 h; 30.0 l/m /6 h) have related to data availability in the region been issued. Hence possible trajectories of Hydrologic modeling plays an essential flash-floods and the affected areas can be easily role in hydrograph forecasting once that be delineated in the form of maps.
17 Maria-Mihaela Győri, Joël Humbert, Ionel Haidu
This cartographic material would be rapide, UTCB, Departamentul de cercetare şi especially handy for all city halls as they have proiectare în construcţii, Bucureşti. under their command the local committees for [4] Győri, M.-M., Haidu, I., Unit Hydrograph emergency situations. From flood plain maps Generation for Ungauged Subwatersheds. Case one can realize the damage a high quantity of Study: the Monoroştia River, Arad County, Romania, Geographia Technica, No. 2/2011, pp. rain, transposed in surface runoff and flash 23 – 29. floods, can produce. By having the flood plain [5] Maidment, D. R., (1993), Handbook of maps and taking seriously into account the Hydrology, McGraw-Hill. meteorological warnings flash flood damage can [6] McCuen, R. H., (2003), Modeling Hydrologic be reduced to a minimum. Change: Statistical Methods, Lewis Publishers, CRC Press LLC. Acknowledgement: [7] McKillup, S., Dyar, M. D., (2010), Geostatistics This work was possible with the financial Explained- An Introductory Guide for Earth support of the Sectoral Operational Programme Scientists, Cambridge University Press. for Human Resources Development 2007-2013, [8] Mishra, S. K., Singh, V. P., (1999) Another look co-financed by the European Social Fund, under at the SCS-CN method. Journal of Hydrologic Engineering, 4(3), p. 257–264. the project number POSDRU/107/1.5/S/76841 [9] Mishra, S. K., Singh, V. P., (2002), SCS-CN- with the title “Modern Doctoral Studies: Based Hydrologic Simulation Package, in Internationalization and Interdisciplinarity”. Mathematical Models of Small Watershed The first author mentions that the present Hydrology and Applications, Singh, V. P., work is a product of the activity undertaken at Frevert, D. K. (Editors), Water Resource the “Laboratoire Image, Ville, Environnement”, Publications, Littleton, CO., p. 391- 464. LIVE, Université de Strasbourg, 67 083, [10] Mishra, S. K., Singh, V. P., (2003), Soil Strasbourg, France, during the internship of Conservation Service Curve Number (SCS-CN) 01.01.2013-31.07.2013. methodology, Kluwer, Dordrecht, The Netherlands. [11] Mujumdar, P. P., Nagesh Kumar, D., UNESCO, (2012), Floods in a Changing REFERENCES Climate, Hydrologic Modeling, International Hydrology Series, Cambridge University Press. [1] Blöschl, G., Sivapalan, M., Wagener, T., [12] US Army Corps of Engineers, (2000), Viglione, A., Savenije, H., (2013), Runoff Hydrologic Modeling System HEC-HMS, Prediction in Ungauged Basins-Synthesis across Technical Reference Manual. Processes Places and Scales, Cambridge [13] US Army Corps of Engineers, (2001), University Press. Hydrologic Modeling System HEC-HMS, User’s [2] Diaconu, C., Şerban P., (1994), Sinteze şi Manual, Version 2.1. regionalizări hidrologice, Editura Tehnică, [14] US Army Corps of Engineers, (2010), Bucureşti. Hydrologic Modeling System HEC-HMS, User’s [3] Drobot, R.,(2007), Metodologia de determinare Manual, Version 3.5. a bazinelor hidrografice torenţiale în care se află aşezări umane expuse pericolului viiturilor
18 Geographia Napocensis Anul VII, Nr. 2, 2013
A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF HUNGARIAN AND ROMANIAN SETTLEMENT DEVELOPMENT POLICIES DURING THE STATE SOCIALISM*
1 ZOLTÁN HAJDÚ
1. Introduction conception of socialist society in the new system, Settlement and settlement network policy the historically developed socio-economic spatial seems to be alien to direct high politics but upon structure of the country, the sectoral-structural examining their essential relations we can say objectives of economic development and that in fact these ,,politics" signing the basic structure policy in a wider sense Settlement outcomes and spatial consequences, i.e. the development had to be integrated with the synthesis of the economic, social processes and centralised structure of management, public political changes. administration and planning. In the practical At the beginning of the state socialism (in activity a reply had to be given to the peculiar re- Romania 1948, in Hungary 1949) the endeavour gional and settlement problems of the country to imitate the Soviet practice (or rather the (capital cities – the provinces, capital cities – the pressure to do so) the undiscriminating adoption large cities, large cities – small towns, towns – of the Soviet scientific accomplishments is villages, the system of small detached farms) and obvious but ,,the representatives of the bourgeois priorities had to be assigned under the science" are still present and elements of earlier circumstances of limited resources. views also emerge. From the early 1960s in the In the formulation of the goals, the interest of promoting modernisation, the western direction and the instruments of regional policy scientific achievements were more powerfully science participated periodically and to an integrated (often with a content and in a form altering extent. In the 1950s science had a strongly trans-ideologised). Such elements of the ceremonial role, than it took part in the estab- western practice gained ground which seemed to lishment of the regional and settlement serve the efforts and plans of,,catching up and development policy depending on the political overtaking. interests and objectives with a changing content The theoretical, historical, political and and varying successfulness. From first to last practical problems of state socialism (state the scope of movement of science was capitalism) had essentially been the personal restricted, since the determining characteristic matter of the Soviet Union up to the end of feature of the period was that the judgement of World War II. After the Central European every professional issue obtained an ideological communist changes, the issue of the state and political content socialist system turned up as essential and The regional and settlement development common characteristics of each small socialist policy of the period was determined to a great country. Besides general and common features extent by the long-term, planned, ideal notion of (which, considering the essential elements of the society as well as by the direct conception of the era, were similar to each other), each structure’s society and the actual practice of the organisation national characters could appear and develop. of society. Perhaps the most often used phrase in The evolution of the settlement development the writings of the period was the socialist society. policies of state socialism in Hungary and Several levels and groups of interpretations of this Romania was greatly influenced by the category developed changing with time, but there 1 scientific adviser, CERS HAS 7621 Pécs, Papnövelde 22. [email protected] * Research was supported by OTKA (National Scientific Research Found). Number is:104801. 19 Zoltán Hajdú remained some permanent elements, too. In the socialist ownership would be created there, the everyday practice and the political activity socialist transformation of the economy and the philosophical, ideological and propagandistic society was bound to occur first in the towns. The elements got mixed. socialist towns were to reform the villages as well. In addition to the system of values of the The villages would not follow the socialist towns socialist transformation of the society, the mechanically, therefore the socialist ownership directly formulated economic development and later the social relations of socialism were to strategy (the two were related in a lot of cases) be formed in the villages by means of external determined the objectives and possibilities of intervention. On the long term the whole the prevailing settlement and settlement network settlement system was to be transformed in ac- development. In the period of the extensive cordance with the construction of socialism. development of the economy, in the case of Without being immersed in the general developments of sectoral (industrial) character conceptual analysis Hungarian or Romanian regional and settlement development was a aspects of so-called socialist settlements partial result, a kind of consequence related to (communist model city, socialist model capital, the major investment projects. socialist town and socialist village), I just would In connection with settlement and like to briefly refer to a summary and quote an settlement network development once again article published in a Transylvanian Hungarian arises the issue of periodisation as well as that Journal titled ‘Korunk’ (‘Our Age’) in January of the attitude to be taken in relation to the 1931. In this article ‘N’ describes the socialist international processes and scientific tendencies. urban construction in Soviet Union. It is important We regard the whole of state socialism as a to present this article since the thoughts written homogeneous but not undifferentiated whole. down here ‘have come back’ almost like a ghost The typical phases of settlement and settlement in the state socialist Hungary and Romania: network development policy coincide with the – ‘We must ask ourselves: Which kind of new structural changes of the economy, politics and needs are demanded by the changed life in public administration but the coincidence is not connection with the residence? And in of a mechanical nature. which aspect is it different to live in a There were similar and very different socialist town? If we can find answers to elements of settlement development policies in these questions then the question of ‘How Hungary and Romania. Until the early 60s the should a socialist town look like?’ will be Hungarian political aims were much more answered as well.’ hardder, and in the 80s the Romanian rural – ‘The basic element of current social life is settlement policy turned to be brutal. the family – the basic element of today’s In Hungary the minority questions there town is the family flat.’ were no important elements of settlement – ‘The task of the socialist city architect is to policy, in Romania problems of Transylvania, design suitable buildings for socialist life.’ and questions of Hungarian minorities were – ‘The socialist town is created in parallel permanent and serious part of settlement with the planned development of the whole development policy. country. Its growth is controlled by plans and goes up to the point where the growth of 2. Common ideological points the city does not turn into negative way.’ The ideology of building a socialist society – ‘The layout of the socialist city will also be was given partly by the „classics’ works” different than the current city’s....’ (Marx, Engels, Lenin) and especially Stalin at – ‘The collectivisation of agriculture.... the beginning of the era. The Soviet practice created the basis for dissolving this conflict was formally available for the actual (between the town and village) and opened implementation. new opportunities for the building of towns.’ According to Stalin's approach the socialist – ‘The first agricultural town Novokhopyorsk is revolution was to conquer first in the towns, the already under construction.’
20 A comparative analysis of Hungarian and Romanian settlement development policies during the state socialism
– ‘The socialist city is no longer socialist principles and practices. National characteristics theory and fantasy. The first ones are have gradually been involved in Romanian already under construction.’ foreign and domestic policy including regional – ‘And what will happen with today’s cities? policy and development. They will remain temporary but their time is Accorging to the census of 1948 – when the limited since the wealthy socialist society will forced movements of large populations had certainly not remain in holes without light and already almost finished (deportation, resettlement, air which were inherited from capitalism. carrying off into captivity etc.) – we can Where it is possible the existing town will be charecterised the Romanian settlement network: reconstructed socialistically and enormous – the number of inhabitants in the country centres will be dissolved. Cities with more was about 15.9 million, then a million inhabitants are not ideals of – of which 3.7 million (23.4%) lived in 152 socialism. The historically important buildings towns and 12.2 million (76.6%) in villages, have to be kept but the others will be – Bucharest as the capital was also the most destroyed or rebuilt or implanted with trees.’ populous city (with its one million people I believe that the concepts should be thought including outskirts also), over again and understood from the aspect of – in the country there were only two towns whole Hungarian and Romanian urban (Cluj, Timişoara) whose population developmental process. The reason for that exceeded 100 thousand, particularly is that this article was published in – the other towns belonged rather to the Transylvania in a Hungarian journal and medium-sized category, between the two world wars. – considering urbanisation, there were From 1950 Khrushchev formulated his significant differences between the theory, which had a political impact, on the traditional macro-regions of the country, “socialist agrarian towns". One of its significant – apart from Bucharest, the most developed components was that the antagonistic region in the country was Transylvania. contradictions of town and village as well as the At the beginning of sate socialism Romania was long-term economic, social, cultural, nearly a classical agrarian country, with a relativly architectural and supply-related etc. differences big capital and some industrialised cities. would cease to exist under socialism but also The Communis takeover was constitualised modern settlements uniting all the advantages of by the Constitution of People’s Republic of both town and village would come into being Hungary on 20th of August 1949. This without the disadvantages involved. constitution in fact was a clear Stalinist one in For the Hungarian and Romanian political aims. On the basis of the constitution a party- leaders settlement policy was one of the state was established in Hungary. instruments of economic development and of According to the census of 1949 the the radical transformation of the society, partly population of Hungary was 9.2 million, out of an objective and a consequence. which: – 1.6 million (17.3%) lived in Budapest, 3. The basic structure of settlement the capital of the country; network on the basis of national – 1.1 million (12%) lived in towns censuses (in Romania 1948, in subordinated to the county councils (their number was 24) and these were the more Hungary 1949) important towns in the country, The Romanian People’s Republic was – 644 thousand inhabitants (7%) in towns proclaimed on December 30, 1947. The change subordinated to the district councils (29), of the regime accelerated the establishment of – while 5.8 million people (63.7%) lived in subsystems of state socialist system and a party- the 3,143 villages of the country. state structure was created. The structures were After Budapest just population of three cities developed according to Stalin’s state-building was higher than 100 thousand. These cities were
21 Zoltán Hajdú traditional regional centres. Population of four and character of public administration logically towns was higher than 50 thousand. They were brought about the shaping of a settlement policy the most developed county’s seats. Among the expressing, representing and projecting the villages we could find 2364 with less than 2000 economic, social and political objectives and inhabitants, 72,4% of all settlements in endeavours of the socialist society. Hungary. In these settlements was living 22.7% The decision making processes of of all population of Hungary. settlement development were very similar in the At the beginning of state socialism two countries: Hungary was an agro-industrial country with a – Main political, economic and administration relativelly big and developed capital. aims were decided, and declared by the parties (programmes, congress decisions 4. Stages of settlement policy and etc.), results (consequenses) of development – Governments “translated” these decions into At the beginning of state socialist era, acts, directives etc., Romania inherited highly different settlement – Ministries were every day active players in networks from region to region. The the processes, characteristics of networks in Transylvania, – Different and changing background institutes Wallachia and Moldavia had been formed in (in Romania I.C.S.O.R., I.S.P.R.O.R., historically different social, economical and I.S.A.R.T. and between 1974-1990 I.S.L.G.C., cultural processes. The political leadership in Hungary TERINT, BUVÁTI, VÁTI) were announced an economic developmental and the planners. ‘homogenisation’ social restructuring programme based on a kind of class struggle Key points of settlement policy in Hungary (started at the beginning of building socialism). were: The socialist system was itself based on centralisation processes. ‘Democratic – The classification of the villages and towns centralism’ had further increased the already in December of 1951 heavy burden of restructuring. Collectivisation, The Institute of Regional Planning implemented forcefully in several waves, and elaborated the conception of classification in the building of a repressive apparatus of several versions and in the process of co- councils gained a particularly important role ordination with the county party committees from the villages’ point of view. the classification of the individual settlements Cities have enjoyed a kind of benefit from was modified even further until the political the ‘class struggle’ since the beginning. At the approval and announcement of the range of a same time, the industrial workers who had found ,,special class" or of 1st class settlements jobs due to nationalisation lived in rather poor occurred. According to this conception only living conditions. Industrialisation and urban Budapest and Miskolc belonged to the class construction had already been used as ethno- of special settlements, ensuring there by the political tools in the hands of political leadership possibilities of their especially centralised in Transylvania since the earliest period. direction". 73 towns (2.2%) were planning At the beginning of the state socialist era, for strong industrialisation, 81 (2.5%) for the majority of Romanian population lived in industrialisation. In the final version 1530 villages, and in fact most of these were (47% of the settlements) was classified into backward ones. The average size of villages was the category “not to be developed”. small and most of them were poorly supplied by – Settlement Network Development Study infrastructure. Project in 1963 The political turn of 1948, then its The classification of the settlements acknowledgement in the Constitution of 1949, in according to the regional function would Hungary the switch of the economic, social and often be justified by peculiar but approved political system, the changes in the place, role principles and normatives. The 9 regional
22 A comparative analysis of Hungarian and Romanian settlement development policies during the state socialism
centres and recional co-centres carried the – Modified National Settlement Network possibility of an decentralised development. Development Conception, 1982 An the other side 66.5% of the settlements The most important change in the modification became “subordinated villages” According was: instead of “other settlements” introducing the conception most of the villages unable the category “basic settlements”. to develop and detached groups of houses in The legal declaration of town status was the outskirts would cease gradually. followed partly the settlement network – Nation-wide Settlement Network development conceptions: between: 1950-1965 Development Framework Plan in 1969 9 villages turned to be town, mainly industrial The planned regional functions of (socialist) cities, between 1966-1975 19 villages settlements and structural classification of turned to be towns, between 1976-1985 26, and the stock of settlements do not significantly in 1989 41 villages were declared to be “town” differ from those contained by “Study (Figure 1). Project” of 1963. Results or consequences of Hungarian – National Settlement Network Development settlement network policy until the end of state Conception, 1971 socialism can be summarized: The conception determined the range and – Budapest turned to be a big city on Central directions of the development of national, European level, special high-grade, high-grade, partially – Five cities (Debrecen, Győr, Miskolc, Pécs, high-grade, intermediate-grade, partially- Szeged) started become functional regional intermediate-grade centres. The conception centres, classified 64% of the settlements “other – Most of the county seats were modernised, settlements”, but in this case there is no – Micro-regional centres were strengthened, guestion of the perspective elimination of – Most of the villages were losers of socialist villages any more. settlement policy.
Fig. 1. Population categories of Hungarian towns in 1990
23 Zoltán Hajdú
Key party’s decions on settlement and – In November of 1984 a party decision was settlement network development in Romania: taken on the formulation of small agro- industrial towns. – A new state committee was formulated in – In 1986 was updated the party policy 1965, which received very little attention at concerning the “new settlement order”. the beginning, although it played a – In March of 1988 was declared that the prominent role in the implementation of settlement systematisation plan should be tasks. accomplished in three phases, during which – In December 1967 the national party 7-8 thousand villages should be eliminated, conference adopted a kind of reform and the inhabitants should be resettled to package that effected the direction of central urban settlements. economy and comprehensive public administrative reform. The party conference Consequences of socialist settlement policy in made important decisions also from the Romania: settlement policy respect. It started spatial – New town system was established (Figure 2) planning processes as well, conceptualising – Rapid growth of ratio of urban population that 120 new towns needed to established, (1948 – 23.4%, 1956 – 31.3, 1966 – 38.2, 558 agro-industrial centres should created 1977 – 43.6, 1983 – 49.0, 1990 – 54.3%) and about 6300 villages should be – Bucharest turned to be a big city, but with eliminated for the aims of modernisation. many new structural and social problems, (The ratio of elimination of villages was less – Relativelly big and modern functional then it was planned at that time in Hungary) centers were developed (with more than 300 – During the period when city planning and thousand inhabirants), regional development became a mass – New county’s seat network was developed phenomenon, the county system executed by – Micro-regional centeres were formed, the administrative reform in 1968 turned – Tragical losers of Romanian settlement into the primary frame. The strong party- policy were the villages, state executive apparatus was built in the – The brutal settlement policy generated counties. In the framework of administrative political, social, ecnomical instability and reform13,149 villages were organised into crises. 2706 communs. – In July of 1972 a party decision was taken An open conflict started between Romanian about systematisation, reform of rural settlement policy and Hungarian society at the structures, and about ethnic homogenisation. beginning of system change. In Hungary mainly – Act of 58/1974 dealt with spatial, urban and the growing opposition groups that had rural settlement planning. According to the organised the demonstrations, but the official act, the building of 300-350 new towns had policy also raised its voice against the planned to be started. demolition of villages, especially on the – In 1974 a new 25 year party programme was territory of Transylvania. The largest accepted, a new vision of multilaterally demonstration was held in Budapest on Heroes’ developed socialist society. Modernisation Square on June 1988. Number of demonstrators of settlement network was an integral part of were estemated about 100 thousand. the programme.
24 A comparative analysis of Hungarian and Romanian settlement development policies during the state socialism
Fig. 2. The process of acquiring city status in Romania between 1945 and 1989 within the framework of the system of counties in 1968
5. Summary of the county seats accelerated, their In evaluating the settlement and settlement development levels often approached each network development policy from the aspect of other. The real losers of the settlement the realisation of the objectives we may come to development policy and practice are the the conclusion that luckily the declared majority of the communities. Their traditional objectives were not always realised (e.g. planned economic, social, institutional system had been thinking of the communities in the early 1950s) smashed in the last four decades and they were and even the proclaimed ,,proportionately left without the new conditions of survival or planned development" was not adequately new paths of development being planned. enforced according to the objectives. On the one hand, the regional and settlement differences Regional and settlement (urban and rural) decreased, on the other hand, new dis- policy was an integral part of Romanian state proportionateness came into being. In the socialism as well. The party and the state allocation of the development resources lasting intervened into the regional and local processes (nearly continuous) preferences can be observed according to the changing political for the good of the industrial regions (the point of considerations. Privileged towns, especially the matter being that for these areas this did not Bucharest and county seats, were dominant in result in a stable economic structure capable of the era but the developmental focuses changed growth). from time to time. In Hungary the position of Budapest and Considering rural policy, significant the large cities (Győr, Debrecen, Miskolc, Pécs changes can be observed, but regarding the and Szeged) strengthened in the settlement whole period a kind of anti-farmer and anti-rural network, even if they were functioning behaviour can be noticed. The real political insufficiently. In contrast with the plans, challenge from the system’s point of view was however they did not become real counter-poles not against farmers, as they could cultivate land in comparison with Budapest. The development happily in the structures (state farms and
25 Zoltán Hajdú cooperatives) determining the agriculture since policy. London etc. Wiley. the early 1960s. The enemy was the peasant, in [11] Giurescu D. C. 2006: De la „Sistematizare” la fact the “autonomous man” who was able to Planul Urbanistic. Ceauşescu redivivus. – produce his livelihood bases on his own work, Formula AS 716. 15 May 2006. on his own land, and thus acquired a relative [12] Hajdú Z. 1993: Settlement Network Development Policy in Hungary int he Period autonomy. of State Socialism (1949-1985). Pécs, Centre for Regional Studies of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Discussin Papers, No. 17. Bibliography [13] Hajdú Z. 2012: The Romanian Settlement Policy during the Period of State Socialism. [1] Beluszky P. 1981: Néhány gondolat az Pécs, Hungarian Academy of Sciences Országos Településhálózat-fejlesztési Research Centre for Economic and Regional Koncepció felülvizsgálatához. (Some thoughts Studies Institute of Regional Studies, for the revision of the National Settlement Discussion Papers, No. 88. Network Development Conception.) - Állam [14] Ianoş I. 1987: Oraşele şi organizarea spaţiului és Igazgatás. 2. pp. 110-122. geografic. Bucureşti, Editura Academiei. [2] Cardaş M. (ed.) 1983: MIC Lexicon. Ilustrat al [15] Ioanid V. 1970: Some actual major problems of Notiunilor de Sistematizare. Bucureşti, Editura regional and urban planning in Romania. Tehnică. Centre for Urban Studies Wayne State [3] Cavalcanti M. B. 1992: Totalitarian States and University. their Influence on City-form: the Case of [16] Keszi Harmath S. 1972: Szisztematizálás – Bucharest. – Journal of Architectural and jövőépítés. (Systematization – building future.) Planning Research. 4. Winter, pp. 275–286. – Korunk. 12. pp. 1784–1791. [4] Constantinescu V. 1974: Urbanisation of Rural [17] Kőszegfalvi Gy. 1985: Történeti áttekintés Areas and Modernisation. In: Constantinescu településviszonyaink tudatos átalakításáról. M. et al. (eds.) Urban Growth Processes in (Tanulságok és következtetések.) (A historical Romania. Bucharest, Meriadiane. pp. 278–291. review of the conscious shaping of our [5] Danta D. 1993: Ceauşescu’s Bucharest. – The settlement relations. Lessons and conclusions.) Geographical Review. 2. pp. 170–182. – Településtudományi Közlemények. 33. pp. 3- [6] Defour D. – Baucher, I. L. 1977: Sistematizarea 22. localităţilor rurale. Bucuresti, Ceres. [18] Sandu D. 1987: Dezavoltarea socioteritoriala in [7] Enyedi Gy. 1983: A magyar településhálózat Romania. Bucureşti, Editura Academiei. átalakulása. (Transformation of the Hungarian [19] Sǎgeatǎ R. 2010: The Role of Political Factors settlement network.) - Magyar Tudomány. 5. in the Urbanisation and Regional Development pp. 341-352. of Romania. – Journal of Urban and Regional [8] Enyedi Gy. 1989: Településpolitikák Kelet- Analysis, Vol. II. No. 1, pp. 81–88. Közép-Európában (Settlement policies in East- [20] Turnock D. 1991/a: The changing Romanian Central Europe.) - Társadalmi Szemle. 10. pp. countryside: the Ceauşescu epoch and 20-31. prospects for change following the revolution. [9] Enyedi Gy. 1989: Van-e szocialista – Government and Policy. 3. pp. 319–340. urbanizáció? (Does socialist urbanisation [21] Turnock D. 1991/b: The Planning of Rural exist?) – Tér és Társadalom. 2. pp. 92-103. Settlements in Romania. – The Geographical [10] French R. A. – Hamilton, F. E. I. 1989: The Journal. 3. pp. 251–264. Socialist City: spatial structure and urban
26 Geographia Napocensis Anul VII, Nr. 2, 2013
IDENTIFICATION OF LANDSLIDES SUSCEPTIBILITY IN THE DOBRIC CATCHMENT AREA USING THE FREQUENCY RATE MODEL
1 ROXANA VĂIDEAN , GHEORGHE HOGNOGI
Abstract: - The landslides susceptibility of the Dobric catchment area (Ilişua river). The territorial geomorfological investigation focuses mainly on the analysis of the present situation, as context of future events occurrence. The previous evolutionary context is secondary in place due also to the particular attention it has received so far. The significance of the knowledge regarding the present events and their evolution is explicit in the attempt to mitigate their impact on the built area and on the resources. The identification of areas characterized by maximum susceptibility in the landslides occurrence is absolutely necessary. The method which makes the identification of these areas possible is none other than the method considering the conditional factors, as well as the spatial distribution of the events that have already occurred. In this regard, the use of the frequency rate model is considered to be ideal.
Keywords: landslides, susceptibility, GIS, Dobric, frequency rate
1. Introduction River, composed of sands and gravels occuring Dobric is a significant right-side tributary in meadows and lower terraces, the Miocene of the Ilişua river in the lower basin and it prevails in the lithological characterisation of drains a 39.9 km² area in the East of the the studied catchment area. The Tortonian is Ciceului Hills (Someşului Mare Hills). Due to relevant in the South-East and punctually in the paleo-geographical evolution, this catchment West, composed of the marly clays interbedded area includes sediment deposits characteristic to with sandtones, tuffs and gravels, while the the Miocene (Helvetian, Tortonian) and Helvetian is present by marly clays with Holocene epochs. While the latter are presented conglomeratic seams which give a dominant only in the confluence area with the Ilisua note to the study area.
Fig. 1. Location of the Dobric catchment area within national borders 1 Faculty of Geography, Babes-Bolyai University, No. 5-7 Clinicilor Street, Cluj-Napoca, Romania, E-mail: [email protected]
27 Roxana Văidean, Gheorghe Hognogi
Within this lythological context, a The depth of fragmentation with values monoclinal structural relief was developed and ranging between 0-97 m/ha, the 20-35 m/ha its features are very relevant (Cocean. Danciu, prevailing interval characterizes more than 44% 2007) One may recomposed a cuesta in the while the values higher than 35 m/ha central part intensely fragmented by the Poieni characterize the maximum elevation areas and Dobricel Valleys together with their (North and Centre). tributaries, which come to penetrate the edge of The average annual rainfalls increase the anticline, becoming consequtive valleys altitudinally from 670 mm in the meadow area with a North-South flow direction, as the initial to 875 mm in the North and North-West. The structural regime was a cuest back regime. rainfall regime is relevant for our study, and this The weight of the elevation intervals is the reason why one should mention the high reveals us an area of low hills, a little over 24% vulnerability to heavy rainfalls of the North- of the territory is below 400 m (the meadows Western part of the Transylvanian Depression and depression areas - min. elevation 269 m), (Croitoru Adina-Eliza, 2006 cited by Hognogi et 55.6% is between 400 – 600 m, 19.3% between al., 2012). 600 – 800 m, while elevations higher than 800 The land use analysis reveals a 33% cover m (0.3%) are to be met only in the North-West of the forest area, a 51% cover of shrubs and and in the North (850 m Măgura Breaza). grassland areas, while the arable area represents One can notice two tectonic-errosion a little bit over 15%. The rest of land use origine depressions, Ciceu-Poieni and Dobricel categories are negligible in weight. which fit in synclinal directed West-East: Spermezeu, Dumbrăveni, Zagra, Runcu Salvei 2. Methodology (Hognogi et al., 2012). The current study starts from the premise The importance of the relief in the that the landslide susceptibility of the slopes dynamics and evolution of slopes is might be best determined based on the materialized by the morphometric parameters, frequency rate model. This model is where one can notice: the slopes, the slopes reccommended not only by its wide use, but display direction, density of fragmentation and also by the basic principle and this is the its depth. The first morphometric parameter “possibility to foresee the future occurrence presents values ranging in the 0-56.9º interval. areas of the landslides based on the scientific The 7-15º and 15-35º intervals prevail, analysis of the factors leading to their activation occupying more than 82% of the territory. The (Lee, Pradhan, 2007, citaţi de Arghiuş, Corina, slopes over 35 º are characteristic only to less 2010), considering the fact that “future than 0.7% of the area (sliding plane) while the phenomna will occur under the same conditions values lower than 7 º prevail in the meadow or as the previous or present ones” (Guzetti et al., depression area (6%). 1999, cited by Arghius, Corina, 2010). The analysis of surfaces display direction The model implies the analysis of the reveals a predominant weight (62.88%) of the relation between the spatial distribution of sunny areas (the North and North-West of the landslides and the control factors, in order to catchment area, the right slope of Dobricel), the reveal the correlation between the location of shadow areas (37.22%) occur left from Dobric landslides and the parameters controlling their and the two main tributarries (Dobricel and occurrence and evolution. The correlation is Ciceului Valley). identified by relatng the percentage of the area The value of fragmentation density slightly covered by landslides for each analyzed factor exceeds the 6 km/sqkm value. The maximum whose result is the frequnecy rate. values occur in North-West, but higher values The landslide susceptibility index (LSI) occur in the North-East and at the confluence of represents the summing of the frequency rate for Dobricel with Poieni Valley. each factor:
28 Identification of landslides susceptibility in the dobric catchment area using the frequency rate model
LSI=∑ F ⊇ (Lee, Pradhan, 2007) unit we notice the high density of landslides in the following areas: Golumb Hill (left from the LSI – the landslide susceptibility index Dobricel rivulet), Purcărete (upstrem of the F ⊇ - the frequency rate for each control factor Dobricel village), La Corhă (Corobăşti Hill), the The frequency rate model would not have Mănăstirii Hill (to the right of the Poieni found its utility without the existence of a high Valley), La Gheleşoaia and La Dumbravă (left resolution DEM (3 m) where the landslides from Dovric). were displayed after being previusly measured Their typology is diverse, from shallow in the field or on the 0.5 m resolution landslides to the deep landslides (deep-seated orthophotographs. landslides). The latter category includes the areas: Purcărete, La Corhă and La Gheleşoaia. The last
of these includes a small lake under accelerated silting process (Hognogi et al., 2012). The geological composition is the first analzyed conditional factor and it presents a low diversity. This stand up in terms of predisposition to be engaged in the gravitational movements of the Neogene deposits. Therefore, the Tortonian is highlighted more due to the low spatial distribution and the high slope values as follows: the Helvetian deposists support as well the gravitational movements of the layer packages. The role of the slope display direction as a driving factor is materialized by the occurrence of and evolution of the phenomena under the conditions of partially under shadow and shadow slopes. We mainly refer to the Western, North- Western and North-Eastern slopes which benefit from a lower evaporation rate, as well as a slower melting of the slnow layer, which enables the increase of the seepage water quantity. The slopes are one of the most important factors and present medium (6-20º) and high (20-40º) susceptibility in over 80% of the basin’s area, determining the typology of
landslides. Fig. 2. The landslides distribution at the catchment area level The analysis of the distribution of landslides area in relation to the density of Other cartographical materials used were: fragmentation reveals a predisposition of the low value index areas, which is normal, while geological maps, 1: 200 000 soil maps and most of the events occur in the delluvial Corine Land Cover 2006 data for the analysis of deposits. the land use distribution. Referring to the depth of the relief fragmentation and its influence on the 3. Factors leading to the occurrence of development of the analyzed phenomena, one landslides can notice the high susceptibility in the areas with index values higher than 60 m/ha, as well The present distribution of the landslides as an average susceptibility in the areas with represents a major element in achieving the values ranging between 20 and 40 m/ha. susceptibility index. At the level of our study
29 Roxana Văidean, Gheorghe Hognogi
Fig. 3. The determination methodology of slopes landslide susceptibility
30 Identification of landslides susceptibility in the dobric catchment area using the frequency rate model
Of the land use categories, the highest susceptibility is presented by the areas covered with shrubs, followed by pastures and grasslands. The real situation is presented differently in that the areas where landslides occurred are mostly unusable, so that whether they are enhanced in terms of errosion or not, they are covered by shrub vegetation. However, one needs to mention that previous to the forest development, the shrub vegetation was almost completely absent. Rainfalls as the conditioning factor in the activation and evolution of the phenomena, presents a real difficulty for evaluation, from the simple reason that it is not the average amount that is important, but the rainfall regime. In this direction, one proof is represented by the very low susceptibility of the areas, with an average multianual value of rainfalls exceeding 790 mm, while the 670-790 mm interval presents a maximum favorability.
4. Conclusions 4.1. The susceptibility map Fig. 4. The landslides susceptibility map in the The summing of susceptibility for each Dobric catchment area particular factor was materialized by the generation of a general landslides susceptibility The motivation of this statement results map of the study area which includes the Dobric from the different contexts of the occurrence catchment area where 23% of the territory (9.18 and evolution of these phenomena, among sqkm) classifies as a medium susceptibility which the most relevant are the amount and class, while 1.24% (0.49 sqkm) presents a very especially the temporal distribution of the high susceptibility. rainfalls and the slope. Therefore, shallow We notice that the areas with maximal landslides need heavy rainfalls during a very landslides predisposition have mainly a South- short period of time (hours). To these one may Western or Western orientation, overlapping the add the oragious phenomena (Cocean 2006), areas with high density of the same phanomena while the deep landslides need heavy rainfalls occurred so far. distributed over a longer period of time,
simultaneously with the melting of the snow 4.2. Results One mentioned the high appreciation of the cover. Referring to slopes, one may notice that frequency rate model at national and international their high values have a favourable context for level for the identification of the areas where shallow landslide, while in case of the deep- future landslides might occur. These phenomena seated landslides, for example, the relatively lead to the decrease of the existing resources (soil, low slopes alternating or not with the steep vegetation), and in our case they may affect the slopes represent sine qua non conditions in their infrastructure and the built areas. occurrence. It is necessary to add to these appreciations Therefore, this model applied for the an insert regarding the possibility to use the identification of susceptibility to one of the two model more accurately for certain landslides. categories of landslides would most certainly
31 Roxana Văidean, Gheorghe Hognogi provide supperior results, while the existence of the [3]. COCEAN, P., DANCIU, Rodica, (1994) data related to the duration and temporal Contribuţii la studiul proceselor geomorfologice distribution of the heavy rainfall periods, as well as din bazinul Văii Ilişua, Studia Universitatis of a high resolution DEM, as that used herein, Babeş-Bolyai, Geografia, XXXIX,1, Cluj- provide a better safety regarding the results quality. Napoca [4]. HOGNOGI, G., NICULA, G., ŞIMON, A.,
(2012), Alunecările de teren de tip glimee din bazinul inferior al Râului Ilişua, Geographia References Napocensis, vol. I, p. 31-42, Editura Casa Cărţii de Ştiinţă, Cluj-Napoca; [1]. ARGHIUŞ, C., (2010), Culmea şi Piemontul [5]. LEE, S., PRADHAN, B. (2007), Landslide Codrului – Studiu geomorfologic, Teză de hazard mapping at Selangor, Malaysia using doctorat, Cluj-Napoca; frequency ratio and logistic models, Landslides, [2]. COCEAN, P., (2006), Rolul fenomenelor 4, pp. 33-41. orajoase (tunetul, trăznetul) în declanşarea alunecărilor de teren, Revista de geomorfologie, Bucureşti;
32 Geographia Napocensis Anul VII, Nr. 2, 2013
WHERE DO THE ALPS' FOOTHILLS END? THE DEPTHS OF THE PRE-CENOZOIC BASEMENT IN THE FOREGROUND OF VAS-HEGY– ALPOKALJA, WESTERN HUNGARY
1 1 1 1 BERECZKI LÁSZLÓ , GÄRTNER DÉNES , KEMÉNY MÁRTON , PÉNTEK ANDRÁS , 1 1 2 1,3 KOVÁCS GÁBOR , TIMÁR GÁBOR , MOLNÁR GÁBOR , SZÉKELY BALÁZS
Summary – In the past three decades numerous researches have been published containing maps describing basement morphology. The first basement interpretations were based on the correlation of borehole data, then in the ’80s further seismic surveys offered the possibility to refine the outcomes. We collected and compared these data – by following a geoinformatical approach - and integrated them during the preparation stage of the measurement obtained in the 2012 field trip of Eötvös Loránd University, Department of Geophysics and Space Science. By summing up all the data we are able to create a more accurate Pre-Cenozioc basemap of the studied area The map covers approx. 300 km2 area in the west of Hungary, between the national border and Szombathely, in the eastern foreground of Vas-hegy. We compared five basemaps (KILENYI & RUMPLER 1984, FLÜGEL 1988, KILÉNYI & ŠEFARA 1989, DANK & FÜLÖP 1990, HASS et al. 2010), two magnetic (HOFFER 1960, FANCSIK et al. 2006), a Bouguer-anomaly map (FANCSIK et al. 2005) and torsion balance anomaly map (VAJK 1938). Apparently, by this comparison we can see that the depth of Pre-Cenozoic basement is interpreted in different ways in each article. In contradictory and information deficient areas an attempt was made to produce supplement data with seismic and magnetic measurements. Eventually, a refined Pre- Cenozoic basemap of the area has been created with the help of our complementing measurements, the old maps and more than twenty boreholes reaching basement. Our results revealed an eastern foothill buried under the surface, although the saddle morphology is unlikely. The model contains a basement with fairly steady slope based on industrial sesmic surveys, our results doubt its hole-like feature.
1. Introduction is a matter of debate. HAAS et al (2010) Our examinations focus on clarifying these presumes a trench in the southeastern area discrepancies. The maps agree on the gradually (Figure 5/4). Each author supposes a counter- deepening basement from Vas-hegy to the clockwise shift advancing to the north in the southeast, but the inclination angle is debated. basement inclination angle, only to various The area of interest was located in Western extent: mostly between 20-45°, but in the map Hungary, at Alpokalja, between the border and of KILÉNYI & ŠEFARA (1989) the 500 m contour Szombathely, restricted to the eastern line turns back by 180°, displaying a saddle-like foreground of Vas-hegy (Figure 1). morphology (Figure 5/2). Our main goal is to It is relevant to study this area, because the resolve discrepancies of the maps and to previously known basemaps of this area show determine the basement depth and morphology different interpretation of the basement depth as correctly as possible using all data available. distribution under younger, mostly Pannonian formations (Figure 5). The maps agree on the 2. Geological settings gradual deepening of the basement from Vas- The Alps-Carpathians-Dinarides range was hegy to the southeast, but the inclination angle the scene of orogenesis from late Triassic to 1 Eötvös Loránd University, Department of Geophysics and Space Science 2 Geological, Geophysical and Space Science Reasearch Group of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Eötvös University, Budapest, Hungary 3 Research Groups Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, Department of Geodesy and Geoinformation, Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria 33 Bereczki László, Gärtner Dénes, Kemény Márton, Péntek András, Kovács Gábor, Timár Gábor, Molnár Gábor, Székely Balázs
Miocene due to the closure of Vardar in the CSONTOS 1992, 1995). Meanwhile, subduction Dinarides, Meliata in the Carpathians and and rollback of the Magura ocean and extension Penninic ocean in the Alps (CSONTOS és VÖRÖS of both crust-blocks occurred and the Pannonian 2004). The main orogenesis in the Dinarides basin opened up (HORVÁTH, 1993). At the and the Carpathians took place during the closure of Magura ocean, the arcing middle Jurassic – Cretaceous, while in the Alps astenosphere and the slab pull (rollback) (BADA it started in middle Cretaceous and lasted until & HORVÁTH 2001) thinned the litosphere under Miocene. Evolution of nappe systems of the the Pannonian basin to half of its original Eastern Alps began in the late Creaceous and thickness (HORVÁTH 1993, TARI et al. 1999). As ended in late Eocene and early Oligocene owing a consequence, several smaller basins evolved to the closure of Penninic ocean a nd the trust of in the Carpathian arc. When modelling this Austro-Alpine nappes. The collision of the process (TARI et al. 1992, HORVÁTH 1993, TARI advancing Adriatic block and the European 1994), metamorph core complexes emerged continent (ROYDEN 1988) eventuated in along the collision zone and younger nappes slid continental extrusion, while the terrains of the along the flat normal faults towards the centre Pannonian basin’s basement escaped and rotated of the basin. The Rechnitz window, containing to northeast (RATSCHBACHER et al. 1991, Vas-hegy evolved this way (HORVÁTH 2007).
Fig. 1. Boundary of studied area
34 Where do the Alps' foothills end? The depths of the pre-cenozoic basement in the foreground of Vas-hegy– Alpokalja, Western Hungary
The Penninic formations in the tectonic horizontal component measured with torsion window emerged to surface from approx. 10-12 balance (Figure 4), and the one based on the km deep. Their fastest rising occured during the anomaly of the vertical component of Earth’s early Miocene (22-17 million year) (TARI et al. magnetic field (Δz) (Figure 6). 1992). The rigidly deforming Austro-Alpine Each map shows the exact area except for nappe currently covered with deposits of the the magnetic map. Data were available from Pannonian basin slid from the emerging, approximately 300 boreholes, although their deforming, ductile Penninic unit to the east majority did not reach the Pre-Cenozoic (TARI & HORVÁTH 2010) along Cretaceaous formations. 21 boreholes reached the basement, normal faults coincident with large nappe 18 were in the vicinity of Vas-hegy crossing borders. There are non-metamorphic mezozoic only a few meters of neogene sediments. Three rocks slid along normal faults in the wings of boreholes seemed useful while examining the the metamorph basement, covered with morphology of the basin, two of them displayed typically asymmetric lower and middle Miocene the basement under hundreds of meters of synrift formations (HORVÁTH 2007). neogene strata. The boreholes were not used during the construction of the basemaps Data excluding the one HAAS, et al (2010, 5/4. Before starting the measurements, there Figure) created. Two different interpretations were five different maps edited by several can be found in the literature based on an authors available of the examined area, each industrial seismic profile from the studied area containing values of basement depth, contour (Figure 3) lines or outcrops alike (Figure 5). Regarding the We carried out reflection seismic basement’s morphology, valuable information measurements in four contradictory areas. The came from the Bouguer-anomaly map (Figure excitation was performed by a hammer at every 8 2) representing the gravity field’s vertical m, the geophone groups being 4 m in distance. component, the map showing anomaly of the The recordings lasted 1 second in each channel, sampling intervals being 0,25 ms. The proximity of settlements and roads had to be considered when appointing the locations. In favor of refining the morphology of the basement we performed magnetic measurements with an Overhauser magnetometer in 153954 points, covering 25,5 km2 area. The instrument was carried on back (in „walking mode”), performing continuous measurements and the positions were recorded with a built-in GPS. Standard correction was used while processing the data.
3. Interpretation of the measured seismic profiles The main goal of the seismic survey was to precisely define the depth of the Pre-Cenozoic basement. Because the lenght of the profile is only a few hundred meters (with a maximum of 700 m) it is considered as point-like data in the examination of the basement’s depth. No wells Fig. 2. Bouguer-anomaly map of the foreground of with accoustic profiles were known from the the Vas-hegy (mGal) area of interest, therefore the velocity fields
35 Bereczki László, Gärtner Dénes, Kemény Márton, Péntek András, Kovács Gábor, Timár Gábor, Molnár Gábor, Székely Balázs were defined on the first arrival time of the Generally speaking, the Pannonic sediments reflected seismic waves. The velocity fields are covering Penninic rocks of the studied area rather approximate, although the data from the follows the ’1 s = 1000 m’ feature of the Pannon boreholes reaching the basement of the succession when converting the two-way time examined area are reliable as control measures. to depth value.
Fig. 3. Different interpretation of industrial seismic profile in the studied area
Fig. 4. Torsion balance map of the foreground of the Vas-hegy (mGal)
36 Where do the Alps' foothills end? The depths of the pre-cenozoic basement in the foreground of Vas-hegy– Alpokalja, Western Hungary
The profiles can be divided into two parts other three interpretations, the basement dip (on a based on the geometry of reflexions. In the 600 m long profile approx. 70 m elevation upper part, the Pannonian sediment is between the end points) would require the characterized by strictly parallel reflexions with basement to be rather close to the 0 m contour varying amplitude, then a very clear horizont line, thus at this point the most probable separates it from the basement’s incoherent, low interpretation is from KILÉNYI & RUMPLER intensity, mostly constant reflexions. This (1984, Figure 5/3). Having examined the statement is proved by the seismic profile of industrial survey performed nearby (Figure 3), Felsőcsatár that was carried out besides the Fcs- we can draw conclusions regarding the basement 48 exploration borehole on intention. The depth. West from our measurement the survey reflexion interpreted as the basement and the shows a height in the basement that could be basement depth perceived from the regional according to KILÉNYI & RUMPLER stratigraphical survey of Fcs-48 borehole can be (1984, Figure 5/3) where the contour lines are correlated excellently on the seismic profile. from north-northeast to south-southwest On the profile of Perenye the defined direction, hence they are rising to the west. On horizon is at 480 m depth, below that the picture the other hand, KILÉNYI & ŠEFARA (1989, Figure is significantly disturbed. This reflexion cannot 5/2) describe different local heights, one is Vas- be followed through the section due to missed hegy, another is in the foreground of Kőszeg CDPs, at some point it even gets interrupted Mountain, covered with neogene sediment, because we did not receive information from the between them there is a third height without mentioned depth. The profile of Gencsapáti has known outcrop. This ridge can explain the Narda the basement at 472 m depth relative to sea height, therefore the elevation to the north can be level. These depths are in consonance with the interpreted by both maps (Figure 5). conception of FLÜGEL (1988, Figure 5/1) and On the profile of Felsőcsatár we identified KILÉNYI & RUMPLER (1984, Figure 5/3), a reflexion as basement at 185 m above sea however HAAS et al.(2010, Figure 5/4) and level, running along almost the complete lenght DANK & FÜLÖP (1990, Figure 5/5) of the survey. Close to the end of the profile, underestimated the depth of the basement. The borehole Fcs-48 reached Penninic rocks 170 m two profiles cover the area where the 500 m above sea level. Therefore both KILÉNYI & contour line turns back by 180°, displaying a ŠEFARA (1989, Figure 5/2) and DANK & FÜLÖP saddle morphology interpreted by KILÉNYI & (1990, Figure 5/5) could propose a possible ŠEFARA (1989, Figure 5/2). However, this idea is concept, the rest is considered false. The not confirmed by the new data, because the reflexions become disturbed and hard to follow basement is deeper in the northern profile. If at the eastern end of the profile, the basement this saddle morphology existed, it wold be depth drops nearly 70 m. According to FLÜGEL rather flat and the 500 m contour line would (1989, Figure 5/1), this is caused by a normal turn back more north. fault. This can be a possible solution for this There is a defined line between 250-320 m problem, although no undeniable evidence was depth on the profile at Narda, deepening from found to support this theory. The cause of the west to east, showing an eastern dip of the high amplitude reflexion visible above the basement. Below this line we cannot recognize a presumed basement is questionable, it might be defined reflexion, therefore this refracting the result of a thin lignite layer known from the surface indicates the base of Tertiary. This means stratigraphical series of a borehole nearby. approx. 55 m basement depth (considering Our data of basement depth certainly topography as well) relative to sea level. The contain errors that may exceed the precise data obtained information refutes the idea of FLÜGEL marked in boreholes. In our case, improper (1988, Figure 5/1) and of DANK & FÜLÖP (1990, knowledge of velocity field and the finite Figure 5/5), who state that the basement is above resolution of time resulting from the use of low 0 m here. Though the profile do not exclude the frequencies can degrade the accuracy.
37 Bereczki László, Gärtner Dénes, Kemény Márton, Péntek András, Kovács Gábor, Timár Gábor, Molnár Gábor, Székely Balázs
Fig. 5. Deviation of the pre-tertiary basement's depth in the foreground of Vas-hegy based on the several authors' interpretation
38 Where do the Alps' foothills end? The depths of the pre-cenozoic basement in the foreground of Vas-hegy– Alpokalja, Western Hungary
4. Magnetic data interpretation vertical gradient of the magnetic intensity, we Since the available magnetic anomaly maps use the well-known trigonometric conversions contain data from the vertical component (Δz) (KIS K. 2007, 2009) to compare all data, thus and our instruments measure the horizontal the measured intensity and anomaly values component of the Earth’s magnetic field and the became converted to Δz.
Fig. 6. dZ magnetic anomaly map of map of the foreground of the Vas-hegy (nT)
Having compared the two maps we can Hungarian Penninic rocks are of metaophiolite state that the magnetic anomaly isolines origin (BALÁZS E. 1975), therefore they contain correlate well with the map created fifty years significant amount of metabasalt that have one or ago, and both map scales show approximately two order of magnitude higher susceptibility than 140 nT difference between the minimum and the covering Pannonian series (values related: maximum values. Based on these it can be AHL et al. 2007). asserted that the systematic variance among the As the result of comparison, in most of the Δz values originate from using different bases cases our measurements are in accordance with and that on data deficient areas our the concept of KILÉNYI – ŠEFARA represented on measurements correspond to reality. Despite the Figure 5/2. The basemaps of KILÉNYI - limited measurement techniques and RUMPLER and DANK - FÜLÖP on Figure 5/3. and opportunities we accomplished the exploration 5/5 display less similarity to our results, and the of these incomplete areas contributing to the Figures 5/4. and the 5/1 showing Austrian and refinement of magnetic maps (Figure 6). inland maps correlate to our data the least of all. The next step was to compare our magnetic The consequence from the results of our anomaly map to the debated basemaps. Although measurements and the comparison of maps is the magnetic anomaly may not be suitable for the that an east-northeast foothill of Vas-hegy may recognition of the basement, in this case it proved exist buried under the surface due to the shape to be useful because in this area the basement is of the anomaly and to the basement morphology composed of Penninic formations. The of the best matching map.
39 Bereczki László, Gärtner Dénes, Kemény Márton, Péntek András, Kovács Gábor, Timár Gábor, Molnár Gábor, Székely Balázs
Preparation of the base map surveys (Pe: -480 m, Ga: -472m) are located Here is a summary of the noticable between the '-500 m' and '-1000 m' contour discrepancies among the boreholes, seismic data lines, and both survey 'Fcs' and borehole 'Fcs- and basemaps in the order of publication: 48' reach the basement above see level, still on Flügel (1968): The borehole 'Szh-II' the map they seem to be below 0 m. reached the basement roughly 350 m deeper than indicated on the map. The presumed run of For these reasons it was necessary to create contour line 0 is confuted by data from three a detailed, more realistic basement depth map surveys and one borehole. from the available data. As a first step we interpolated a basemap by krieging depth data Kilényi & Rumpler (1984): The borehole derived from seismic survey and boreholes 'Szh-II' reaches pre-cenozoic strata at -1850 m. reaching the basement in the examined area. In In the map it is shown between '-1000 m' and '- the region of Vas-hegy 18 boreholes reached the 1500 m'. Both borehole 'Fcs-48' (170 m) and basement in shallow depth, hence even Fcs survey (185 m) seem to be closer to the '- interpolation could create reliable maps in this 500 m' contour line than to the 0. area. This interpolated map was the basis for Kilényi & Šefara (1989): According to the further analysis. Gravity and magnetic maps basement depth from the northernmost 'Pe' were used to refine the trajectory of contour survey the return of '-500 m' and '-1000 m' lines. Data from Bouguer anomaly (Figure 2) contour lines to southwest is not justified. and torsion balance (Figure 4) were based on density differences deep under the surface; the Dank & Fülöp (1990): The borehole 'Szh-II' density of rocks in the metamorphic basement is (-1850 m) is between '-1000 m' and '-1500 m' greater than the covering cenozoic sediments. contour lines, and in the west side of the area two We expect the magnetic measurements (Figure survey- and one borehole-based data record below 6) to help our work for reasons described in the sea level make it above the '0 m' contour line. chapter ’Magnetic data interpretation’. It is important to note that the azimuth of isolines in Haas et al. (2010): The two northernmost the magnetic map resembles the gravity maps.
Fig. 7. The new base map of the foreground of Vas-hegy
40 Where do the Alps' foothills end? The depths of the pre-cenozoic basement in the foreground of Vas-hegy– Alpokalja, Western Hungary
We examined if the U-shaped morphology of analysis of sediment transport in Hungary; a basement at the west end of the industrial complex study from deposit resources to basins” survey appears in either one of the gravity or that provided the field trip, the BSc and MSc magnetic maps (Figure 3). When reading the students of Eötvös Loránd University for their values of crossed anomaly isolines it turned out sustained and demanding work, the teachers of that the data of torsion balance and Bouguer- the Department of Geophysics and Space anomaly maps follow the valley-shaped Science for their patience, helpfulness, the morphology. This does not apply to the critiques and remarks and that they provided an magnetic data, therefore the question emerges adequate environment for the whole work. whether some kind of change happens to the Special thanks to the collegues of the University structure of rocks (e.g. a tectonic effect resulting of West Hungary, Department of Geography in Penninic formations on the west side). Since and Environmental Sciences, especially to Dr. we were unable to analyse the structure of Zoltán Unger, for his help and collaboration. basement during the construction of the We would like to thank the local farmers and basement depth map (Figure 7), gravity maps land owners who kindly contributed to the took precedence of the magnetic maps. As a execution of our measurements final step we used the data from boreholes not reaching the basement (point-like data providing minimal information on basement depth) to References refine and verify the results. [1] AHL, A., SLAPANSKY, P., BELOCKY, R., 5. Conclusion PIBER, A., SEIBERL, W., ZECHNER, M., MAURITSCH, H., J. (2007): Regional The more than 200 m difference in Distribution of Magnetic Susceptibilities and 3D basement depth in the data of Narda and Modelling of Aeromagnetic Anomalies in the Felsőcsatár (being on the same meridian, Central Eastern Alps (Western Tauern Window), approx. 3 km away from each other) indicates Austria – Austrian Journal of Earth Sciences, the Vas-hegy has an eastern, underground 100, pp. 138-151. foothill. However, data from gravity maps, the [2] BADA, G., HORVÁTH, F. (2001): On the survey from east to Vas-hegy and the Tot-1 structure and tetctonic evolution of the borehole do not justify the concept of KILÉNYI Pannonian basin and its surrounding orogens – & ŠEFARA (1989) presuming a saddle in the Acta Geologica Hungarica, 44/2-3, pp 301-327. basement detectable in 1000 m depth, it is more [3] BALÁZS E. (1975): A Kisalföldi medence paleozóos képződményei – Földtani Kutatás likely that Vas-hegy and Kőszeg is connected 18/4, 17-25. with a foothill (more shallow than 500 m) which [4] CSONTOS, L., NAGYMAROSY, A.(1998): may become narrower and steeper at the level of The Mid-Hungarian line: a zone of repeated Tot-1 borehole. As moving away from the hill, tectonic inversions. Tectonophysics, 297, pp. 51- the basement goes deeper to the southwest. It is 71. more likely to deepen in a steady manner as [5] CSONTOS, L., NAGYMAROSI, A., stated by the industrial seismic survey, than HORVÁTH, F., KOVÁC, M. (1992): Tertiary with a presumed trench morphology nearby the evolution of the Intra-Carpathian area: a model – Szombathely-II borehole (HAAS et al. 2010) Tectonophysics, 226/1-4, pp 333-357. (Figure 5/4). [6] CSONTOS L. (1995) Tertiary tectonic evolution of the Intra-Carpatian area: review. In Neogen and related volcanism int he Caratho-Panninian Acknowledgement Region, H. Downes and O Vaselli (eds.), Acta First of all we would like to thank the Volcanologica, Special Issue, 7, 1-13. Hungarian Scientific Research Fund NK83400 [7] CSONTOS L., VÖRÖS, A. (2004): Mesozoic project „SourceSink Hungary – Quantitative plate tectonic reconstruction of the Carpathian
41 Bereczki László, Gärtner Dénes, Kemény Márton, Péntek András, Kovács Gábor, Timár Gábor, Molnár Gábor, Székely Balázs
region. Palaeogeogr. Palaeodim. Palaeoecol., [16] KILÉNYI, E., ŠEFARA, J. (1989): Pre- 210, pp. 1-56. Tertiary basement contour map of the [8] DANK V., FÜLÖP J. (1990): Magyarország Carpathian Basin beneath Austria, szerkezetföldtani térképe 1:500000, Magyar Czehoslovakia and Hungary – 1:500000, ELGI, Állami Földtani Intézet, Budapest. Budapest. [9] FANCSIK, T. KISS, J., GULYÁS, Á., [17] KIS, K. 2007: Általános geofizikai VÉRTESY, L. (2005): Magyarország alapismeretek – Második, bővített kiadás, ELTE gravitációs Bouguer-anomália térképe – Eötvös Kiadó Kft, Budapest. pp. 256-261, 268- 1:500000, ELGI , Budapest. 269, 273-274. [10] FANCSIK, T. KISS, J. GULYÁS, Á., [18] KIS I. K. 2009: Magnetic Methods of VÉRTESY, L. BERZSÁNYSZKI, K. (2006): Applied Geophysics -, ELTE Eötvös University Magyarország mágneses Δz -anomália térképe – Press, Budapest. pp. 257-264. 1:500000, ELGI, Budapest.FLÜGEL, H. W. [19] RATSCHBACHER, L., MERLE, O., (1988): Steirisches Becken – DAVY, PH. AND COBBOLD, P. (1991): Südburgenlandische Schwelle 1 : 200000, Lateral extrusion in the Eastern Alps, Part 1: Geologische Bundensanstalt, Wien. Boundary conditions and experiments scaled for [11] FODOR, L., UHRIN, A., PALOTÁS, K., gravity. Tectonics, 10, pp. 245-256. SELMECZI, I., NÁDOR, A., TÓTHNÉ MAKK, [20] ROYDEN, L. H. (1988): Late Cenozoic Á., SCHAREK, P, RIZNAR, I. TRAJANOVA, M. tectonics of the Pannonian basin system. in: (2011): Földtani-szerkezetföldtani koncepcionális ROYDEN, L.H. AND HORVÁTH, F. (EDS.): modell – Geotermikus hasznosítások The pannonian basin. A study in basin evolution számbavétele, a hévízadók értékelése és a közös –AAPG Memoir, 45, pp. 27–48. hévízgazdálkodási terv előkészítése a Mura-Zala [21] TARI, G., HORVÁTH, F. és RUMPLER, J., medencében – Szlovénia–Magyarország Operatív (1992): Styles of extension in the Pannonian Program, 2007-2013. basin. Tectonophysics, 208, pp. 203-219. [12] HAAS, J., BUDAI, T, CSONTOS, L., [22] TARI, G. 1994: Alpine Tectonics of the FODOR, L., KONRÁD, GY. (2010): Pannonian Basin. — PhD értekezés, Rice Magyarország pre-kainozoos földtani térképe – University, Houston. 501 p. 1:500000, Magyar Állami Földtani Intézet, [23] TARI G., DUNKL I., HORVÁTH, F., Budapest.HOFFER, E. (1960): A LENKEY L., SZAFIÁN P., TÓTH T., földmágnesesség függőleges térerősségének VAKARCS G. (1999): Lithospheric structure of izoanomál vonalai a Nyugat-Dunántúl the Pannonian basin derived from seismic, térségében – 1:200000, ELGI, Budapest. gravity and geothermal data. Special [13] HORVÁTH, F. (1993): Towards a Publications of Geological Society, London, mechanical model for the formation of the 156, 225-245. Pannonian Basin – Tectonophysics, 226/1-4, [24] TARI, G., HORVÁTH, F. (2010): A pp333-357. Dunántúli-középhegység helyzete és eoalpi [14] HORVÁTH F. (2007): A Pannon-medence fejlődéstörténete a Keleti-Alpok takarós geodinamikája – Eszmetörténeti tanulmány és rendszerében: egy másfél évtizedes tektonikai geofizikai szintézis – Akadémiai doktori modell időszerűsége – Földtani Közlöny, 140/4, értekezés, ELTE Földrajz- és Földtudományi pp. 483-510. Intézet, Geofizikai Tanszék. [25] VAJK, J. (1938): Reconaissance torsion [15] KILÉNYI, E., RUMPLER, J. (1984): balance map of the western part of Hungary, Basement (pre-tertiary) contour map of Hungary 1:50000, European Gas and Electric Company – 1:1000000, GEOS.
42 Geographia Napocensis Anul VII, Nr. 2, 2013
THE CURRENT TOURISTIC CAPITALIZATION OF THE KARSTIC GORGES IN THE APUSENI MOUNTAINS
1 GABRIELA COCEAN
Abstract: - The Current Touristic Capitalization of the Karstic Gorges in the Apuseni Mountains. The karstic gorges in the Apuseni Mountains have a remarkable touristic potential, thus being one of the reference resources in the Apuseni Mountains, alongside caves and cultural heritage. The Apuseni Mountains are in fact the most typical study area in this matter in Romania due to the relatively large number of sectors. The main attractions of gorges are the morphological and aesthetic features, as well as the fact that they constitute the absolutely necessary framework for some more technical forms of tourism: climbing, canyoning or even speleotourism. However, despite their considerable potential, tourism does not yet have an economic dimension around the gorges of the Apuseni Mountains. Accommodation units, the clearest indicator of such economic dimension, have not yet appeared in the gorges’ perimeter or in the immediate adjacent areas. Other units have developed in neighboring areas based on other attractive resources but they are, in most cases, unsuitable for the groups of tourists visiting gorges. In addition, the existing facilities and the presentation of gorges on the touristic market do not support tourism development in the specified areas, and do not support the development of new accommodation units.
Key-Words: karstic gorges, Apuseni Mountains, tourism, accommodation, facilities
1. Introduction 2. Touristic attractiveness of gorges Karstic gorges occupy one of the leading The general attractiveness of gorges is positions among the touristic resources, natural stored in a series of morphometric and or anthropogenic, of the Apuseni Mountains. In morphologic features, including: the spatial fact, three main touristic resources can be development, the narrow profile of the valley identified in this region: caves, karstic gorges that sometimes has numerous meanders, the and cultural heritage. This paper will focus on waterfalls, the large potholes carved by evorsion gorges firstly because they are the most processes, the mosaic morphology of the slopes attractive landforms in the surface landscape of containing vertical ka rren, potholes, towers the Apuseni Mountains, advantaged by the low and pillars, the caves and the wide possibilities altitudes in the mountain area whose peaks do for climbing and canyoning. not posses the spectacular sights of the Eastern One can identify some aspects related to and Southern groups of the Carpathians. the morphology of gorges that directly influence Secondly, gorges address a large group of the touristic attraction which they emanate, and tourists through their attractive features that thus their potential to confirm themselves as allow a wide range of activities, and thus, leading touristic resources. different forms of tourism can be promoted. To begin with, for any touristic attraction In addition, their locations in karstic areas (not just gorges or natural landmarks) the situate them near other important landmarks: presence of some unique features or caves, sinkholes or karstic springs, that all components provides a special attraction. This is contribute to the typical and very spectacular due to the psychological effects of having been karstic landscape. in contact with something unprecedented and unseen before. The uniqueness of some gorges
1 Romanian Academy, Cluj-Napoca Subsidiary, Geography Section, e-mail: [email protected]
43 Gabriela Cocean can result from their genesis, this being the case will decisively contribute to the removal of of the Borzeşti Gorge, where the hydrographical monotony, a fact that is positively perceived by network had reversed its direction of flow tourists. through capture phenomena; it can also emerge The high steps over which water in the from well preserved evidence of their evolution, Cetii, Văii Oşelu and Bulbuci gorges topple, like the correspondence between the Cetăţeaua forming spectacular waterfalls, the large Mare and Cetăţeaua Mică caves of the Turzii rimstone pools in the Cetii, Geogelului and Gorge, or it can just arise from specific, unique Cibului gorges, the natural bridges in the scenery features. Uibăreştilor and Râmeţului gorges, the arches in Most gorges, however, present a high level the Intregalde and Turzii gorges, the high of attractiveness even though they do not posses towers in the Turzii Gorge [Fig.1.], the mosaic any features claiming uniqueness, but that still morphology of the slopes in the Turului, Poşăgii have original, novel character. Deviations from and Galbenei gorges or the very narrow profiles the rules and prominent or distinctive features of the Văii Oşelu and Sighiştelului canyons will always generate people’s interest, and thus [Fig.2.] are all elements of great novelty.
Fig. 1. Turnul Ascuţit in the Turzii Gorge Fig. 2. Narrow profile in the Sighiştelului Canyon
Of course, the association of more novel has split the Corabia- Dâmbău Massif in the features or elements in the same sector shows an context of its tectonic lift and the fierce increase of the structural complexity and a more competition between these two morphogenetic profound typological diversity. Variety and the factors can change the perspective from which the presence of more micro-forms enhanced by the gorge is perceived by visitors, adding a note of “harmony index” generate an increased interest. Similarly, the mechanisms that led to the attractiveness of the gorge, and thus, arises the formation of peripheral subsidence gorges interest of tourists. (Cocean P., 1988) and the paradox of the The physiognomy of gorges, shaped by all epigenetic ones, where the valley deepened in the the details of the slopes and riverbeds, plays an hard rocks, instead of avoiding them while important role in shaping the touristic offer. searching for soft, friable rocks, can also be quite Different types of karren that can be admired on interesting. Of course, the most intriguing scenario the slopes, the sinuous profile of some sectors remains the evolution of karstic capture gorges, etc. all awake the curiosity of tourists. due to the more spectacular and complex Moreover, even the genesis and evolution of processes. Evidence of this type of genesis are gorges are processes that have numerous attractive easily identifiable: the natural bridges in the attributes that must be brought to the attention of Râmeţului and Uibăreşti gorges, the narrow tourists in a rigorous but exciting manner. profile of the Galbenei Valley, the ovoid profile of Explaining the way in which the Feneşului valley the Râmeţului Gorge, the proximity of the active
44 The current touristic capitalization of the karstic gorges in the Apuseni Mountains caves leading the water to the undergrounds interesting example is provided by the Cetii (Cetăţile Ponorului and Cetăţile Rădesei) and that Gorge, that in spite of the short extension, of will eventually be replaced by new gorge sectors slightly more than 100 meters, and the difficult can be elements of great interest, if they are access, impossible without proper equipment and presented in an appealing and easily climbing experience, still attracts a great number understandable manner. of tourists. The dimensional aspect has been Secondly, the vertical display, although an intentionally left in the closure or this argument extremely important aspect, is directly related to simply because, although still important, it is the width of the valley. It is true that the scarps influenced by the above features. Thus, it is true instantly strike with the vertical display and thus, that the oversized and widely developed they give a spectacular touch to the scenery. It is landforms can project a greater touristic attraction, also true that, generally, the higher the scarp (in but with some amendments in this case. terms of elevation, and not absolute altitude, of Firstly, the length is not always a great asset course), the greater the attraction generated. for karstic gorges. If for some defiles great length However, one can note that the perception of leads to a more attractive landmark, for karstic such heights is different according to the width of gorges it can be an insignificant aspect, the valley. Sometimes 50 meters high scarps especially if the general landscape of the gorge is located in a narrow valley can be perceived as less inviting. Long sectors of gorges with a wide, being more attractive or more impressive than rather splay profile and wooded slopes are scarps above 150 meters located in broad valleys. automatically surpassed by shorter sectors that This is where subjectivity interferes, as well as present a greater complexity and a more the different nuances given by each situation - on attractive landscape. In case of difficult access, the other hand, in the case of wider valleys with long extension becomes a negative factor. The higher slopes, the panoramic view from the example provided by the Videi Gorge is quite lookout points located in the upper part of the explicit in this regard. Although the longest slopes are often more impressive karstic gorge in the Apuseni Mountains, it is surpassed by many other sectors that have more 3. Main types of tourism practiced in of the attractive features described above. The the gorges of the Apuseni Mountains Galbenei case, where the touristic circuit only The recreational tourism, through its includes the appendix containing the Galbenei representative forms: hiking, climbing, canyoning, Karst Spring, should also be considered. Most of speleotourism, paragliding or cycling, is the most the tourists that visit it do not even know it is, in characteristic type of tourism inside gorges. fact, just a small section of the gorge, being Gorges provide wide and favorable misled by the presentation board that only conditions for hiking, a quite active form of represents this precise sector. The particularly tourism that involves various categories of difficult access and the considerable length of the tourists. The great variety of sectors and the Galbenei Gorge would make touristic planning diversity in length and degree of difficulty inside the whole gorge extremely expensive and among access paths allow travelers of any age or difficult. Thus, the touristic flows have been level of training to find a suitable location to go directed towards the short section where one can hiking. note a high concentration of attractive elements. Thus, short distance walks, on less than five It is clear that these elements, such as the kms, are possible in a large number of gorges Galbenei Karst Spring, the Evantai Waterfall and crossed by roads or situated relatively close to the narrow profile of the valley, are in fact the touristic routes and accommodation infrastructures. attractive features that place the Galbenei Gorge Gorges situated on the major touristic axes, like the among the top landmarks in the Apuseni Albacului and Mândruţului gorges on the road Mountains, and not the appreciable length of the accompanying the Arieşului Valley and the unvisited sector. On the other hand, another Aiudului Gorge at the entrance in the Trascăului
45 Gabriela Cocean
Depression are among the most popular locations; strategically placed ropes, chains, handholds and and so are the sectors of valleys that allow access ladders. Such sectors can be very challenging towards the high mountain area in Gilău - Muntele under any kind of weather and may become Mare (Runcului and Poşăgii gorges), the Trascău unapproachable under difficult conditions (rain or Mountains (Mănăstirii, Galdei, Intregalde, Feneş, snow). Sometimes passing through such sectors Ampoiţa, etc), Pădurea Craiului (Albioarei) or requires climbing skills, the second important Metaliferi (Cib and Ribicioarei gorges). However, form of tourism inside gorges. the most famous location remains the Turzii Gorge, The various dimensional and altimetric where the arrangements that ease access had made aspects of the steep slopes have turned gorges a difference. into the most favorable locations for climbing in Hiking on medium distances (five to ten kms) the Apuseni Mountains. Each category of scarps is possible in most gorges in the Apuseni contains some sectors where climbing has Mountains. Crossing the gorges from one entrance developed under one of its forms: classical rock to the other and returning using the same path or in climbing, sport climbing, endurance climbing (on a sort of circuit often fall between these values (for more than 2-3 pitches) or bouldering, a form of example the circuits of some gorges: Tureni, climbing practiced without rope, on more Turzii, Aiudului, Intregalde, Runcului and Poşăgii difficult routes, but at relatively low heights. etc). The Turzii Gorge remains the most famous Long distance hiking (over ten kms) finds climbing location in the Apuseni Mountains, due great conditions in the longer gorges or in the to its 18 zones of over 300 trails (Cocean, Anghel, ones situated in such manner to allow circuits 2011). But the interest towards other gorges is that would include more sectors. Such pathways raising as well, thus Turenilor, Aiudului, are present in the Bihor Mountains: the Galbena Mănăstirii, Feneşului, Intregaldelor, Cetii, circuit, the Someşului Cald Spring route, the Ampoiţei gorges are becoming better known, and Sighiştelului route; in the Trascău Mountains: so do some of the gorges in the Metaliferi Întregalde - Pravului Gorge - Râmeţului Gorge – Mountains: Cibului, Madei and Glodului. Râmeţ cabin; Cetea – Cetii Gorge - Piatra Cetii - Climbers constitute a significant percentage Modoleşti - Întregalde. In addition, there are of the tourists visiting gorges. The influx of some gorges situated in distant locations, far climbers is especially important in the Trascău from roads and settlements, such as the Crişului Mountains, which concentrate a high number of Alb Gorge that has remained relatively isolated, gorges as well as isolated massifs that are also because the six kms road leading to the Crişului particularly favorable for this sport. In addition, Spring has not been repaired in years and it’s climbing is a form of tourism that does not show only accessible by foot (or using an off-road, such a seasonal pattern, being practiced during with caution). The Videi Gorge has a similar summer on the shaded sectors (the north-facing problem, being best reachable from the small walls or the entries in some caves, like the village Răcaş and only by foot. Ungurească Cave), in spring and autumn time, The majority of these trails are accessible all when the temperatures are at their best in all year round but some of them, especially the ones areas and during winter. In the cold season, this in the upper parts of slopes, are not recommended form of tourism uses the south-facing sectors, in winter. On the other hand, paths accompanying such as Peretele Aerian or Peretele Cald, and is the riverbed should be avoided in case of heavy completed by a quite novel form of ascents, ice rain, due to the high risk of flash floods. climbing. Because of its dependence of water One should also note that some gorges flows along the scarps that would allow the include sectors that require a certain degree of accumulation of ice, it has found few suitable training. Sometimes the valley is so narrow that places. The best known locations for ice climbing there is no kind of touristic path, therefore one are the Răchiţele Waterfall at the exit from the must continue his way through the water. In other Văii Stanciului Gorge, and the ice verticals that cases there are some minimal arrangements: sometimes form in the Runcului Gorge.
46 The current touristic capitalization of the karstic gorges in the Apuseni Mountains
Canyoning is the form of tourism that can mainly have an aesthetic value and enrich the only be performed inside gorges and canyons. touristic offer of the gorges. The crossing of the The Apuseni Mountains, with their great number Sighiştelului Gorge would not be as charming of karstic gorges is one of the main locations for without the brief exploration of the underground canyoning in Romania. Văii Oşelu and Cetii world through Coliboaia, Tibocoaia and Măgura gorges have the greatest potential for canyoning caves, nor would the Turzii Gorge circuit without due to the successions of waterfalls and large Cetăţeaua Mare, Cetăţeaua Mică or Peştera rimstone pools, thus representing ideal areas for Ungurească caves. canyoning. It is particularly important for the There are however other less representative tourists that practice canyoning to know the forms of recreational tourism: cycling, practiced morphology of the gorge, and the possibilities of along country roads, forest trails, parts of the withdrawal from the route, in case of extreme hiking trails that can be approached with the conditions. mountain bike, and paragliding for which the Speoletourism is an important form of best known location is the Turzii Gorge tourism practiced in the karstic areas of the (considering the restriction period between Apuseni Mountains, gorges included. If the February 15th and July 31st, the nesting period of Trascău Mountains excelled in terms of the Golden Eagle), practiced however by a small suitability for climbing, for speleotourism it is group of tourists. the Bihor and Pădurea Craiului Mountains that Geotourism is another form of tourism, are representative in this region, due to their situated at the borderline between the higher degree of endo-karstic activity that recreational tourism and cultural tourism (due to resulted in larger and more complex caves. its both active and educational features). It However, one must not forget that the main involves sightseeing in the perimeter of geosites resource for speleotourism remains the cave. In and Geoparks. Of course, most of the karstic most caves the passage itself becomes an gorges (epigenetic, antecedent, of peripheral attraction due to the difficult access: crossing subsidence or carstic caption) can be found on narrow passages in which one can only crawl, the list of referential geosites in the Apuseni climbing or rappelling in vertical pits, cave Mountains. diving in sectors which are at least partially filled A first attempt to organize thematic circuits with water, etc. Such caves can only be visited in the area is the so-called “Drumul Calcarului” by a small category of tourists that posses the (Limestone Road) in the Trascău Mountains. It is necessary skills, training and equipment. an integrated circuit that includes 15 natural In such cases, gorges only participate reserves, thus being, in fact, too general. More alongside caves to the natural heritage of the specific circuits, more selective and more areas. It is the case of the gorges located near focused on some aspects are in order. “Gorge grand caves (the Mişidului Gorge located near roads” should be planned in the Trascău the Vântului Cave, the Văii Gârdei Gorge near Mountains, especially in the Intregalde- Rameţ the Gheţarul Vârtop cave, the Ordâncuşei Gorge area, as well as in the Bihor Mountains, in the near the Gheţarul Scărişoara and Pojarul Poliţei Padiş- Cetăţile Ponorului- Sighiştel area. Of caves etc) or situated upstream or downstream of course, the didactic dimension of geotourism the caves that are currently modeled by the water must not be forgotten, such circuits require – Cetăţile Ponorului downstream of the Văii information points, guides or at least more Cetăţilor Gorge and Cetăţile Rădesei that stands comprehensive information panels. at the origin of the Someşului Cald Gorge). Other forms of cultural tourism present in The situation of small caves close to the such areas must also be mentioned: religious riverbed is quite different because they are tourism caused by the location of monasteries in basically part of the attractive features of the protected, scenic places like the perimeter of gorge. Unlike the great caves mentioned before, gorges: Poşaga or Râmeţ monasteries; in this case extended speleological incursions are ecotourism, one should not forget that most not possible. The small caves inside gorges gorges are parts of natural parks or complex
47 Gabriela Cocean reserves: Turzii, Intregalde, Poşaga, Râmeţ, Văii nearby regions. A real issue is that for some Morilor, Cibului etc; rural tourism in the gorges there are no such units on even more than proximity of those gorges located in highly 20 or 30 km, the situation being quite different populated areas. The most representative from one mountain region to another one. example of a rural destination is the Albac The Trascău Mountains stand out in the village, although many other villages or Apuseni Mountains due to the large number of settlements located near gorges have that genuine gorges, 22, which are also their main touristic rural ambience, in which tourists can discover the asset (Popescu-Argeşel, I. 1977; Cocean P. 1988). rural world with all its customs, traditions, crafts, The expansion of accommodation facilities, festivals, folklore, gastronomy, etc. however, does not comply with its potential. Of all the gorges in the Trascău Mountains, 4. Touristic infrastructure and facilities the most advantaged in terms of infrastructure around gorges and accommodation are the Aiudului Gorge and Although gorges posses a high attractive the ones in the nearby Trascău Depression- potential that allows several forms of tourism to Bedeleu area (Siloşului, Plaiului, Bedeleului, expend, one can note that the touristic Pleşii and Drăgoiului). Tourists visiting these infrastructure is however poorly developed in gorges can easily find accommodation in nearby most cases. Rimetea (263 beds in 19 boarding houses and 44 There are few accommodation units located beds in a camping) or Livezile (36 beds in four in the very heart of gorges’, mostly because of boarding houses). the morphology of such sites. One such unit is The situation of infrastructures in the other the boarding house located in the central section two main regions constituted around gorges is of the Aiudului Gorge, right next to the old precarious. In the Tur- Hăşdate area, which Vălişoara camping. includes the Turzii and Tureni gorges, there is Even if, generally, the narrow sectors are not just one boarding house (of 17 beds) and a suitable for the construction of accommodation camping. The Petreşti ridge is however situated infrastructures, the areas right before the entrance near major roads, allowing greater mobility of in such sectors could be convenient locations. tourists, who may resort to the accommodation in They used to be exploited by tourism, some of Tureni, Mihai Viteazu and, of course, Turda. The the main cabins in the Trascău Mountains having status of the Râmeţ- Intregalde area is quite such locations: Cheile Turzii, Râmeţ or similar, except of the favourable location. This Intregalde. Today, when most cabins are closed area includes all the gorges in the Râmeţ Basin (only the Râmeţ cabin still functioning) one can (Mănăstirii, Râmeţului, Pravului, Bălţii, also note that most such places are not properly Geogelului) and Galdei basin (Tecşestilor, Cetii, capitalized. Galdei, Găldiţei, Intregaldelor) and only has the Still, the problem for most gorges in the Râmeţ cabin and the boarding house in Geoagiu Apuseni Mountains is that there are no de Sus with 14 beds, in the perimeter. accommodation units in the nearby area, let alone As far as the gorges in the southern part of the entrance points. This may be due to the Trascău are concerned, their situations are quite position of such gorges, far from main roads (the different: while the Feneşului Gorge has no kind sectors from the upper basin of the Râmeţ of accommodation near by closer than Zlatna, the Valley, the Cetii and Ocolişelului gorges), to the Ampoiţei gorge benefits from the proximity of relative isolation from other landmarks (Videi or the Pietrele Ampoiţei isolated massifs, that have Crişului Alb gorges) or simply to the lack of three boarding houses that can host up to 42 interest and promotion (Intregaldelor, Galdei, guests in their neighboring area. Tureni, Cuţilor, Ardeului etc.). Gorges in the Bihor Mountains are part of a Tourists visiting these areas have to choose wider, more complex touristic offer, containing between camping near the gorges (first choice other important landmarks that led to an increased mainly for the climbers, speleotourists and some development of accommodation infrastructures. hikers) and searching for accommodation in the The Padiş- Cetăţile Ponorolui area is
48 The current touristic capitalization of the karstic gorges in the Apuseni Mountains emblematic for the Bihor Mountains, comprising Geoagiu- Cib area relies on these facilities, the gorges in the Boga Bazin, Văii Cetăţilor Gorge because in the proximity of such important gorges and of course, the Galbenei Gorge. There are as Glodului, Madei, Cibului only one cabin and more options in this area: several cabins on the one boarding house can receive guests. Padiş Plateau, the Cetăţile Ponorului Cabin (48 The Bulzeşti area is not very developed either beds) and the five boarding houses in Pietroasa. from this point of view. Basically, the closest The Someşului Cald Gorge is also included in this accommodation facilities to the the Uibăreşti or touristic area, although its visitors can also choose Ribicioarei gorges are the six boarding houses of the accommodation in Mârgău (four boarding 89 beds in Brad, or the one in Ţebea. houses), which also serves the nearby Văii Last but not least, the area between the Stanciului Gorge in Vlădeasa. Arieşului Mic and Crişului Alb Valleys, The Scărişoara- Casa de Piatră area, including the Văii Morilor and Crişului Alb comprising the Ordâncuşei Gorge, the two gorges has two boarding houses in the nearby sectors of the Gârdei Valley, Albacului and Vidra (23 beds), and Câmpeni or Vadu Moţilor Mândruţului gorges is equally famous. The are not very distant either. touristic infrastructures are just emerging on the The accommodation units presented above Scărişoara- Ocoale plateau and in Casa de Piatră reflect the options that tourists have when staying village, but the area benefits from the high- overnight in certain areas. However, it does not capacity accommodation in the locations from reflect the choices they actually make. And that the Arieşului Valley: Arieşeni (29 units, mainly is the result of the incompatibility between the boarding houses, but villas and cabins as well, specific forms of tourism practiced in gorges and with a total capacity of 535 beds), followed by the accommodation in nearby regions. For Albac (18 units with 267 beds), Gârda de Jos (10 example, it is highly unlike that a tourist that units with 117 beds) and Scărişoara and Horea wants to climb in the Cib Gorge for a couple of (one boarding house each). days to go spend the night in a hotel in Geoagiu The Sighiştel- Valea Crăiasa area has no Bai, he will probably just camp at the base of the accommodation facilities, therefore tourists must slopes or close enough. The situation would be either camp on the plateau at the entrance or use quite different if suitable accommodation units the tourist infrastructure in Nucet-Băiţa (280 functioned in the area: cabins, campings or beds). boarding houses. Tourists visiting the gorges in Gilău- Thus, we believe that an essential first step Muntele Mare do not have a lot of options since towards the development of tourism in the gorges the tourist area of Belioara is quite isolated from of the Apuseni Mountains is the appearance of this point of view, Băişoara Resort being quite cabins close to the gorges frequented by tourists distant and no touristic services functioning in and that do not have other kind of the nearby sector of the Arieşului Valley. accommodation nearby. The main priorities are The Videi Gorge is just as isolated, unlike Galbenei, Intregalde, Tureni, Runcului, Poşaga, the other gorges in Pădurea Craiului Mountains. Glod and Uibăreşti gorges. The development of In the Albioara- Şoimuş area, constituted around lodging infrastructure is necessary for economic the Albioarei, Cuţilor and Lazurilor gorges, there capitalization of landmarks, while being its are a camping and a boarding house of 61 beds, fundamental indicator. in Remetea. The Mişidului Gorge has a great Any analysis of tourism development in a location besides the Crişului Defilee around territory can not neglect the arrangements of which some hosting units have emerged in landmarks, from information panels, to picnic Bratca (32 beds in two boarding houses) and areas, balconies or arrangements for touristic Vadu Crişului (96 beds in two units). access, arrangements for the enhancement of Considering the touristic offer, the Metaliferi some touristic resources etc. Mountains benefit from the presence of Geoagiu One can notice that gorges that are part of the Băi resort, with a total of 1349 beds concentrated Apuseni Natural Park or other nature reserves mainly in hotels and villas. Moreover, the have quite detailed information panels, containing
49 Gabriela Cocean scientific information and maps or images for a This marketing for gorges should begin in better orientation. The situation of the other parallel with the development of infrastructure gorges, that are not yet protected areas, is quite and arrangements, since they are all inter- different; most of them often do not even have connected and are all based on the particular appropriate trail signs, some of them being attractive potential of the gorges from the bypassed by touristic trails, thus the orientation in Apuseni Mountain. the field can be difficult: Ocolişelului, Crişului Alb gorges etc. 5. Conclusions The most important arrangements inside The touristic offer based on the gorges in the gorges, alongside safety measures, are the ones Apuseni Mountains is still rather poor, even if these facilitating the access. In some cases, like the landforms are among the most important Turzii Gorge, these arrangements have quite an landmarks in the Apuseni Mountains. The impact, some parts of the trail have been covered attractiveness of gorges is quite significant and in asphalt, there are several bridges, ropes have creates the background for a wide range of types been placed in the more exposed sectors, a via and forms of tourism. Still, the poor touristic feratta has been recently installed etc. But still, infrastructure in gorges’ perimeter and the these arrangements did not eliminate the risks incompatibility between the types of tourism in the that tourists are exposed to; and in the Turzii gorges and the accommodation units in the nearby Gorge falling rocks in the touristic path are not areas, show that the development of tourism in this actually rare. In other cases, like the Râmeţului area, under its economic dimension, is still a and Galbenei gorges (the sector of the Galbenei desideratum. Of course, this determines the Karstic Spring) arrangements are minimal, with insufficient and inefficient marketing of these handholds, chains or steel cables fixed at 1-1.5 landmarks, having negative consequences over the meters above the river. touristic flows. But all these matters can be Of course arrangement of gorges is still far eliminated by planning new accommodation units, from what it should be in order to ensure touristic facilitating the access to some locations and by capitalization of the full potential of gorges. Ease actively marketing gorges as a reference Landmark of access in the difficult sectors should be a of the Apuseni Mountains. priority, in order to make the gorges accessible to a larger number of visitors; safety measures must be multiplied (constructions to protect from the References risk of falling rocks, installation of a warning system on potential floods, etc.); information [1] COCEAN GABRIELA., (2011), Munţii boards must be present in all gorges and at the Trascău. Relief, geomorfosituri, turism, Editura entry of the main gorges tourist info-points should Presa Universitară, Cluj-Napoca be considered. Still, one should remember that all [2] COCEAN GABRIELA, ANGHEL, D., (2011), arrangements made inside a geosite should respect Alpinism şi escaladă în Munţii Trascău, the principle of minimum intervention. Geographia Napocensis, V, 1, Cluj-Napoca And last but not least, marketing for gorges [3] COCEAN P., (1988), Chei şi defilee din Muntii should be more pro-active. At the moment, there Apuseni, Editura Academiei Române, are few gorges that are actually included in travel Bucureşti. guides or that have dedicated brochures to [4] COCEAN P., (1995), Peşterile României. promote their image. The presentation of gorges Potenţial turistic, Editura Dacia, Cluj- Napoca, on the tourist market should be more visible, and [5] POPESC U-ARGESEL I. (1977), Munţii it should use appropriate information in an Trascăului. Studiu geomorfologic, Editura interesting and attractive manner. A potential Academiei Române, Bucureşti direction of drawing public attention is the [6] http://www.mdrt.ro/ - Listă structuri de primire organization of sport events or competitions, like turistice cu funcţiuni de cazare clasificate the Atta Cup in Turzii Gorge.
50 Geographia Napocensis Anul VII, Nr. 2, 2013
MAPPING ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES USING DIGITAL CARTOGRAPHY. ROMAN SETTLEMENTS FROM POTAISSA TO NAPOCA
1 2 3 4 FLORIN FODOREAN , IOAN FODOREAN , IULIU VESCAN , ŞTEFAN BILAŞCO
Abstract: - Mapping archeological sites using digital cartography. Roman settlements from potaissa to Napoca. We aim to analyze and correct several archaeological and historical data regarding some settlements included in an official document, issued by the Ministry of Culture from Romania, entitled the List of Historical Monuments (Lista Monumentelor Istorice / LMI). We focused our attention on the Roman road from Potaissa to Napoca, the main imperial road of Dacia. We described the route of the Roman road and corrected the old information in the list of historical monuments regarding the discoveries within the territory of the village of Aiton. Methodologically, we used data from the old literature, the modern Austro- Hungarian maps from the XVIIIth and the XIXth centuries, information from regional gazetteers and different journals. We aimed to offer new insights regarding the accurate location of these settlements and to debate upon the spatial relations of these settlements and their position within the landscape of Dacia. At the beginning of the study, we presented the present situation concerning the databases in Romania covering archaeological sites. The second part of our study discusses how the archaeological sites are recorded in the list of historical monuments. Then we offered several case studies This type of methodological approach will be applied in the future for other areas, in order to reconstruct the former landscape of the province of Dacia, as accurately as possible, using digital tools and modern maps. Our contribution also improved the quality of the data sets used for the topographical descriptions of archaeological sites in Romania.
Key-Words: the list of historical monuments, digital cartography, Roman rural settlements, Roman road, archaeological patrimony.
1 Premises. The old lists of historical Nowadays, we are dealing with a terrible monuments in Transylvania situation concerning these sites: 1. a lack of a The online databases presenting the real, comprehensive, cartographic digital archaeological sites of Romania record 14062 database, where all the archaeological sites sites – http://ran.cimec.ro/.). Of these, 2597 sites should be mapped; 2. a lack regarding the use of belong to the Roman period. Of all sites, about aerial archaeology to reconstruct the elements of 90 per cent of reported sites, included in this the landscape of Roman Dacia; 3. A lack of online database, and in the regional gazetteers detailed field investigation, supported by (archaeological repertories) are indicated by detailed cartographic analyses concerning artifacts (mainly ceramic fragments) or building archaeological sites. The Romanian materials identified on the ground surface. archaeologists and historians made great efforts, 1 Babeş-Bolyai University Cluj-Napoca, Faculty of History and Philosophy, Department of Ancient History and Archaeology, Romania. This study represents a part of the research project of Florin Fodorean, entitled “Cartografierea digitală a siturilor romane din Dacia Porolissensis” (‘Digital mapping of the archaeological sites in Dacia Porolissensis’). This project (no. 34034/01.11.2013) is implemented as a grant for postdoctoral researchers, financially sustained by the Babeş-Bolyai University Cluj-Napoca in 2013-2014. 2 Babeş-Bolyai University Cluj-Napoca, Faculty of Geography, Department of Physical and Technical Geography, Romania. 3 Babeş-Bolyai University Cluj-Napoca, Faculty of Geography, Department of Regional Geography and Planning, Romania. 4 Romanian Academy, Cluj-Napoca branch, Geography Section Romania, [email protected]. 51 Florin Fodorean, Ioan Fodorean, Iuliu Vescan, Ştefan Bilaşco in time, to know the topography of Roman Roman times and post Roman discoveries. The Dacia. Until recently, they used classical topographic indications and the maps are, in methods, i.e. fieldwalking and excavations, in a many cases, almost useless. The indications in period of ‘romantic archaeology’, when there text, in many cases, are formulated like this: were no economic pressures, no ‘deadlines’, no “…in that part of the village…”, “…on the preventive archaeology. But nowadays, when territory of the settlement X…” or “…. South, large infrastructure projects (highways, North, East or West of this commercial or residential centers) began all point/road/terrace/river etc.” The maps published over the country, preventive archaeology is the in these repertories are extremely general, only solution to protect, save and capitalize the sometimes with no scale, difficult to read. archaeological heritage. So, massive So far, several archaeological repertories infrastructure projects, combined with the law were published, for the following regarding planning, have requested maximum regions/counties: Cluj, Mureş,4 Alba,5 Braşov,6 efforts from archaeologists, but unfortunately Covasna,7 Arad,8 Harghita,9 Sibiu,10 Caraş- the documentation concerning archaeological Severin,11 Hunedoara,12 Sălaj.13 sites remains largely at the level of the 1970’s. In 2000, the biggest and most This represents, in my opinion, an important comprehensive Atlas concerning the Roman lack in the Romanian scientific community. We world was published (Talbert 2000). In the are dealing with a terrible situation. The Map-by-map directory (a list of all settlements European Convention for the protection of the mapped), those from Dacia are described using archaeological patrimony in La Valetta1 old documentation, i.e. Tabula Imperii Romani (adopted at La Valetta on the 16th of January (L-34, Budapest and L-35, Bucharest), 1992 and ratified by Romania by Law no. 150 published in 1968-1969. After more than 40 of 24 July 1997) asks, at the beginning, the years, this information must be updated. We following: “…it is important to institute, where identified three main issues: 1. despite general they do not yet exist, appropriate administrative efforts during the twentieth century, and scientific supervision procedures…”. In archaeological investigation in Romania 2000, the government adopted the Decree focused on military and urban sites; 2. We have 43/2000 concerning the protection of the a paradox: a large number of the sites recorded archaeological repository2. But in applying and briefly described in the online databases and these legislative measures, the sites needed to be regional gazetteers are not Roman fortresses or properly known and mapped. urban sites (municipia, colonia), but settlements During the 1950’s, a project started in in the rural areas; 3. modern methods and tools Romania, focusing on the creation of the for the investigation of the sites are rarely used. National Archaeological Repertory. Soon after For decades, because of legal difficulties during this moment, due to the lack of cooperation the Communist years, using aerial photographs between specialists, the project was partially to identify, describe and map archaeological abandoned. After the 1990’s, this situation changed, but very slowly. The first 4 Lazăr 1995. archaeological repertory published was the one 5 3 Moga, Ciugudean, 1995. for Cluj County. This work established a pattern 6 Costea 1996. for the future publications of this kind. The 7 Cavruc 1998. modern settlements were alphabetically 8 Hügel 1999. 9 described, started with the earliest discoveries Cavruc 2000. 10 Luca, Pinter, Georgescu 2003. (prehistory) and continuing chronologically, to 11 Luca, 2004. 12 http://arheologie.ulbsibiu.ro/ 1 http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Treaties/Html/143.htm. publicatii/bibliotheca/xvi/repertoriu%20arheologic%20hu 2 http://www.cimec.ro/Legislatie/Og43-2000- nedoara%20mic.pdf. Republicare-2007-04-25.pdf. 13 http://www.brukenthalmuseum.ro/pdf/Biblioteca 3 Crişan, Bărbulescu, Chirilă, Vasiliev, Winkler 1992. Brukenthal/XLV/BBXLV.pdf. 52 Mapping archaeological sites using digital cartography. Roman settlements from Potaissa to Napoca sites was forbidden. After the ’90s, few aerial CJ represents the acronym of the county (in this reconnaissance programmes started in Romania, case Cluj). The next item is a Roman numeral, even if this method is largely used in countries which indicates the monuments by categories: I like Great Britain, France, Germany, Austria is for archaeological monuments, II for etc. Only an exception can be recorded. W. S. architectural monuments, III for public Hanson and Ioana Oltean started and monuments and IV for memorial and funerary implemented a project concerning aerial monuments. Then it follows a small letter, reconnaissance in Western Transylvania (1998- indicating: m for monument, a for ensemble and 2004). As a result, a book was published s for archaeological site. This is followed by a (Oltean 2007). capital letter (A or B), which represents: A. monument of national interest; B. monument of 2 Current statistics of archaeological local interest. The final part of the code structures mentioned in LMI (the List indicates a unique serial number across the of Historical Monuments) country (e.g. 00001.01). In many cases, due to the lack of Many sites survived on the territory of the information, archaeological structures found at former province Roman Dacia, but the exact the ground surface, mainly consisting of location of a large number of archaeological sites ceramic fragments, are categorized and is still unknown. A project implemented between registered as sites belonging to the category A 2006 and 2010 focused on the discovery of new (sites of national importance). This archaeological sites within the territory of Timiş classification is based on the law 422 of 18 July County (western Romania, region which was not 2001 regarding the protection of historical included in the former Roman Dacia). After two monuments and the government decrees no. years of terrain investigations, about 300 new 2682/2003 (regarding the approval of archaeological sites were discovered.1 Another methodological regulations for the classification example is suggestive as well. In Hungary, or and registration of historical monuments, and of Romania, large infrastructure projects the List of historical monuments) and 562/2003 (motorways, railways, commercial centers) (issued by the Ministry of Transports, regarding dramatically changed the number of potential the technical regulations focused on the regional unknown sites. Every 1 - 1,5 kilometer along a plans). In order to update and maintain an motorway (70-100 meter wide), a site was accurate database, continuous field discovered. In Romania, all the archaeological investigations must be made, because otherwise sites are listed and shortly described in an official sites which no longer exist (destroyed by document, issued by the Ministry of Culture, agricultural works, for example) are registered entitled the List of Historical Monuments (Lista in the lists. So, from a socio-economic or Monumentelor Istorice / LMI).2 The list was cultural point of view, as well as from a updated in 2010. Unfortunately, because a scientific perspective, this project will improve unified, digital database recording all the the level of knowledge concerning the archaeological sites in the country was not archeological sites. developed, errors and other problems are contained within this list. How are these sites recorded? 3 The Roman road from Potaissa to Each site is recorded with an individual Napoca code (random example: CJ-I-m-A-07180.01). In 106 A.D. Dacia became Roman province. Before the conquest, during the two military campaigns in 101-102 A.D. and 105- 1 http://www.banaterra.eu/romana/colectiv-arheogis-baza- 106 A.D., the Roman engineers, leaded by de-date-patrimoniului-arheologic-cuprins-lista- Balbus, succeeded to project and to start the monumentelor-istorice. 2 http://arhiva.cultura.ro/Files/GenericFiles/LMI- construction of the first Dacian ‘highway’: the 2010.pdf. road starting from the Danube, towards the 53 Florin Fodorean, Ioan Fodorean, Iuliu Vescan, Ştefan Bilaşco
Banat region, including two branches - the the distance, in straight line, is circa 5,5 Western road, from Lederata to Tibiscum, and kilometers). Another important aspect was the Eastern road, from Dierna to Tibiscum. related to the water source for the camp and the In fact, these two branches were the two ancient city. This source was identified and used lines used by the Roman army to penetrate the by the Romans close to the stone quarry. The Dacian territory. Connecting together at plateau provides a slight slope: towards north- Tibiscum, the road continued along the valley of west, where porta decumana was built, the the river Bistra, in the narrow corridor also terrain is a little higher comparing to the east. known with the name ‘the Iron Gates of From the north-eastern corner of the fortress one Transylvania’, until it reached the future capital could easily visually observe the Roman road up of Dacia, Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa. From to the top of the hill called ‘Dealul Dăbăgăului’. here, the road continued to North, towards Our shed analysis demonstrates that towards Apulum, Potaissa, Napoca, ending at north, there was visibility up to Aiton, and in Porolissum, the northernmost point of the south, all the valley of Arieş was visible, almost Dacian province. From south to north, the road to the point when this river flows into the Mureş has a total length of circa 450 kilometers. The River. Once again, using digital data, combined, construction started in 101-102 A.D. and obviously, with archaeological information, we probably ended around 110 A.D. We know this can demonstrate the powerful preoccupation of from an interesting discovery of the 18th the Roman engineers to carefully occupy the century. In 1758, at Aiton (Cluj County) a geographical space, and to create strategic and Roman milestone was discovered, with an economic advantages using this space. inscription informing that this road was Potaissa was the most important military constructed during Trajan. According to the settlement from the Northern part of Dacia. inscription, the road was built in 108 A.D. With an estimated population of 20.000 Probably soon, in the next two years, the inhabitants, Potaissa was the headquarters of the Romans succeeded to finalize the construction legio V Macedonica. Its fortress (573 x 408 m) of the most important road in Dacia. was positioned on the Cetate Hill, in the Between Potaissa and Napoca this road was Western part of the city. extensively identified in the terrain and mapped From Potaissa to Napoca the Peutinger map with accuracy. The total length in this sector is mentions XXIIII miles (35,484 km). The whole 36 kilometers, i.e. 24 Roman miles. The slope is sector between those two settlements was small. The general direction is from south-east identified in the terrain, surveyed and mapped.2 to north-west. In several points, close to the area In this particular sector, the Roman engineers of the current village Ceanu Mic, the road was proved again their amazing skills and recently the object of some preventive knowledge in finding the perfect route for the archaeological researches. What is more road. They understood perfectly the important is the position of the legionary geomorphology of the terrain and, therefore, the fortress from Potaissa1 (Turda, Cluj County), Roman road does not climb the big Feleac Hill, in relation to this road and the other one from but avoids it. The engineers preferred to choose south, heading towards Războieni-Cetate. the simple, better route from Potaissa through Choosing the location for one big legionary the villages of Ceanu Mic, Aiton and fortress as the one from Potaissa (23,37 ha) was Gheorghieni, until the road reached Napoca. It not an easy task. The only one big plateau in this way, the Roman road is with 4 kilometers this area was/is the hill called ‘Cetate’ (altitude longer than the current road, but avoiding the 375 m), positioned west of the current city. This hill to the East, it presented a better, simple place was also close to a stone quarry (from route. here up to north, to the quarry from Sănduleşti,
2 Winkler, Blăjan, Cerghi 1980, 63-73; Winkler 1982, 1 Bărbulescu 1987; Bărbulescu 1994; Bărbulescu 1997. 587-589. 54 Mapping archaeological sites using digital cartography. Roman settlements from Potaissa to Napoca
Along the main imperial road, at Aiton (Cluj County), exactly 10 miles (14,785 km) North of Potaissa, a Roman milestone was erected in 108 A.D., during Trajan. The monument was found in 1758. Now, unfortunately, is lost. The text is:1 IMP(erator) / CAESAR NERVA / TRAIANVS AVG(ustus) / GERM(anicus) DACICVS / PONTIF(ex) MAXIM(us) / (tribunicia) POT(estate) XII CO(n)S(ul) V (sic) / IMP(erator) VI P(ater) P(atriae) FECIT / PER COH(ortem) I FL(avia) VLP(ia) / HISP(anorum) MIL(liaria) C(ivium) R(omanorum) EQ(uitata) / A POTAISSA NAPOCAE / M(illia) P(assuum) X. This piece of evidence has a triple importance: 1. In the formula a Potaissa Napocae we find the first epigraphic evidence of Potaissa and Napoca; 2. This road sector was built by cohors I Flavia Ulpia Hispanorum milliaria civium Romanorum equitata. This troop is mentioned among the military forces used by Trajan in the war against the Dacians. After fulfilling its mission, it was garrisoned at Orheiul Bistriţei, along the northeastern frontier.2 Because it was equitata, I suspect the Fig.1. Roman Road use of this cavalry unit for the recognition of the This road is very important. It is, after all, a landscape of northern Dacia; 3. This particular section of the first road built in Dacia. To case can be added to the list of the military establish the exact topography of the Roman units, which built roads, even if Michael road, we created a cross section of the road and Rathmann proved that little evidence could be we read the parameters [Fig. 1]. The engineers found to demonstrate the individual existence of 3 used at maximum the geomorphology of the the term via militaris in Roman times. At terrain and they chose the best route for this Aiton, a sector of road was excavated. road. These parameters are: Nowadays it is preserved in the courtyard of the 1. Start position: 392463.625, 586288.289 village school, together with a copy of the 2. Start height: 352.16 m milestone. In 2005, a sector of this road was 3. End position: 405504.407, 564440.419 found close to the village of Ceanu Mic. Within 4. End height: 378.407 m the territory of the village Aiton, in several 5. Straight-line distance: 25.447 km points (private gardens of the inhabitants), there 6. 3D distance on surface: 31.724 km were recorded and excavated wall substructures, 7. Vertical difference (start to finish): 26.2 m coins, ceramic fragments, all of them proving 8. Total Climbing: 571.6 m the existence of a stopping point along the road, 4 9. Total descending: 545.4 m possible a mansio. 10. Minimum elevation on path: 347.361 m 11. Maximum elevation on path: 653.386 m 12. Azimuth: 148° 09' 5.3" 1 CIL III 1627. 13. Slope/Tilt: 0.06° 2 Protase 2008. 3 Rathmann 2003, 40. 14. Max path slope: 11.13° [29.39 km 4 Blăjan, Cerghi 1978, 21-27; Fodorean 2006, 133. along path] 55 Florin Fodorean, Ioan Fodorean, Iuliu Vescan, Ştefan Bilaşco
4. Mapping the archaeological numerous archaeological remains were discoveries in Aiton discovered: stones, tiles, ceramic fragments. On Aiton is the name of the most important a surface of circa 40 x 50 m, several sections Roman settlement along this road. were excavated. The foundations of a building Archaeological investigations in the area of this of 17,6 x 14 m were discovered. The village were carried out mostly in the last foundations were constructed of stone with clay. century, but most are accidental discoveries. The building had several rooms. The walls were During the Roman period, Aiton was made of wood. Below the Roman level probably an important rural settlement within the fragments of prehistoric ceramics were also territory of Potaissa, and we must suppose that a found. The archaeological investigations mansio was set up here. Why? First, because of remained unpublished. These data are recorded the distance from Potaissa: 10 Roman miles. in the archaeological repertory of Cluj County, Second, because of the discoveries within the at Aiton, no. 10, page 23; territory of the village. We mapped all these 3. On a small terrace, positioned close to important discoveries [Fig. 2]: the southern entrance in the village, traces of several former walls were observed, scattered at the surface of the ground; 4. In the garden of the house no. 130, archaeological excavations lead to the discovery of a channel, on a length of 11,60 m. Close to it Roman ceramic fragments were discovered. Below this level, prehistoric fragments of ceramic were found. Above the channel two fragments of Roman monuments were identified, one of them dedicated to IOM; 5. Agricultural workings lead to the discovery of Roman materials in the gardens of the houses no. 83, 84, 116, 121, 126, 160 and 316; 6. In the garden of the Orthodox Church a terracotta Roman statuette was discovered, representing a female; 7. The western part of the village is entitled “Podul de Piatră” (“the stone bridge”). In this area, several important discoveries are recorded: traces of Roman buildings (walls, stones, bricks and tiles), ceramic fragments and an amphora fragment with an inscription. A building with 5 rooms was discovered. The walls were built in opus incertum, with a pavement of cementicium. This building was first discovered in 1903; 8. In the garden of the house no. 135 Fig.2. Important discoveries fragments of Roman ceramics were discovered. Archaeological excavations were carried out 1. Close to the rivulet Togu, there is a small here. Four sections were excavated, revealing a terrace, 1 km south of the entrance in the corner from a building; village. Ceramic fragments belonging to the 9. In the garden of the house no. 436 other Roman period were discovered here; remains from a Roman settlement were found, 2. In the south-eastern part of the village, in together with a large quantity of Roman ceramic a point indicated by the toponym “La Cânepi”, fragments;
56 Mapping archaeological sites using digital cartography. Roman settlements from Potaissa to Napoca
10. Within an area delimited by the discovered. The artifacts are also interesting. In toponyms “La Izvoare” and “Butură”, in the numerous cases, the archaeologists discovered north-western part of the village, Roman large quantities of ceramic fragments; ceramic fragments were found.1 3. Based on what we know so far, we can The list of the historical monuments of Cluj distinguish two areas with Roman discoveries: County records a total of 12 points with the points no. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 are grouped in the archaeological discoveries in Aiton. Of these, southern part of the village. The points no. 9 and only two record archaeological discoveries 10 are positioned north of the village. The belonging to the Roman period. More, of these points 7 and 8 are positioned between these two two points, one records the presence of the areas, in the western part of the village. Roman road. So, actually, only one point All in all, these data allow us to affirm that mentions the existence of Roman discoveries, in Aiton represented, during Roman times, an a place called “Deasupra Morii” (no. 43, CJ-I- important settlement between Potaissa and m-A-06938.02). Aiton is not mentioned as Napoca. Roman settlement in other databases.2 In 1991 I. Moţu tried to map several points with archaeological discoveries within the References territory of Aiton.3 In the center of the village he indicated (fig. 2 in his article) the existence of [1] BĂRBULESCU, M., (1987), Din istoria remains of former Roman buildings. militară a Daciei romane. Legiunea V Unfortunately, the sketch published in the Macedonica şi castrul de la Potaissa, Cluj- article has no scale, and the location of the Napoca, 1987. points mapped there seems difficult using [2] Blăjan, M., Cerghi,T., (1987), Descoperiri romane şi postromane la Aiton (jud. Cluj), in modern ortophotographs. What can we establish Potaissa. Studii şi comunicări 1, 1978, 21-27. is that several buildings can be located in the [3] CAVRUC, V., (ed), (1998), Repertoriul northern part of the village, close to the route of arheologic al judeţului Harghita (Monografii the Roman road. One building was excavated in Arheologice II), Sfântu Gheorghe, 2000. 1913 by M. Roska. A sector of another building [4] CAVRUC, V., (ed.), (2000), Repertoriul was excavated by I. Moţu. arheologic al judeţului Harghita (Monografii Arheologice II), Sfântu Gheorghe, 2000. 5. Conclusions [5] COSTEA, F., (ed.), (1996), Repertoriul What can we establish using all data arheologic al judeţului Braşov, Braşov. [6] CRIŞAN, I. H., BĂRBULESCU, M., available? These are the main information: CHIRILĂ, E., VASILIEV, V., WINKLER, I., 1. The position of the milestone discovered (1992), Repertoriul arheologic al judeţului in 1758 in Aiton must be located south of the Cluj, Bibliotheca Musei Napocensis V, Cluj- village. This way, the distance from Potaissa to Napoca. Aiton is exactly 10 Roman miles, as indicated in [7] FODOREAN, F., (2006), Drumurile din the text of the inscription; Dacia romană, Cluj-Napoca. 2. The discoveries within the territory of [8] HÜGEL, P. (ed.), (1999), Repertoriul the village Aiton indicate that this settlement arheologic al Mureşului Inferior. Judeţul Arad was an important point along the main imperial (Bibliotheca historica et archaeological Banatica), Timişoara. Roman road. The archaeological excavations [9] LAZĂR, V., (1995), Repertoriul arheologic al and the other data indicate the presence of judeţului Mureş, Târgu Mureş. several buildings in the northern part of the [10] LUCA, S. A., (2004), Repertoriul arheologic current village. Also, traces of a channel were al judeţului Caraş-Severin (Bibliotheca Septemcastrensis 6), Sibiu. 1 Crişan, Bărbulescu, Chirilă, Vasiliev, Winkler 1992, s.v. [11] LUCA, S. A., (2005), Arheologie şi istorie Aiton, 22-24. 2 (II). Descoperiri din Banat (Bibliotheca http://ran.cimec.ro. Septemcastrensis 10), Sibiu. 3 Moţu 1990-1991, 175-219. 57 Florin Fodorean, Ioan Fodorean, Iuliu Vescan, Ştefan Bilaşco
[12] LUCA, S. A., (2006), Descoperiri arheologice Orheiul Bistriţei. Das Römische Kastell von din Banatul românesc. Repertoriu Orheiu Bistriţei (Romanian-German text), (Bibliotheca Septemcastrensis XVIII), Sibiu. Cluj-Napoca. [13] LUCA, S. A., GUDEA, N., (2010), [18] RATHMANN, M., (2003), Untersuchungen Repertoriul arheologic al judeţului Sălaj zu den Reichsstraßen in den westlichen (Bibliotheca Brukenthal XLV), Sibiu. Provinzen des Imperium Romanum (Beihefte [14] LUCA, S. A., PINTER, Z. K., GEORGESCU, der Bonner Jahrbϋcher. Landschaftsverband A., (2003), Repertoriul arheologic al judeţului Rheinland. Rheinisches Landesmuseum Bonn Sibiu (Bibliotheca Septemcastrensis III), und verein von Altertumsfreunden im Sibiu. Rheinlande), Band 55, Verlag Philipp von [15] MOGA, V., CIUGUDEAN, H., (eds.), (1995), Zabern, Mainz. Repertoriul arheologic al judeţului Alba, Alba [19] WINKLER, I., (1982), Drumul roman Iulia, 1995. Napoca-Potaissa. II, in Acta Musei [16] MOŢU, I., (1990-1991), Aşezarea rurală Napocensis 19, 587-589. romană de la Aiton (jud. Cluj), în ActaMP 14- [20] WINKLER, I., BLĂJAN, M., CERGHI, T., 15, 175-219. (1980), Drumul roman Napoca-Potaissa. I, in [17] PROTASE, D., (2008), Castrul roman de la Potaissa. Studii şi comunicări 2, 63-73.
58 Geographia Napocensis Anul VII, Nr. 2, 2013
TIPURI DE PRODUSE CARTOGRAFICE SPECIFICE GURII SULINA, DIN PERSPECTIVA COMISIUNII EUROPENE A DUNĂRII
1 MARIUS BUDILEANU
Abstract:- The paper aim is the indexing and ranking of all types of cartographic materials produced by European Commission of the Danube (ECD), 85 unique pieces being already identified from a total of 365. This first step is important for the next analisys approach regarding the evolution of the Sulina mouth, based on the bathymetrical numerical models. ECD had been asigned (between 1856-1939) the fullfilling of all activities required for the navigation on the Sulina mouth and in the Danube Delta. Another very significant component of ECD activity consisted in the bathymetrical measurments and making maps and plans of the Sulina mouth. In 1861, parallel to the finalisation of the temporary jetties, Sulina mouth first triangulation was made. After this, all maps prior to 1861 have been modified, while on the newer ones a new grid of 500 to 500 feet was represented. The bathymetrical measurements had a seasonly frequence, having as main goal the understanding of coastal dynamics.
Cuvinte cheie: Sulina, hartă, Comisiunea Europeană a Dunării, Marea Neagră
1. Introducere desemnat cu proiectarea şi executarea Imperiul Otoman avea în secolele XVII- lucrărilor necesarea, în aval de Isaccea, pentru XIX un deosebit interes în stăpânrea gurilor degajarea gurilor Dunării, precum şi a părţilor Dunării (Greceanu, 1938). Ca urmare a vecine din mare, de nisip şi de alte obstacole, în diferitelor conjuncturi politice şi economice, vederea aducerii acestei părţi a fluviului şi a turcii au dat dreptul şi altor marilor puteri la mării învecinate în cea mai bună stare posibilă navigaţie liberă în Marea Neagră şi comerţ pe pentru navigaţie. Pavilioanele tuturor naţiunilor Dunăre. Prin pacea de la Kuciuk Kainargi, din vor fi tratate pe picior de perfectă egalitate.“ 1774, Rusia obţine dreptul de navigaţie şi (Rosetti şi Rey, 1931). Ulterior, printr-o serie de comerţ în Marea Neagră, Marea Marmara, tratate, mandatul Comisiunii a fost prelungit Marea Egee şi Marea Mediterană (Tertecel, până în anul 1939 când s-a semnat Pacea de la 2006), iar prin Tratatul de la Adrianopol Bucureşti şi toate atribuţiunile au fost preluate primeşte şi braţul Sulina, graniţa între imperii de România (ANFG, Protocoale, 109/1939). fiind pe braţul Sf. Gheorghe (Greceanu, 1938). Austria în 1784 a semnat Tratatul de Comerţ cu 2. Lucrările tehnice executate de CED Imperiul Otoman şi a primit drepturi în Bazinul În pozitia de Inginer Şef a fost instalat Mării Negre şi pe Dună re (Netta, 1931). Charles Hartley care a într-o primă fază a Anglia şi Franţa au navigat liber în Marea analizat toate cele 3 guri de vărsare ale Dunării. Neagră din 1803 (Tertecel, 2006). Ulterior el a eliminat Chilia datorită avansării Comisiunea Europeană a Dunării (CED) a foarte mari pe care a avut-o în numai 30 de ani fost înfiinţată prin tratatul de la Paris, 30 martie (1826 – 1857) (Hartley, 1862). După analiza 1856, articolele 15 şi 16. (Hartley, 1862). detaliată a celor două două braţe rămase în Articolul 16 stipula că “se va constitui o discuţie, autorul ajunge la concluzia că Sf. Comisiune, unde Franţa, Austria, Maria Gheorghe este superior braţului Sulina din toate Britanie, Prusia, Rusia, Sardinia şi Turcia sunt punctele de vedere. Singura problemă fiecare reprezentate de un Delegat, care să fie întâmpinată de braţul Sf. Gheorge era distanţa 1 Facultatea de Geografie, Universitatea din Bucureşti, Nicolae Balcescu nr. 1, Bucuresti, România, Email: [email protected]
59 Marius Budileanu foarte mare la care se afla bara gurii. S-a deschide gura Sf. Gheorghe, fie se vor păstra calculat că era necesară dublarea lungimii jetiurile provizorii prin consolidarea şi digurilor (faţă de gura Sulina) pentru trecerea ei, transormarea acestora în structuri permanente de aici rezultând dublarea costurilor. Soluţia (Hartley, 1862) Decizia finală, în ceea ce propusă de ingineri pentru amenajarea gurii a priveşte continuarea lucrărilor, la gura Sulina, a fost aceea de a ghida cursul râului, mai departe fost luată când s-a constatat o adâncime în mare, printr-un sistem de diguri paralele adiţională la bară de 1,8 până la 2,4 m (6 – 8 (jetiuri). Această metodă, cunoscută mai târziu picioare), pentru 5 ani de la finalizarea digurilor drep Pâlnia lui Hartley, creştea viteza temporare. S-a mai luat în considerare şi că curentului fluvial şi astfel capacitatea de lucrările la gura sudică ar fi prea costisitoare. transport a acestuia. Propunerea tehnică nu a fost unanim acceptată, astfel CED a hotărât stabilirea unei comisii din patru ingineri care să propună o soluţie pentru amenajarea gurii Sfântu Gheorghe. Delegaţia s-a întrunit la Paris în 1858 şi era formată din doi ingineri civili (Prusia şi Franţa) şi doi ingineri militari (Marea Britanie şi Sardinia). Această comisie nu a adus nici un rezultat, propunerile ei fiind greu de executat şi foarte costisitoare (Hartley, 1862). În tot acest timp, comercianţii din Galaţi şi Brăila cereau să se despotmolească gura Sulina, singura navigabilă în acel moment. Iniţial s-a folosit o veche dragă turcească, dar foarte repede s-a demonstrat că nu făcea faţă. (Hartley, 1862). Având în vedere aceste condiţii, s-a propus de către Inginerul Şef ca gura Sulina să fie aleasă pentru lucrări definitive, în detrimentul braţului sudic al deltei. Soluţia fiind aceeaşi a digurilor paralele (jetiuri). Comisiunea a acceptat să fie efectuate lucrări provizorii, dar fără ca acestea să influenţeze în vreun fel Foto. 1. Charles Hartley, Inginer Sef al CED 1856 , alegerea finală a braţului destinat pentru lucrări Inginer Consultant 1873 – 1907 (Rosetti şi Rey, definitive. 1931) Lucările au început pe 21 aprilie 1858 şi au fost finalizate pe 31 iulie 1861. Lungimea La 30 septembrie 1871, consolidarea şi digului nordic era de 1411 m (4631 picioare), permanentizarea jetiurilor este încheiată iar cel sudic de 914,4 m (3000 picioare). lungimea acestora fiind de 2678,8 m – 1625, 1 Adâncimea la care au fost construite a variat m cel nordic şi 1053,6 cel sudic (8789 picioare între 1,8 şi 6 metri (6 – 20 picioare) (Hartley, – 5332 şi 3457). Costul construcţiilor iniţiale şi 1862). În regim natural adâncimea canalului a consolidării acestora ajungând la 185.352 £. varia între 2,1 şi 3,3 m (7 şi 11 picioare), dar rar (Hartley, 1873). Urmatoare etapa când digurile depăşea 2,7 m (9 picioare). Construcţiile au fost prelungite a fost 1925 – 1937, în mai provizorii, începute în 1858, au avut ca scop multe faze anuale, sub conducerea Inginerului creşterea adâncimii cu cel puţin 0.6 m (2 Şef E.T. Ward, ajung la 5870 m lungime în anul picioare), pentru o perioadă de 6 până la 8 ani. 1937. S-a considerat că în această perioada fie se va
60 Tipuri de produse cartografice specifice gurii Sulina, din perspectiva Comisiunii Europene a Dunării
Fig. 1. Extinderea digurilor în timpul mandatului CED. Figura este structurată în 5 perioade, în funcţie de anii în care s-au efectuat lucrări de prelungire a jetiurilor (de la perioada de regim natural, până la perioada puternic antropizată de la sfârsitul anilor 1930)
3. Măsuratorile batimetrice şi lucrările zonelor (Constantinescu, 2010). Toate ridicările cartografice executate de CED batimetrice sau topografice au fost raportate la 0 În urma lucrărilor tehnice efectuate la gură Sulina, borna instalată în 1884, situată la baza si pentru a demonstra eficienţa acestora, CED a Farului Vechi şi la 4.88 picioare sub borna întreprins masurători batimetrice regulate. iniţială înstalată în 1857 (Commission Sondajele hidrografice erau întreprinse de Europeenne du Danube,1874) Căpitania Portului, unul dintre cele 7 Servicii În iulie 1861 a fost realizată prima ale CED (Rosetti şi Rey, 1931). Ulterior, triangulaţie de detaliu a gurii Sulina rezultatele erau interpretate şi se trecea la (Commission Europeenne du Danube, 1867). execuţia hărţilor de către Serviciul Tehnic, aflat Borna numită South Base a fost cea de la care s- în subordinea Inginerului Şef. Batimetria consta a masurat lungimea şi direcţia jetiurilor pentru în realizarea de profile care să acopere toată prima dată (Voisin Bey, 1893). Un alt punct zona, iar acolo unde erau observate iregularităţi foarte important pentru triangulaţia de la gură a mari se lucra la o scara mai mare decât în restul fost Farul Vechi (Constantinescu, 2010).
Fig. 2. Triangulaţia realizată de CED, la gura Sulina, în 1861 (Commission Europeenne du Danube, 1867)
61 Marius Budileanu
Odată cu realizarea triangulaţiei, pe toate apare pe mai mult hărţi, din perioada lucrărilor hărţile a fost reprezentat şi caroiajul local, din provizorii şi de permanentizare a jetiurilor, este 500 în 500 de picioare, sprijinit pe Farul Vechi. Robert Hansford (Constantinescu, 2010). „One În raportul lui Hartley din 1862 se menţionează of the surveyors, Mr. Hansford, proved a most o frază care confirmă această afirmaţie: „On valuable acquisition to the Commission, for he laying off an imaginary line, directly to the east was an accurate and trustworthy surveyor of of the Old Lighthouse, and using it as a datum waterways.” – Sir John Stokes (delegatul line for the purpose of mesurement...“ Angliei, în autobiografia sa, apărută în 1994). (Constantinescu, 2010). După realizarea Hartley îl denumeşte pe Domnul Hansford, în triangulaţiei şi cunoaşterea exactă a poziţiei 1862, “skilful surveyor of the Commission” jetiurilor, toate hărţile realizate până în 1861 au (Constantinescu, 2010). Ulterior acestor fost refăcute şi li s-a adăugat caroiajul local (din perioade, numele lui Hansford se leagă de 500 în 500 de picioare) primul Atlas editat de CED, ca fiind Cel mai important înginer cartograf, responsabilul care a condus măsurătorile la denumit “antreprenor al CED” şi al cărui nume comanda lui Hartley.
Fig. 3. Hartă de foarte mare detaliu, realizată de Robert Hansford în iulie 1857 (Hartley, 1862)
Adâncimile sunt în picioare engleze (0,3048 înaintat în mare cu peste 5 km, profilele de sondaj m), ulterior raportate la 0 Sulina şi reprezentate pe s-au extins până la 60 de picioare adâncime. De hartă prin puncte de sondaj şi / sau izobate (Fig.3 asemenea, tot în această perioadă suprafaţa şi Fig. 4). În funcţie de gradul de detaliu al hărţii acoperită de măsurătorile batimetrice a crescut sunt adăugate punctele de sondaj, iar numărul foarte mult. S-a constatat că inginerii englezi au acestora pe o suprafaţă comună (500 picioare / acordat o atenţie deosebită părţii nordice a gurii, 500 de picioare) variază între 7 şi 20. De obicei acolo unde influenţa Deltei Secundare a Chiliei se adâncimile sunt redate prin izolinii din 3 în 3 resimte foarte mult, iar procesele morfologice picioare, prin urmatoarea simbolistică: 6’ (.....), 9’ prezintă un ritm accelerat de acumulare. Pe lângă (_____), 12’ (...... ), 15’ (_____), 18’ (… … …), procesele naturale, avansul tehnologic câştigat în 21’ (_____), 24’ (…. …. ….), 27’ (_____), 30’ 50 de ani (1872 – 1921) a facilitat extinderea ariei (….. ….. …..). După anul 1930, când jetiurile au de lucru.
Tab. 1. Suprafaţa medie a ridicărilor batimetrice în funcţie de perioada.
1829-1857 1858-1871 1872-1921 1925-1932 1933-1937 Suprafţă hartă (kmp) 10.1 4.2 5.6 57 90.4 Rate de sedimentare -0.14 -1.11 6 26.7 8.27 (cm/an)
62 Tipuri de produse cartografice specifice gurii Sulina, din perspectiva Comisiunii Europene a Dunării
Cele mai mici suprafeţe acoperite de (Rosetti şi Rey, 1931). Sediul central al batimetrie se întalnesc în perioada Hartley Secretariatului General era situat în sediul (1858-1921). Măsurătorile trebuiau executate Comisiunii de la Galaţi. (Rosetti şi Rey, 1931). rapid şi doar în faţa gurii pentru a identifica În cadrul ANFG, Fondul Comisia problemele ce ar fi putut să pună în pericol Europeană a Dunării conţine peste 1500 de navigaţia. Anii 30 se caracterizează printr-un dosare care sunt structurate în mai multe părţi. puternic avans tehnologic, ceea ce facilitează Cele mai importante sunt Protocoalele, cu peste mărirea ariei de lucru, dar şi prin rate de 200 de dosare, şi Secretariatul General, cu peste sedimentare foarte ridicate la nord de Sulina. 1100 de dosare. Această clasificare rezidă din Aceste procese de acumulare au dictat şi importanţa dosarelor existente. Protocoalele schimbarea direcţiei digurilor către sud şi conţin cele mai importante hotărâri şi dări de prelungirea acestora (Fig. 1) seamă ale personalului de conducere, iar în partea structurală intitulată Secretariatul General 4. Tipurile de hărţi realizate de către se găsesc hărţi de lucru, rapoarte lunare, devize Comisiunea Europeană a Dunării financiare etc. Pe baza dosarelor consultate, din Fondul Astfel, au putut fi identificate trei moduri Comisia Europeană a Dunării, aflat în cadrul diferite prin care hărţile au fost publicate de Arhivelor Naţionale Filiala Galaţi (ANFG) s-a către CED. putut reconstituii fluxul de lucru şi s-au idendificat tipurile de hărţi folosite. Astfel, 4.1. Hărţi pe calc (clasificare calitativă a măsurătorile batimetrice realizate de către Casa hărţilor de Navigaţie erau interpretate de Serviciul În prima fază erau întocmite variante de Tehnic şi raportate într-o primă fază lucru, realizate pe calc şi desenate cu creionul – Secretariatului General (Rosetti şi Rey, 1931). sunt materiale cartografice care insoţesc Acesta avea ca principal scop redactarea, memorii tehnice şi rapoarte foarte concise din tipărirea şi distribuirea protocoalelor şedintelor perioada primelor lucrări de construcţie a plenare, clasarea şi pastrarea arhivei CED etc jetiurilor.
Fig. 4. Hartă pe calc, ridicare batimetrică din 21 august 1861 (ANFG, Sec. Gen. 15/1867-1874)
4.1.1 Hărţi din rapoartele inginerilor Ulterior, hărţilor pe calc li se alocă un număr specific indexului CED şi sunt prezentate în rapoartele anuale ale Inginerului Şef în faţa delegaţilor permanenţi. Sunt produse tipărite pe hărtie de bună calitate, pot fi color sau alb-negru şi care au în general dimeniunile unei foi A3.
63 Marius Budileanu
Fig. 5. Hartă prezentată de Charles Hartley – Inginer Consultant, în Protocoalele nr. 432, Anexa 3, cu privire la situaţii gurii Sulina în anul 1886. Ridicare batimetrică efectuată între 12 şi 16 noiembrie 1886 de E. Magnussen-Inginer Ajutor, la indicaţiile lui C. Kuhl – Inginer Rezident. Index CED 164 (ANFG, Protocoale, 27/1886-1887)
4.1.2 Atlasele Comisiunii Europene a Dunării Standford care cerea un preţ foarte mare, la un Toate aceste hărţi au fost cuprinse în Atlase timp de realizare dublu (ANFG, Sec. Gen. de sinteză care prezentau stadiul lucrărilor de la 30/1886-1890). gura şi de pe braţul Sulina până în momentul Pe pagina a patra a primului Atlas (1867) publicării lor. În anul 1900 erau tipărite 3 Atlase este menţionat că ridicările batimetrice au fost ce cuprindeau 164 de foi de hartă reprezentând realizate de Robert Hansford, sub comanda lui diferite stagii de evoluţie a gurii Sulina (No.1 – Charles Hartley, iar harţile au fost desenate de 1829...No.164 16.11.1886; hărţi numerotate M.L. Dollfus de Meric. Pe nici un alt Atlas nu conform indexului CED). Atlasele au apărut în mai sunt oferite informaţii de acest tip. anii 1867, 1874 şi 1887, toate fiind tipărite la Editura F.A. Brockhaus, Leipzig. Consideram 4.1.3 Hărţi tridimensionale ca CED a folosit serviciile Domnului Brockhaus Un alt tip de material cartografic îl reprezintă datorită preţurilor foarte bune şi a timpului mic modelele tridimensionale realizate din carton de execuţie pe care le oferea. În adresa CED nr. prin metoda decupării hărţilor după izolinii şi 138 Inginerul Rezident C. Kuhl propune înalţarea acestora la scară. Probabil aceste aprobarea ofertei Domnului Brockhaus privind produse erau folosite la expoziţii şi prezentări tipărirea Hărţii Dunării de Jos ca urmare a generale. Acurateţea acestora era una deosebita, soluţiei foarte avantajoase pe care acesta o aşa cum se vede în figura 7. înainta spre deosebire de Domnul Edw.
64 Tipuri de produse cartografice specifice gurii Sulina, din perspectiva Comisiunii Europene a Dunării
Fig. 6. Hartă din Atlasul 2, 1874. Ridicare batimetrica din 5 martie 1870, Index CED 89 (Commission Europeenne du Danube, 1874)
Fig. 7. Reprezentarea 3D a gurii de vărsare Sulina în anul 1925, stanga modelul realizat pe carton de CED(ANFG, SEC. GEN. 445/1932), iar în dreapta este modelul realizat prin tehnici actuale de analiză spaţială
65 Marius Budileanu
4.1.4 Preluarea hărţilor influenţat gura Sulina, iar cel mai bun mijloc Foarte multe din lucrările cartografice ale grafic prin care se putea face acest lucru a fost inginerilor CED au fost preluate şi de alţi autori, hartă. Singurele hărţi erau cele produse de CED. fără o directă legătură cu activitatea Comisiunii. Voisin Bey în Notice sur les travaux Frecvenţa măsurătorilor batimetrice d'amelioration de l'embouchure du Danube et CED a efectuat măsuratori batimetrice la du Bras de Soulina – 1893. Dimitrie Neniţescu diferite scări temporale. De la hărţi pe care sunt în Studiu asupra fluviilor convenţionale trecute mai multe batimetrii (vezi Fig. nr. 10) Dunărea în Dreptul Internaţional Public – până la măsurători batimetrice zilnice. În mod 1903. Radu Ciocârdel în La circulation generale constant măsurătorile erau realizate de trei ori des eaux de la Mer Noire – 1938. Aceste trei pe an: primăvara (în luna martie sau aprilie), lucrări, foarte diferite în esenţa lor, au preluat vara (în luna iulie sau august) şi toamna (doar în hărţile ca urmare a importanţei acestora pentru noiembrie). În cadrul acestui studiu au fost gurile Dunării precum şi a preciziei lor. identificate 85 de hărţi unice dintr-un total de Considerăm şi că materialele au fost 365 indexate, unele materiale repetându-se de preluate de către aceşti autori ca urmare a mai multe ori ca urmare a preluării hărţilor CED monopolului informaţional deţiunt de CED. de către alţi autori şi a apariţiei aceleaşi hărţi în Indiferent de natura lucrării, autorii au dorit sa documente diferite. (Fig. 3 şi Fig. 8) prezinte modul în care amenajările antropice au
Fig. 8. Ridicarea batimetrică din iulie 1857 (vezi Fig. nr. 3) preluată de Voisin Bey, Dimitrie Neniţescu şi Radu Ciocârdel
Fig. 9. Frecvenţa măsurătorilor batimetrice anuale reflectate în documente cartografice realizate de CED şi indexate. Liniile reprezintă o hartă unică, iar spatiul alb lipsa hărţilor (intervalul anilor 1922-1924)
66 Tipuri de produse cartografice specifice gurii Sulina, din perspectiva Comisiunii Europene a Dunării
4.2. Hărţi multibatimetrice (Clasificare 4.2.1 Hărţi zilnice temporală a ridicărilor batimetrice reflectate în Inginerii CED au realizat în anumite perioade materiale cartografice) critice pentru starea gurii de vărsare Sulina ridicări O metoda cartografică foarte folosită de către batimetrice zilnice. Ridicările au un caracter strict CED a reprezentat-o suprapunerea mai multor local, având ca suprafaţă acoperită doar o zonă ridicări batimetrice pe o singură hartă. Prin această foarte mică din faţa jetiurilor. Anii în care au fost tehnică de lucru (folosită şi descrisă pentru prima identificate ridicări batimetrice zilnice sunt 1925, dată de Hartley în raportul său din 1862) inginerii 1929 şi 1937. În aceşti ani s-au realizat importante englezi puteau calcula ratele de acumulare şi lucrări de prelungire a jetiurilor şi dragaje zilnice eroziune observate la gura de vărsare. pentru restabilirea adâncimilor necesare navigaţiei.
Fig. 10. Hartă Multibatimetrică (cu negru ridicarea de bază din 10 iulie 1865 peste care a fost suprapusă cu roşu ridicarea din iulie 1857). Index CED 62 (Commission Europeenne du Danube, 1867)
Fig. 11. Ridicări batimetrice zilnice din anii 1925 şi 1937
67 Marius Budileanu
Această metodă de lucru, a ridicărilor multibeam ce poate atinge rezoluţii spaţiale de batimetrice zilnice, este foarte uşor comparabilă 50 cm. De asemenea, suprafaţa acoperită este cu cea a inginerilor Administraţiei Fluviale a foarte asemanătoare cu cea acoperită de Dunării de Jos (AFDJ). Aceştia realizează inginerii CED: în faţa jetiurilor pe o laţime de măsurători de foarte mare detaliu, cu un senzor 200-300 m şi o lungime de 1-1.2 km.
Fig. 12. Multibeam AFDJ, ridicare batimetrică 5 aprilie 2013 (www.afdj.ro)
5. Concluzii fond arhivistic foarte bogat, până în momentul Comisiunea Europeană a Dunării a reuşit în de faţă nereuşind parcurgerea integrală a timpul mandatului ei de 83 de ani să amenajeze acestuia. Considerăm activitatea Comisiei ca gura de vărsare Sulina şi Braţul Sulina astfel fiind una cu adevărat remarcabilă, iar încât navigaţia să se desfăşoare în bune condiţii. întelegerea în esenţă a acesteia poate fi făcută Masurătorile batimetrice şi studiul zonei doar printr-o perspectivă actuală, europeană. costiere au fost foarte importante pentru Rigurozitatea activităţilor de teren şi a înţelegerea dinamicii naturale şi antropice din descrierii în amănunt a ficărui detaliu din lungul ţărmului Deltei Dunării. Frecvenţa activitatea sa recomandă Comisiunea Europeană masuratorilor batimetrice era de trei ridicări pe a Dunării ca exemplu pentru instituţiile actuale an (primăvara, vara şi toamna), dar după ce desfăşoară activităţi similare. momentele de prelungire a jetiurilor ridicarile batimetrice erau lunare, săptamânale şi chiar Mulţumiri zilnice. Acest studiu a fost posibil prin suportul Articolul şi-a propus indexarea tuturor financiar oferit de Programul Oeraţional acestor produse cartografice, pas necesar în Sectorial Pentru Dezvoltarea Resurselor Umane vederea elaborării ulterioare a Modelelor 2007-2013, cofinanţat de Fondul Social Numerice Batimetrice. În cadrul Arhivelor European, din cadrul proiectului Naţionale Filiala Galaţi CED beneficiază de un POSDRU/107/1.5/S/80765
68 Tipuri de produse cartografice specifice gurii Sulina, din perspectiva Comisiunii Europene a Dunării
Autorul doreşte să mulţumeasă Doamnei Soulina indiquant les derniers travaux qui Aida Dima pentru suportul şi ajutorul oferit pe y ont ete executes par la Commission parcursul zilelor de cercetare a Fondului Europeenne, Leipzig, F.A. Brockhaus. Comisia Europeană a Dunării din cadrul [6] Commission Europeenne du Danube. Arhivelor Naţionale Filiala Galaţi. (1858). Project for the improvement of the Sincere multumiri îi sunt adresate colegului lower Danube Ştefan Constantinescu pentru sprijinul acordat [7] Constantinescu, St., Vespremeanu-Stroe, în timpul realizării studiului nostru şi pentru A., Giosan, L., (2010), A cartographical revizuirea critică a acestui text. perspective to the engineering works at the Sulina mouth, Acta Geod. Geoph. Hung., Vol. 45(1), 71–79. ISSN 1217-8977 Bibliografie [8] Desjardins, E. (1867). Les embouchures du Danube, Bulletine de la Societe de [1] Andreescu, Ş. (2005). Izvoare noi cu Geographie, pp.129 – 143. privire la istoria Mării Negre, Bucureşti: [9] Greceanu, N. (1938). Comisiunea Institutul Cultural Român. Europeană a Dunării şi gurile Dunării, [2] Ciocârdel, R. (1938). La circulation Bucureşti. generale des eaux de la Mer Noire, [10] Hartley, C., A. (1862). Description of the BSGR. Delta of the Danube, and the works, [3] Commission Europeenne du Danube. recently executed, at Soulina Mouth, (1867). Plans comparatif de l’embouchure Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution et de differentes sections fluviales du bras of Civil Engineers, XXI, 277 – 308. de Soulina et cartes generales du Delta [11] Hartley, C., A. (1873). On the changes indiquant l’etat de ce bras du Danube that have recently taken place along the anterieurement aux travaux Sea Coast of the Delta of the Danube, and d’amelioration execute par la Commission on the consolidation of the provisional Europeenne conformement a l’article 16 works ar thte Soulina Mouth, Minutes of du Traite de Paris du 30 mars 1856 Proceedings of the Institution of Civil d’apres les projets de sir Charles A. Engineers, XXXV, 201 - 225. Hartley, son Ingenieur dirigeant et faisant [12] Hartley, C., A. (1894). The Survey of the connaitre les changements successifs Delta of the Danube in 1894, Minutes of produits par ces travaux avec une carte Proceedings of the Institution of Civil generale du delta du Danube, Leipzig, Engineers, 336 - 342. F.A. Brockhaus. [13] Kuhl, C., H. (1891). The Sulina branch of [4] Commission Europeenne du Danube. the Danube, Minutes of Proceedings of the (1874). Cartes du delta du Danube et Institution of Civil Engineers, 238 - 247. plans comparatifs de l’embouchure et de [14] Netta, G. (1931). Expansiunea economică quelques sections fluviales du bras de a Austriei şi exploatările ei Orientale, Soulina indiquant les derniers travaux qui Bucureşti: Cartea Româneascâ y ont ete executes par la Commission [15] Rosetti, C., Rey, F. (1931). La Europeenne d’apres les projets de sir Ch. Commission Europeenne du Danube et A. Hartley, son Ingenieur dirigeant, son oeuvre du 1856 a 1931, Paris: faisant suite au Recuile de plan Imprimerie Nationale. comparatifs publies par la Commission en [16] Stokes, J. (1860). Notes on the Lower 1867, Leipzig, F.A. Brockhaus. Danube, Journal of the Royal Geography [5] Commission Europeenne du Danube. Society of London, 162 – 171. (1887). Cartes du delta du Danube et [17] Stokes, J. (1998). Autobiography, plans comparatifs de l’embouchure et de http://members.fortunecity.com/78blenco quelques sections fluviales du bras de west/ j_stokes.htm
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[18] Tetrecel, A. (2006). Marea Neagră Puteri [22] (***) Arhivele Naţionale Filiala Galati, Maritime – Puteri Terestre (sec. XIII – Fondul Comisia Europeană a Dunării, XVIII), 325-346, Bucureşti: Institutul Protocoale, 109/1939. Cultural Român. [23] (***) Arhivele Naţionale Filiala Galati, [19] Voisin, B. (1893). Notice sur les travaux Fondul Comisia Europeană a Dunării, d’amelioration de l’embouchure du Secretariatul General 15/1867-1874. Danube et du Bras de Soulina 1857 – [24] (***) Arhivele Naţionale Filiala Galati, 1891, Annales des Ponts et Chaussees – Fondul Comisia Europeană a Dunării, Janv. Et Fev. 1893. Secretariatul General 445 /1932. [20] (***) Arhivele Naţionale Filiala Galati, [25] (***) Arhivele Naţionale Filiala Galati, Fondul Comisia Europeană a Dunării, Fondul Comisia Europeană a Dunării, Protocoale, 27/1886-1887. Secretariatul General 688 /1937-1938. [21] (***) Arhivele Naţionale Filiala Galati, [26] (***) http://www.afdj.ro/cote/puncte- Fondul Comisia Europeană a Dunării, critice.html Protocoale, 71/1925-1931.
70 Geographia Napocensis Anul VII, Nr. 2, 2013
THE CHALLENGE OF KEEPING-UP: CURRENT METHODOLOGIES IN ANALYZING THE STUDENTS RECRUITING AREA BY UNIVERSITIES
1 2 SIMONA MĂLĂESCU , CRISTINA MARIA SPERANZA
Abstract: - The challenge of keeping-up: current methodologies in analyzing the students recruiting area by universities. Despite all progress made in the field and in some collateral areas extremely useful methodologically (e.g. the use of GIS), for some countries emerging from communist space methodologically upgrading to the latest advances in modelling and forecast of students recruitment by universities remains a difficult challenge. The analysis and modelling of the geographical area of recruiting students for a particular university represents even for the foreign literature a niche, not necessarily consciously neglected but only reached sidely due, most likely, to ignoring the benefits which the focus of concerns on this aspect would bring into focus and directing more efficiently university marketing efforts. This paper aims precisely to seek, through a meta-analysis of existing literature, disparate developments that led in some form or will allow improved modeling spatial areas of recruitment of students by universities and the challenges and limitations that apply methodological advances the area where universities belonging to the ex-communist involved. Beyond the theoretical benefit from a practical perspective, the meta-analysis aimed at synthesizing elements of good practice that can be applied to the local university system.
Key-Words: university recruiting, recruiting area, higher education marketing, recruiting modeling
1 Introduction means (such as GIS) and existing database The rich literature on student recruitment, systems, to forecast the dynamics of market clearly stimulated in recent decades, by configuration university in a given space. emphasizing inter-university competition, most Appeal is made in this regard to demographic studies focus on dynamics characteristics of projections on the school population (size, demand for education and enrolment, the modal socio-demographic characteristics and so on) of student's profiling of some universities and the reference space in conjunction with changes in demand linked to the dynamics of projections on supply dynamics. state educational policies and those of each Although field studies that take into university to improve their marketing strategies. account the spatial dimension were early (60`s Fewer in relative weight, but not at all and 70`s decades) and diversified thematically – negligible in number, are studies that focus on see Schöfer (1975), with implications of the geographical areas of student’s recruitment Central Place Theory in assessing the level and specific to some universities. They analyse the the strategic location of the institution, and also spatial and volumetric changes of geographical the gravity model in shaping students' areas for recruitment, demographic preferences – a rapidly development had the characteristics of student`s recruitment flow, studies on areas for recruiting students from socio-demographic variables of students 90`s decade after development registered by recruited - comparing them to the area of origin. (Arc)GIS as a tool for analysis and processing. They allow further extension, further analyses These developments allowed the spatial using maximum the spatial analysis technical relationship modelling and plot a lot of data, 1 Babeş-Bolyai University, University Development Center, Plopilor Street, No. 7, Cluj Napoca; Human Geography and Tourism Department, Clinicilor Street No.5-7, 62, Cluj Napoca, Romania, [email protected]. 2 Individual Practice of Psychology, Goldis Street, No. 18A, Alba Iulia, Romania, [email protected]. 71 Simona Mălăescu, Cristina Maria Speranza collating data on enrolments of the University or most prolific in studies, especially based on higher aggregate entities with existing census computer modelling and GIS in particular, are data on the stock of general population and its precisely the states of U.S. west coast followed characteristics. To these are added the spatial by the Great Lakes area, where spatial research representation of data on pre school population methodology (especially progress of GIS) is in terms of volume and performance on final spearheading. As a result of improved data exams from pre-university cycle. recording system about the students studying in these universities, also made on the basis of 2 Factors shaping the theoretical such studies previously conducted, these progress in the field of areas of universities also have complex databases recruiting students` research enough to allow running some tests going to Most of the studies on university design patterns for quite accurate registrations recruitment` areas highlight the role of the (Devalapura, 2009; Bohannon, 2007; Choi and distance between the student` residence and the Wang, 2006; Khajuria, 2007). university centre and distance combined with Analysing the existing literature in the field, it can be noted that: the main directions in other sometimes geographically dependent which are developed investigations on variables, and focuses on student recruitment recruitment area of universities are determined modelling based on gravity model - borrowed not only by goals such as the need to improve from economic sphere where it was for decades marketing strategies and policy development in extremely popular, especially in the trade. the medium and long term (linked or not with Another part that make somehow bridge with changes in educational policies and national and the main body of studies independent on the regional funding), but also with methodological spatial dimension of recruitment - focusing considerations and limitations on the one hand primarily on status – are the studies that the means and methods of data analysis. An emphasize the role of status in relation to the example represents the limitations in and of the geographical location of residence, continuing use of GIS in university marketing (see Read, with interacting between distance, socio- Higgs and Taylor, 2005 whose study is in itself economic background of the recruited, and a very fruitful research direction). Another limit financial support policies and university tuition or redirect landmark in the field of studies fees. Next, the spatial configuration of supply: dynamics is represented by a data recording power and rank of institutions offering higher mode and shape of available data (see also Alm education and relationships of proximity to each and Winers, 2009) both at statistics levels of the of the urban markets of different sizes (large university registers and also of data collected and extra-large demographic versus rural areas officially on a large scale, such as the census. or small towns) and the result of all these On the other hand it can be seen that while some variables that enter into the calculation were studies try to model and represent as faithfully studied. In addition to these are the training as compared to the existing data the patterns in preferences of prospective students and its the main body of the mass of graduates who changes in the specific application training, enrol in higher education in a region or even a which can in its turn be marked or spatial state (and dynamics in time of inter-university imprinted of a socio-economic profile of the competition on this main body), other studies region or area. As to an extension of an article focus on catching the limit phenomena and new does not permit a review of all of the above, we trends in this report – of the border area choose to treat in this article other variables dynamics of the main body. For example are (than distance) taken into account in modelling discussed and highlighted: enlargement policies students recruitment, following to devote a of demographic segments (age, socio-economic future article separately to the variable distance. and environmental) of which are done the The areas on which research is most recruitment and changes in marketing strategies, advanced in terms of recruiting students and targeting areas and the disadvantaged social 72 The challenge of keeping-up: current methodologies in analyzing the students recruiting area by universities groups with poor access to education whose relation to specific recruitment campaigns and access to higher level education is financially expansion strategies for identifying changes in supported primarily by state education policies. enrolment patterns or the shaping of profiles of On them automatically are focused the certain areas in order to develop a range of universities to increase their share in the body courses designed to be attractive to that segment of recruited students, thereby increasing or of the market area. Exciting directions in which maintaining, as appropriate, not just tuition the use of GIS is directed in academic figures but increasing the weight of the internal marketing according to the above mentioned structure of customer for training students authors consist of implementation of preferentially funded by state and who do not participation widening plan, the need of analysis pressure internal resources. Remaining and description of student retention rates, available, these resources are at stake in the respectively requirements related to recruitment competition of the inter-university educational areas profiling along with the student’s. offer for achieving goals such as expanding Applicability of GIS in studying recruitment university recruitment in the traditional areas status was extended by studies such as recruitment area of colleges, decisions in the Marble, Mora and Granados (1995 quoted in case of some prestigious universities, the Pogodzinsky, 2007) who used to correlate "massification" or "popularizing" of studies. census data with school records at the district These measures are reflected in the initial level. Read et al. (2005) point out that GIS can tuition fees accessible to some elites, nowadays be used to compare between them (or other in some sectors, being strategically reduced to faculty from other universities) evolution in attack part of traditionally adjudicated markets time of data on recruitment of students of hitherto by colleges with local recruitment areas different faculties and to notify their changes and reputation. over time. In their study to represent areas of recruitment the authors used cumulative travel 3 Dynamics of studies on recruitment distance. Between the variables used where the areas after the GIS involvement in postcode, age, gender, type of education, level data processing and data of study, subject and outcome. Analysis of education form and possible origin of students representation from deprived areas was considered one of the Perhaps the most attention in the study of secondary objectives of the investigation methodological advances in modelling because of the strategy of attracting more recruitment of students by universities should be funding from the state. Thus, their study could given to the dynamics in field after the large- reveal whether a particular department attracted scale call to data systems and spatial graphical more students in a specific area classified as representation tools provided by (Arc)GIS "depopulated area." Unsurprisingly, given that applicability in the field. The explosive they have introduced a short series of data were development of studies addressing the not identified big longitudinal differences in implications of GIS application in the domain terms of recruitment area defined by the renders obsolete the approach of reviewing of distance to the university. Using GIS revealed progress on this line, which made us appeal just the fact also expected, that part-time students to mention a few studies which allow are recruited from the local area rather than benchmarking of potential recovery in local plan from greater distances, MA from greater of the steps performed internationally in the field, distances than students in the degree program, or allow a more comprehensive understanding of and those above the age of 21 years recruited current methodological moment. from the local area more pronounced than those The benefit of spatial approaches focused on below this age threshold. The authors also the use of GIS in educational marketing is, suggest, in line with previous studies (Farr, according to Read, Higgs and Taylor (2005) in 2001; Read et al., 2005 which identify that mapping and analysing participation rates in students applying for letters, arts and humanities
73 Simona Mălăescu, Cristina Maria Speranza are willing and tend to travel longer distances especially in times of demographical transitions for this purpose than those that apply to other from a relatively large recruiting pool to a profiles) that the studies of area-wide narrow one, that some countries experience. In recruitment profiles should be refined. Also the case of an ex-socialist country such anticipated was the conclusion that local Romania, where from 2008 (allegedly the year recruited students come from more deprived when the young population born after 1990 social areas than those recruited from areas turns 18 – the age of potentially becoming a more distant, those coming from wealthier student) the large demographic cohorts born social strata. Ayad's (2007) study aims mainly at before 1989 (in times of aggressive birth- GIS evaluation as a means of improving student stimulative` and severe punitive birth- recruitment data analysis, and secondly, controlling` politics) are gradually replaced with knowledge about the body of potential available the free family-planning cohorts born after students and district data on school population 1991, knowing approximately how thick it will through inter-networking of some specific be the higher education demand flow, 4 years in indicators and to draw future recommendations advance, became a useful information over recruitment. This kind of simple spatial (considering the scarce census data recorded in data representation [Fig. 1] became particularly the present system allowing demographic useful for forecasting one regional university`s forecast). future spatial recruiting pool` dynamics
Fig. 1. Total number of graduating second level students in 2008 (the prospective body of HE students recruiting for 2012) by spatial administrative units in Romania
For this purpose Ayad (2007) also intended university concerned had not recruited any to run a weighting model to identify potential entries or enrolment levels were low; schools of the district for future recruitment. - Recruitment was conducted with above- Using GIS in data processing allowed as a average results in districts with low SAT methodological innovation to date, to highlight and located at considerable distance from issues such as: the university concerned but below expected - Districts that had high levels of the levels in other districts with large numbers beneficiaries of SAT but from which the of SAT
74 The challenge of keeping-up: current methodologies in analyzing the students recruiting area by universities
needs to be designed so that these be to be 4 Reputation, prestige and financial removed, one of the leverages being the policies of universities as factors orientation towards the spaces with average shaping student recruitment area socio-demographic characteristics, desirable environments that can provide and support the configuration targeted segment of graduates. The study of the In Lowe’s and Viterito’s study (1989) authors Marble, Mora and Granados (1997) for correlation between penetration on education example, aimed precisely to correlate the local market and recruited SAT scores indicate that census data with the school registration records the competitiveness of universities and to identify geo-demographic profile of potential reputation are key determinants of the size of students, and referral of recruitment activities to the impact area in recruiting students. Alm and certain areas and certain individual information. Winters in 2009 provide a review of studies Although the analysis of socio-economic aiming the influence of policies regarding status of the student brings valuable strategic tuition and scholarships offered to attract information, there are few universities which students. Vasigh’s and Hamnzaee’s study (2004 records on student enrollment such complex cited in Pogodzinsky, 2007) explores the same data (and Romania for example, we are not issue: the important role played by tuition fees aware of the existence of such examples) thus charged by universities to recruit students. Thus enabling such structural analyses, that it is often the Tuckman’s study (1970 quoted in Alm and resorted to methodological artifice of their Winters, 2009) shows that high tuition fees in inferring from the regional or zone average state influence interstate migration (emigration characteristics based on census statistical for studies), as evidenced by a study of Mixon indicators typically using address data of (1992 quoted in Alm and Winters, 2009), while registered students. In this respect, in his study, large grants have a completely different effect. Pogodzinsky (2007) for example, uses the Hoxby (2004 quoted in Alm and Winters, 2009) geocoding for filling data which are not usually reviewed the literature regarding the influence recorded on the student's social status. This of tax policy and study support on the indirect data inference from census data and recruitment of students. Martin (2003 quoted in student origin address registration is available Pogodzinsky, 2007) went on making a very wherever; the smaller the census units, the more important step in the operational aspect, accurate and useful are the university building a model of optimal tax retaining. recruitment`s analyses data and analysis Practical utility of such a model promises to be obtained. Since in Pogodzinsky`s study the very high, other studies which should have national census system disaggregates data replicated in different contexts, show how fixing collection on multiple blocks of census (census optimal tax worth pursued as a priority. areas of approx. 5,000 people and blocks 1000 to 5000 people) placing the student by 5 Student statuses as a variable and geocoding in very small units allows the regional development disparities equivalence of his status (with the error involved in strategies targeting corresponding to the afferent generalization) markets of recruiting students by with the average status of the census block. universities Data on individual`s average income Not a few, and most early studies were the available in Romania for example, is on county ones which analysed the socio-economic level [Fig. 2], census data though are one level structure of the body of students recruited, more disaggregated (commune) which has an going as further as to draw a socio-economic average demographical size similar to the ones portrait of the modal student they attract and used in Pogodzinsky`s study. The incomplete or the portrait of the target student that they want not fully functional yet geocoding of each for strategic reasons, analysing gaps and what territorial locality seems to be nowadays the real 75 Simona Mălăescu, Cristina Maria Speranza impediment in methodologically recuperating subsequently processed through filters to obtain the gap on the good practices, but on this issue demographic subgroups, which, on recent we will elaborate on a future study centred on experience of enrollment management is most the distance factor in university recruiting likely to enroll or graduate from an university. marketing strategies. For the admission system in Ohio the study of Since the early days of using this trick, it is these authors highlights the merit of spatial known that it's not as if you knew the financial discrepancies between applicants, admitted and background of the student directly but it enrolled plus actual losses till graduation. provides some operational idea (Marble, Mora Given the differences in the manner of selection and Granados, 1997 quoted in Pogodzinsky, of students enrolled, the study presents a 2007). Pogodzinsky's study continues the efforts methodological greater relevance for local of his predecessors Marble et al. (1997) who, as horizon regarding discrepancies between a working practice use data from the census enrolled and graduates than those observed blocks (1000-5000 people) which are between different stages of admission.
Fig. 2. The available spatial (county) level for individual average income data in Romania (2010)
The conceptual model proposed in the analyses or procedures are in order: screening same year by Herris and Marble (1997) uses the for admission, comparison between admission basic units of rural and urban census (including levels projected between admission stages, the approx. 200 households) so that extrapolation of performance of the phase of that year or of such as any individual in this unit shows the previous years and adjustment by granting socioeconomic characteristics indicated by the financial support. Depending on the options of census should not be forced. Data related to the university, additional screening is required these subgroups are then passed through filters to narrow the segment on those whose staff which identify the so-called "hot spots" at efforts should focus, once admitted, taking into spatial level-representing target areas account however that the financial resources are suggested for maximum efficiency in limited. Options suggested by authors maybe recruitment activities. The authors propose the represented by: SAT or ACT high scores, certain analysis of population aged between 14 and 17 ethnic groups or certain geographic areas years of these units and extraction of "hot spots" (possibly spatial concentration for maximum because for the Ohio are over 10,000 units and efficiency of marketing efforts). These options population covered of about 600 000 combined in geo-demographic filters allow to individuals. Once these areas established, areas identify such individuals with high SAT scores the model suggests to choose, more traditional but also from areas with socio-economic
76 The challenge of keeping-up: current methodologies in analyzing the students recruiting area by universities background sufficient to support a probable young people have applied for the SAT in the registration. The model proposed by the authors districts is, according to the author, the most (as described by Marble et al., 1997) presents valuable source of information they considering sufficient evidence of best practice applicable to that it’s there that recruitment efforts must be the Romanian university system that can be directed. Another practical use can be borrowed, and that's why we`ve chose to represented by census data analysis of average describe it in detail. household income in developing a decision to Read, Higgs and Taylor (2005) used establish targets for financial aid (Marble et al., Experian system`s MOSAICTM to assess the 1997 quoted in Pogodzinsky, 2007). socio-demographic level, which classifies households and neighbourhoods in 52 distinct 6 Shortcomings and methodological lifestyles. Other studies have used socio- limitations in modelling student’s demographic categories to identify future lifestyles. In RUMB (and U.S.) data based on recruitment internationally and in zip-code or post code allow realization of a Romania profile of student’s income on post code based Alm and Winters in 2009 point also in on the standard index of deprivation or other American educational space the methodological geo-demographic indicators which are recorded. deficiency of data collection on student One of the secondary objectives of Ayad’s recruitment, stressing the need to include more study (2007) was the analysis of the variable relevant intra-state geographical data. This goal status of recruited students and practical steps in is necessary because most studies focus on this direction, aiming to characterize the interstate migration for education, although contingent recruited in 2004 according to family much of the recruited students belong to the income (from census data and place of state in which the institution is located. In the residence) and evaluation of recruitment in 2004 analysis of potential practical implications of compared with the resulted models. For GIS and of limitations of its use in marketing geocoding (pinpointing address on the map) was education, Read, Higgs, Taylor (2005)`s study used the address of each student enrolled in that stresses that the results of the investigations year based on street maps. It aimed to using GIS can be a valuable starting point in characterize also schools in the district in terms carrying out further studies based on qualitative of average household income, the number of methodology that can better explain the college bound students (SAT takers) or identified patterns. The authors stress the proximity to university under study. usefulness of profiling a particular area in terms Raised since 1997 by Herris and Marble, of students recruited, and not only of the student and developed in 2007 independently by Ayad, recruited. The authors appreciated in 2005 that the idea of selecting the recruited after a certain there are relatively few studies to provide data selection criterion (eg, SAT scores) to achieve in university admission records, GIS and geo- certain strategic objectives, financial or demographic data available to activate on educational, of elitisation of formed students competitive higher education market. In body represents an important course of action. subsequent years, however, significant progress Knowing the average household income is being made in this direction. segment characteristic to most of the students it For some ex-socialist states such as recruits, Ayad's study suggests further guidance Romania, to these limits are added other much of recruitment and marketing efforts only to less subtle, having generally two types of areas which the analysis data show as a constraints: that there is no database on students substantial segment respectively consistent. In recruited as those held by most American addition the author overlapped the SAT scores, universities, for example, respectively: currently density and average income per household on existing an incomplete representation of the the same map. The map that shows how many entire national space allowing automatic
77 Simona Mălăescu, Cristina Maria Speranza mapping based on the geocoding of each of the home, offering a temporary solution if not an recruited student of a series of data – exact image of the socio-economic background hypothetically talking about layout of of recruited students, at least that operational information of such a nature. To these are added idea that Marble et al. (1997 quoted in other secondary limits that currently make Pogodzinsky, 2007) were speaking about. impossible the transfer of best methodological Currently, students recruiting area mapping can practices or benefit from theoretical progress in be represented as in Figure 3 for all universities this field, namely the census data recorded at a (based on student recruited data according to spatial scale especially in urban (and of most Ministerial Order No. 164/13.03.2012) if at interest in recruiting) areas at a much larger unit least, in the statistically processing of the (if disaggregated at all) than in other states recorded data regarding the geographical origin recognizing that a complete representation of of recruited students, as in the case of Babeş- each address in Romania would not supplement Bolyai University practice on students enrolled information by simply integrating major in the first year in 2010/2011 academic year, recruitment data with those obtained in the (only) the variable/level "county" is processed. census on socio-economic background of Recent national regulations (M.O. 164/2012) certain territorial census units such the ones requiring collecting a much larger number of made in Pogodzinsky's study (2007) or Marble data on students enrolled admitted candidates et al. (1997). In other words, there are while increasing the amount of effort, allow, in "transition" solutions till having complete data terms of recruitment universities policies, more such as the mentioned above, substituting data useful student`s origin data such as the exact as those of socioeconomic status or education of address and sometimes information about the recruited student's family by census data on parents‘ professional background. lesser census unit which corresponds to his
Fig. 3. The regional students` recruitment area of Babeş-Bolyai University Cluj Napoca by administrative units in 2010
78 The challenge of keeping-up: current methodologies in analyzing the students recruiting area by universities
Fig. 4. The volume and structure of the Regional Higher Education Supply in Transylvania (2008-2009)
On the opposite side, there are data previous years are used [Fig. 1] (the case of available that we would say were those born before 1990 and after 1991-1992 in "underutilized" (if not used at all) by Romania, as recruitment row contingents these universities, school population and data data would have an informational value almost collected on performance in final examinations unusable), or predictions are made using the collected by the School District that would latest available statistical data on that year’s allow universities to better focus their marketing cohort (these data available for the years 2011 efforts to attract a particular student profile, allow a certain prediction of the situations of also could afford to observe where competition graduates in 2012 as recruitment base) is placed in relation to the recruitment of respectively some corrections are done for graduates of high schools in the local or results loss based on analysis of previous regional [Fig. 4] market (for example, see the cohort. This is the manner in how incipiently it study by Ayad in 2007 mentioned above). can be used, given the available data, the If not for a national prestige university such mapping of current recruitment veins, using as the Babes-Bolyai University which now statistics only at county level and yet strictly on occupies a position with a comfortable school population recruited volume, not in their advantage in recruiting graduates in Cluj previously school cycle completed` County, for example, things are not the same performance – because, given the generational with other universities present on the local or gap volumes of school population cohorts born regional market to offer similar studies for before and after 1990 (during the period of which such analyses would provide a very banned abortions and after eradicating this useful input information. Given the temporal restriction and liberalization of contraceptive gap between the communication of data methods) for the universities in Romania for at regarding the total of high-school graduates and least a few years this is the main challenge to the moment when such data are needed to target which both market policies but also the resizing some recruiting strategies, students data from of activity planning need to adjust.
79 Simona Mălăescu, Cristina Maria Speranza
References [10] JAMES, R., BALDWIN G., COATES, H., KRAUSE, KL, MCINNIS, C., (2004), Analysis [1] ALM, J., WINERS, J., (2009), Distance and of Equity Groups in Higher Education 1991- intrastate college student migration, Economics 2002, Centre for the Study of Higher of Education Review, No. 28, pp. 728-738. Education, University of Melbourne. [2] AYAD, Y., (2007), Challenges in Student [11] LOWE, J., VITERITO, A., (1989), Differential Recruitment for Educational Institution: Spatial Attraction of Private Colleges and Materials and Methods, ESRI UC. Universities in the United states, Economic [3] BOHANNON T., (2007), Predictive Modelling Geography, 65, pp. 208-215. in Higher Education, SAS Global Forum, 2007. [12] POGODZINSKI, P., (2007), GIS Analysis of [4] CHOI, S. ŞI WANG, P., (2006), Using GIS and University Enrolment Using Census Data and Modelling to Improve Small Area School GeoCoding, ESRI Proceedings available on Enrolment Projections, Paper at the ESRI http://proceedings.esri.com/library/userconf/edu International User Conference, San Diego, c07/educ/papers/pap_1410.pdf in October 2006. 2010. [5] CHRISTIE, R., FERRIS, M., (2004), Spatial [13] MARBLE, D., MORA, M., GRANADOS, G., Analysis for Enrolment Planning in Higher (1997), Applying GIS Technology and Education available on: Geodemographics to College and University http://proceedings.esri.com/library/userconf/ed Admissions Planning: Some Results from the uc04/papers/pap5072.pdf on April 2011. Ohio State University, available on [6] DEVALAPURA, L., (2009), Analysis of http://proceedings.esri.com/library/userconf/pro Matriculation Trends at Ohio University, c97/proc97/to550/pap501/p501.htm in October Doctoral Thesis, Ohio University available on 2010. https://etd.ohiolink.edu/ap:0:0:APPLICATION [14] READ, P. HIGGS, G., TAYLOR G., (2005), _PROCESS=DOWNLOAD_ETD_SUB_DOC The potential and barriers to the use of _ACCNUM:::F1501_ID:ohiou1204512881,atta geographical information system for marketing chment on April 2011. applications in higher educational institutions, [7] HANEWICZ, C. (2009), Identifying Student Marketing Intelligence and Planning, Vol. 23, Retention Patterns using GIS Technology, pp. 30-42. Management of Engineering and Technology, [15] SCHOFER, J. P., (1975), Determining optimal pp. 2231-2239. college locations, Higher Education, 4, pp. 227- [8] HEAT, B. HILL, R. CIARALLO, F., (2009), A 232. survey of Agent-Based Modelling practices [16] SMITH, S. SPINELLI, J., ZHOU (2002), (January 1998 to July 2008), Journal of Geographic Patterns of Student Enrolment in Artificial Societies and Social Simulation, 12, Ohio’s State – Assisted Universities, Ohio available http://jasss.soc.ac.uk/12/4/9.html on Journal of Science, 102, 34-39. October 2010. [17] SPINELLI, J. (2002), Geographic patterns of [9] HERRIS, J., MARBLE, D., (1997), A Model student enrolment in Ohio’s State-assisted for the Use of GIS Technology in College and universities (1), The Ohio Journal of Science, Unniversity Admission Planning, ESRI Vol. 102, pp. 34-39 on Proceedings 1997. http://hdl.handle.net/1811/23925 on April 2011.
80 Geographia Napocensis Anul VII, Nr. 2, 2013
METODE DE ANALIZĂ A ACCESIBILITĂŢII POPULAŢIEI LA MIJLOACELE DE TRANSPORT ÎN COMUN. STUDIU DE CAZ: MUNICIPIUL IAŞI
1 LUCIAN ROŞU
Abstract: Metode de analiză a accesibilităţii populaţiei la mijloacele de transport în comun. Studiu de caz: Municipiul iaşi. This paper focuses on analyzing accessibility of population at public transport network from Iaşi Municipality using GIS. Public transport network of Iaşi Municipality is characterized by a radial evolution, causing an issue for peripheral districts, which are not as accessible as the rest of territory. Present urban public transport, analyzed by different statistical methods (Huff interactional model, Thiessen polygon, theoretical accessibility) and visualized using GIS techniques highlights deficiency for a major procent of population, especially at the outer city districts. Used methods, applied from a quantitative point of view, focuses on probability of interaction between population and public transport network, identifying fully functional service areas and also, areas where there is a lack of accessibility.
Cuvinte cheie: accesibilitate, probabilitate de interacţiune, analiză cantitativă, SIG, mobilitate
1 Introducere Kiev, Budapesta) (Scheurer, 2008). Aceste Reţeaua de transport în comun reprezintă puternice variaţii ale utilizării transportului în un sistem complex public sau privat ce trebuie comun sunt influenţate de politicile şi să satisfacă în mod egal nevoiele de mobilitate mentalităţile populaţiei, de morfostructura ale populaţie unui sistem urban (Dragu & aşezărilor urbane dar şi de competitivitatea în Roman, 2011). Oraşele şi arealele metropolitane termeni de viteză şi preţ, accesul populaţiei şi reprezintă centre ale diverselor activităţi ce conecti vitatea la întreaga reţea. necesită un sistem eficient şi convenabil pentru În acelaşi timp, accesibilitatea, raportată la a transporta persoane. Densitatea mare a rolul reţelelor infrastructurii de transport activităţilor urbane fac necesare utilizarea la semnifică uşurinţa cu care bunurile sau scară a sistemelor de transport cu capacitate persoanele pot ajunge dintr-un loc t într-un loc j mare (autobuz, tramvai, microbuz,metrou etc.). apelând la mijloacele de transpor. Astfel, Transporturile în comun sunt mult mai accesibilitatea este o expresie a ofertei de avantajoase economice, mai eficiente din punct mobilitate de care ar putea beneficia societatea de vedere energetic şi al spaţiului consumat. ca întreg sau populaţia, ca individ într-un Mai mult, transportul în comun oferă anumit spaţiu, fiind astfel o consecinţă a oportunitate tuturor cetăţenilor să acceseze acţiunilor de amenajare a teritoriului (Raicu & serviciile, în timp ce în cazul utilizării maşinilor Popa, 2009). mare parte a populaţiei este limitată. Dar, Aşadar, orasele au nevoie şi se bucură de semnificaţia transportului public în ţările beneficiile transportului în comun oferind o dezvoltate variază foarte mult. Transportul mobilitate mai mare pentru întreaga populaţie în public este utilizat de 2% din populaţie în contextul unui polarizări diverse a serviciilor. Atlanta sau Los Angeles, 4-5% în Brisbane sau Dar, sistemul de transport nu este întotdeauna în Perth, 7% în Melbourne sau Sidney, 14-16% în corelaţie cu modificările apărute în constituţia oraşele europene nordice, 26-31% în oraşe morfologică şi economică a unui sistem urban, precum Barcelona, Vienna, sau în proporţie de aici intervenind analiza accesibilităţii populaţiei 35-45% în oraşele din Europa de Est (Bucureşti, la transportul în comun. 1 Universitatea”Alexandru Ioan Cuza”, departamentul de Geografie, blvd. Carol I nr 20, 700505, Iaşi, România, [email protected] 81 Lucian Roşu
2. Materiale şi metode rămas în mare parte neschimbată, doar introducerea transportului privat ameliorează 2.1 Evoluţia sistemului de transport în comun conexiunile centrului cu periferia. Chiar şi aşa, în Iaşi cartiere cu locuinţe individuale (Obreja, Pentru a întelege şi pentru a analiza Aviaţiei, Ţicău, Galata, Tătăraşi) sunt slab situaţia actuală a transportului în comun în polarizate de axele de transport în comun. (fig. Municipiul Iaşi este imperios necesar o trecere 1). În prezent, reţeaua de transport public nu a în revistă a evoluţiei axelor de transport, suferit transformări de ordin cantitativ, traseele evoluţie ce este în relaţie directă cu cea a fiind păstrate în mare parte, în schimb au fost dezvoltării urbane de-a lungul ultimului secol. schimbate din punct de vedere calitativ şi al Cadrul natural (versanţii abrupţi din N oraşului frecvenţei. şi valea subsecventă a Bahluilui) a creat Din punct de vedere al distribuţiei staţiilor premisele unei dezvoltări radiale ale reţelei de transport în comun, în Muncipiul Iaşi exista rutiere. Mai mult, cele 2 axe comerciale un număr de 121 de staţii pe ambele sensuri de orientate VNV-ESE (drumul Bahluiului) şi N-S circulaţie (242 pe ambele sensuri) (Fig.2). (Marea Baltică-Marea Neagră), au favorizat o Acestea relevă caracterul tentacular al reţelei, dezvoltare tentaculară a aşezării. Astfel, nivelul fiind vizibile axele ce duc spre terasa Breazu administrativ şi comercial au fost fixate de (N-V), Complex Carrefour Era (V) Rond Cug centralitatea oferită de axele de transport la acea (S), rond Bucium în S-E şi rond Dancu şi Ţuţora vreme. Cei 2 factori menţionaţi anterior au dus în E. Şi în acest caz se observă foarte bine la dezvoltarea puternică a axelor E-V iar axa dezvoltarea coerenta pe axa E-V şi foarte slabă NW-SE a fost dezavantajată de versanţii pe axa N-S şi NV-SE. Dintr-o primă analiză abrupţi. Apariţia mijloacelor de transport în zona centrală pare bine deservită, aici fiind comun urban (tramvai-1900) au rolul de a creşte concentrată şi mare parte a activităţii conectivitatea între centru şi periferii, dar în administrative şi comerciale. Zonele periferice, acelaşi context tentacular. În perioada în special cele cu locuinţe individuale sunt cele postbelică, sistematizarea urbană a remediat mai defavorizate din acest punct de vedere. structura strict radiară, cu una de tip circular- Centralitatea cartierelor este direct condiţionată radiară şi polinucleară (Stoleriu, 2008). Dar, de nivelul servirii cu mijloace de transport în politicile urbane ce au urmat (urbanizarea comun, influenţând în primul rând locuitorii cu excesivă) au centralizat reţeaua de transport şi venituri mici şi medii, dependenţi de mobilitatea au izolatcartierele periferice, legându-le doar cu urbană dar condiţionând şi caracterul zonele industriale (Stoleriu O. , 2008). urban/rural al cartierelor din Iaşi. Navetismul industrial şi crearea cartierelor industriale din S-V oraşului mută centrul 2.2 Materiale economic al oraşului şi favorizează legăturile E- Studiul a fost realizat atât prin analiza în V, rupând legăturile între N şi S oraşului teren, dar mai ales prin analiza materialului (Fig.1). Totuşi, per ansamblu, nivelul de servire bibliografic existent şi a prelucrării şi al transportului în comun creşte. Modificări ale interpretării datelor statistice existente la nivelul axelor de transport s-au putut realiza în zonele sistemului urban pentru a înţelege evoluţia, sistematizate (S Iaşului), dar centrul oraşului situaţia prezentă şi viitoare soluţii pentru este defavorizat datorită caracterului istoric al transportul în comun. tramei stradale (străzi înguste, întortocheate). Studiul de teren s-a realizat prin corectarea După 1990 se conservă raportul de echipare şi datelor statistice existente (corectarea reţelei modernizare puternică a zonelor centrale şi rutiere existente), poziţionarea în sistemul urban muncitoreşti în defavoarea cartierelor cu a staţiilor de transport în comun şi verificarea locuinţe individuale. Deşi funcţia terţiară se datelor statistice în realitatea din teren. intesifică şi polii de cerere se diversifică şi schimbă, situaţia transportului de comun a
82 Metode de analiză a accesibilităţii populaţiei la mijloacele de transport în comun. Studiu de caz: municipiul Iaşi
Fig. 1. Sistemul de transport în comun actual corelat cu evoluţia intravilanului în Municipiul Iaşi
Pentru realizarea obiectivelor studiului În urma analizei realizată din punct de actual s-au utilizat o serie de materiale vedere statistic s-au utilizat mai multe metode cartografice: PUG Iaşi 1999 (corectat), imagini de analize specifice elementelor cantitative: satelitare prelucrate din Google Earth (2009) -interpolarea punctelor (staţiilor) de precum şi alte resurse cartografice de pe internet transport în comun utilizând funcţia IDW (www.bing.com,dwww.norc.ro). (greutatea distanţei inverse) esteo metodă ce Datele statistice, formate din reţeau rutieră conferă valori punctelor necunoscute utilizând la nivelul intravilanului Municipiului Iaşi, seturile de puncte cunoscute. Valoarea punctelor populaţia pe scară de bloc (1992), clădirile din necunoscute este reprezentată de gerutatea intravilan, delimitarea cartierelor (după Stoleriu sumei valorilor cunoscute. Oana, 2008), amplasarea staţiilor de transport -densitatea populaţiei utilizând metoda public au ca şi sursă iniţială Primăria Iaşi şi Kernel reprezintă o metodă de estimare a Oficiul de Gis şi Cadastru. Acestea au fost probabilităţii densităţii în funcţie de punctele georeferenţiate în proiecţie locală WGS 1984, cunoscute. Valorile sunt foarte apropiate de cele apoi corectate la nivelul anului 2011 în urma oferite de histograme. statisticilor existente, observaţiilor de teren şi -densitatea staţiilor de transport în comun bibliografiei parcurse de autor. utilizând poligoanele Thiessen este o metodă prin care, conectând fiecare staţie de transport în 2.3 Metode comun cu cea mai apropiată, arată aria de Accesibilitatea şi rezultatele ei derivate pot influenţă a fiecărei staţii de transport în comun. fi văzute ca un concept abordat mai degrabă de Acestor arii de influenţă li s-a atribuit valorile matematicieni şi statisticieni, fiind o modalitate densităţii populaţiei. cantitativă pentru a analiza din punct de vedere -distanţa până la cea mai apropiată staţie de geografic sistemul de transport şi accesibilitatea transport în comun ia în calcul 2 variabile acestuia (Dragu, Ştefănică, & Burciu, 2011). localizarea populaţiei (georeferenţiată într-un
83 Lucian Roşu sistem de referinţă) şi amplasarea staţiilor de mari diferenţieri. Cea mai mare parte a transport în comun. Distanţa euclidiană calculată populaţiei este grupată în cartierele din S-V automat reliefează într-o mare măsură arealele bine Municipiului Iaşi, cartiere construite în perioada deservite şi cele prost deservite pe anumite clase de postbelică pentru în urma planului de urbanizare valori. Clasele de valori au fost modificate utilizând şi industrializare a regimului comunist. Cartiere metoda pragurilor naturale (jenks) dar şi limite precum Dacia, Alexandru cel Bun, Galata sau vizuale puternice (100, 200 m). Podu Roş ajung să înregistreze densităţi foarte -populaţia cumulată evidenţiază de această mari ale populaţiei (fig. 3). Şi în partea de N-E dată măsura masei demografice aflată în relaţie este concetrată populaţia, în special în cartierul directă cu distanţa. Astfel, utilizând cele 7 clase de blocuri Tătăraşi. Acestea reprezintă cele mai de valori se evidenţiază poziţionarea în teritoriu mari nuclee de populaţie din Municipiul Iaşi. a populaţiei (masa demografică) în raport direct Celelalte cartiere, reprezentate în deosebi prin cu distanţele faţă de mijloacele de transport locuinţe individuale, spaţii administrative, îndcomun. economice, laice, universitare sau industriale, concentrează o mai mică parte a populaţiei. Zona centrală precum şi zona N N-E a oraşului prezintă valori mici ale populaţiei datorită factorilor istorici şi condiţiilor naturale ce nu au permis construirea de locuinţe colective. De asemenea, se remarcă zona industrială, cu valori foarte mici ale spaţiului locuit, precum şi cartiere rezidenţiale (zona Breazu, Bucium) (fig.3). Acestea nu pot fi cuantificate, fiind de Fig. 2. Modelul lui Huff multe ori reşedinţe auxiliare. Practic masele demografice ce trebuiesc preluate de mijloacele -probabilitatea de interacţiune între de transport în comun sunt identificate în zona S cetăţeni şi staţiile de transpot în comun (modelul a oraşului, acestea tranzitând oraşul spre zonele lui Huff) presupune identificarea unei de lucru/studiu/comerciale ce sunt identificate în probabilităţi de accesare de către un cetăţean a cea mai mare parte în zona centrală şi de N a unei staţii de transport în comun (variază între 0 oraşului. Totuşi, în ultimii ani, au apărut alţi poli şi 1 ) în funcţie de distanţă şi importanţa staţiei de polarizare, prin crearea unor nuclee utilizând următoarea formulă: economice (zona comercială Carrefour Era) ce Această metodă evidenţiază au dus la o dispersie mai mare a concentrării comportamentul spaţial al unui consumator faţă activităţilor economice. de un anumit serviciu în funcţie de localizare (accesibilitate) şi importanţa acelui serviciu b. Distribuţia staţiilor de transport în comun (Pick, 2005) În urma evoluţiei sistemului urban, Datele obţinute au fost procesate cu transportul în comun a fost în strânsă ajutorul mai multe softuri precum ArcGis 9.3 dependenţă de infrastructura rutieră şi punctele varianta student, AutoCAD, CoredDRAW X3, de deservire. Astfel, principalele axe de Microsoft Excel. transport în comun sunt cele ce pornesc din V (Canta, Păcurari, Piaţa Dacia şi depou RATP), 3. Rezultate având avantajul lăţimii mari a carosabilului dar 3.1. Distribuţia populaţiei şi a staţiilor de şi nevoile de deservire a populaţiei mari din transport în comun zonă. De asemenea axele ce pornesc din S a. Distribuţia populaţiei (capăt CUG), E (rond Dancu, Tătăraşi) converg Datorită unor cumuli de factori istorici, şi acestea spre zonele centrale ale oraşului. politici şi unor condiţii naturale, distribuţia Densitatea cea mai mare a staţiilor de transport populaţiei în Municipiul Iaşi prezintă foarte în comun se regăseşte în nodurile de intersecţie
84 Metode de analiză a accesibilităţii populaţiei la mijloacele de transport în comun. Studiu de caz: municipiul Iaşi ale marilor bulevarde (intersecţia Podu Roş, comun, cum ar fi cele de la Minerva, Mircea cel Podu de Piatră, Fundaţie sau Bucşinescu) şi nu Bătrân, Flora, Zimbru sau dr. Savini au o arie de neapărat în zonele cu cea mare densitate a recrutare mult mai mare, decât altele precum populaţiei. Astfel, undele staţii de transport în (Pasaj ACB, Ţesătura).
Fig. 3. Densitatea populaţiei încadrată în poligoanele Thiessen pe staţii de transport în comun
3.2 Deservirea staţiilor de transport reţelei de transport. Valorile mici din arealele cu a. Populaţia cumulată la 100/200 m densitate mare se datorează în primul rând unei Pentru a vedea utilizarea teoretică a staţiilor reţele de transport în comun diversificată de transport în comun, s-a luat în calcul distanţa (noduri rutiere) (Podu Roş) (fig. 4). De de 100 m şi 200 m faţă de staţiile de transport în asemenea, mai departe de distanţa de 200 de m comun şi interacţiunea populaţie cu staţiile de de staţiile de transport în comun se regăseşte transport în comun. Valorile cele mai ridicate 50% din populaţia Municipiului Iaşi. Cele mai ale utilizării potenţiale ale staţiilor de transport slab deservite areale demografice de către în comun sunt în zonele cu densitate ridicată a staţiile de transport în comun se regăsesc în populaţiei şi cu densitate scăzută a reţelei de cartierele rezidenţiale (Bucium, Breazu) dar şi transport în comun. Astfel, valorile cele mai în cele cu construcţii individuale (Ţicău, mari (10.000 locuitori per staţie-200 m) sunt în Oancea, Galata case). Totuşi, cea mai mare cartierele din S oraşului (Alexandru cel Bun, parte a populaţiei ce este deservită la o distanţă Dacia, Păcurari, Tătăraşi) acolo unde valorile, mai mare de 200 m se regăsesc în zonele cu atât pentru 100 cât şi pentru 200 de m depăşesc densitate ridicată (Dacia, Alexamdu). Din cu mult valorile medii înregistrate la nivelul această medotă de analiză poate fi apreciată întregului oraş. Intensitatea utilizării staţiilor masa demografică ce este deservită de staţiile de este puternică în comparaţie cu zona centrală transport în comun dar şi spaţiile aflate la o (unde deservirea este bună). Aici se observă distanţă mai mare de 200 m de staţiile de mijloc nevoia de mărire a frecvenţei mijloacelor de de transport în comun. transport în comun sau găsirea de alternative ale 85 Lucian Roşu
Fig. 4. Deservirea staţiilor de transport public în comun în Municipiul Iaşi
asemenea rupturi ale accesibilităţii. Zona b. Distanţa euclidiană centrală, cartierul Sf. Andrei (fig. 5) au şi ele un Pentru a aprecia mai bine proximitatea deficit de deservire a mijloacelor de transport în populaţiei faţă de mijloacele de transport în comun, în deosebi datorită străduţelor comun s-a utilizat metoda distanţei euclidiene întortocheate şi a pantelor mari). Şi în interiorul până la cea mai apropiată staţie de transport în cartierelor se observă anumite areale aflate la comun. S-a considerat că distanţele până la 300 distanţe mari (>300 m) de cea mai apropiată de metri sunt echitabile, iar ce este peste 300 de staţie de transport (zona parcului Voievozilor). metri reprezintă o valoare mare faţă de Metoda folosită identifică foarte bine arealele standardele unui nucleu urban (Scheurer, 2008). cele mai slab deservite. Astfel, din această analiză reiese că zonele centrale sunt cele mai bine angrenate în sistemul c. Populaţia cumulată de transport public, dar şi cartierele ce sunt Populaţia cumulată este în corelaţie directă traversate de marile bulevarde (Păcurari, Canta, cu distanţa până la cea mai apropiată staţie, dar Alexandru, Podu Roş). În schimb, arelele cele este o metodă mai puternic din punct de vedere mai slab deservite sunt reprezentare de vizual. Reprezentarea cartografică arată unde este cartierele de locuinţe individuale din zonele poziţionată demografic populaţia în funcţie de periferice ale oraşului (fig. 5). Locuitorii distanţa până la cea mai apropiată staţie. Astfel, şi cartierului Ţicău au de străbătut distanţe în linie prin această metodă sunt identificate masele dreaptă de la 500-1000 m până la cea mai demografice cele mai bine angrenate în sistemul apropiată staţie de transport în comun. Acelaşi transportului public precum şi masele demografice lucru se poate observa şi în cazul cartierului aflate la periferia sistemului de transport. Practic, Oancea sau a cartierului Galata Case, unde zonele cele mai favorabile accesibilităţii la reţeaua de transport public în comun este la transportul public sunt acelea unde se întâlnesc distanţă mare faţă de locuinţele cetăţenilor. În axele de transport (Podu Roş, Podul de Piatră, interiorul sistemului urban, se regăsesc de Fundaţie, Bucşinescu). Valorile populaţiei de
86 Metode de analiză a accesibilităţii populaţiei la mijloacele de transport în comun. Studiu de caz: municipiul Iaşi
Fig. 5. Distanţa euclidiană peste 250.000 locuitori sunt cuprinse în arelale slab deservite de transportul public. Aceleaşi zone Tabel 1. Raportul dintre distanţa până la cea mai ies în evidenţă (Ţicău, Sărărie, Săulescu, Galata apropiată staţie de transport în comun şi masa case, Oancea, Sf. Andrei) prin populaţia care se demografică în Muncipiul Iaşi află la cea mai mare distanţă de staţiile de transport în comun. În schimb, zonele cu o Distanţa Masa % din pop densitate mare a populaţiei sunt din acest de (m) demografică 50 11081 3,4 vedere bine deservite, cartierele de blocuri din S 100 48985 15,3 fiind în cea mai mare parte în apropierea staţiilor 200 161444 50,41 de transport (fig. 6). Prin această hartă se pot 300 251303 78,5 observa culoarele de populaţie bine deservite de 400 293050 91,5 transportul public (marile bulevarde, axele V-E). 500 309922 96,8 Pentru a observa relaţia dintre distanţa parcursă şi 750 317865 99,3 numărul cetăţenilor, s-a realizat un tabel 1). Astfel, 1000 318986 99,6 mai bine de 50% din totalul populaţiei se află în arealul de 200 de m de cea mai apropiată staţiea, Putem spune că, cea mai mare parte a peste 20% se află la mai mult de 300 de m de cea populaţiei este bine deservită de mijloacele de mai apropiată staţie, sub 10% aflându-se la o transport în comun, dar zonele periferice, cu distanţă mai mare de staţii de transport în comun. locuinţe individuale sau zonele cu infrastructura
87 Lucian Roşu
Fig. 6. Populaţia cumulată până la cea mai apropiată staţie de transport în comun
de transport deficitară au mari carenţe în a 3.3 Modelul lui Huff de interacţiune între deservi populaţia Municipiului Iaşi. Metodele cetăţeni şi staţiile de tranport în comun folosite iau în calcul doar valorile teoretice şi Modelul lui Huff ia în considerare estimările bazate pe metodele statistice utilizate, importanţa serviciului şi localizarea populaţiei. fiind doar aproximări teoretice ale accesibilităţii Astfel, importanţa staţiilor este dată de numărul şi nivelului de deservire a populaţiei cu de linii de transport în comun care trec prin mijloacele de transpotr în comun. Chiar şi aşa, această staţie. Conform datelor se pot observa anumite areale cu un deficit de (http://www.ratp-iasi.ro/ ), staţiile de tranport în deservire destul de mare. Acestea sunt comun pot fi frecventate de o linie (staţiile reprezentate de zonele periferice, cu o densitate Frumoasa, Eternitate) până la 9 linii (staţia scăzută a populaţiei, cu locuinţe individuale şi Independeţei), aceste staţii având un coeficient cu o infrastructură deficitară pentru utilizarea de atracţie mult mai mare, atrăgând cetăţenii de mijloacelor de transport în comun. Acest lucru la o distanţă mai mare. În calcul se ia şi distanţa are o influenţă decisivă asupra gradului de până la cea mai apropiată staţie. Probabilitatea unitate teritorială: de la opoziţia centru-periferie de interacţiune variază între valorile 1 se trece la o segregare N-S a intravilanului (probabilitatea maximă) şi valoarea 0 (Stoleriu, 2008). Astfel, zonele cu legături slabe (probabilitatea minimă). Astfel, arealele cu spre celelalte zone ale oraşului tind să devină valorile cele mai mari ale probabilităţii de rurale (Ţicău, Oancea) iar nodurile de transport interacţiune vor fi în zonele frecventate de multe devin poli economici (Carrefour Felicia, Podu linii, aflate la distanţă mare faţă de alte staţii de Roş). transport în comun.
88 Metode de analiză a accesibilităţii populaţiei la mijloacele de transport în comun. Studiu de caz: municipiul Iaşi
Valorile cele mai mari se regăsesc în distanţa, dar şi numărul mic de conexiuni făcând apropierea staţiilor din partea de N-E a oraşului ca aceste zone să aibă un grad de deservire mic. ( Flora, Dr. Savini, Tătăraşi Sud), S (zona CUG, Şi în interiorul sistemului urban se observă Nicolina), si V (cartierele Dacia-Alexandru şi deficienţe în cadrul deservirii, zonele aflate la Canta-Păcurari), dar şi unele areale centrale mijlocul distanţei între 2 staţii de transport în (zona Gară, Independeţei, Fundaţie). comun având valori reduse de interacţiune. Arealele cu probabilitatea cea mai mică de Staţiile cu o singură linie de transport în comun interacţiune rămân cartierele periferice (Ţicău, oferă o probabilitate foarte mică cetăţenilor de a Sărărie, Moara de Vânt, Galata case), atât fi accesate (Podu de Fier) (fig. 7).
Fig. 7. Modelul lui Huff de interacţiune a cetăţenilor şi a staţiilor de transport în comun
Practic, aceste valori reprezintă gradul de 4. Concluzii coeziune teritorială şi de conectare a populaţiei Analiza realizată prin mai multe metode scoate la întreg sistemul de transport în comun. în evidenţă mai multe puncte tari şi puncte slabe ale Această metodă evidenţiază comportamentul sistemului actual de transport în comun. Astfel, spaţial al unui consumator faţă de un anumit putem menţiona că au fost identificate zone complet serviciu în funcţie de localizare (accesibilitate) lipsite de mijloace de transport în comun , acestea şi importanţa acelui serviciu (Pick, 2005). beneficiind doar de legături marginale cu sistemul Modelul lui Huff, reliefează mai degrabă zonele urban, iar distanţa până la cea mai apropiată staţie creşte, probabilitatea de interacţiune scăzând foarte de centralitate maximă a oraşului dintr-o mult. Aceste areale pun în valoare caracterul slab perspectivă a sistemului de transport în comun urbanizat al cartierelor (Ţicău, Moara de Foc, şi evidenţiază spaţiile bine deservite şi cu multe Obreja, Crucea Roşie, Galara). conexiuni către întreg sistemul de transport Densitatea foarte mare a populaţiei din public. cartierele din S Iaşului aglomerează foarte mult liniile de transport în comun, dar, datorită diversităţii mijloacelor de transport (tramvai, autobuz, maxi- 89 Lucian Roşu taxi) conectivitatea cu zona centrală este mai [2] DRAGU, V., ŞTEFĂNICĂ, C., & BURCIU, Ş. ridicată. Totuşi, se remarcă disparităţi mari în (2011). Accesibility study in regard to Bucharest interiorul acestor cartiere, datorită distanţelor mari Underground Network. UPB Sci Bull, Series D, până la cea mai apropiată staţie. 221-236. Nodurile reţelei de transport în comun oferă o [3] PICK, J. (2005). Geographic Information centralitate a locului, creând un echilibru prin System in Business. Redlands: Idea Group formarea unor centri de greutate (economici- Publishing. Ţesătura, Carrefour Felicia). [4] RAICU, Ş., & POPA, M. (2009). Transporturile Nivelul de servire şi integrare spaţială a a şi amenajarea teritoriului - accesibilitate şi diferitelor sectoare de intravilan rămâne foarte slabă, atractivitate. Buletinul AGIR-Transport şi atât prin distanţele mari până la staţii dar şi datorită amenajarea teritoriului, 7-13. unei conexiuni slabe cu sistemul urban. [5] SCHEURER, J. (2008). Spatial Network Analiza cantitativă a accesibilităţii staţiilor de Analysis of Multimodal Transport Systems: transport în comun este o metodă bună de a vedea Developing a Strategic Planning Tool to Assess centralitatea locurilor, conectivitatea reţelei dar mai the Congruence of Movement and Urban ales arealele cu un deficit de deservire a Structure. Perth. transportului public în comun. [6] STOLERIU, O. (2008). Evoluţia uman- geografică şi urbanistică a oraşului Iaşi în Bibliografie perioada postbelică. Iaşi: Terra Nostra. [7] STOLERIU, O. (2008). Localisation des [1] DRAGU, V., & ROMAN, E. (2011). services et mixite fonctionnelle dans la ville de Accesibility of urban public transport network Iasi. Analele Ştiinţifice ale Universităţii "Al. I. component of sustainable development. Qualiti Cuza" Iaşi, 131-144. Research Center, 109-117.
90 Geographia Napocensis Anul VII, Nr. 2, 2013
DRĂGOIASA-TULGHEŞ DEPRESSION ALIGNMENT. APPROACH MODEL FOR THE SMALL DEPRESSIONS OF THE ROMANIANS CARPATHIANS
1 GEORGE-BOGDAN TOFAN
ABSTRACT.- Drăgoiasa-Tulgheş Depression Alignment. Approach Model for the Small Depressions of the Romanians Carpathians. The depressions of Romania have been studied lately from a physical-geographic perspective, as well as from a human perspective, leading to a series of aspects of theoretical and practical nature, such as: the diversity of the depression relief or its genetic and evolutionary complexity, the identification, inventory and classification of all depressions, the localisation of surface and underground water sources, the distribution and composition of plant associations and soil types, the evolution of demographic structures, the social-economic development or the geographic space’s organisation and management. All these studies combined allow for a series of general conclusions regarding their positional or morphological type or other morphographic, morphometric and even statistical aspects.
Key words: small depressions, Eastern Carpathians, volcanic barrage depressions.
1. Introduction also permanent. Depressions hold a special place in the Their morphogenetic, human and economic geographic landscape of our country - territorial characteristics place them in mountain areas geographic units, that are well established, that (Geografia României, vol. III, 1987, p. 16). occupy roughly 30% of the country and stand Being less rugged than the adjacent units and apart from the higher mountain areas, through also more protected, they offered splendid their own physical and economic elements. conditions for population concentration. The depression, a term of Latin origin Human pressure on the landscape is depressio, -onis, according to DEX, is a negative, obvious, so that spectacular mutations within concave relief form, situated at a lower level than the area’s fauna creates a more pronounced the surrounding regions, of varied shapes and discontinuity. sizes. Instead of forests, secondary grassy areas The popular term is „lăsătură”. One must developed, being used as pastures and hay fields mention the fact that, in many cases, the terms or as arable land. Consequently, the ensemble of „depressionary alignment” or „depressionary geographic-physical components was the passageway” are associated with the term natural premis e for the favourability of human mentioned above, when it comes to a succession colonisation of depressions, to which one can of elongated and narrow depressions, semiclosed, add the historical factor, so as to have the exact that go over several river basinets divided by measure of understanding of the complex saddles, separating mountainous massifs or hill humanisation process in the Eastern and mountain ridges. Carpathians. In a geographic sense, depressions, Including both natural as well as social- alongside valley passageways, are first and economic elements, V. Mihăilescu defines the foremost areas of geographic discontinuity in region as „a territory demarcated by exterior the Carpathian mass (V. Mihăilescu, 1969), features (landscape features) and interior detaching themselves from the high mountain (structure and functions), and by creating a unit areas through the landscape’s specificity in derived from the connections between its which man’s activity is extremely intense and components and between them and the whole” (V. 1 Babeş-Bolyai University, Faculty of Geography, 400006, Cluj-Napoca, Romania, e-mail: [email protected] 91 George-Bogdan Tofan
Mihăilescu, 1969), resulting in the fact that „this is Subcarpathians, 46 in the Western Hills, 15 in different from the natural region, which is Mehedinţi Plateau, 41 in the Romanian Plain demarcated and defined solely through natural and 15 in the Western Plain. In the Carpathian facts, and from the anthropic region, defined by Mountains, depressions occupy 23% of their social-economic facts” (I. Donisă, 1977), which surface, in the Subcarpathians 48%, in plateaus means that innermountain depressions can also be 41%, 21% in piedmonts and 30% within plain seen as distinctive „geographic regions”, areas. characterised by complex landscape Within the Eastern Carpathians, unlike the transformation processes. The number and surface other two Carpathian ranges, the depressions are areas of Romanian depression units are impressive. more numerous, representing more than 48% of According to the calculations of N. Popescu the total number of intramountainous (1973), Romania has over 950 depressions, depressions in the country. basinets and depression passageways, claiming The high number of depressions, in roughly 1/3 of the entire territory. conjunction with the fragmentation found in the 336 can be found in the Carpathian Eastern Carpathians led to the existence of Mountains, 118 in the Subcarpathians, 199 in numerous mountain passes, positioned on a the Transylvanian Plateau, 53 in Dobrogei mountain, between two lower areas, enabling Plateau, 52 in the Moldavian Plateau, 74 in the easier connections between Transilvania and Getic Piedmont, 5 in the Curvature Maramureş, and also with Moldova.
Fig. 1. Drăgoiasa-Tulgheş depression alignment. General map.
92 Drăgoiasa-Tulgheş depression alignment. Approach model for the small depressions of the romanians Carpathians
2. The studied area major role in the people’s economic and social Drăgoiasa-Tulgheş depression alignment is lifes on the other. a well individualised unit, made of a string of Another criterium refers to the genetic small depressions (Drăgoiasa, Glodu, Bilbor, variety of depressions and their grouping in Secu, Borsec, Corbu and Tulgheş), situated in certain relief forms. In the Eastern Carpathians, the Central Group of the Eastern Carpathians, differential erosion depression (73% of the total where the crystaline-Mesosoic area of number and 15% of their surface area) and Bistricioarei Mountains (to the east) and the erosional depressions (17% of the total number, Neogene eruptive of the Căliman Mountains (to and 4% of their total surface) are the ones that the west) meet. predominate, tectonic and tectonic-volcanic This suspended innermountain compartment depression having only 10% of their total represents the middle area connecting Dornelor number, but 81% of the surface area. Depression with Giurgeu Depression, whose Tectonic-volcanic or volcanic barrage margins are flanked by Căliman Mountains to the depressions represent only 5% of the total number west and north-west, by the Giurgeului of depression in the Eastern Carpathians, but have Mountains to the south-west, Hăghimaş and 32% of their surface area. They were formed where partially Ceahlău Massif to the south-east, and fractures and peripheral subsidences appeared Bistricioarei Mountains to the east. within the Eastern Carpathians and through From an administrative perspective, the volcanic barrage. area overlaps the territory of Păltiniş, Drăgoiasa, Their maturity phase was during the Catrinari and Glodu villages, part of Panaci Pontian-Lower Cuaternary period (N. Popescu, Commune, Suceava County, followed by Bilbor Depresiunile din România, 1973, vol. Realizări Commune, Secu (part of the town of Topliţa), în Geografia României, p.139-142). Drăgoiasa, the town of Borsec, and Corbu and Tulgheş Bilbor, Secu and Borsec depressions are such communes, Harghita County. areas, that is tectonic-volcanic and volcanic barrage. 3. Method In the territory under scrutiny, there is This scientific endeavour materialised by another genetic type of depression, called proper resorting solely to the regional method, sculptural depressions, formed by differential or alongside the usual approaches (inductive, accelerated erosion in soft materials. deductive, cartographic, mathematical, The aforementioned depressions have two hypothetical, modelling, comparative, types: depressions of differential erosion observational, analytical, synthetic, GIS. (accelerated erosion in nonhomogenous rocks), In the study at hand, the surfaces of the with the facies subtype (contact), such as Pintic analysed depressions resulted from the usage of and Glodu, and accelerated erosion depressions automatic GIS calculations, taking into account in homogenous types, with the confluence type, only the depression space proper. like Corbu and Tulgheş. Through their characteristics, they are highly 4. Results and Discussion individualised within the Carpathian Range, without fully detaching themselves from the A first classification of the depressions adjacent units, but having many common features from our country has to do with their position in with other innermountain epression areas from the regards to the major relief forms, thus resulting Carpathians, but especially with those from the a first classification criterium, positional. Eastern Carpathians. In the study at hand, we classify According to size, there are depression depressions as situated in mountain areas, also basinets, generally small, under 10 km2, and called innermountain or innercarpathian proper depressions, exceeding 10 km2. depression areas, reflecting the fragmentation This dimensional criterium implies an of the Carpathian relief on one hand, and its 93 George-Bogdan Tofan extremely complex operation, therefore many High, on the ridge, erosion processes authors who have classified depression predominate, while down in the depression, we according to size, only took into account the mainly find accumulation processes. Man hearth. In my case, the surface areas of the settled primarily where these two environments analysed depression were calculated using GIS met, with the contact area. methods, taking into account only the Therefore, depressions are well defined depression space proper. areas from a physical-geographic perspective, true „nests” within the mountains, with a Tab. 1. Surface areas of the analysed depressions, special genetic affinity for the surrounding according to different authors mountainous areas, asserting themselves through their amazing historical and social Surface area (km2) personalities. One of the main coordinates of these depressions’ history is man’s permanent connection with the land, of human communities with the historical hearths that they created and worked, and extremely tight B. Szöny, 1958 N. Popescu, 1972 I.S ă ndulache, 2007 Tofan, G. B. 2012 No. Depression and obvious connection as we go back in time, 1 Păltiniş - - - 4.6 1 to the beginning of population. 2 Drăgoiasa 11.5 16.0 - 14.3 Regarding the human pressure felt by the 3 Catrinari - - - 4.7 4 Glodu 12.5 - 6.2 landscape, it seems that it began more recently than 5 Bilbor 15.9 41.0 29.23 38.0 in Dornelor, Giurgeului and Ciucului depressions, 6 Secu - - 11.6 the presence of mountain grasslands, wood and 7 Borsec 48.5 29.0 16.4 20.4 8 Capu Corbului - 6.0 mineral waters determining their economic profile. 9 Corbu - 13.1 The organisation of human communities 10 Tulgheş - 30.02 23.3 that populated and today occupy the space of 11 Pintic - - 4.8 depression areas and their surroundings, took 1 Including Glodu Depression; 2 Appears as Bistricioara Depression, including Corbu, Tulgheş, and Grinţieş; place in a tight and intimate connection with 3 Including Secu Depression. nature and its habitation potential. The geographic position of these areas According to form, depressions can be: influences local life, firstly through a sheltered ellipsoidal, when the length-width ratio does not mountain climate, but also through more exceed 2/1 (for example Bilbor Depression has permanent effects such as temperature roughly 17 km in length, and 7 km in width); inversions, with negative consequences on crops. and depression passageways, when this ratio The mountain slopes that close the hearths, exceeds 5/1 (Capu Corbului-Corbu, Tulgheş- covered by forests, were the basis for the very Pintic). first wood civilisation, while natural pastures Due to the complexity and diversity of the and hayfields, rich and expansive, associated humanisation process, there are a series of with secondary man-made grasslands, enabled differences of typological nature. Consequently, the assertion of a significant number of villages we have „hearth” depressions, having specific as transhumance and local herding settlements, settlement localisation processes, through their functioning as „true places of refuge”, with special role in their evolution, population flows, considerable differences in terms of localisation generated by the capitalisation of natural specificity, altitude variations, evolution stage resources. The depression alignment studied in and current land modelling dynamic, with the this article fits perfectly in this category. addition of the specific styles of the The mountain ridge and the depression humanisation process, (Melinda Cândea, 1996). reveal contradicting physical-geographic The land is the main, coordinating factor for processes. the spatial elements’ interaction, with deep
94 Drăgoiasa-Tulgheş depression alignment. Approach model for the small depressions of the romanians Carpathians implications on the conomic potential, economic In conjuction with the gradual decrease in production, territorial distribution, and on forested surfaces, in depression areas, as well as humanisation. in their economic hinterland, a process The high piedmont levels, either wide or involving the replacement of primary vegetation narrow, situated where depressions and mountain with secondary one (grass lands used as pastures ranges meet have a rugged landscape, with deep or hayfields or even arable land) took place. valleys, with moderately to highly inclined The activities involving forest exploitation, slopes, and with extensive forests, which increase upkeep, protection and management, or those the degree of isolation, exacerbating involving wood processing, generated the most communication problems, limiting settlement diversified humanisation forms within the hearth development and household positioning, the of the depression and in the surrounding mountain development of traditional land usage, and the areas: forestry roads, barracks and forestry lodges, introduction of new forms of utilisation. loading, unloading and storage installations, Terrace levels are the ones that follow, sawmills, etc., some acting as nuclei for future used as arable land as werll as for settlements. polarisation of people and settlements. Next come lower levels corresponding with The diversity of activities based on wood the hearth proper of the depression areas, and processing led to a genuine wood civilisation, in swampy flatlands, with poor drainage, used a strongly related to mountain agriculture and primarily as hayfields, and less as arable land. animal husbandry, especially sheepherding, for The land, with its different morphological, the benefit of the population who conquered morphometric and exposure characteristics, is a extensive areas covered by forests, and fundamental differentiation factor for the natural transforming them in arable or grass lands. and humanised landscapes, with implications Pastures and hayfields, alongside forests, regarding the economic potential, agricultural are valuable natural resources, the backbone of production structure, the degree and manner of animal husbandry, an ancient occupation for the anthropisation. population living in innermountain depressions. Vegetation offers important potential Acting as activity generators and agro- resources for the existing human communities, pastoral humanisation forms, pastures and the vegetal unit that standing out being the hayfields are the main factors for insuring the forest. continuity and the evolution of agriculture and It is a well knit ensemble, backed in its subsidiary activities in innermountain areas, and existence and vigour by extremely favourable also for animal fodder, with low energetic morphological and pedo-climatic conditions, consumption. having an important role in the lives of human The presence of pastures enabled the communities, availing food, shelter and wood, development of sheepherding, in its most stimulating the emergence and development of simple, intuitive form. In almost all the several activities: logging, skidding, on-site and depressions taken into account there are mineral off-site processing,, forest carrriers, etc. water springs, considered as the most important If in the past the depressions were mostly natural riches, well known for their curative covered by forests, a fact quite apparent as properties ever since the 16th century (the massive tracts of land have forest soils and there springs of Borsec), to which the adjacent areas are numerous toponyms depicting the existence of owe their great fame within the country and also deforested places (clearings, burns), starting with abroad, being premises for the emergence and the feudal period, the spatial retreat of forests, due development of spa resorts, as well as for the to deforestations, burnings, clearing, effects of building of a mineral water bottling plant. human pressure, the emergence of the new Extremely significant for human habitation settlements, the development of the agro-pastoral are piedmont forms, hydrographic convergences, economic system, have been the main features of refuge topoclimates and thermal inversions, the the man-forest relationship. pedo-geographic diversity or certain soil and
95 George-Bogdan Tofan underground riches etc. Due to such favourable area stands out through the emergence of mineral elements, mountain depression areas polarised springs, while the smooth sediments contain formation and evolution factors for the important cooal reserves. humanisation processes, being „nuclei” for Therefore, depression spaces are well human habitation, for a permanent human outlined areas, with sunny slopes, with concentration (G. Erdeli, V. Cucu, 2005). numerous elements of favourability: defense, large forests, water, pastures and hayfields for 5. Conclusions animal husbandry, with possibilities for These spaces stand out through a compact underground reserves extraction and processing. „oicumenisation”, without excluding the diversity of habitat types, which are influenced by their well determined social-economic References potential. The variety of such types was also [1] CÂNDEA, MELINDA (1996), Carpaţii influenced by an intense capitalisation, of the Meridionali în sistemul montan românesc. mountain space proper, as well as of the Studiu de Geografie umană, Edit. Universităţii din Bucureşti, Bucureşti, 154 p. mountain interference perimeters, thus giving [2] ERDELI, G., CUCU, V. (2005), România. the answer for the humanisation process’s push Populaţie. Aşezări umane. Economie, Edit. beyond the limits of the depressions. Transversal, Bucureşti, 424 p. Depressions are the ones that polarise [3] Mihăilescu V. (1969), Geografia fizică a economic activities linked to resource României, Edit. Ştiinţifică, Bucureşti, 319 p. capitalisation, whether it is wood or [4] POSEA, Gr. (1977), Consideraţii privind rolul underground resources, or crops, where depresiunilor carpatice şi colinare şi al reţelei biopedoclimatic conditions allow it, or the grass de văi în viaţa şi permanenţa poporului român, lands that go up the mountains and implicitly Studii şi cercetări de Geologie, Geofizică, the storage and processing areas. Geografie, Tomul XXIV, nr. 1, Bucureşti, pp. These have been studied, and the studies 13-22. [5] POPESCU, N. (1972), Depresiunile din enabled a correlated interpretation of the natural România, Rev. Terra, nr. 6, Bucureşti, pp. 47- framework conditions with the social-economic 52. ones, that changed the landscape in innermountain [6] POPESCU, N. (1973), Depresiunile din depressions. România, în vol. Realizări în Geografia Thus, there is a series of papers confirming României, Edit. Ştiinţifică, Bucureşti, pp. 139- the mutations that took place in land usage, land 148. improvement possibilities, the concentration of [7] SĂNDULACHE, I. (2007), Relieful bazinului settlements, their new economic functions, hidrografic Bistricioara, Edit. Universitară tourism development and so on. Bucureşti, 174 p. As these areas become, especially in winter, [8] SZÖNY, B. (1960), Borszek Földrajza, „lakes of cold”, air accumulation, temperature (Depresiunea Borsec), Edit. Academiei, Bucureşti, 120 p. inversions and their influence on vegetation and [9] TOFAN, G. B. (2013), Componenta nordică a pedogenetic processes are factors that have been ulucului depresionar din Grupa Centrală a studied extensively. Carpaţilor Orientali (Drăgoiasa-Glodu- As these are volcanic barrage depressions, at Bilbor-Secu-Borsec-Corbu-Tulgheş), Edit. the end of the Neogene, they held temporary Presa Universitară Clujeană, Cluj-Napoca, 510 lakes, by blocking waterways, becoming regions p. of hydrographic convergence due to the local base [10] *** (1987), Geografia României, III, Carpaţii level. Situated within the Căliman-Harghita Româneşti şi Depresiunea Transilvaniei, Edit. moffette, present due to postvolcanic activity, the Academiei R. S. România, Bucureşti.
96 Geographia Napocensis Anul VII, Nr. 2, 2013
USING VARIOUS VISUALIZATION TECHNIQUES TO OUTLINE VULNERABILITY TO DROUGHT IN THE REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA
1 2 3 2 CONSTANŢA BORONEANŢ , VERA POTOP , MIHAELA CAIAN , JOSEF SOUKUP
Abstract: - Using visualization techniques to outline vulnerability to drought in the Republic of Moldova. This paper is a demonstration of use of various visualization techniques in representing the results on vulnerability to drought at various times scales in the Republic of Moldova. Monthly precipitation totals from simulated data at 10 km horizontal resolution with a regional climatic model RegCM, CRU TS2.10 land observation data set at 0.5ºx0.5º horizontal resolution and observations recorded at 15 meteorological stations in Moldova were used to compare the annual cycle of precipitation, seasonal variability of precipitation, and the spatial and temporal evolution of drought. The Empirical Orthogonal Functions (EOF) analysis was used to identify the principal modes of seasonal variability of precipitation over the country and the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) was calculated as an indicator of drought or wetness at various time scales (1 to 24 months). The period of analysis was 1960-1997. One of the visualization techniques was the Grid Analysis and Display System (GrADS) which is an easy manipulation and visualization tool for gridded and station meteorological data. We used it to represent the RegCM and CRU data on their grids. The kriging interpolation with a Gaussian model variance was selected as a suitable interpolation tool for the spatial distribution of the SPI and EOF over Moldova. For temporal diagram and mapping, Golden Software Surfer 9.0 and ArcGis Software 9.1 were used. The results presented with these visualization tools emphasize precipitation and drought characteristics over Moldova domain.
Key-Words: ArcGIS, Surfer, GrADS, drought, SPI, Republic of Moldova
1. Introduction mitigation measures. Drought is a recurring extreme climate event The Republic of Moldova is among the over land characterized by below-normal eastern European countries affected by extreme precipitation over a period of months to years. It drought. The changes of temperature/ is defined as a dry spell relative to its local precipitation ratio over the year shows that normal condition. Drought is often assessed in although Moldova’s baseline climate only for the terms of meteorological, agricultural, end of summer and the beginning of autumn hydrological, and socio-economic impacts. Large were characterized as semiarid, it is likely that in areas of Europe including Republic of Moldova the future there would be significantly longer and have been affected by drought durin g the 20th deeper dry spells. In particular, according to the century. Recent severe and prolonged droughts results of six General Circulation Model have highlighted Europe’s vulnerability to this experiments based on A2 and B2 SRES natural hazard and alerted the public, scenarios, Moldova will face warmer and wetter governments, and operational agencies about winters and hotter and drier summers and many socio-economic problems accompanying autumns. The projected annual decrease of water shortage and to the need for drought precipitation in association with increase of 1 Centre for Climate Change, Geography Department, University Rovira I Virgili, Tortosa, Spain, [email protected] 2 Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Department of Agroecology and Biometeorology, Prague, Czech Republic, [email protected] 3 Rossby Centre, SMHI, Norrköping, Sweden, [email protected] 97 Constanţa Boroneanţ, Vera Potop, Mihaela Caian, Josef Soukup temperature would likely stimulate strong to characterize seasonal precipitation variability humidity deficit inducing droughts (Corobov and and drought characteristics in terms of temporal Overcenco, 2007). Precipitation is the primary evolution and spatial distribution over the factor controlling the formation and persistence Republic of Moldova. Appropriate manipulation of drought conditions, but evapotranspiration is and visualization techniques like Grid Analysis also an important variable. and Display System (GrADS), Golden Software In the present study, the Standardized Surfer8 and ArcGis Software 9.1 (ArcMap and Precipitation Index (SPI), originally developed ArcCatalog) were used for representing the by McKee et al. (1993) was adopted to assess results. the drought characteristics in the Republic of Moldova based on regional climate model 2. Data and Methods (RegCM) simulations which were compared 2.1 Data with station and CRU observation data sets. Monthly precipitation totals simulated with It is well recognized that Global the Beta version of the regional climatic model Circulation Models (GCMs) can reproduce ICTP_RegCM3 at a horizontal resolution of 10 reasonably well climate features on large scales km have been used. The ICTP_RegCM model (global and continental) but their accuracy was originally developed (Giorgi et al, 1993) decreases when proceeding from continental to and then augmented and used in various regional and local scales because of the lack of reference and scenario simulations (Giorgi et resolution (Meehl et al., 2007). This is al., 1994a, 1994b; Pal et al., 2004). especially true for surface fields, such as The RegCM simulations conducted in precipitation and surface air temperature, which CECILIA-FP6 Project covered a domain are critically affected by topography and land (41.016ºN-50.175ºN; 14.095ºE-36.192ºE) use. However, in many applications, particularly centered over Romania (46ºN, 25ºE) (Boroneant related to the assessment of climate-change et al, 2009; Boroneant et al, 2011; Halenka, impacts, the information on surface climate 2010). The simulations were driven by ERA40 change at regional to local scale is fundamental. Reanalysis double nested from 25 km RegCM One alternative to bridge the gap between run for the period 1960-1997. For this study a the climate information provided by GCMs and domain centered over Republic of Moldova that needed in impact studies is nesting of a fine (45.01ºN-49.01ºN; 26.52ºE-30.48ºE) was scale limited area model (or Regional Climate considered [Fig. 1]. The domain contains 8010 Model, RCM) within the GCM. Such an grid points (90 lat x 89 lon). The topography of approach have been used in the framework of the RegCM represented with GrADS [Fig. 1a] the EU-project CECILIA (Central and Eastern and the real topography of the terrain and Europe Climate Change Impact and station distribution represented with ArcGIS Vulnerability Assessment). The regional [Fig1b] point out on the differences in altitude climatic model ICTP_RegCM3 centered over between the RegCM and reality. The Romania and including the Republic of observation data used to compare the results Moldavia was run at a horizontal resolution of with RegCM simulations were the CRU TS2.10 10 km for the current climate (19601-1990) and data set under SRES A1B scenario for 2021-2050 and (http://www.cru.uea.ac.uk/cru/data/hrg/cru_ts_2 2071-2100 periods (Halenka, 2010, Boroneant .10 ) and 15 station observations. The horizontal et al., 2011). resolution of CRU TS2.10 land observation data In this paper RegCM3 simulations were set is 0.5ºlat x 0.5ºlon. The domain contains 100 compared with observations at 15 grid points (10 lat x 10 lon). The period of meteorological stations in Moldova and gridded analysis is 1960-1997. CRU TS2.10 land observation data set in order
98 Using various visualization techniques to outline vulnerability to drought in the Republic of Moldova
a) b)
Fig. 1 The topography of the RegCM represented with GrADS (a) and the real topography of the terrain and station distribution represented with ArcGIS (b).
2.2 Methods extent of drought on multiple time scales 2.2.1 EOF Analysis (Lloyd-Hughes and Saunders, 2002). It is an To identify the principal modes of excellent tool for research on spatial analysis, variability of seasonal precipitation over the since it removes the temporal effects of various territory of the Republic of Moldova the precipitation magnitudes. The SPI is computed Empirical Orthogonal Functions (EOF) analysis by fitting a probability density function to the (Preisendorfer 1988, von Storch 1995) has been frequency distribution of precipitation summed performed. EOF techniques aims at finding a over the time scale of interest. Each probability new set of variables that captures most of the density function is then transformed into a observed variance from data through a linear standardized normal distribution and the combination of the original variables allowing anomaly strength is classified into 7 categories such a convenient method for studying the [Table 1.]. The SPI was calculated at time scales spatial and temporal variability of the time from 1 to 24-months. At these time scales it is series in a given domain. This method splits the relevant to describe drought conditions for a temporal variance of data into orthogonal range of meteorological, agricultural and patterns called empirical eigenvectors. The EOF hydrological applications and also socio- analysis was performed with the series of economic impact. seasonal precipitation totals of gridded RegCM and CRU data sets and at 15 stations. The EOFs 2.2.3 Visualization techniques were calculated on detrended and standardized In this paper three visualization techniques anomalies. have been used to represent the results on seasonal precipitation variability and 2.2.2 SPI vulnerability to drought at various times scales Drought was analyzed using the SPI in the Republic of Moldova. The Grid Analysis (McKee et al. 1993, 1995) which has been and Display System (GrADS) is an easy considered the most reliable index for manipulation and visualization tool for gridded quantifying the intensity, duration and spatial and station meteorological data
99 Constanţa Boroneanţ, Vera Potop, Mihaela Caian, Josef Soukup
(http://www.iges.org/grads/). It was used to For 3D-diagram and contouring mapping, represent the RegCM simulations and results on Golden Software 8.0 and ArcGis Software 9.1 gridded data. have been used. Geostatistical methods allow the spatial interpolation of meteorological data in Tab. 1. Drought classification by SPI value and relationship with topographic attributes. The corresponding event probabilities basic tool of geostatistics and kriging is the semivariogram, which describes the spatial dependence between the estimation points and Class Category SPI value Probability% the measurement points in a function of no distance. Kriging is a very flexible geostatistical gridding method. This method produces maps 1 Extremely dry ≤ -2.00 2.3 2 Severely dry -1.50 to -1.99 4.4 from irregularly spaced data. Surfer includes 3 Moderately dry -1.00 to -1.49 9.2 two kriging types: point and block kriging. Both 4 Near Normal -0.99 to 68.2 point kriging and block kriging generate an +0.99 interpolated grid. Block kriging estimates the 5 Moderately wet +1.00 to 9.2 average value of the rectangular blocks centred +1.49 on the grid nodes. Since block kriging is 6 Severely wet +1.50 to 4.4 estimating the average value of block, it +1.99 7 Extremely wet ≥ +2.00 2.3 generates smoother contours. Furthermore, since block kriging is not estimating the value at a point, it is not a perfect interpolator. Point kriging estimates the values of the points at the 3. Results and Discussions grid nodes. Thereby, in this study ordinary point 3.1 Model validation kriging has been applied. An important The 30-year monthly means of component of the kriging gridding method is the precipitation totals simulated by RegCM forced variogram. The ordinary kriging interpolation by ERA40, CRU observations and station with a Gaussian variogram was selected as a observations were calculated for the period suitable interpolation tool for the spatial 1961-1990 in each grid point of corresponding distribution of the SPI and EOF over Moldova. data set, and at station locations.
90 RegCM (ERA) 80 CRU 70 Observational sets 60 50
mm 40 30 20 10 0 JFMAMJJASOND
Fig. 2 Annual cycle of precipitation based on RegCM (ERA) simulations, CRU and observation datasets for the reference period 1961-1990.
100 Using various visualization techniques to outline vulnerability to drought in the Republic of Moldova
Then, these means were spatially averaged and hand column of Fig. 3. The spatial coefficients compared. The results show that the model have the same sign over Moldova domain, the systematically overestimates precipitation simulated data showing lower values of the compared to CRU and station observations [Fig. loading than the observations. The distribution 2]. The largest magnitudes of RegCM (ERA40) over the country’s territory of the spatial precipitation errors are observed in late spring coefficients of the EOF2 roughly separates the (April, May) and summer months (June, July, eastern and western halves of country territory August). This drawback is transferred to SPI [Fig. 3 middle column] while for the EOF3 the which is based only on precipitation. southern most region has opposite sign of loading compared to the rest of the country [Fig. 3.2 EOF analysis of seasonal precipitation 3, right hand side column]. These spatial In order to identify the principal modes of characteristics of the leading EOFs loadings variability of seasonal precipitation totals over point out on various driving factors for seasonal Moldova domain, the EOF analysis was variability of precipitation totals in Republic of performed on RegCM simulated data, CRU and Moldova: large scale circulation, continentality, station observations. The explained variance of Black Sea and Mediterranean influences. the EOF1 of seasonal precipitation totals ranges The EOF patterns of winter precipitation between 65 and 79.8% for RegCM simulated for both CRU and station data were produced data, between 73.5 and 88.6% for CRU with the Golden Software Surfer 8.0 while for observations and between 56 and 85% for simulated data with GrADS2.0.a9. station observation, respectively [Table 2]. The least variance is explained during summer and Tab. 2. The explained variance of the first three the most variance is explained during winter for EOFs of seasonal precipitation both CRU and stations observations and, during autumn for RegCM simulations. The explained Explained variance (%) variance of the EOF2 ranges between 7.2 and wi sp su au 12% for RegCM simulations and between 4.3 RegCM_ERA40 and 11% for observations. The least explained EOF1 77.15 70.25 65.01 79.79 EOF2 7.18 12.04 10.11 7.35 variance for the EOF2 is during winter for EOF3 6.50 5.17 6.70 3.74 simulated precipitation and station observations CRU @ stations while the most explained variance of EOF2 is EOF1 88.62 81.15 73.50 86.90 shown during spring for simulated precipitation EOF2 5.28 6.96 11.13 4.87 and during summer for both CRU and station EOF3 3.13 5.89 6.50 4.64 observation data. The explained variance of the Station obs EOF3 ranges between 3.7 and 6.7% for RegCM EOF1 84.98 75.48 57.95 84.86 EOF2 4.30 6.82 9.83 5.03 simulations and between 3 and 8.6% for EOF3 3.39 3.33 8.63 3.07 observations.
Because the patterns of the three leading 3.3 Drought persistence EOFs do not differ essentially from season to Drought appears first at short time scales season, only the loading patterns for winter and if dry conditions persist, it develops at precipitation totals are shown, as example, in longer time scales. The use of several time Fig. 3. In the upper row are represented the scales of SPI takes into account the role of leading EOFs of winter precipitation totals for antecedent conditions in quantifying drought station data, in the second row for CRU data severity, allowing a better understanding of time and on the bottom row for RegCM forced by scales of water supplies. The SPI was calculated ERA40 simulated data. The patterns of EOF1 in each grid point of Moldova domain and at for the three data sets are presented in the left each station for accumulated periods ranging 101 Constanţa Boroneanţ, Vera Potop, Mihaela Caian, Josef Soukup from 1 to 24-months. Then, the resulted SPI at scales of SPI from 1 to 24 months into the 8010 grid points for RegCM simulation, at 100 diagrams of Fig. 4 the Golden Software Surfer grid points for CRU observation, respectively, 8.0 was used. Each diagram contains a large and at 15 stations were averaged to get an volume of information for SPI (12 months x 38 aggregated SPI at country level for each years x 24 SPI time scales). accumulated period. To aggregate all times
EOF-1 winter (stations data set) EOF-2 winter (stations data set) EOF-3 winter (stations data set) 48.5 48.5 48.5
48 48 48 47.5 47.5 0.40 47.5 0.40 0.27 e (°N) e (°N) e 47 47 0.20 e (°N) 47 d d d 0.20 46.5 0.26 46.5 46.5 0.00 0.00 46 46 0.25 46 Latitu Latitu -0.20 Latitu -0.20 45.5 45.5 45.5 0.24 -0.40 -0.40 45 45 45 26.5 27 27.5 28 28.5 29 29.5 30 30.5 26.52727.52828.52929.53030.5 26.52727.52828.52929.53030.5 Longitude (°E) Longitude (°E) Longitude (°E)
EOF-2 winter (CRU data set) EOF-3 winter (CRU data set) EOF-1 winter (CRU data set) 48.5 48.5 48.5 48 48 48 47.5 0.40 0.40 47.5 0.40 47.5 47 0.20 47 0.20 e (°N) 47 0.20 d 46.5 46.5 46.5 0.00 0.00 0.00 46 46 46 Latitude(°N) -0.20 -0.20 Latitude (°N) -0.20 Latitu 45.5 45.5 45.5 -0.40 -0.40 -0.40 45 45 45 26.5 27 27.5 28 28.5 29 29.5 30 30.5 26.5 27 27.5 28 28.5 29 29.5 30 30.5 26.5 27 27.5 28 28.5 29 29.5 30 30.5 Longitude (°E) Longitude (°E) Longitude (°E)
Fig. 3 The spatial patterns of the first three EOFs of winter precipitation.
102 Using various visualization techniques to outline vulnerability to drought in the Republic of Moldova
Moldova domain: 45.01°N - 49.01°N 26.52°E - 30.48°E SPI at 1 to 24-month by 15 station observations data set Minimum:-2.222; 25%-tile:-0.586; Median: -0.065; 75%-tile:0.562; Maximum: 2.417 extreme severe moderate moderate severe extreme drought drought drought normal wet wet wet 24 20 16 12 8 4
SPI at time-scales SPI at 1960 1970 1980 1990
Moldova domain: 45.01°N - 49.01°N 26.52°E - 30.48°E SPI at 1 to 24-month by CRU TS2.1 data (0.5°lat x 0.5°lon) Minimum:-1.935; 25%-tile:-0.461; Median: -0.022; 75%-tile: 0.416; Maximum: 2.517 extreme severe moderate moderate severe extreme drought drought drought normal wet wet wet 24 20 16 12 8 4 SPI at time-scales 1960 1970 1980 1990
Moldova domain: 45.01°N - 49.01°N 26.52°E - 30.48°E SPI at 1 to 24-month by RegCM simulations (forced by ERA40 data) Minimum:-2.264; 25%-tile:-0.585; Median:-0.075; 75%-tile:0.487; Maximum: 2.266 extreme severe moderate moderate severe extreme drought drought drought normal wet wet wet 24 20 16 12 8 4 SPI at time-scales SPI 1970 1990 1960 1980
Fig. 4 Temporal evolution of SPI at time scales from 1 to 24 months for Moldova domain for observations at 15 stations (top), CRU observations (middle) and RegCM simulations (bottom).
103 Constanţa Boroneanţ, Vera Potop, Mihaela Caian, Josef Soukup
The temporal evolution of dry and wet and RegCM simulations (bottom) for Moldova conditions for Moldova domain was represented domain are represented in Fig. 5. When [Fig. 4] at 15 station observations (top), CRU compared with the observations, the model does observations (middle) and RegCM simulations. quite well in identifying the major dry and wet Each diagram shows an aggregated picture of the periods and their persistence. The main dry evolution of moisture characteristics quantified by periods identified in the simulations are 1961- SPI pointing out on the development of drought 1965, 1968-1969, 1974-1975, 1983-1984, 1986- from one month to 24 months. The persistence of 1987, 1989-1990, 1993-1995. These periods are drought at these time scales is relevant for a range also identified in the observations with similar of meteorological, agricultural and hydrological or more severe category of dryness. The wet applications and also for socio-economic impact periods identified in the simulation are 1966- studies. The RegCM captures the main 1967, 1970-1973, 1977-1982, and 1996-1997. characteristics of droughts identified both in CRU Most of these periods are also identified in the and station observations. According to SPI values observations but the severity of wetness is characterizing categories of dry and wet higher in the simulation than in the observations conditions [Table 1] the periods of drought in the due to the drawback of the RegCM model to Republic of Moldova were 1962-1965, 1972- generally overestimate precipitation [Fig. 2]. 1974, 1977-1978, 1985-1986, 1990-1992 and 1996 while the periods with wet conditions were 3.5 Case study – Severe drought of 1986 1966-1967, 1970-1971 and 1981-1982. All these One of the most extensive and severe periods were identified both in the simulations and drought events during the last fifty years in the observations. It is evident that drought conditions Republic of Moldova was recorded in 1986. It have noticeable increased in the country with was characterized as an agricultural drought as drought duration gaining in persistence during the it lasted for many months, mostly during the period 1960-1997 (Potop, 2011). Fig. 4 also growing season, and it had a dramatic impact on shows the evolution and persistence of an various crops (Potop and Soukup, 2009, Potop, individual drought pointing out on the lack of 2011). The spatial distribution of SPI calculated precipitation which characterizes these periods at 6-month accumulation period over the and on its large scale driving factors. The Golden country territory for the months May and Software Surfer technique turned out to be the August was selected as case study to assess the most appropriate tool to represent an integrated regional climatic model RegCM ability to image of the evolution and persistence of dry and outline the vulnerability to drought in wet conditions based of SPI values calculated for comparison with the observations. On the top 1 to 24 months accumulation periods over panel of Fig. 6 are represented the spatial Republic of Moldova. distribution of SPI at 6 month accumulation period for May 1986 and on the bottom panel 3.4 Temporal evolution for August 1986. The maps were constructed As the time scale for calculation the SPI with the Golden Software Surfer8.0 based on increases from 1 to 24 months the wet and dry SPI values at 15 stations (left), and on the conditions can be clearly identified as well as closest grid point value to station coordinates their persistence. The antecedent conditions in for CRU observation (middle) and RegCM SPI calculation for 12-month accumulation simulation (right). period point out on the persistence of dry and wet conditions for time lengths of some years. The temporal evolutions of the averaged SPI calculated at 12-month accumulation period for station (top) and CRU observations (middle)
104 Using various visualization techniques to outline vulnerability to drought in the Republic of Moldova
3 2 1 -1 -2 SPI 12-month (stations) -3 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
3 2 1 -1 -2 SPI 12-month (CRU) -3 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
3 2 1 -1 -2 -3 SPI 12-month (RegCM simulations forced by ERA40) 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
Fig. 5 Temporal evolution of averaged SPI at 12 month accumulation period over Moldova domain at 15 stations (top), CRU grid points (middle), and RegCM grid points (bottom)
According to SPI06 values and its moderate in the north and the south and normal categories [Table 1] the drought of May 1986 moisture conditions in the south-east of the based on station observations was characterized as country based on RegCM simulation. This result severe in most of the regions and extreme in the is again a consequence of model overestimation of eastern half of country. Based on CRU precipitation. These results should be taken into observations, the drought was severe and extreme, consideration when the RegCM is used in but the area with extreme drought is larger than assessing the current and projected vulnerability to that resulted from station observations. Compared drought in Republic of Moldova. to both observation data sets (station and CRU) it is obvious that the model can not capture the 4. Summary and Conclusions severity of drought [Fig. 6 top row]. This is − Various visualization techniques have been because as shown above [Fig. 2] the model used to characterize domain topography, overestimates precipitation which is the main seasonal precipitation variability, spatial and factor to characterize drought with SPI. Similarly, temporal evolution of drought for various for August 1986 [Fig. 6 bottom row] based on accumulation periods ranging from 1 to 24 station observation the drought was severe and months. extreme over the whole country, moderate in the − The visualization technique is a user choice southern half, severe and extreme in the northern and it depends on its availability and user half of the country based on CRU data, and preference.
105 Constanţa Boroneanţ, Vera Potop, Mihaela Caian, Josef Soukup
May 1986 - SPI06 by stations May 1986 - SPI06 by CRU May 1986 - SPI06 by RegCM 48.5 48.5 48.5
48 48 48 N) N) N) ° ° 47.5 47.5 47.5°
47 47 47
46.5 46.5 46.5
46 46 46 Latitude ( Latitude ( Latitude ( 45.5 45.5 45.5 extremeseveremoderate normalmoderate severe extreme extremeseveremoderate normalmoderate severe extreme extremeseveremoderate normalmoderate severe extreme wet wet wet droughtdrought drought wet wet wet droughtdrought drought wet wet wet droughtdrought drought 45 45 45 26.5 27 27.5 28 28.5 29 29.5 30 30.5 26.5 27 27.5 28 28.5 29 29.5 30 30.5 26.5 27 27.5 28 28.5 29 29.5 30 30.5 Longitude (°E) Longitude (°E) Longitude (°E)
August 1986 - SPI06 by stations August 1986 - SPI06 by CRU August 1986 - SPI06 by RegCM 48.5 48.5 48.5
48 48 48 N) N) N) ° ° 47.5 47.5 47.5°
47 47 47
46.5 46.5 46.5
46 46 46 Latitude ( Latitude ( Latitude( 45.5 45.5 45.5 extremeseveremoderate normalmoderate severe extreme extremeseveremoderate normalmoderate severe extreme extremeseveremoderate normalmoderate severe extreme wet wet wet droughtdrought drought wet wet wet droughtdrought drought wet wet wet droughtdrought drought 45 45 45 26.5 27 27.5 28 28.5 29 29.5 30 30.5 26.5 27 27.5 28 28.5 29 29.5 30 30.5 26.5 27 27.5 28 28.5 29 29.5 30 30.5 Longitude (°E) Longitude (°E) Longitude (°E)
Fig. 6 Spatial evolution of SPI at 6-month accumulation period during the driest growing season (April-September) of 1986 over Moldova domain at 15 stations (left), CRU grid points (middle), and RegCM grid points (right).
− Two observation data sets (15 stations and Acknowledgements: The RegCM simulations CRU data set) were used to compare the have been produced in the NMA-Romania in RegCM ability to reproduce the annual the framework of CECILIA – EU-FP6 Project, cycle of precipitation, seasonal variability of Contract 037005 GOCE/2006. The work of precipitation, spatial and temporal evolution Czech co-author was financially supported by S of drought based on SPI calculated for 1 to grant of MSMT CR and project 6046070901 24 accumulation periods. from the Ministry of Education, Youth and − The results show that the model overestimates Sports of the Czech Republic. precipitation and this drawback is transferred to SPI which turn out to show less intense droughts than the observations. References − However, the model capture the general characteristics of precipitation and drought [1] BORONEANŢ C., CAIAN M., BOBERG F., in terms of spatial and temporal distribution ENCULESCU A. and MATEI M. (2009), and, with due uncertainty, it can be used for Weather Extremes in Romania Simulated With vulnerability to drought assessments for the a High Resolution RegCM for Current and Republic of Moldova. Future Climates. In: MOCA-09 Conference, Montreal, 19-29 July 2009. 106 Using various visualization techniques to outline vulnerability to drought in the Republic of Moldova
[2] BORONEANŢ, C., POTOP, V., CAIAN, M., [11] McKEE TB, DOESKEN NJ, KLEIST J, (2011), Validation of RegCM precipitation (1993), The relationship of drought frequency simulation over Republic of Moldova: and duration to time scales. Preprints Eighth Application for Standard Precipitation indices Conf on Applied Climatology Anaheim CA. calculated for the period 1960-1997. In: Šiška, Amer Meteor Soc, pp 179–184 B. et al.: Bioklimate: Source and Limit of [12] McKEE TB, DOESKEN NJ, KLEIST J., Social Development, Topolčianky, 6th-9th (1995), Drought monitoring with multiple time September 2011. scales. Proceedings of the Ninth Conference [3] CONSTANTINOV, T., POTOP, V., (2009), on Applied Climatology. Amer Meteor Soc Manifestarea fenomenelor de uscaciune si Boston, pp 233–236 seceta in Republica Moldova. Chisinau, [13] MEEHL G. A., STOCKER T. F., COLLINS Mediul Ambiant, 64pp. (in Romanian) W. D., FRIEDLINGSTEIN P., GAYE A. T., [4] COROBOV R. and OVERCENCO A., (2007) GREGORY J. M., KITCH A., KNUTTI R., Use of climate modeling outputs for MURPHY J. M., NODA A., RAPER S. C. B., regionalization of global climate projections. WATTERSON I. G., WEAVER A. J. AND In: Problems of ecological monitoring and ZHAO Z-C. (2007), Global climate ecosystem modeling, Vol. XXI, St.Petersburg projections. In Climate Change 2007: The Gidrometeoizdat, Russian Federation, pp. 123- Physical Science Basis. Contribution of 145. Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on [5] EUROPEAN ENVIRONMENTAL Climate Change Program. Cambridge, AGENCY, (2001), Sustainable water use in UK/New York, USA: Cambridge University Europe, Part 3: Extreme hydrological events: Press; pp 747-846. floods and droughts. Environmental Issue [14] PAL J. S., GIORGI F. and BI X. (2004), Report No. 21. Consistency of recent European summer [6] GIORGI F, BI X and PAL J. S. (2004a), precipitation trends and extremes with future Means, trends and interannual variability in a regional climate projections. Geophysical regional climate change experiment over Research Letters, (31), L13202, Europe. Part I: present day climate (1961– doi:10.1029/2004GL019836. 1990). Clim Dyn (22), pp 733–756. [15] POTOP V., BORONEANT C., CAIAN M., [7] GIORGI F, BI X and PAL J. S. (2004b), (2012), Model validation and drought Means, trends and interannual variability in a assessment with a regional climate model over regional climate change experiment over Moldova. Scientia Agriculturae Bohemica, 42 Europe. Part II: future climate scenarios (4) (in print) (2071–2100). Clim Dyn (23), pp 839–858. [16] POTOP, V. (2011), Evolution of drought [8] GIORGI, F., MARINUCCI, M.R. and severity and its impact of corn in the Republic BATES, G.T. (1993), Development of a of Moldova. Theor Appl Climatol. 105 (3) second generation regional climate model 469–483. (RegCM2). Part I: Boundary layer and [17] POTOP, V. OVERCENCO, A. radiative transfer processes. Mon. Wea. Rev., BORONEANŢ, C. (2012), Drought 121, 2794-2813 variability and its driving factors in the [9] HALENKA, T., (2010), Cecilia – EC FP6 Republic of Moldova. In: EMS Annual Project on the Assessment of Climate Change Meeting Abstracts Vol. 9, EMS2012-54, 12th Impacts in Central and Eastern Europe, in EMS / 9th ECAC. 10th -14th September, Łódź, Global Environmental Change: Challenges to Poland, 2012. Science and Society in Southeastern Europe, [18] POTOP, V., BORONEANŢ, C., CAIAN, M., SpringerLink, 2010, Part 3, 125-137, DOI: (2011), Assessing the changes in drought 10.1007/978-90-481-8695-2_11 conditions during summer in the Republic of [10] LLOYD-HUGHES B., and SAUNDERS, M. Moldova based on RegCM simulations. In: A., (2002), A drought climatology for Europe, Proceedings of 1st Climate Change, Economic Int. J. Climatol. 22: 1571–1592 Development, Environment and People
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Conference. 14-16 September, 2011, Novi oceanography. Elsevier, Amsterdam, p. 425 Sad, Serbia, 403-418. [21] von STORCH H (1995), Spatial patterns: [19] POTOP, V., SOUKUP J., (2009), EOFs and CCA. In: Von Storch H, Navarra A Spatiotemporal characteristics of dryness and (eds) Analysis of climate variability: drought in the Republic of Moldova. Theor application of statistical techniques Springer, Appl Climatol, 96, 305–318. New York, pp 227–258 [20] PREISENDORFER, RW, (1988), Principal component analysis in meteorology and
108 Geographia Napocensis Anul VII, Nr. 2, 2013
URBAN GREEN SPACES – BASIC ELEMENTS IN SUSTAINABLE TOURISM AND URBAN DEVELOPMENT. CASE STUDY: THE CITY OF CLUJ-NAPOCA
1 FLORINA COZEA
Abstract: Urban green spaces- basic elements in sustainable tourism and urban development Due to their multiple functions within the cities: landscape function, aesthetical, sanitary, utilitary, economic, protection, educational, scientific and social function, green spaces need to be extended, arranged and valorized in the most efficient ways. An average value of the green space surface per invididual has been established. Sustainable urban development involves the execution of works on lands, premises and buildings, as well as the adoption of social measures for the psychical and psychological confort of the population and for a rational development and arrangement of urban areas. The tourism potential of urban green space derives from the valorization of its biological and aesthetical function, the harmonisation and beautification of urban architectural complexes as well as from its specific urbanism elements.
Key-Words: green space, urbanism, planning, sustainable development, settlement, tourism
1. Introduction study was a quiz, specially conceived for Cluj The purpose of this article is to emphasize Napoca City Hall, which is the competent the increasing role of urban green spaces in institution managing all the policies regarding the sustainable tourism development and urban administration of green spaces. The quiz provided development. The research is based on the city a clear picture of the current status of the city’s of Cluj Napoca as a case study. The city of Cluj green space and of the extent up to which the Napoca lies in Transilvania historical region, in green space has been valorized so far in the city’s the central northern part of Romania. The sustainable development. reason for the choice of this city as an object of The quiz for Cluj Napoca City Hall was this research is that Cluj Napoca city presents a exclusively focused on the current status of the wide range of green spaces, such as squares, city’s green spaces and was based on six major parks, the botanical garden and leisure forests. questions: which is the total surface of the green The city’s urban development along the time space in the city of Cluj Napoca as registered up was dynamic and in many cases the green space to June 2012, which is the percentage of each issue was not taken into consideration when green space category (%), which is the ratio 2 making urban planning projects. Along the past green space m /inhabitant in 2012, which is the few years the green space has become a highly evolution of the city’s green space along the last increasing necessity and its role in urban 5 years, and how many of the abandoned former sustainable development has proved to be vital. industrial areas h ave been revitalized by The study over the city of Cluj Napoca, turning them into green spaces and which are Romania, is intended to present the current status, the measures taken by the authorities in order to the extent up to which the local authorities do increase the green space area for the next years. implement programs focused on the valorization The research stages were the following: of green spaces for tourist purpose, the bibliographic documentation, the quiz, going on implications of green space planning upon local the field and observing, interpretation and community as well as the measures necessary to analysis of the information supplied by the quiz be taken for the sustainable development of green and finally the conclusions and the proposals for space based tourism. The starting point in this a sustainable tourist development. 1 Babes Bolyai University, Faculty of Geography, Clinicilor street, no. 5-7, Cluj Napoca, Romania, [email protected] 109 Florina Cozea
Cluj Napoca city lies at the point of functions, independent or related to some intersection between parallel 46°46' N and historical monuments. meridian 23°36' E, in the connection area between In the city of Cluj Napoca there are several Apuseni Mountains, the Someşan Plateau and categories of parks which can be classified Transilvania Plain, over a 179,5 km² area, in the based on their size, location within the city or Central North Western part of Romania. The city function. lies at a 330 – 430 m altitude, surrounded on three Based on the size there are three types of parks: sides by hills ranging between 500 and 825 meter - small size parks mostly located in the city’s high, with Feleac Hill on the southern side – neighborhoods, normally including small maximum altitude on Magura Salciei peak 825 playgrounds, a few benches and ornamental meters, Clujului hills in the north - maximum trees. Ex: Ion Meşter park from Mănăştur heights on Lombului peak (684 m), Dealul - average size parks, mostly located in the more Melcului peak (617 m), Techintău peak (633 m), central areas of the neighborhoods, close to Hoia Hill in the west - maximum altitude 506 m, tourist objectives or to some water source. Ex. and Gârbăului Hill - maximum altitude 570 m. On Rozelor park, Ion Luca Caragiale park the eastern side of the city, in its extension, lies - large parks, located in the city central area, Someşană plain. The city extended longitudinally include playgrounds, walking alleys, bike along the rivers Someşul Mic and Nadaş, and in lanes, artesian wells as well as a large some locations extensions emerged along the number of trees and ornamental plants. The secondary valleys of Popeşti, Chintău, Borhanci city of Cluj Napoca has in this moment only and Popii. one Central Park, also named by the locals the Large Park. The history of this park goes 2. Brief presentation of Cluj Napoca back in the year of 1827, when the Women green spaces and tourism potential Charity Association took over the In the city of Cluj Napoca there is a series of abandoned ground and turned it into a green spaces, among which, with the highest leisure place; in 1830 the park was opened tourist importance: the Botanical Garden, the to the public by the name of Népkert Central Park, the forests Hoia and Faget lying at meaning ‘The Park of the People’. Along the city edge. Besides the Central Park there is the time the park went through a series of also a series of other parks mostly visited by locals changes; in 2011 extended rehabilitation which could also be promoted for tourist purpose. works started in the location, focused on the green space, the alleys, the benches, the 2.1. Alexandru Borza Botanical Garden lighting system and the building which in Botanical gardens are a special part in the past used to be the Casino building. urban settlements, having both recreative, Based on the location within the city, there are landscape and scientific role. Cluj Napoca two types of parks: the downtown parks and the botanical garden was founded in 1920 upon the peripherical parks (in the city neighborhoods). initiative of professor Alexandru Borza and From the tourist point of view central parks spreads over an area of 14 ha; around 10.000 have higher importance because they are much species of plants from different parts of the better distinguished and accessible to the public. world grow here, on 5 areas: ornamental, Based on the functions of the parks in the city of phytogeographic, systematic, economic and Cluj Napoca there are the following park types: medical. It is an uncontested tourist attraction - playground parks (mostly the small size for the city of Cluj Napoca and it is included in parks from the neighborhoods); most of the tourist trips organized in the city, - sports practicing parks (basketball, which is also favored by its downtown location. athletics, skatebord) designed exclusively for practicing this type of activities; ex: I.L. 2.2. Parks and arranged green spaces Caragiale, Iuliu Haţieganu; These are the most extended green spaces - leisure parks – this category includes all the within the city and may have complex parks which have walking alleys and benches;
110 Urban green spaces – basic elements in sustainable tourism and urban development. Case Study: the city of Cluj-Napoca
- scientific parks – unfortunately only the located on Hoia hill, also has the role of coating Large Park has this function too; here one can the hillside. observe and study a series of bird species living The leisure function, mostly during the in the park trees; weekends, results from the fact that these two In the arranged green space category one forests have been equipped with paths and can also include Cetăţuia Hill, located close to walking alleys, sports practicing facilities, such the city center, having a rich history behind and as the Bike Park from Hoia forest or the also well known as the most bellevue location in basketball sports grounds from Faget forest, the city. The location has been equipped with with special locations for picknick. The roads of access, walking alleys, playgrounds, arrangements were done mostly by the locals, terraces, but everything stuck on a rudimentary without facilities being clearly marked and level, the real value and potential of this green arranged by the authorities, such as special fire space, given by its large size and its city center places, waste collection places, tables and location, not being properly exploited. Regarding benches for eating. the history of this location, it is by itself a reason In Hoia forest people also practice paint to visit the place; in the past there was a fortress ball, archery, airsoft, which makes this forest bearing the same name of Cetăţuia, which built very popular. between 1715 and 1735, with star shaped walls, a Based on the compartmentalisation of park conning tower, surrounded by bastions. forests with recreative function, as proposed by Nowadays the access gates from the south- Cândea and Simon (2006) for the forests Hoia eastern and northern side are still preserved, as and Făget from Cluj outskirts, one can well as a few of the walls, a few buildings and distinguish 3 areas, as outlined by the the conning tower which has currently been aforementioned authors: turned into the Parachutists’ Tower. Because - the passive recreative area is used for there have been no reconsolidation works outdoor walking as well as for the visit of performed, all these items have seriously been some tourist attractions, such as the special affected by the landslides occurred in the area. oak species growing in the southern part of On Cetăţuia Hill the Belvedere Hotel was built in Hoia forest which is typical of the steppe or the ‘70s, as well as an iron cross in the memory the natural reserves from Faget forest; of heroes in 1995. - the active recreative area consists of special Less important, within the same category of arrangements for the practice of some arranged green spaces, with no more than a activities, such as handball, volleyball and decorative role and having small sizes, there are football grounds, bike routes, picknick the squares in Cluj Napoca - arranged green facilities, etc. These areas are located mostly spaces integrated within the urban landscape, at the edge of the wooded area; displaying various species of trees, flowers, - the mixed area, a combination of the two lawn, mostly lying in the cross roads area, in the areas mentioned above, the passive and roundabouts area or in front of some buildings active recreative areas; which house a series of institutions; also the The tourist function of the forests is given flower beds, the grass and the tree rows along by the presence of some tourist specific boulevards or streets. arrangements, such as accommodation facilities in villas, motels, hostels, which have become 2.3. The forests from the city margins increasingly numerous mostly in Faget forest The forests lying on the city margins are which is full of both private houses and Feleac and Hoia forests. Their importance accommodation facilities, ex. Tulip Inn Sunny resides in their functions: aesthetical, landscape, Hill Holte, Tusa Motel, special camping tourist and leisure, which are interdependent. locations, terraces, restaurants. These should The aesthetical and landscape functions are have been placed at the forest margin so as not mostly given by the changes of the trees and to harm the vegetation and the fauna of the plants from one season to another. Hoia forest, forest, but, as mentioned before, in Faget forest
111 Florina Cozea these rules have been broken. The old Faget psychological pollution, to moderate the motel, which also used to have a camping place, athmosphere and the terrestrial energies; was left in ruin, which affects the image of the - the utilitary, economic and protection landscape. function: based on green spaces one can proceed A special tourist attraction for UFO and to the rehabilitation of degraded urban areas, fix paranormal activity passionates is Hoia forest problem soils, increase the humus in the soil, where people say several objects of this type attract economic developers, create protection have been observed along the time as well as against pollution; paranormal activity. Professor Adrian Pătruţ - educational and scientific function: the from Cluj Chemistry Faculty wrote a book on study of natural sciences in the Botanical the phenomena from Hoia forest: “Hoia – Baciu Garden, the development of the aesthetical forest phenomena”, which contains Alexandru sense, good taste and imagination; Sift research work over the phenomena, started - the social function: green spaces are early in the ‘60s. What is sure is that these light, places for social interaction, individual magnetic and radiologic phenomena which development and initiative; occurred in Hoia forest generated a series of legends and suppositions which raised the 4. The current status of the green interest of both locals and tourists. space in Cluj Napoca in figures and percentages 3. The main functions of urban green Starting with the observation on the field of spaces within sustainable tourist and all the city’s green spaces, the analyzing the urban development context basic functions of the green spaces in the city Urban green spaces have the following and ending with the interpretation of the data functions: social, cultural, leisure, hygienic, supplied by the City Hall based on the above psychological and utilitarian. They also separate mentioned quiz, one can establish the current various functional areas of the city, such as the green space surface. hystorical center from the modern center of the Starting from the analysis of the green city, and least but not last they define urban space functions within urban settlements as increase. “An essential part of human habitat, presented above: the landscape and the the urban green space valorizes the biological aesthetical function, the sanitary, utilitary, and aesthetical potential of the vegetation, it economic, protection, educational, scientific and confers harmony to urban architectural social function, one can establish the need for a complexes, it ensures the hygiene and the particular attention to the extension of the green beauty of urban environment, therefore space as well as the efficient management and diminishing its violent impact over the citizens.” valorization of the green space. It was also (Candea, 2006) established an average value of the green space - the landscape and aesthetical function: per inhabitant: 24 m²/inhabitant in Europe, green spaces help to separate various functional according to the EU, and according to the areas, to connect various urban areas, such as recommendations of the World Health the separation of the city’s old center from the Organization this average value should be 50 new center, they can emphasize the architectural m²/inhabitant. As for Romania, the average potential of a building or, on the contrary, mask value of the green space surface per inhabitant some imperfections of buildings; is only 9 m², which is highly bellow the - the sanitary function, perhaps the most European average, and for the cities the important function of the green space: the green situation is even more tragical. For the city of space’s potential to improve the climate by Cluj Napoca, according to official information, moderating the temperature, the humidity and this value is of 25.5 m²/inhabitant calculated for the air flows, its role in purifying the a population of 318.000 citizens, without taking athmosphere by decreasing or even totally also into account the number of students which destroying pollutants, its capacity to prevent amounts to around 100.000. In this case the 112 Urban green spaces – basic elements in sustainable tourism and urban development. Case Study: the city of Cluj-Napoca green space surface per inhabitant would go 2010, but higher than in the previous years, down to the value of 19 m², which is a lot based on the information supplied by Cluj bellow the recommendations of the World Napoca City Hall. Health Organization and of the European Commission. In the calculation of the value of Tab. 1. The evolution of the green space surface in the green space surface per inhabitant in the city Cluj Napoca along the past 5 years of Cluj Napoca both public and private Year Surface of green space in hectares properties mainly represented by gardens and orchards were taken into account. The latter 2011 814 cannot be taken into consideration for tourist 2010 812 valorization purpose, one can only give to the 2009 536 owners a series of recommendations regarding 2008 338 the improvement of the valorization for their 2007 338 own interest, which should eventually contribute to sustainable urban development. The total surface of the green space in the Regarding the percentage of each green city of Cluj Napoca at the end of 2011 was 814 space category in Cluj Napoca, one can hectares, with a slight increase as compared to establish the following:
Tab. 2. Types of green space split in percentages (Cluj Napoca)
Type of green space Percentage Parks 14.55% Leisure parks 5.04 % Squares and green spaces along highways 40.54% Botanical Garden 1.54% Beer gardens 0% Private orchards and gardens 19.66% Other types of areas 18.67%
The table above shows that the parks and being complied with, because the lack of the public beer gardens, which can be valorized green space and children playgrounds in the from tourist point of view and can also most environment where the children live may have significantly contribute to urban sustainable extremely serious consequences upon their development, occupy less space than the private health. Regarding the total lack of beer gardens, gardens and orchards as well as the squares and which have considerable tourist potential, this is the green spaces whose main role is the a warning signal for the authorities. To a small aesthetical one. The field research revealed the extent their lack is compensated by the fact that many parks, especially those designed existence of summer terraces which try to offer for the children, lying in the city’s districts, to the tourists a nice, confortable environment have been closed or their surface has been using also seasonal plants in their design. narrowed down in order to make place for more According to the EU Commission, in their parking places. Also, regarding the newly built report called “Building the future: EU Research buildings, according to the Decision of Cluj for sustainable urban development and land Napoca Local Council, the owners must provide use“, six major coordinates have been a green space surface of 40% from the total established which must be taken into account surface of the land on which the building lies, for a sustainable urban development: the whereas the field research revealed the fact that limitation of urban establishments, the revival of the green surface has been replaced by asphalt urban industrial areas, the revival of “grey” parking places. It is vital that the competent areas, sustainable buildings, the extension of the authorities monitor the way that this decision is surface occupied by green spaces as well as the
113 Florina Cozea revival of the low parts of the town. Taking into total rules governing the emergence, the account the aspects related to the current development and the rational management of research over the green spaces of the city of urban areas (Law 350/2001). In Cluj Napoca Cluj Napoca, as presented above, their surface there is an urbanism plan as well as a few future increased, but neither of the former industrial sustainable development plans for the city areas of the city which are currently out of use which involve all the fields, without exclusive has been rehabilitated by turning it into a green focus on tourism or the green space component space. Also, the authorities did not take into and how can these be valorized. consideration the creation of green spaces in the Based on the survey, we could establish the less aesthetical areas of the city or in the lower following aspects regarding green space and its parts of the town, and according to the valorization in tourism or for sustainable urban information supplied by the local authorities development purpose: there is no project so far for the valorization and - the only green spaces which were arranged transformation of these areas based on green and valorized for tourist purpose are the spaces. The only measures that the authorities Central Park or the Large Park as it is called have in plan for the next years for the purpose to by the locals and the Botanical Garden; increase the city’s green space surface consist of - a major part of the total surface of the city’s a few forestation actions, the revival of current green space is occupied by private green spaces and the creation of new parks. The spaces which, as mentioned before, cannot possibility of valorization of green spaces for be valorized for tourist purpose; tourist purpose and for a sustainable - the lack of projects for the revival of development of the city is very less taken into industrial areas with the help of green spaces consideration by the authorities. or for the beautification of communist time buildings; 5. Conclusions and proposals for - lack of compliance with local decisions sustainable tourist and urban regarding the green space surface mandatory for the newly built buildings; development based on the valorization - along the past few years several public of green spaces spaces and squares have been arranged by The sustainable development concept has cutting off the trees or destroying the flower been developed based on the need to preserve beds and the green grass spaces and using and protect the existing natural resources so that stone based materials or asphalt; our descendants can also enjoy from them; - the plans to extend the green space in the along the time this concept has become city are few in this moment and are not increasingly complex and has been applied in related to the sustainable development of the several fields, one of them being the urbanism. city; Sustainable urban development involves the A few of the measures which one can take for execution of works on lands, premises and the purpose to improve the green space in Cluj buildings, as well as taking social measures for Napoca: the psychical and physical confort of the - turning degraded urban areas into green population and for a rational development and spaces by planting vegetation and trees, which arrangement of urban areas. Every urban shall also lead to the future increase of the settlement has its distinct needs and the economic value of the lands; measures taken by the authorities for sustainable - each newly built house residence to urban development purpose must comply with comply with the legislation regarding green the local needs. In addition to the sustainable spaces and children playgrounds; in many cases urban development concept there is the this space is turned into a parking place; urbanism, which is a major part of land - making a green belt around the city and management, having like object the localities putting an end to building in the forests lying in and the urban settlements, and representing the the city’s periphery, which are natural reserves;
114 Urban green spaces – basic elements in sustainable tourism and urban development. Case Study: the city of Cluj-Napoca
- arranging green spaces for practicing [5] COCEAN, P., Dezsi, S., (2001), Prospectare outdoor sports, educating the citizens and şi geoinformare turistică, Editura Presa mostly the kids for acknowledging the need for Universitara Clujeana, Cluj- Napoca green space; [6] COCEAN, P., NEGOESCU, B., - arranging new parks and rearranging the VLASCEANU, Ghe, (.2002), Geografia old beer gardens; Generală a Turismului,Editura Meteor Press, - increasing the ratio of green space per Bucureşti [7] DEZSI, Ş., (2006), Patrimoniu şi valorificare inhabitant up to 30 m² until 2015; turistică, Editura Presa Universitară Clujeana, Cluj Napoca [8] IANOS, I., PUMAIN, D., RACINE, J., (2000), References Integrated urban systems and sustainability of urban life, Editura Tehnica, Bucuresti [1] BALTARETU, A., (2010), Amenajarea [9] MICLE, F., (2002), Grădina Botanică turistica si dezvoltarea urbana, Presa “Alexandru Borza” din Cluj Napoca. Editura Universitara, Cluj Napoca Presa Universitară Clujeană, Cluj Napoca [2] BARBAN, I., (2009), Arhitectural and urban [10] ***European Commission, Building the planning elements, Editura Societatii Future: EU Research for sustainable urban Academice Matei Teiu Botez, Iasi development and land use- Sustainable Urban [3] CANDEA, M., (2006), Organizarea, Environment. Luxemburg: Office for Official amenajarea si dezvoltarea durabila a spatiului Publications of Europe Communities, 2004; geografic,Editura Universitara, Bucuresti [11] ***Legea nr. 350 / 2001 privind Amenajarea [4] CIANGA, N., ( 2007), România. Geografia Teritoriului si Urbanismului Turismului. Editura Presa Universitara Clujeana. Cluj Napoca
115 Geographia Napocensis Anul VII, Nr. 2, 2013
CONSIDERAŢII PRIVIND EVOLUŢIA VETRELOR DE SAT DIN COMUNA JILAVELE. O PERSPECTIVĂ CARTOGRAFICĂ
1 ANDREEA-FLORENTINA MARIN
Abstract: Viewpoints on the development of village limits in Jilavele. A cartographical outlook. The mapping of an historical timeframe concerning the evolution of a geographical territory, object or phenomenon can be achieved by using cartographical documents as a starting point, these documents being an important resource for their identification and localization. This article’s intention is the spatial and temporal re-enactment of human settlements in Jilavele, from a cartographical perspective. We used in our analysis documents dating from 1895 until 1991. To this we added data from 2005’s orthophotomap, using throughout the entire process open-source software applications.
Key-Words: historical maps, open-source, village, Jilavele
1. Introducere 2. Areal de studiu Dorinţa de siguranţă care se naşte în fiecare Comuna Jilavele se află în nord-estul fiinţă umană conduce la gruparea populaţiei în judeţului Ialomiţa, la limita acestuia cu judeţele diferite forme de aşezări, prezentînd un aspect Prahova şi Buzău [Fig. 1]. specific, corelat cu modul de utilizare al Predominarea suprafeţelor orizontale/ terenului şi al resurselor naturale. cvasiorizontale, climatul propice locuirii, Un element stadial în evoluţia oricărui reţeaua hidrografică, reprezentată, mai ales, prin habitat uman românesc îl reprezintă aşezările râul Sărata şi bălţile din zonă, caracteristicile rurale, de la cele mai simple forme până la cele pedologice ale terenurilor au determinat actuale. Datorită complexităţii lor, acestea se popularea acestui areal încă din cele mai vechi pot diferenţia în funcţie de anumite timpuri şi au permis dezvoltarea şi extinderea caracteristici, precum: mărime demografică, aşezărilor umane. funcţie economică şi gradul de modernizare al Comuna Jilavele este alcătuită din două infrastructurii (Cândea, Bran, Cimpoeru, 2006). sate: Jilavele şi Slătioarele, cu reşedinţa Înfăţişarea aşezărilor rurale se modifică în primăriei în satul Jilavele (Provianu, 1897, raport cu elementele naturale şi cele socio- Lahovani, Brătianu, Tocilescu, 1902). economice, ceea ce le conferă o dinamică Caracteristicile reliefului şi activităţile spaţio-temporală continuă. Trasarea unei economice dominante sunt cele care oferă evoluţii a satelor se p oate face pe baza satelor o anumită structură (modul de grupare a materialelor cartografice, a documentelor clădirilor în vatra satului), textură (modul de istorice, a imaginilor aeriene şi satelitare. organizare a reţelei stradale) şi formă. Scopul articolului este de a prezenta După formă, ambele sate sunt omogene, evoluţia suprafeţei vetrelor de sate din prezentând o structură adunată, specifică zonei componenţa comunei Jilavele, din ultimul secol, de câmpie, cu vetrele bine conturate şi textura prin selectarea, analiza şi prelucrarea cu un caracter regulat. În ceea ce priveşte forma documentelor cartografice şi a imaginilor satului Jilavele, aceasta este poligonală, iar cea a aeriene (ortofoplan). satului Slătioarele este pătratică (Geacu et al, 1997).
1 Universitatea din Bucureşti, Facultatea de Geografie, B-dul M. Kogălniceanu nr. 36-46, Sector 5, 050107, România, [email protected]
116 Consideraţii privind evoluţia vetrelor de sat din comuna Jilavele. O perspectivă cartografică
Fig. 1. Localizarea arealului de studiu
3. Metodologie fost Planul Director de Tragere (foile 4447 şi Pentru realizarea articolului de faţă au fost 4547), care poate fi accesat online, printr-un identificate, selectate, prelucrate şi interpretate serviciu cartografic web: documentele cartografice reprezentative pentru http://earth.unibuc.ro/harti/. Foile de hartă nu acest spaţiu, fiind analizate doar acele hărţi cu sunt rezultatul unor noi măsurători, ci scări curprinse între 1:50.000 -1:25.000 [Tabel 1]. informaţiile provin din surse anterioare – Cea mai veche hartă utilizată în studiu a fost româneşti, ruseşti, austriece, din ridicări care au Harta topografică în proiecţie Cassini (geo- avut loc în intervalul 1900-1904, fiind spatial.org). În „Muntenia, lucrările geodezice şi actualizate, începând cu anul 1924 pe baza topografice s-au desfăşurat între 1895-1899, la aerofotogramelor. est de meridianul Zimnicea (23° est Paris)” De asemenea, s-au utilizat Harta (Năstase, Osaci, 2005), harta fiind tipărită în Topografică în proiecţie Gauss – Krüger, scara anul 1901. Deoarece, foaia de hartă folosită 1:25.000, realizată de către Direcţia Topografică (Seria XX – Dridul – Coloana R) nu era Militară (DTM), în perioada 1972-1981 (Osaci, georeferenţiată, a fost realizat acest lucru în 2004) şi Hărţile sovietice, scara 1:50.000 (foaia aplicaţia open-source MapAnalyst, prin L-35-113), cele din urmă fiind disponibile pe procedeul „Image-to-image”, fiind folosită ca site-ul geo-spatial.org, menţionat anterior. bază o foaie de hartă georeferenţiată (Plan Potrivit informaţiilor de la exteriorul foilor de Director de Tragere). hartă, acestea prezintă situaţia terenului la 1987, Cea de-a doua hartă selectată şi analizată a fiind tipărite în anul 1991.
117 Andreea-Florentina Marin
Pentru anul 2005 au fost utilizate atenţie deosebită a fost acordat metodelor informaţiile extrase de pe imagine aeriană, la o moderne şi anume, de tip geospaţial. S-a rezoluţie de 0.5 m. utilizat un SIG Open Source, fiind folosite în În analiza noastră, s-a folosit proiecţia acest sens aplicaţia MapAnalyst Stereografică 1970, cu datum Dealul Piscului, (http://mapanalyst.org/), pentru georeferenţiere care este sistemul cartografic naţional. şi aplicaţia Quantum GIS, versiunea 1.8.0 – Ca metode de cercetare s-a făcut apel la Lisboa (http://www.qgis.org/), pentru a extrage, metoda analizei, metoda comparaţiei diacronice, sub formă de poligon, conturul vetrelor celor metoda cartografică şi metoda sintezei. Alături două sate, de pe documentele cartografice şi de aceste metode de cercetare, pe care putem să imaginea aeriană. le numim metode clasice sau tradiţionale, o
Tab. 1. Materiale cartografice utilizate în analiză
TITLU HĂRŢII AUTORUL SCARA ANUL Harta topografică în proiecţie Stat Majorul General 1:50.000 1901 Cassini al Armatei Planul director de tragere Direcţia Topografică 1:20.000 Ridicare 1900-1904 Militară Retipărit 1954-1959 Pentru arealul de studiu 1957 Harta topografică în proiecţie Direcţia Topografică 1:25.000 1980-1981 Gauss – Krüger Militară Hărţile sovietice - 1:50.000 Situaţia terenului la 1987 Tipărit în anul 1991
4. Rezultate şi discuţii organizau în fiecare an bâlciuri şi târguri Folosind datele menţionate şi metodologia (Ursescu, 1906, Geacu et al., 1997). Totodată, descrisă am reconstituit limitele vetrelor de sate din anul 1970, la marginea de nord-vest a analizate, surprinzând astfel dinamica teritorială satului Jilavele a început să funcţioneze o fermă a acestora [Fig. 2]. de creştere a animalelor. În intervalele 1895-1899 şi 1900-1904, Desfăşurarea lacului Jilavele la nord-est de suprafaţa construită a satelor este mult mai sat reprezintă un element natural ce împiedică redusă decât cea din prezent: în cazul satului extinderea în această parte, astfel creşterea Jilavele cu circa 180 ha, iar în cazul satului suprafeţei vetrei se realizează în lungul Slătioarele cu aproximativ 20 ha. Se constată că, drumului principal. Şi satul Slătioarele prezintă încă din acea perioadă, satul Jilavele avea o o suprafaţă mai mare a zonei construite, extindere mai mare decât satul Slătioarele, lucru extinderea realizându-se la sud-vest de drumul favorizat de prezenţa drumului principal, adică care leagă acest sat de Jilavele şi în partea de traseul de astăzi al şoselei naţionale. nord-vest. În 1980 se observă o extindere În anul 1987, este evidenţiată aceeaşi semnificativă a celor două sate. Satul Jilavele se tendinţă de creştere a suprafeţei spaţiului extinde în partea de sud şi nord-vest, ca urmare construit în cazul satului Jilavele, prin a Reformei agrare din 1945, care a condus la extinderea fermei de animale până la marginea divizarea loturilor de pământ în mici proprietăţi. drumului naţional 1D, în condiţiile în care în Prin aplicarea acestei reforme au fost date locuri perioada 1980-1993, efectivele de animale au de case, la sud de drumul principal DN 1D şi la crescut semnificativ, în anul 1991 fiind vest de cel care face legătura dintre Jilavele şi înregistrat cel mai mare număr de porcine din gara Ialomiţa, zonă cunoscută până în 1905- această unitate (Sorin et al, 1997 1910 sub numele de „Târgul”, deoarece aici se
118 Consideraţii privind evoluţia vetrelor de sat din comuna Jilavele. O perspectivă cartografică
Fig. 2. Harta evoluţiei suprafeţei vetrelor de sat (1895 – 2005)
Ulterior, ca urmare a desfiinţării fermei de lege 187/1945), economici (înfiinţarea şi animale, lipsa interesului pentru practicarea şi funcţionarea Asociaţiilor Economice dezvoltarea agriculturii la nivel local şi Intercooperatiste în perioada 1960-1990, intensificare mişcării migratorii cu caracter desfiinţarea complexelor de animale după anii definifiv rural - urban (în special la nivelul '90) şi cei sociali (migraţia urban-rural, rural- tinerilor), suprafaţa vetrelor nu a mai crescut urban, migraţia internaţională). semnificativ. Pe ansamblu, suprafaţa celor două sate a crescut în perioada 1895-2005, în direcţiile nord 5. Concluzii şi sud-vest, în cazul satului Slătioarele şi nord- Analiza materialelor cartografice şi a vest, sud şi est în cazul satului Jilavele, în imaginilor aeriene constituie o modalitate prezent cunoscând o perioadă de stagnare. importantă în suprinderea evoluţiei teritoriale a aşezărilor umane, în acest caz a aşezărilor rurale. Din cercetarea acestora, rezultă că Referinţe bibliografice aşezările rurale, din arealul studiat, şi-au păstrat în linii mari structura, textura şi formele actuale, [1] CÂNDEA, M., BRAN, F., CIMPOERU, I., o dinamică evidentă fiind la nivelul suprafeţelor (2006), Organizarea, amenajarea şi dezvoltarea vetrelor. Contextul în care s-a realizat acest durabilă a spaţiului geografic, Editura lucru a fost determinat atât de factorii fizico- Universitară, Bucureşti, 364 pp. geografici, cât şi de factorii istorici (Decretul- [2] GEACU, S., (1997), Dicţionar geografic al 119 Andreea-Florentina Marin
judeţului Ialomiţa, Editura Enciclopedica, şi Olt în documente cartografice: reconstituirea Bucureşti, 208 pp. şi dinamica peisajului geografic în secolele [3] GEACU, S. ET AL, (1997), Monografia XVIII-XX, EdituraUniversitară, Bucureşti, 305 comunei Jilavele, Editura Prahova, Ploieşti, 239 pp. pp. [7] PROVIANU, I.I., (1897), Dicţionarul geografic [4] LAHOVANI, G.I., BRĂTIANU, I.C., al judeţului Ialomiţa, Tipografia şi legătoria de TOCILESCU, G.G., (1902), Marele dicţionar al cărţi „Viitorul”, Elie Angelescu, Tergovişte, 273 României, Stab. Grafic J.V. Socecu, Bucureşti. pp. [5] NĂSTASE, A., OSACI, G. (2005), Topografie. [8] URSESCU, A.V., (1906), Anuarul judeţului Cartografie, Editura Spiru Haret, Bucureşti, 232 Ialomiţa pe 1906, Tipografia Constantin I. pp. Şeicarescu, Călăraşi, 461 pp. [6] OSACI, G., (2004), Muscelele dintre Dâmboviţa [9] geo-spatial.org
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