516 THE INSIDE TRACK WHY SHOULD BE HOT! Timothy V. Rasinski

n 2009, an annual survey of experts (Cassidy Why Fluency Is Not Hot & Cassidy, 2010) in reading determined that There are several reasons why fluency has lost its reading fluency was no longer a hot topic allure among reading educators and experts. The for reading. Moreover, those same experts first problem lies in the way that fluency is generally Idetermined that fluency should also not be measured. Reading rate (the number of words a reader considered a hot topic. The 2010 survey reports the can read on grade level text in a minute) has come to same results (Cassidy, Ortlieb, & Shettel, 2011). How be the quintessential measure of reading fluency. This could this be? comes from studies that have shown high correlations The ’s (NRP; 2000) survey between reading rate and . of research in reading determined that reading This correlational research has evolved into a fluency was, indeed, one of the pillars of effective definition of reading fluency as reading fast. As a reading instruction. Subsequent summaries of result, reading fluency instruction has become in reading research have also determined that there is a many classrooms a quest for speed. Students are solid body of research that supports reading fluency provided with instruction that emphasizes increasing instruction (Chard, Vaughn, & Tyler, 2002; Kuhn & reading rate. Stahl, 2003; Rasinski, 2010; Rasinski & Hoffman, If fluency is nothing more than reading fast, then 2003; Rasinski, Reutzel, Chard, & Linan-Thompson, fluency instruction should be considered cold. In its 2011). In this article, I explore why fluency has become such a pariah in the reading field, and I also discuss why it should be a central element to Timothy V. Rasinski is a professor of education at Kent State any effective fluency curriculum and how this can University, Ohio, USA; e-mail [email protected]. happen.

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fullest and most authentic sense, fluency is reading with and for meaning, and “Studies...have shown high correlations any instruction that focuses primarily on between reading rate and comprehension.... As a speed with minimal regard for meaning is wrong. result, reading fluency instruction has become in A second reason for fluency’s demotion is that it is associated many classrooms a quest for speed.” primarily with oral reading (NRP, 2000), and because most of the reading instruction in which the aim of students’ task in reading—comprehension. These that is done beyond the primary grades reading is comprehension (Rasinski, students are marked by their slow, is silent reading, then oral reading 2006). With the simple model of reading laborious, and staccato reading of texts. fluency instruction must have little I propose next, I hope to address the Our goal should be for readers to value. Why teach oral reading fluency preceding concerns about fluency read the words in texts accurately and if students will rarely employ it beyond and demonstrate how it is a critical automatically. When the words in text grades 2 or 3? Indeed, Chall’s (1996) component for effective instruction. are identified automatically, readers can model of reading development places Pikulski and Chard (2005) employ most of their limited cognitive fluency as a competency to be mastered described fluency as a bridge from energy to that all-important task in in the early stages of reading. Why accuracy to text reading—text comprehension. For bother, then, with fluency beyond comprehension (see Figure). I think many readers, comprehension while grades 2 or 3? they are right on with this metaphor. reading suffers not because the readers Third, as one of the five pillars of Fluency has two essential components: have insufficient cognitive resources to effective reading instruction (NRP, automaticity and prosody. Automaticity make meaning out of the text read, but 2000), fluency is often taught as a refers to the ability to recognize words because they depleted those resources separate area of the reading curriculum, automatically or effortlessly (LaBerge & by having to employ them in word distinct and apart from authentic Samuels, 1974). Prosody completes the recognition. These are the same readers reading students do during guided bridge by connecting to comprehension. who would easily understand a text if reading or reading workshop—a time it were read to them—when someone when the teacher’s stopwatch comes Automaticity—The Link else takes on the task of decoding the out and students read orally for speed. words, they can employ their cognitive In many classrooms today, students to Word Recognition It is not enough for readers to read resources to making meaning. are being asked to reread a reading the words in text accurately—they Readers develop their word passage from the core reading series need to read the words automatically. recognition automaticity in the same or a fluency program four, five, even LaBerge and Samuels (1974) posited way that other automatic processes in six times until they can read it at a that all readers have a limited amount life are developed—through wide and speed deemed appropriate for their of attention, or what I have come to deep practice. Wide reading refers to the grade level. Reading for meaning call cognitive energy. If they have to common classroom practice of reading and enjoyment is not part of fluency use too much of that cognitive energy a text once followed by discussion, instruction. Comprehension and reading to decode the words in text, they have response, and instruction aimed at for pleasure are considered different little remaining for the more important developing some specific reading parts of the reading curriculum—apart from fluency. Fluency is not viewed as integral to real reading. Figure A Critical Bridge in Reading

Why Fluency Should Be Hot Fluency: I believe that fluency should be a hot Word Recognition Automaticity Comprehension topic for teachers and scholars and Prosody reading. My conception of fluency puts it at the center of authentic reading

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successive reading on in many classrooms. Students graph that text practiced. their own reading rates to see gain. That’s to be I have witnessed students respond expected: Repeated to requests to read orally with “Do practice improves you want me to read this story as fast the performance of as I can?” I am increasingly hearing the actual activity students describe the “best” reader practiced. The real in their class as one “who reads fast.” value of deep or I know of no compelling research repeated reading that has demonstrated that a primary is shown when focus on increasing reading speed students move on results in improved comprehension to a new and not and satisfaction in reading. Indeed, strategies and skills. The routine then previously read passage. What students I have seen cases in which students’ begins anew with a different text. A learn from the repeated reading of one comprehension actually declines as they general purpose of wide reading is passage partially transfers to the new learn to blow through periods, commas, to increase the volume of reading by passage. Several reviews of research and other forms of punctuation in their having students read one new text after on fluency have shown that word quest for speed in reading. another. This is a type of reading done recognition accuracy, automaticity, Evidence of this emphasis on by most adults, and it is clearly a key comprehension, and attitude toward reading speed can be seen in the ever- component of any effective reading reading have been shown to improve increasing norms for reading rate that program. with repeated (Dowhower, have appeared in some commercial Deep reading is more commonly 1994; Kuhn & Stahl, 2003; Rasinski fluency programs (Rasinski & referred to as repeated reading et al., 2011). Wide reading and deep Hamman, 2010). What was considered (Samuels, 1979). Deep reading occurs reading are foundational to any effective an average reading rate for a particular when a student is asked to read a single fluency program or intervention. grade level 10 years ago is now text repeatedly until a level of fluency The problem with repeated readings considered below average. Although is achieved. Think of those struggling becomes evident when readers intuit the reading rates have increased students who have not yet achieved a purpose for the deep reading that over the past decade, overall reading automaticity in their word recognition. focuses primarily on reading speed and achievement has remained stagnant. They read the passage for the first time away from meaning. Because fluency Specific and intentional emphasis on (and only time, as in wide reading), (automaticity) has come to be measured improving reading rates simply does and they don’t read it very well—they by a reader’s speed of reading, for not work. know it and you know it. The slow, many students (and teachers), the goal There is no question that we should halting reading that characterizes less of repeated readings has evolved into want students to increase their reading than automatic word recognition will increasing one’s reading speed (e.g., rate. But this should happen in the way have a detrimental effect on the reader’s students are required to read passages comprehension. I think that rather than from their reading book multiple times moving on to the next passage after until they achieve a predetermined some discussion and instruction, as is reading rate). When students engage in done in wide reading, the teacher needs this form of repeated reading and their “What students learn to have the student read the passage reading rates are measured weekly and more than once until some degree then charted so that they can see their from the repeated of automaticity is achieved with that gains in speed, speed itself becomes the reading of one passage. default goal of repeated readings and all When readers read a text more than of fluency instruction. passage...transfers to once, it is not unusual that they would It is not difficult to see the demonstrate improvement with every manifestations of fluency instruction the new passage.”

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that reading rate has improved for all of you reading this article—through “Prosody allows the reader to infer authentic wide and deep reading information that is not explicity practice. stated in the passage.” The Other Side of Fluency—Prosody If automaticity is the fluency link to word reader to comprehend a text at a more they encounter different texts that recognition, prosody completes the bridge sophisticated level than only the text require different prosodic elements by linking fluency to comprehension. itself offers. to read with appropriate expression The more common term for prosody in Other scholars have argued that and meaning. As readers read deeply reading is reading with expression. If we prosody in reading also assists the (reading one text several times), they think of someone who is a fluent reader reader in identifying critical phrase gradually recognize and embed into or speaker, we generally do not think of a boundaries that are not marked by their reading the prosodic elements that person who speaks or reads fast. Rather, punctuation (Schreiber, 1980, 1987, 1991; allow for a meaningful and expressive we are more likely to think of someone Schreiber & Read, 1980). Again, prosody rendition of the text. who uses their voice to help convey allows the reader to infer information In the same way that actors meaning to a listener when speaking or that is not explicitly stated in the rehearse a script to make a meaningful reading orally. Prosody enhances and passage. and authentic performance, readers adds to the meaning of a text. Take, for A growing body of research is read deeply to make a meaningful example, the following sentence: demonstrating that prosody in oral performance for themselves (or reading is related to overall proficiency an audience, if reading to others). Robert borrowed my new bicycle. in reading (Benjamin & Schwanenflugel, Moreover, through repeated reading, This declarative sentence describes an 2010; Miller & Schwanenflugel, 2006, readers become more adept and efficient act done by Robert. However, the simply 2008). Moreover, prosody is not an at employing prosodic features into oral emphasis on a single word can add issue solely for oral reading. Most adults new passages not previously read. Thus implied meaning to the sentence. I have surveyed indicate that they improved prosodic reading is another also hear themselves when they read positive outcome of repeated reading. Robert borrowed my new bicycle. (Robert, silently. Indeed, several studies have Prosody and automaticity should not Raymond, borrowed my bike.) found that readers at the third, fourth, go hand in hand. Both are developed Robert borrowed my new bicycle. (Robert fifth, and eighth grade levels who read through wide and deep reading. did not steal my bike.) orally with good prosody also tend to However, when the goal of deep Robert borrowed my new bicycle. (Robert be good comprehenders when reading reading is to intentionally improve didn’t borrow your bike, he borrowed mine.) silently (Daane et al., 2005; Pinnell et reading speed, then prosody will almost al., 1995; Rasinski, Rikli, & Johnston, always suffer. To read fast often means Robert borrowed my new bicycle. (Robert didn’t borrow my old bike, he borrowed 2009). Conversely, these same studies sacrificing prosody (as well as meaning). the new one.) have found that readers who read with Fast reading very often is devoid of Robert borrowed my new bicycle. (Robert poor prosody (in a monotone and meaningful expression. Indeed, I feel didn’t borrow my new book, he borrowed word-by-word manner) also have poor that excessively fast reading can be my bike.) comprehension when reading silently. just as disfluent as excessively slow Prosody is related to good reading— reading—prosody and meaning are Emphasizing a different word oral and silent. So how do readers compromised in both excessively fast adds implied or inferred meaning— develop their prosody in reading? and slow reading. meaning that is not explicitly stated. Interestingly, prosody is developed in Prosody is developed through wide Moreover, it is commonly accepted that the very same way that automaticity, and deep practice, as with automaticity. inferential comprehension is a higher the other component of reading fluency, However, the goal of the deep practice level of comprehension than literal is developed—through wide and deep has little to do with improved reading comprehension. So prosody allows the reading practice. As readers read widely, speed. When prosody is emphasized,

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a quality of that is manifested “The repeated reading is not aimed at when a reader can “hear” the voice improving reading speed, but in being able to of the writer when reading. Voice in writing, then, is the flip side of prosody engage in an oral reading that an audience will in reading. Materials that are written with voice are materials that are meant find meaningful and satisfying.” to be read with voice or prosody. Thus an authentic approach to deep or repeated readings involves students rehearsing a text (script, song, the goal of the wide and repeated many classrooms, as mentioned earlier, poem, speech, etc.) over the course of reading is to achieve an expressive oral fluency is a separate add-on part of the a day or several days for the purpose reading of the passage that reflects reading curriculum in which students of eventually performing the text for and enhances the meaning of the read and reread short passages, usually an audience of listeners. Imagine a passage. This, to me, is an authentic informational in nature, for the purpose classroom where the teacher assigns form of repeated readings. And when of increasing their reading rates. students a poem, song, readers theatre the goal of wide and repeated readings script, or other such text on a Monday. is to improve fluency to enhance Performance and Voice Then, throughout the week, students comprehension, then fluency becomes How can deep reading be made more rehearse their assigned text in school hot again. authentic and integral to the reading under the coaching of the teacher and curriculum? One answer comes from at home with parental support. On Teaching Fluency the notion of performance for an Fridays, students perform their assigned Authentically and Artfully audience. Actors, singers, poetry readers, piece for an audience of classmates, The science of teaching reading has and other performers have a natural parents, students, and teachers from shown us that reading fluency is a reason to rehearse or engage in repeated other classrooms and even the school key component to proficient reading readings—the performance itself. principal. and that teacher-guided wide and They wish to convey meaning with Such classrooms do exist. Indeed, deep reading are two ways to improve their voice. Thus, in classrooms, when classroom-based research has shown reading. The art of teaching reading reading can be cast is such a way that that this approach to deep reading challenges all teachers to embed the the text will eventually be performed, does result in readers who make science of reading instruction into their readers will have an authentic reason to significant gains in reading with classrooms in ways that are authentic, engage in repeated readings. Moreover, meaningful expression (prosody), read engaging, and meaningful for students the repeated reading is not aimed at with improved automaticity in word and that are integrated into the school improving reading speed, but in being recognition (read faster when assessed), reading curriculum. able to engage in an oral reading that demonstrate greater comprehension of Wide reading is already a staple an audience will find meaningful and passages read orally and silently, and in classroom reading instruction. All satisfying. A reading performance reading curricula worth their salt have provides the authentic reason for students read authentic materials widely, repeated readings. whether stories from basal reading Are there texts that lend themselves series or trade books, and follow that to performance? The answer is quite reading with discussions for deepening obvious—readers theater scripts, comprehension and instructional dialogues, monologues, poetry, song activities aimed at building specific lyrics, speeches and oratory, and, of reading skills and strategies. course, narratives or stories all lend Deep or repeated readings are themselves to performance. Such less well integrated into the regular texts have embedded in them a strong reading and school curriculum. In sense of voice (Culham, 2003). Voice is

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30 to 60 minutes become, in reality, “A growing number of studies are demonstrating assignments that require 90 to 180 that fluency is a major concern for minutes because of their lack of automaticity. Students’ excessively slow students in grades 4 and 5, in middle school, reading requires double and triple the time of more skilled readers to make it and in high school.” through the same reading assignment (Rasinski, 2000). A growing number of studies are demonstrating that fluency is a major find greater satisfaction and enjoyment comprehension and overall reading concern for students in grades 4 (Daane in authentic reading experiences proficiency, both in silent and oral et al., 2005; Pinnell et al., 1995) and 5, (Griffith & Rasinski, 2004; Martinez, reading. Fluency can be taught in ways in middle school (Morris & Gaffney, Roser, & Strecker, 1999; Rasinski & that students find authentic, engaging, 2011; Rasinski et al., 2009), and in Stevenson, 2005; Young & Rasinski; and well connected to the literacy high school (Rasinski et al., 2005). 2009). curriculum, as well as to other subject Moreover, authentic fluency instruction An approach to fluency such as this areas taught in school. Also, research as described earlier in this article has requires an expansion of what counts has demonstrated that authentic fluency shown remarkable potential for helping as appropriate reading materials. In instruction can indeed improve students’ a wide range of students beyond the most current classrooms, informational reading fluency, comprehension, and primary grades improve their fluency, texts and narratives (stories) rule. attitude toward reading. overall reading achievement, and This authentic approach to fluency Fluency, however, is usually motivation for reading (e.g., Biggs, requires us to consider texts meant considered a lower level reading skill, Homan, Dedrick, & Rasinski, 2008; to be performed. Readers Theatre one that should be mastered early Griffith & Rasinski, 2004; Rasinski et al., scripts, poetry, dialogues, monologues, in a student’s literacy development. 2011; Solomon & Rasinski, in press). speeches, and the like are available For teachers in the upper elementary, In the way that fluency is approached through commercial publishers and on middle, and secondary grades, fluency by many commercial fluency programs the Internet. However, I have found that should not be an issue. around the world, fluency should not students can create their own materials The fact of the matter, however, be considered a hot issue in reading. for fluency. Stories from trade books is that even though in an ideal world Fluency is more than mere reading fast, and basal reading programs as well as fluency is something that is acquired more than reading orally, more than content from science, social studies, early in one’s school career, teachers and an instructional issue for only young and math can be recast as scripts, school administrators live in the real readers, more than a separate area of dialogues, monologues, poems, and world—a world in which many students the reading curriculum. When fluency other performance texts. Such recasting in the primary, intermediate, middle, instruction is treated as both an art and challenges students to think about the and secondary grades struggle in a science that can be taught through content more deeply as they transform reading. For many of these students, at authentic and engaging forms of deep content from one genre to another. Thus least one source of their reading concern and teacher-supported reading, then comprehension and written expression is a lack of fluency. fluency will be the hot topic that is can become more integrally linked to These students have trouble was 10 years ago. More importantly, fluency. understanding what they read because when we as reading professionals they have significant difficulty recognize the power of teaching fluency But Is Fluency Instruction recognizing the words they encounter using scientific principles and artistic Only for the Primary in their reading and reading with approaches, fluency can and will make Grades? appropriate phrasing and expression. a significant impact on the reading This article, I hope, has convinced Their frustration and disinterest in achievement and reading dispositions you that reading fluency should reading later mount when middle and of all readers, especially those whom we be a hot topic. Fluency is related to high school reading assignments of consider most at risk.

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Garrett, The Reading Education, Office of Educational Research reading fluency, comprehension, and Teacher, May 2010 and Improvement. motivation through the readers’ theater club. ■ “Putting Fluency on a Fitness Plan: Building Rasinski, T.V. (2000). Speed does matter in Reading in the Middle. reading. The Reading Teacher, 54(2), Young, C., & Rasinski, T. (2009). Implementing Fluency’s Meaning-Making Muscles” by Barclay 146–151. readers theatre as an approach to classroom Marcell, The Reading Teacher, December 2011 Rasinski, T.V. (2006). Reading fluency fluency instruction. The Reading Teacher, instruction: Moving beyond accuracy, 63(1), 4–13.

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