T ftC 1. ' 9°C9°C Amhara Agricultural Research Institute (ARARI) Dj AGRICULTURAL Q GROWTH Gondar Agricultural Research Center 9 program
Participatory Agricultural Production Systems Analysis of AGP-Ii Districts in North Gondar Zone: Implications for Research and Development
Published by Research Publication.Cornmunication and Knowledge Management Directorate, ARARI A Participatory Agricultural Production Systems Analysis of AGP-I1 Districts in North Gondar Zone: Implications for Research and Development
Research Report: 1
Yonas Worku Asmamaw Bidru Solomon Abega/. Muuz G/tsadiq Alayu Kidanc Ertiban WonditVaw Tikunesh Zelalem Landuber W ondale
i th ru * m c < r rcrc M ti-tHt g AGRICULTURAL Amhara Agricultural Research Institute, GROWTH PROGRAM A Participatory Agricultural Production Systems Analysis of AGP-II Districts in North Gondar Zone: Implications for Research and Development
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ISBN 9788-99944-927-6-3
Donors and partners ft H I l + l (S) USAID TABLE OF CONTENT
LIST OF TABLES...... vi
LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS...... vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...... viii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY...... ix
1.INTRODUCTION...... 1
2.METHODOLOGY 2
2.1. Area Description...... 2
2.2. Method of Data Collection and Data Type...... 5
2.3. Analytical Method...... 5
3.SURVEY RESULT...... 6
3.1. Socio-Economic Characteristics of the Study Area...... 6
3.1.1. Fanning system...... 6
3.1.2. Agricultural marketing and market infrastructure...... 10
3.1.3. Input supply and financial system...... 12
3.1.4. Rural livelihood and household economy...... 14
3.1.5. Cross cutting issues...... 16
3.1.5.1. Nutrition...... 16
3.1.5.2. Gender...... 16
3.1.5.3. Climate smart agriculture...... 18
3.1.6. Major constraints related to socio-economic issues...... 22
3.1.6.1. Highland areas...... 22
3.1.6.2. Mid altitude...... 23
3.1.6.3. Lowland area...... 24 3.1.7. Recommendations and outlines of research and developme nt proposals. ..26 3.2. Crop production...... 28 3.2.1. Cropping s y s te m ...... 28
3.2.2. Crop m anagem ent...... 30 3.2.3. Harvesting and post harvest handling...... 32 3.2.4. Constraints to crop production...... 33 3.2.4.1. M ajor ipests...... 33 3.2.4.2. Technology constraint...... 37 3.2.4.3. Crop m anagem ent...... 38 3.2.4.4. C ropping system ...... 38 3.2.2.5 Harvesting and post-harvest handling...... 39 3.2.5. Prioritized overall production constraint by districts...... 40 3.2.6. Prioritizing interventions areas of research and development for crop production constraints...... 45 3.2.7 Recommendations and outlines of research and development Proposals The following research interventions are suggested to address crop production constraints in different districts:...... 48 3.3. Livestock Production...... 49 3.3.1. Livestock types and breeds...... 49 3.3.2. Livestock population and productivity...... 50 3.3.3. Production system and livestock management system ...... 52 3.3.4. Feed resources...... 52 3.3.5. Feed and feeding management in different season...... 53 3.3.6. W atering and w ater source...... 53 3.3.7. Animal feeding system by production purpose...... 55 3.3.8. Disease and disease management by animal type...... 55 3.3.9. Livestock product Processing...... 57 3.3.10. Identified Production Constraints in the AGP II districts...... 57 3.3.10.1. Constraints related to Genotype...... 57 3.3.10.2. Feed and feeding constraints...... 58 3.3.10.3. Animal Health Constraints in AGP II Districts...... 59 3.3.10.4. Technology constraints...... 59 3.3.10.5. Forage and crop residue management constraints...... 59 3.3.11. Livestock production constraint by Districts...... 60 3.3.12. Prioritizing problems, screening options and interventions...... 67 3.3.13. Recommendations and outlines of research and development p ro p o sals...... 69 iii 3.4. Natural Resource M anagem ent...... 70 3.4.1. Resources...... 72 3.4.1.1. Soil...... 72
3.4.1.2 W ater...... 72
3.4.1.3. Irrigation...... 73
3.4.1.4 Forest land coverage in type...... 73
3.4.2 Constraints...... 75
3.4.2.1 Soil Productivity...... 75
3.4.2.2 Fertilizer Utilization...... 76
3.4.2.3 Soil conditions...... 78
3.2.2.4 Water M anagement constraints by districts...... 78
3.4.2.5 Agronomic practices constraints by districts...... 81
3.4.2.6 Rain W ater H arvesting...... 81
3.4.3 Forest M anagem ent Constraints by Agro E cology...... 82
3.4.3.1. Area closure...... 83
3.4.3.2. Opportunities, Potentials and Constraints...... 84
3.4.3.3 Summary o f Research Intervention O utlines...... 91
4. CONCLUSION...... 93
5. REFERENCES...... 94 LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 .Land use of the study areas ...... 6 Table 2. Improved crop varieties introduced in the study areas...... 8 Table 3.Productivity of crops across the study areas...... i...... 9 Table 4.Road access of the study areas...... L...... 11 Table 5.Main and village markets found in the studv areas...... 11 Table 6.Major input and credit supply institutions in the study areas...... 13 Table 7.Major agricultural products supplied to the market...... 15 Table 8.Farming activities disaggregated by sex ...... 17 Table 9.Livestock husbandry and natural resource management activities disaggregated by sex...... 18 Table lO.Farmers climate change adaptation and mitigation stra tegies in the study area..20 Table 11 .Perceived climate change parameters in the study area...... | ...... 21 Table 12. Arable and irrigated land of the study areas...... 28 Table 13. Cropping sequence in crop rotation...... 30 Table U.Summary of major pests and weeds in different districts...... 34 Table 15.Prioritized overall crop production constraint at Wogera...... 1...... 41 Table 16.Prioritized overall crop production constraint at Chilga...... ~ ...... 41 Table I7.Prioritized overall crop production constraint at Dembia and Taku.sa...... 42 Table 18.Prioritized overall crop production constraint at Gondar Zuri a ...... 43 Table 19.Prioritized overall crop production constraint at Alefa...... 43 Table 20.Prioritized overall crop production constraint at Metema and Ouara...... 44 Table 21 .Interventions areas of research and development for crop produ ction Constraints...... i ...... 45 Table 22.Livestock types in AGP II districts...... 50 Table 23.Livestock population in AGP II districts...... 52 Table 24 Available forage types in the study districts...... 54 Table 25.Major disease and parasite in AGP districts...... i ...... 56 Table 26 Prioritized researchable problems identified...... 68 Table 27.Soil types with their coverage in hectare...... i...... 72 Table 28.Available irrigation water resources...... „ . i ...... 73 Table 29.Forest land coverage in type...... L...... 74 Table 30.Soil types with their coverage in percent...... 77 Table 31.Irrigation water management available in the AGP1I woredas...... 80 Table 32. Opportunities, Potentials and Constraints...... *...... 84 LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ACSI Amhara Credit and Saving Institution AGP-II Agricultural Growth Program*II CBE Commercial bank of Ethiopia CLLP Community level participatory planning CSA Central Statistical Agency EIAR Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research FGD Focus Group Discussion GARC Gondar Agricultural Research Center GoE Government of Ethiopia GTP Growth and Transformation Plan IL-SRMP Livelihood Improvement and Sustainable Resource Management Program IPM Integrated Pest Management LSB Local Seed Business MoA Ministry of Agriculture MoFAD Ministry of Finance and Economic Development NBE National Bank Ethiopia NRM Natural Resource Management RARls Regional Agricultural Research Institutes SACCO Saving and Credit Cooperative SBN Sesame Business Network SLM Sustainable Land Management ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This agricultural production constraint assessment has been conducted with the direct and indirect involvement and contribution of many stakeholders. First and for most we would like to appreciate each district AGP-II steering committee members who collected the first hand information in their locality. Sincere gratitude goes to each woreda heads of agricultural office and AGP-ll focal person for their support in gath ering and coordinating the steering committees and availing different information.
Similarly, we would like to extend our special thanks to ARAR1-AGP-II Coordina tion Unit coordinator, Ato Landber Wondale and also to the Ainhara Agricultural Re search Institute (ARARI) for their financial and technical support they rendered to us during the field work. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The Government of Ethiopia (GoE) is currently developing five year Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP). The Second Agricultural Growth Program II (AGP-II) has been aligned with GTP II, thereby contributing to the achievement of targets set for agriculture sector growth. The program contributes to the higher-level goal of sus tainable food security and agricultural transformation by developing untapped poten tial of well-endowed areas. AGP II will operate in 157 districts selected from 7 na tional regional states and one city administration of the country which have the high est growth potential, primarily based on agro-ecological conditions and access to mar kets. In North Gondar zone, eight districts are included in the GTP-II program. This diagnostic survey was initiated to characterize the farming systems of AGP-II pro gram intervention districts and identify major agricultural production constraints and opportunities with a view to establish a framework for future research and develop ment interventions.
The study was conducted in eight selected AGP-11 program intervention districts of North Gondar Zone of Amhara regional state. The districts were Wogera, Gondar Zu- ria, Dembia, Takusa, Alefa, Chilga, Metema and Quara. A multidisciplinary team of researchers conducted the study. The team used one of the informal survey methods i.e. Community level participatory approach (CLLP) to characterize and identify the potential agricultural opportunities and constraints of the farming systems of the study areas.
The study characterizes the socio-economic condition of the study area like the farm ing system, marketing and market infrastructure, input supply and financial system, rural livelihood and household economy and cross cutting issues (nutrition and cli mate smart agriculture), major crop grown, cropping system and crop management, livestock resource and livestock husbandry and natural resource and its management. After characterization major agricultural related constraints were identified, recom mendations and outlines of research and development proposals were suggessted for further intervenstions to solve the problems as well as to maximize the resource utili zation in the area.
CLLP approach is one of the quick informal survey / planning method in which communities and their institutions prepare their own plans, mobilize resources, allocate budget and identify areas and ways in which to implement project and monitor progress.
viii 1. INTRODUCTION
The Government of Ethiopia (GoE) has developed a live year Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP) which sels a long-term goal of becoming a middle-income country by 2025. To achieve the set GTP objectives, the country has followed a “developmental state" model with a strong role for the government in many aspects o f the economy (MoA, 2015). The Second Agricultural Growth Program (AGP-II) would be aligned with GTP II. thereby contributing to the achievement of targets set for agriculture sector growth (MoFAD, 2015)
Agriculture remained a dominant sector and am important source of economic growth in Ethiopia The agriculture sectoT contributes about -40S of Gross Domestic product (GDP), more than £5% of the woriome farce and 90° « of the export (CSA. 2014) Though some official statistics stated that over the past 15 years the average xgnculiu:aJ growth rate has been close to 7% per annum, food insecurity, rural unemployment and food aid significantly increased (NBE, 2014).
To boost the agricultural sector, AGP-33 -program is designed with the following objective "to mcrease agricultural productivity and commercialization of small holder farmers targeted by the program and also contributes to dietary diversity and consumption at household level.” AGP-ll will also give due attention io 1he increased participation o f women and youth The program contributes to the lusher-level goal af sustainable food security and agricultural transformation by dtwelqpmg untapped potential of well-endowed areas. AGP II will operate m 157 districts selected iram 7 nanonal regional states and one city administration of the country which iiave the highest growth potential, pnmanh hased on agro-ecoloeical conditions and access to markets In North Gondar zone, eight districts are included in the AGP-II program
Agricultural research » one the Jive components of AGP-E Program agricultural research institutes have bee® plawm key rok for the development of agncuhnral sector by generating and/or developing, mulitplyiag ihssemraalmg agricultural technologies to the society. Gondar Agricultural Research Center (GARC) has been mandated to do research m north Gondar zone To develop and or eeneoae agricultural technologies. know ledge on the fanning system, potential as well as constraints of the agriculture sector is vety cmcial Therefore, this diagnostic surv ey’ has been done with the objective of charaderizme the fanning systems of AGP-II program intervention districts and identifying major agnoiitural production constraints and opportunities with a view to establish a framework for future research and development interventions
l 2. METHODOLOGY
2.1. Area Description
The study was conducted in eight selected AGP-II program intervention districts of North Gondar Zone of Amhara Regional State. The districts were Wogera, Gondar Zuria, Dembia, Takusa, Alefa, Chilga, Metema and Quara. According to MoA 2015 AGP-11 program implementation manual, the districts were selected by the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) based on the following criteria.
S Access to markets (access to cities of 50,000 population or over in less than 5 hours); S Natural resource endowment (including good rainfall distribution and annual average of 700 mm or over); S Suitable rainfall and soil for crop and fodder production; J Potential for development of small-scale irrigation; S Institutional plurality of service providers, including good basis and growth of viable cooperatives and farmer groups and existing partnership engagements with private sector, and S Willingness and commitment to participate (supportive environment; performance of programs/programs supported by other donors);
In addition to the above selection criteria, AGP-II has been responsive to the region’s request to consider the districts covered by the Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP) that have demonstrated high potential for growth. AGP-II also considered districts clustering as a criterion for selection to develop synergies for growth as well as districts capacity to manage the multiple funding.
In general the selected districts in North Gondar Zone are classified in three broad agro- agricultural zones i.e highland, mid and lowland. Wogera district is found in the highland part of the zone, Gondar zuria, Dembia, Takusa, Alefa and Chilga districts are in the mid altitude, and Metema and Quara are in the lowland part of the zone.
Wogera District The district is located north of Gondar town. The administrative center of the district is Amba- Georges which is about 41km, 210 km and 770 km away from Gondar town, Bahir Dar and Addis Ababa, respectively. The district has 2 urban and 39 rural kebeles1 consisting of about 39,928 households of which 5724 of them were female headed. The altitude of the district ranges from 1500m to 3040m above sea level. The minimum and maximum temperatures of the district are 18°C and 24°C, respectively. On average the district receives annual rainfall distribution ranging from 400mm--1 000mm. About 50% of the landscape is flatland, 25% is mountain and the remaining 25% is undulated land.
' Kebele is the lowest administrative unit of the government
2 Gondar Zuria district Gondar Zuria is bordered to the south by South Gondar Zone, to the southwest by Lake Tana, to the west by Dembia, to the north by Lay Armachiho, to the northeast by Wogera. and to the southeast by west Bele'ssa. The administrative center of the district Maksegnit is found between Gondar and Bahir Dar city, ft is about 40 km. 140 km and 709 km away from Gondar. Bahir-dar and Addis Ababa, respectively. Based on the 2007 national census conducted by the Central Statistics Authority of Ethiopia (CSA), the district had a total population of 191,394 of which 97,388 were men and 94,006 women; 18,377 or 9.60% were urban inhabitants. With an area of 1.108.53 square kilometers. Gondar Zuria had a population density of 172.66, which is greater than the zonal average of 63.76 persons per square kilometer. A total of 42,753 households were counted in this district resulting in an average of 4.48 persons per household, and 41.182 housing units.
Dembia District Dembia is bordered to the south by Lake Tana, to the southwest by Takusa, to the west by Chilga, to the north by Lay Armachiho, and to the east by Gondar Zuria. ITte district has 46 kebeles of which 6 of them are urban kebeles while the rest of them are rural kebeles. According to the 2014/1 Sfiscal year annual report of Dembia office of agriculture, the district has about 321,986 total population and 54,313 households of which 8012 or 14.75% were female headed. The administrative center koladiba is 35km. 215km and 775km away from Gondar, Bahir Dar and Addis Ababa, respectively. The altitude of the district ranges from I800m.a.s.i. up to 2600m.a.s.l. The landscape of the district is characterized as flat land (75%). undulated land (20%) and mountainous (5%). The annual minimum and maximum rainfall ranges from 772mm up to 1160mm, respectively. The mean minimum temperature of the district is 18°C while the mean maximum temperature rises up to 28°C.
Takusa District
Takusa is one of the districts in the Amhara Region of Lthiopia. Part of the Semien Gondar Zone. Takusa is bordered to the south by Alefa. to the west by Quara. to the northwest by the Metema, to the north by Chilga, to the northeast by Dembia, and to the east by Lake Tana. The administrative center of the district is Delgi which is about 80km, 140km and 700km away from Gondar. Bahir Dar and Addis Ababa, respectively. Based on the 2007 national census conducted by the Central Statistics Authorin of Ethiopia (CSA), this district had a total population of i 29,097, of which 65,782 are men and 63J15 women; 7,087 or 5.5% are urban inhabitants.
Alefa District
Alefa is bordered to the southwest by the Agew Awi Zone, to the west b) Quara, to the north by Takusa, to the east by Lake Tana and to the southeast by the west Gojjam Zone. The administrative center Shawra is about 145km. 80km and 624km away from Gondar. Bahir Dar and Addis Ababa, respectively. The district has one rural kebele and 24 rural kebeles. The district consists of a total population of 215,000 and 32.550 households of which 29,060 is male headed and the rest 3,490 is female headed. The elevation in this district ranges between
3 750m to 2250rn above sea level. The rainfall distribution of the district is almost even and ranges between 950mm to 1500mm. The mean annual temperature oi' the district varies between 18"C and 38"C\ Chilga district Chilga is bordered to the south by Takusa, to the west by Metemma. to the north b\ Tach Armachiho, to the northeast by Lav Armachiho. and to the east by Dembia. I he Lthio-Sudan main road crosses the district. The administrative center of the district is Ayikel which is 60km, 185km and 760km far from Gondar. Bahir Oar and Addis Ababa city, respectively. The district had 50 kebeles of which 6 of them were urban kebeles, the rest 44 kebeles were rural kebeles. According to 2014/15 fiscal year report of the district office of agriculture, the district had a total population of 237,581 of which 120,103 were men and 117,478 were women. A total of 32,586 households were counted in this district, of which 3091 of them were female headed. Elevations in this district range between 731 and 2,383 meters above sea level. The district receives about 900mm to 1250mm annual rainfall. Ihe mean minimum and maximum temperature of the district is 19°C and 27°C, respectively. I he landscape of the district is characterized as 30% flatland. 50% undulated and 20% mountainous land.
Metema District Metema is bordered to the south by Quara. to the west by Sudan, to the north by west Armachiho. to the northeast by Tach Armachiho, to the east by Chilga. and to the southeast by Takusa. The administrative center is Shehedi which is 158km. 333km and 914km away from Gondar, Bahir Dar and Addis Ababa. The district has 2 nrban and 18 nival kebeles. The district had a total population of 123808, of which 65149 were men and the rest 58659 were female. Elevations in this disUict range between 550 and 1600 meters above sea level. Ihe district is found under the lowland agro-ceological zone. Most of the landscape of the district is flatland. The mean minimum and maximum temperature of the district ranged from 35"C to 45°C. The district had uni-modal rainfall distribution with even distribution. 'Ihe length of rainfall was 3 months which usually started in June and ends at the end of August.
Quara district Quara is one of the districts of North Gondar zone. The district is located to southwest of Gondar town. It is bordered to the south by the Benishangul-Guinuz Region, to the west by Sudan, to the north by Metema, to the cast by Takusa and Alefa. and to the southeast by Agcw Avvi Zone; part of its boundary with the Benishangul-Gumaz Region is defined by the Dondor River. The administrative center of this district is Gelegu. It is 284km away from Gondar tow n, 464km away from the regional capital Bahir Dar and 1,213km away from the capital Addis Ababa. According to 2014/15 fiscal year annual reports of the district office of Agriculture, the district had a total population of 134.151 people. The district is administered by I urban and 18 rural kebele administration. About 70% (the majority) of the landscape is flatland while the rest 30% of it is undulated land. Ihe elevation of the district ranges from 530m-1,900m above sea level. The mean annual temperature of the district is about 34°C with mean minimum and maximum temperature of 261,C and 42(IC.
4 2.2. Method of Data Collection and Data Type
A multidisciplinary team of researchers consisting of social science, crop, livestock and soil and water specialists conducted the study. The team used one of the informal survey methods i.e. community level participatory planning (CLLP2) to characterize and identify the potential agricultural opportunities and constraints o f the farming systems o f the study areas. Checklist was developed and used as a too] to collect the data. Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected from the study areas. The survey was conducted in May, 2016 for about two consecutive weeks.
Focus Group Discussions (FGD) were made with each district AGP-II steering committees. Prior to the FGDs each steering committee had developed its own AGP-II planning by making a quick assessment study with farmers. Therefore, the team assumed that each steering committee had enough information regarding the farming systems of each districts. To triangulate the data obtained from the steering committee three additional FGDs were made with fanners in three districts. Secondary data were also collected from relevant sources to verify and strengthen the data collected through both FGDs. The data from the secondary sources were taken from the annual repons of different sectors.
2.3. Analytical Method The collected data were subjected to both qualitative and quantitative analytical methods. The quantitative data was analyzed using cross tabulation, frequency distribution, percentage share etc. The qualitative data, on the other hand, briefly narrated and explained. Different ranking methods were also used to prioritize the agricultural constraints and suggested solutions. Graphs, tables and charts were used to categorize and describe the collected data.
' CLLP approach is one of the quick informal survey / planning method in which communities and their institutions prepare their own plans, mobilize resources, allocate budget and identify areas and ways in which to implement project and monitor progress.
5 3. SURVEY RESULT
3.1. Socio-Economic Characteristics of the Study Area 3.1.1. Farming system Like the other part of the country, in the study areas mixed crop-livestock farming system is the dominant fanning system. Majority of the fanners produce crop in subsistence system. Only in Metema and Qura districts mechanized large scale farms are found. All the study sites have mono rainy season (meher) and rain fed agriculture is the dominant means of production. Though all the study sites have ample access to inigation, only few farms were irrigated and used for crop production. Except two kebeles in Gondar zuria and Dembia districts, all other districts have no access to modem irrigation schemes. Farmers usually allocate irrigation lands to grow vegetable crops like garlic, onion cabbage, lettuce, pepper, tomato, potato, etc and fruit trees. In some areas maize and wheat were also grown by using irrigation. The following table shows the land use of each district.
Table l.Land use of the study areas
Major Dembia Wogera Chilga Metema Quara Alefa vegetation type Inigable land 20633ha 96.5 ha 4151 ha 5447ha 4403ha Communal land 9752.3 ha 45602ha 19085ha Arable land 49118ha 47188ha 262104ha 49264ha Vegetation 7.90% 23870ha 141103ha 124000ha 157399.2ha cover Grazing land 9752.3ha 46487ha 44549.06ha 97870ha 52319ha Forest land 8% 76534ha 124000ha 157399.2ha 26324ha Bush land 15.00% 79380.37ha 12560ha Non arable land 22.62% 26208.91 ha 66847.5ha 12150ha Wet land 3.20% 4ha
Regarding crop production in the rainy season, farmers grow a wide range of crop types and varieties. Field crops such as cereals and pulses are the most cropping enterprises in the mid and highlands of the study areas while sesame, sorghum and cotton are the most prefened enterprises in the lowland areas. Horticultural crops types are almost similar across all study areas. Compared to their potential horticultural crops are produced in small amounts of areas.
Livestock is the other important enterprise in the farming system of the study areas. Concerning livestock holding, farmers almost kept similar livestock type across the study areas. Cattles are the dominant species which are mainly kept for traction power, reproduction, milk production purposes and as an asset. Shoats, poultry and bee hives are also the most important livestock which are typically kept as sources of cash income and home consumption. Except few exotic cattle breeds
6 and chickens, almost all animals were local breeds and farmers use traditional methods of rearing ani/nals. Communal grazing lands and crop residues are the main sources o f feeds for animals. There is also little forage production among these grass pea, fodder bit and sesbania are the major ones.
In the highland area which is represented only by Wogera district, barley (food and malt), wheat, faba bean and field pea are the major crops which cover large proportion of cultivated land in the area. Lentil, fenugreek, sorghum, sesame, potato and onion are also produced by a significant amount of farmers. In the midland districts tef, sorghum and chickpea are die dominant ones. Beside this crops finger millet, wheat, faba bean and barley are produced by farmers. Spices like pepper, black cumin, white cumin, fenugreek crops are the most important cash crops grown by fanners in this area. Vegetable crops like potato, garlic and onion, lettuce, cabbage etc are mostly produced by using irrigation during the dry season. From oil seeds niger seed, sunflower are also common flied crops grown by farmers. In the lowland part sesame, sorghum and cotton are cash and food crops largely produced by smallholder and large scale farmers.
Majority of the fanners in the study areas used local variety for each crop ty pes mentioned above. As shown in the table below, very few improved crop varieties were introduced to the areas. Ouncho tef variety and BH-540 maize variety which are widely adapted to large agro-ecology zone of the country took the lion share in terms of variety adoption in the study area followed by Arerti chickpea, variety abasim sesame variety and wheat HAR-1685 variety. The other crop varieties were distributed in smaller amount by different projects working in the area.
Different organizations and projects were the sources of these varieties among them Tsehay farmers union through primary cooperatives was the major seed supplier in the study areas. GARC, university of Gondar, Amhara and Ethiopia seed enterprises, different NGOs, agricultural projects and programs like world vision, agricultural transformation agency (ATA). sesame business network (SBN), sustainable land management (SLM), livelihood improvement and sustainable resource management program (IL-SRMP), local seed business (I SB) cooperatives were also seed suppliers in the study areas. Table 2.Improved crop varieties introduced in the study areas
Crop type Gondar Dembia Wogera Chilga Metema Quara Alefa Takusa Zuria T ef Kucho Quncho, Quncho Quncho Cr-37, Quncho, dukem Q uncho magna, Bure Barley BH-1307, holker, beka, bckoji, IBON,EH 1498 Wheat Danfe, HAR kekeba, danphe HAR- HAR-1685 kekeba 1 *->85,pia 1685, ca flour Becca flour M aize BH- BH 540, BH 540,Melkasa- BH-540 BH-540 BH- BH-540 540 limu 4 540, pioner shone, limu Pepper M arko Marko M arko Chickpea Arerti Arerti, Arerti, Natolin N atolin Potato Belete, Jaleni belete, Jaleni Sesame Abasina, Abasina, Humera 1, Humera Setiti 1 1, Setiti 1 During the discussion the participants mentioned that the productivity of most of the crops grown in the study areas were very low compared to their potentials since farmers use local varieties and with traditional methods without employing recommended input use. DAP/NPS and Urea fertilizers were used for few crop types like tef, maize, wheat, barley and cotton. Compost and farm yard manure are applied for home garden and for few fields which are found close to their home. Farmers applied compost and farm yard manure usually for vegetables and fruit trees. As shown in the following table, the productivity of different crop types grown in the study areas variety from place to place. Relatively local varieties gave almost similar productivity than improved varieties across different districts. This may be due to the difference in the type of varieties, soil type and climate differences and management of the crops across the study area.
Table 3.Productivity of crops across the study areas
Gondar Dembia Wogera Chilga Metema Quara Alefa Takusa Commodi Zuria !> crops Loc Im Loc Imp Loc 1m Lo Imp Lo Im Lo Impr Loca lm Lo Impr al pro al rov al pro cal rove cal pro cat oved 1 pr cal oved ved ed ved d ved ov ed Cereal Bread 2) 37 26 40 20 30 22 42 36 14 20 wheat Tef 12 27 21 32 5 10 12 20 7 6 30 38 13 20 Sorghum 21 32 26 12 25 15 25 28 Food 17 22 25 18 35 20 32 16 barley Maize 49 58 57 40- 36 50 24 75 83 32 70 Pulse Faba Bean 20 17 8 22 23 20 Chick pea 10 25 18 28 14 18- 3 6 24 20 20 Oil crop
Sesame 3 5 4 4 5.5 7 8 Vegetable
Potato 123 130 40 80 70 200 125 Tomato 335 200 150 300 Onion 130 145 80 300 400 85 Garlic 126 76 90 Fruit Mango 555 600 Banana 20 2 00 5 30
9 Gondar Dembia Wogera Chilga Metema Quara Alefa Takusa Commodi Zuria 7 Coffee 3 8 Avocado 324 432 Fenugreek 15 black 15 cumin wheat 27 85 cumin Papaya 700 Cotton '11 10 white cumin
3.1.2. Agricultural marketing and market infrastructure Majority of the farmers in the study area use (oca! markets to sale their produces as well as to buy merchandize goods. Markets which are found in the study areas can be categorized as main markets which are relatively big and composed of grain, iivestock and outputs of natural resources. On the other way, village markets are so smail they may accommodate either grain or livestock markets. The main or village markets may have or may not have full facilities like road, electricity, warehouse, etc. The dominant means of transportation in taking agricultural produce to the local and nearby markets and bringing farm inputs to the farm are pack animals and the farm household members themselves carrying the items. Gondar zuria, Wogera, Chilaga and Metema districts have access to asphalt road while Dembia, Takusa and Alefa districts used gravel roads to connect to the zonal capita! Gondar town. AH the administrative centers of the study districts had electricity and mobile telephone services. The following tables depicts the road access and the number and the type of markets across the study districts
SO Table 4.Koad access of the study areas Road Gondar Zuria Dembia Wogera Chilga Metema Quara Alefa access All 4 2 road Gondar- 1 asphalt= Azezo- all have 7 4 gravel weather roads(maksegnii- Gorgora and asphalt metema' road kebele road roads Belessa, Gondar- Delgi and and 2 5 gravel=aykel- access serviced for bahirdar. Azezo-metema gravel chandiba. except one 9 kebeles Maksegnit- Aykel- kebele 12 Lenba, Tseda- chonchok. kebele Ambober) aykel-geldeba, Aykel-bezaho, tserta-bezaho Seasonal of 35 kebele only 5 road except 3 gravel 3graveJ 7 kebele 4 2 roads roads 2 of them has no one kebele all kebele crossing 11 road access have road and 5 kebele but access sub 4 kebeles kebele has no road access
Table 5.Main and village markets found in the study areas
Parameters Gondar Dembia Wogera Chilga Metema Quara Alefa Takusa Zuria Main markets Market with Makseg 3=Koladi 2= 6 Sbenfa, 3= Gelgu, 4 full nit, ba, Gedebye, (Negade Kokit,Mek Dubaba, mkt=Shaw facilities Enfraz, Chohit, &Ambage bahir, a,Das,She Banabaho ura, Atsede Degoma Aymba orges Aykel.chan hidi Mariam, / diba,chonc Dengele hok.Geldba Ber, ,Serba) Amechaho Market Robit 3=Jankel, Shashige, 5= without Chiqike Meshah Tewodros, facilities and Silare Habtega,B anbaho,B ermil,Mirt gelgu Village markets Market with 2=Gorgo 6 markets 4 full ra and markets=Es
11 Parameters Gondar Dembia Wogera Chilga Metema Quara Alefa Takusa Zuria facilities abrjeha ay debr, Zabza, Erob Gebiya Market Denkez, 2= 8 markets 7 markets 3=Farshe without Mitreha, Simera,S wa, facilities Wuzaba, andisa Abazinge, Kuza
3.1.3. Input supply and financial system
A major economic problem in developing countries is financial intermediation, the mobilization of capital from one group (savers/lenders) and its simultaneous allocation to meet the needs of another group (borrowers/entrepreneurs) (Christensen, 1993). Critical for efficient capital mobilization and allocation, financial intermediation can be performed through various forms of instrument Provision of agricultural inputs and credit is an important service and believed to increase the production and productivity of agriculture in the farming community.
The result of the survey indicated that Commercial Bank of Ethiopia (CBE) and Amhara Credit and Saving Institution (ACSI) are found in all administrative centers of the eight study area districts while multipurpose cooperatives are found in every rural kebeles. Saving and credit cooperatives (SACCO) and branches of ACSI are the two important financial institutions which render credit and saving services for rural households. CBEs found are not usually accessible for rural households since it requires collateral to borrow money. Other than agricultural activities, farmers use credit for different purposes like for household consumption, clothing, school fees, medication, and iand rent payment, petty trade, to celebrate church holidays or for weeding.
Regarding input supply institution in the study area, farmer’s cooperative associations plays a major role in supplying different inputs. They are the only supplier of inorganic fertilizer; in some cases they supply improved seeds and pesticides. Metema union for the lowland districts and Tsehay union for the rest import fertilizer and distribute to the farmer through their member cooperatives. Gondar Agricultural Research Center and different national and international projects through district office of agriculture provide improved crop seeds to the farmers. Farmers usually got pesticides from private pesticide traders found in their locality.
12 Tabic 6.M ajor input and credit supply institutions in the study areas Pa ra m G o n d a r Dembia Wogera C hilga Metema Quara Alefa eters Z u ria Govern research. research, different research, different research, ATA Research agri office ment different projects through agri projects through through by projects AGP, SLM, 1L-SRMP, agri AGP, SLM, different through agri world bank (L-SRMP, projects w orld bank Private Coop, coop, Tschay union traders=chemical. Ambasel, coop, union, chcmical chemical AC'SI(seed, coop, ACSI, ACSI supplier supplier fertilizer,) ACSI Coirnn coop,union Coop Coop unity N G O ’s World world vision, LIVES, World vision, SBN. SBN,AGP SLM. Global vision, Handicap different climate ATA, child projects change(GCCA) project through agri .AGRA,AGP Banks Bank, ACSI Bank, ACSI ACSI ACSI, commercial commercial ACSI, and commercial and bank>1GOOha bank of eth m icroil devt bank nance Cooper SACCO SACCO. Multipurpose SACCO SACCO. . multipurpose, No SACCO atives multipurpose SACCO. N G O ’s ENIDP, No ILO, Safety- world vision, UNCIEF(wom Global fund. SLM ANAPCAN net=world bank, revolving en and youth), world , G12 FAO,USAID fund=IL- ILSRMP=fatte bank=27000 SRMP, ning 0. UNC1F AGP,SLM •
13 3.1.4. Rural livelihood and household economy
#. Agriculture is the dominant income source for the rural household in the study sites. Both crop and animal products are the major source of income for fanners in the study areas. In addition to this, natural resources are also sometimes used as an income source for the fanners. Although large quantities of grains are sold immediately after harvest, fanners try to extend their sale as much as they cannot sell all their surplus produce during the period. In addition, farm households have to retain certain amounts for their own consumption and seed for the next season. In most of the cases, farmers hardly got surplus products for the market. They usually sale their produces in order to cover household expenses, to settle debt for inorganic inputs and other costs related to farm inputs.
The type o f agricultural commodities supplied to the market differs from place to place depending on the type of the crop grown or animals reared as conditioned by the agro-climatic conditions. From the crop type tef, sorghum and chickpea are the dominant crop types supplied to the market in Gondar zuria, Dembia. Takusa, Alefa and Chilga districts. Wheat and barley crops are the major income sources for Wogera district. The lowland areas of Metema and Qura districts are known in sesame, sorghum and cotton production and marketing. Similarly, vegetables are produced and supplied to the market seasonally.
Across all sites the type of livestock and livestock products supplied to the market are almost the same. From the animal species cattle, sheep, goats and chickens are the main income sources of the rural households. Sheep and goat are sold to meet the immediate cash demand o f the household. 'Sheep is the main cash income source for the mid and highland areas and goats are in the lowlands. Milk and milk products, honey and egg are the most common livestock products farmers used as an income source for the households.
Forest products are rarely used as income sources especially in the high and midland areas. Forest products such as Eucalyptus for construction purpose, Corclici Africana (wanza) for timber production, Abalo, Kitkita and Woyiro for firewood are the forest products that are sold by farmers. Gum Arabic and incense are important cash crops in the lowland districts; the principal species which produce incense is Boswellia papyriferu, while Acacia seyal and A. polyacantha are harvested for their gum. Three private companies and fanners organised in a cooperative are involved in harvesting and marketing of incense and gum. Charcoal which is prepared from different tree species are also sold to the nearest urban centers. Non agricultural income sources like trade, wage, mining and remittance are the other livelihood options for the rural households. Grain trade, hotel, grocery, flour mills are income sources for some households. Wage is source of income for youths. Stone and sand mining are used as income sources for organized farmers.
14 Table 7.Major agricultural products supplied to the market
Gondar Zuria Dembia Wogera Chilga Metema Quara Alefa Takusa c Tef, Tef, Wheat, Tef, Maize, Sesame, Sesam Sesame, Pepper, r Chickpea, Wheat, Barley, Barley, Cotton e, Tef, White 0 Sorghum, Sorghum Lentil, Potato, ,Sorghu Cotto Maize, Cumin, P Niger seed, Pepper, Fenugree Sesame, m, n, Wheat, Garlic, Black Wheat, Black k ,Faba Ginger, Millet, Banana, Sorgh Millet, Cumin, Tef, Barley, Cumin, Bean,Fiel Sorghum, Onion, um,M Barley, Tomato, Linseed, Fenugreek, d Faba Bean, Mango, aize,T Chickpea, Maize, Sunflower White Pea,Sorg Chickpea, Papaya, ef,To Faba Millet, Garlic, Cumin,Chi hum, Slack Cumin, mato, Bean,Vetc Fenugreek, Onion, ckpea, Sesame,P White Banan H, Chickpea, Potato, Faba bean, otato.On i Cumin,Onion, a,Man Pepper, Sunflower, Tomato, Vegetable on Garlic, Pepper go, Cumin, Ga Zika Kibe Pepper,Cabb Papay rlic age a L Cattle, Cattle, Sheep, Sheep, Goat, Goat, Goat, Goat, Ox, Goat, Ox, i Sheep And Sheep, Goat, Cattle, Poultry, Ox, Cow, Cow, Sheep, V Goat, Goat, Cattle, Donkey, Cattle, Cow, Sheep, Chicken, e Poultry, Egg, Poultry, Hen, Horse, Hen, Butter, Sheep, Chicken, Butter, s Honey, Fish Honey Honey, Honey, Butter Egg, Chicke Butter, Honey, Egg t Butter Milk, Egg, Milk n, Honey, 0 Milk, Egg, Beef Butter Egg c Donkey, k , Horse, Honey
r Egg t Hop, Eucalyptus Eu calypt Eucalyptus, Incense Chare Charcoal, Eucalyptus, r Eucalyptus, , Charcoal us, Cordia, and oal, Firewood, Cordina, e Cordina Cordia, Acacia, Hop, Arabic Firew Wood For Charcoal e Africana, and Gum Gum, ood, Construct s Olea, Acacia Gimard Wood ion, P Kitikita, a For Incense e Charcoal, Constr c Abalo, Agam uction i I e Incens s e
15 3.1.5. Cross cutting issues
3.1.5.1. Nutrition Food availability in rural Ethiopia is to a great extent determined by domestic staple food production by subsistence agriculture. Even though there is a marked variation among various areas, cereals including sorghum, tef, maize, wheat and barley are predominantly produced and consumed in most areas. Pluses are usually used to prepare stew which is made from faba bean, field pea, grass pea, chickpea and etc. Vegetables such as potato, tomato, garlic, onion, shallot, cabbage, lettuce etc are common food source in the study area. Spices like white and black cumin, ginger, fenugreek, coriander are also used as a food source in the study area. From animal type cattle, sheep, goat and chickens are source of meat. Sheep is common meat source in the mid and highland areas while goat is used in the lowland. Farmers living close to Lake Tana used fish as a food source. Egg, milk and milk products, honey are also common food source in the study area.
Regarding main dishes prepared from different food sources, it is found that almost similar recipes were followed across the study areas to prepare different dishes. Injera, bread, porridge (genfo), boiled grain (nifro) and roasted grain (Kollo), roasted maize {eshet tnashila) are cereal based diet combinations found in the study areas. Injera is prepared from sorghum, figure millet, maize and/ortef. Tef injera is the preferred one but not common in most households. Porridge {Genfo) is made from barley, wheat, tef or maize. Breed can be prepared from wheat, maize or their combinations. Boiled grain and roasted maize are made from maize. Barley, wheat and maize used to prepare roasted grain. Local beverage Telia which is made from sorghum, finger millet, maize, barley and hop). Shiro is mainly made from field pea. grass pea, chickpea or faba bean, elbet and siljo both made from faba bean, stew made from field pea (kikwot or shirshim wot), stew made lentil (misr wot) are common food diets prepared from pulses. Vegetables are prepared either in raw or cooked form. Stew made from potato is common in all areas. Meat is sometimes eaten especially during festivals, or other ceremonies. Fried egg is commonly eaten food diet in rural households. Milk and milk products such as yogurt (ergo), skimmed milk (arera), cheese (ayib) and whey (aguat) are used as a relish.
3.1.5.2. Gender In this study fanning activities are disaggregated by gender, resource access and decision making power of women and men were discussed. In all societies, men and women play different roles, have different needs and face different constraints. Broadly, gender roles categorized in to three categories. These are productive, reproductive and social roles. However, this study mainly focuses on the productive role of men and women in farming activities. According to the discussion made with the participants, across different areas the roles of men and women in different agricultural activities are almost similar. However, relatively the involvements of w'omen in farming activity in the lowland areas were very small compared to the mid and highland areas. As shown in the table below, the involvement of women in productive /farming activities were much lesser than men and they have share in all activities variably. However, land
16 preparation, plowing, planting, weeding and harvesting responsibilities require muscular work and they were mainly done by men. On the other hand, home gardening, manure and threshing ground preparation are the responsibilities of women. Male and w omen children who are less than 18 years old are also involved differently in farming activities.
Table 8.Farniing activities disaggregated by sex
Activities Adult Adult Male Female male female children Children Seed cleaning VVV V Land preparation VVV V V Plowing V V Planting V V Weeding VVV vv V V Pest protection vvv V Manure preparation vv vvv V Manure transportation and vvv jv application Harvesting vvv V V Preparation of harvesting ground V vvv V Threshing vvv v v Transporting vvv V w Storage preparation(Gotera) V vvv v v Home gardening V vvv V v v have involved differently in the farming community. Different responsibilities of men, women, and male and female children were indicated in the table below. The involvement of women in livestock husbandry is much higher than men but in natural resource management it is very low compared to men. Bam cleaning, feeding and watering animals in the morning and in the evening, poultry management, milk product processing and sometimes feed collection are mainly done by females. Males also have the responsibilities of bam construction, feed collection and milking cows, bee hive construction and harvesting honey from hives. The involvement of women in natural resource management is very little.
17 Table 9.Livestock husbandry and natural resource management activities disaggregated by sex
Activities Adult male Adult female Male Female children Children Livestock husbandry Herding v v V v v v V Bam construction v v v V V V Bam cleaning V vv v V v v Feed collection < 4 Feeding and watering vv v v v v v V Poultry •vM V Milking v v v v v V V Milk processing v v v v v Natural resource management Seedling preparation v v v Plantation < Soil and water conservation v v v VVV, \lV,V= highly involved, medium, low, respectively In agriculture the role of women and men may differ widely across regions. Gender equality in terms of resource access and decision making power varies from place to place and thus this was one of the issues this study tried to see. Equal opportunity for women and men of all ages, access and use resources and services within families, communities and societies, including deriving equal benefit from laws and policies and possessing equal decision-making power were points to be dealt with. From legal point of view, women and men have equal right to use and make decisions on resources owned by a given households. However, in the farming community, there are traditional norms, cultures and taboos that restrict equal access and decision making power of women and men. In the study area it is outlined that cultivated land, farm tools, draft animals, donkeys; bee hives are under the control of men while poultry, home garden products, milk and milk products, household furniture are mainly accessed by women. Regarding decision making buying and selling of crops, animals and natural resources, cultivated crop type selection, land renting, agricultural technology use, borrowing and lending money decisions are made by male. On the other side, selling poultry, egg. milk and milk products, vegetables, selling grains and honey in smaller quantity, food expenditures are the decisions of women.
3.1.5.3. Climate smart agriculture
Climate smart agriculture (CSA) is aimed at increasing productivity sustainably, enhancing resilience of livelihoods and ecosystem and reducing and/or removing effects of Green House Gases (GHGs) on agriculture.CSA is widely recognized as a vital component of intervention response to climate change. Before introducing CSA, it requires that the community first notice that the climate has been changing and what climate change parameters are responsible for climate change and local adaptation practices. Many studies show that without adaptation, climate change
18 is generally detrimental to the agriculture sector; but with adaptation, vulnerability can largely be reduced. It is believed that the degree to which an agricultural system is affected by climate change depends on its adaptive capacity. In the study area parameters that arc responsible lor climate change and their adaptation strategies were identified.
• Rainfall pattern: The participants of the discussion noticed that for the last 10-20 years the rainfall pattern has been changed dramatically. They observed that late on set, uneven distribution, early succession, and unwanted/unexpected rain during harvesting time, torrential rainfall, drought (dry spell) and hailstorm are rainfall related climate change parameters used to detect whether there is climate change or not in a given area. • High temperature, heavy wind, incidence of crop pests, animal disease, human diseases, and dust foggy conditions are the other parameters that show the availability of climate change in the area.
The adaptation strategies are also the other important areas famers traditionally used. In the study area the following adaptation strategies were used to cope up v. ith climate change.
19 Table lO.Farmers climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies in the study area
Param eters Gondar Zuria Dembia Wogera Chilga Metema Quara Alefa T a kusa Climate rice-supplemen flooding—Kot meserat drought tolerant supplementary early mature Early mature. shifting crop d ctch adaptability tary irrigation,
20 Table 11.Perceived climate change parameters in the study area
Gondar Zuria D em b ia Wogera Chilga Metema Quara A lefa T a k u sa late on set of Flooding Hailstorm late on set and torrential rain uneven hailstorm hailstorm rainfall early distribution succession o f rain early uneven D rought uneven unwanted rain high flooding flooding secessions of distribution of distribution temperature rainfall rainfall uneven high late on set of hailstorm high late on set late on set of high distribution of temperature rainfall temperature rainfall temperature rainfall unwanted and late on set early wind ground water early early torrential unexpected succession depletion succession succession of rain rain during rainfall harvesting Hailstorm early high w ind torrential rain water shortage dust fogg uneven dry spell succession speed distribution of rainfall high wind hailstorm uneven high fog soil dust anim al and torrential rain early speed distribution of temperature crop pest, succession rainfall disease raises o f high foggy Pest weed, human unwanted rain w ind temperature temperature disease sand foggy Animal high disease temperature Flood ground water depletion Frost water shortage torrential rain fog soil dust
21 3.1.6. Major constraints related to socio-economic issues
3.I.6.I. Highland areas I, Market related constraints • Small market supply (Not that much surplus production); • Poor credit access; • Poor market linkage; • Transportation inaccessibility; • High transportation cost; • Poor road; network; • Price fluctuation; • Poor quality product; u. Climate change • Hailstorm; • Dry spill ( terminal moisture stress); • Late on set of rainfall; • Early session; • Devastating wind; • Uneven distribution of rainfall; • High pest and disease infestation due to temperature increment; • Flood; • Frost; • Torrential rain; • Feed shortage; 111. Gender related constraints • Early marriage; • Lack of technology for women; • Heavy work load on women; • Poor awareness;
IV. Prioritized general agricultural related constraints Breed^ineffectiveness of synchronization; Lack of improved forages; Poultry diseases; Lack of irrigation technologies; Poor conservations of indigenous trees; Poor extension system not based on study; No value addition;
22 3.1.6.2. Mid altitude i. Market related constraints • Poor market linkage (low price, no buyer, maize, no buyer at all); • Lack of market access for horticultural crops; • No market linkage; • Poor market infrastructure; • Few grain buyers and price setter behavior of traders; • Marker information asymmetry; • No value addition on major crops(t'hickpea, milk and milk); • Lack of market for livestock and livestock products(honey has high quality; • Weak negotiation power of farmers and weak cooperatives; • Lack of storage and poor post harvest handling; • Lack of credit for inputs, high interest rate and no credit service for output market; • Untimely supply of inputs; • High input cost; • High transportation; II. Climate change related problems • Late on set of rainfall; • Early session of rainfall, uneven distribution of rainfall; • Unwanted rain during harvesting; • Hailstorm; • High and devastating wind; • High temperature; • Flooding; • Wind; • High temperature results insect pest and disease problem; • Dust fogs which comes from Sudan cause birthing system problem; • Torrential rainfall; • Dry spell; ID. Gender related constraints • Poor awareness, early marriage, high work load on women=15-17 hrs per day, poor engagement of women on social issues; • High workload on women; • Lack of technolog>' which reduces women workload: • Lack of gender mainstreaming on agriculture extension; • Wage payment difference for women and men; • Low level of women participation: • Male dominated decision making;
23 IV. Prioritized general agricultural production constraints • Low awareness on improved agricultural practice; ® Lack of improved varieties and technologies (Lack of row planter technologies on tef); » Depletion of natural resource; • No soil test based recommendations, • Poor knowledge on irrigation water usage; « Poor research-agriculture linkage; o Poor market linkage; • Poor input supply system(high price, quality, not on time); • Land shortage due to high population growth; • Disease= root rot, blight, cut worm, tef, coffee bare diseases; • Livestock diseases; » Ai-synchronization problem; • Livestock disease=chicken; • No technology on agro-forestry; • Land slide on ponds; • Irrigation water use conflict; • Lack of capital/credit on irrigation; • Lack of market on rice milling machine and market; 3.1 <6.3. Lowland area 1. Market related problems • Price fluctuation; • Poor market access; » Low price for agricultural products; « Low quality due to adulteration; « No value addition for agricultural products; • Poor market infrastructure (road, poor mobile network, electricity especially for Quara district); • Unavailability of market information delivering service; e Low price; ® Transportation problem; • Poor ECX service; « No Grading for agricultural products; « Lack of buyers; • Price fluctuation; • Shortage of market information; • High transportation price; • Presence of illegal cattle trade;
24 Weak cooperative performance; Weak agro processing factories and weak linkage with producers; Shortage o f modem ware houses; Low credit supply; [. Gender related problems Low awareness on gender equality; Early marriage; Lack of technology for women e.g. churning machine farmer; High school dropout due to marriage and household chores); Low participation of productivity work; Poor participation on decision making; 11. Nutrition Unbalanced diet; Poor awareness on recipe preparation; Seasonality of vegetable crop production; Low supply o f vegetables in the area V. Prioritized general agricultural production constraints Illegal cattle trading; Low awareness on skin and hide usage; Poor infrastructure on FTC; Low utilization of irrigation; Poor vet service; Lack of knowledge on horticultural crops production; Low market price for agricultural products; Low food diversity(recipe preparation); Poor supply of agricultural inputs; Lack of technology on weed management; Unavailability o f soil libratory; Poor entrepreneurial skill on youths; Inappropriate technology e.g. BBM; Deforestation; Poor legal system on natural resource conservation;
25 3.1.7. Recommendations and outlines of research and development proposals
Agricultural marketing interventions > Detailed value chain and marketing assessment studies on selected agricultural commodities; > Introducing value addition techniques rather than raw product selling; > Linking farmers towards the potential domestic and international markets by creating different platforms; > Warehouse construction and post harvest handling training; > Construction of market infrastructure like road, electricity, communication, warehouse; > Delivering up to date marketing information to the producers; > Studying input and credit system; > Creating credit access for households at reasonable interest rate; > Creating awareness on credit utilization, quality seed production and marketing; Climate smart agriculture interventions > Awareness creation on climate change calamites; > Developing and demonstration early maturing and drought tolerant crop varieties and types; > Introducing supplementary irrigation; > Developing optimal crop rotation packages and introducing other alternative crops which will be used for crop rotation; > Pest and disease identification, evaluation and demonstration of appropriate controlling mechanism; > Destocking livestock and intensifying livestock husbandry'; > Introduction of model area closure and watershed approach developmental and research intervention; > Identification and introduction of indigenous and exotic tree species for re- forestation; > Studying and introduction of physical and biological conservation structures;
Gender Interventions r Advocating and supporting governments and communities in overcoming barriers in policy, social norms and taboos that discriminate against the involvements of women in agriculture; > Raising awareness and generating dialogue, through information and education campaigns, on women’s resource access and decision making powers; > Advocating for and supporting income-generating activities that put earning power in women’s hands;. > Promoting women’s participation in planning of agricultural activities on equal basis with men;,
26 > Better access of women and men to agricultural information in appropriate languages and relevant locations; r Incorporating different needs of women and men in agricultural extension services; 'r Increasing educational opportunities for young girls, thus heightening their confidence to defend their right and responsibilities; > Decreasing the cultural tolerance, social acceptability and legal impunity associated with early marriage and other cultural practices; Nutrition > Demonstration of different recipe preparations on different crops or animal products; r Diversifying farm income to develop food purchasing capability of households; > Staggered planting to continuously supply vegetables;
27 3.2. Crop production
3.2.1. Cropping system
In the surveyed of AGP-II districts the main cropping season is meher. The highest irrigable land is found in Dembia among the districts (Table 12). More intensified cropping system is practiced in the mid and highland areas of project districts. In the lowland areas of the beneficiary districts, more extensive system of crop production is practiced. These might be resulted from the size of land own by a household which normally varies between lowland areas and highland districts. Lowland areas are characterized by lower population with higher land holding per household whereas highland areas are characterized by high population with lower land holding per household (Table 12). To increase agricultural productivity and contribute to goal of sustainable food security, there is a further need to exploit the untapped potential of well-endowed areas, specifically to high rainfall lowland areas. Hence, crop production system in the high potential lowland areas should be more intensified using the appropriate improved agronomic practices.
Table 12. Arable and irrigated land of the study areas
District Belg Land (ha) season Arable land during Irrigable land meher Wogera No NA 96.5 Gondar Zuria No 38830 12401 Chilga No 47188 4151 Dembia No 49118 20633 Takusa No NA NA Alefa No 49264 4403 Metema No NA NA Quara No 26210 5447
Cropping pattern
Relay cropping, double cropping, intercropping, mono cropping, mixed cropping, alley cropping, crop rotation and fallowing are the most commonly practiced cropping patterns in different project districts.
Relay cropping
It is commonly practiced in Gondar Zuria, Dembia, Alefa and Takusa districts. Rice with vetch at Gondaz Zuria, sorghum with vetch at Dembia, garlic with cumin, pepper with onion, and pepper with white cumin in Alefa and Takusa are commonly practiced,
28 Double cropping
Double cropping is practiced in all AGP-II districts but insignificant at Metema and Quara districts. The crop pattern is as followed in each district; at Gondar Zuria. chickpeaA'etch after wheat, tef or barley; at Dembia, chickpea, black cumin, vetch after wheat or barley; at Wogera. fenugreek, chickpea or vetch after barley(belga); at Chilga. barley and chickpea after belga barley, chickpea or barley after potato, chickpea after maize, at Alefa chickpea after barley, fab bean, wheat/ chickpea or vetch after maize, tef on black soil, and at Takusa, chickpea or fenugreek after wheat or barley, lentil after lentil or fenugreek.
Intercropping
Intercropping is practiced in all AGP-II districts but rarely at Metema and Quara..Especially at Takusa it is the most practiced cropping pattern, which can be taken as a good farmers practice. However, its economic profitability and ecological safety with different pattern needs further research. The pattern is as followed in each district; at Gondar Zuria, sorghum with faba bean, lentil or field pea I maize with faba bean; at Dembia, faba bean with maize, sorghum with faba bean, barley with sorghum, tef with nug; at Wogera, tef with safflower, barle\ with lentil, chickpea with barley; at Chilga, maize with potato, barley with sorghum, faba bean with maize, at Alefa, maize with faba bean, sorghum-faba bean, sorghum with vetch, pepper-omon and at Takusa, pepper with black cumin, tomato, cabbage, zekakibe or garlic. mai/.e*faba bean, maize with pepper, cabbage onion or garlic.
Mono cropping
In the lowland area of the project districts are more characterized by mono-cropping with low applications of improved agronomic practice and minimum input usage. Moreover, the commercial farmers at Metema and Quara widely practiced mono-cropping.
Mixed cropping
It is rarely practiced in Gondar Zuria (faba with field pea called locally Ashenuo. wheat with barley locally called Duragno), in Wogera (wheat with barley locally called Duragna, faba bean with field pea locally called wasira) and in Alefa (faba bean with sorghum).
Alley cropping
Alley cropping is a less practiced cropping pattern e.g. fruit trees with vegetables in Gondar zuria.
Fallowing
Fallowing is generally practiced in the lowland areas of the surveyed areas i.e. at Metema, Quara and lowland kebelles of Wogera and Chilga. Framers in these areas applied fallowing for 2-5 years with the reasons of re-improving soil fertility, reducing weed/striga seed bank in soil.
29 Crop rotation
Crop rotation is practiced in all surveyed districts in order to reduce pest attack, and improve soil fertility. At Gondar Zuria, it was reported that, there is lack of adopted pulse crops to be used as rotation crop. The commonly cropping sequence is explained in Table 13.
Tabie !3. Cropping sequence in crop rotation
V ogera Dembia Alefa Gondar Zuria barley-faba bean, wheat,tef, chickpea, sorghum, maize, Tef after sorghum, Tef after chickpea; lentil wheat, black cumin after fab bean, barley, sorghum,fab bean / vetch/ faba bcan-wheat T e f; tef,sorghum and black maize or tef/ Sorghum after tef; barley/wheat-faba bean, cumin after chickpea; tef, sorghum after millet; chickpea’ faba bean tef.fenugreek or wheat, barley after sorghum fab bean, barley, after wheat or barley/ tef-wheat,faba, barley/ and maize, faba bean, maize,sorghum, tef/ barley/wheat-faba bean- lemil-barley, tef, barley, wheat after maize barley after chickpea tef-chickpea vetch,fenugreeky'vetch- fenugreek,tef,wheat,faba, chickpea
Quara Metema Takusa Chilga Sesame- sorghum-sesame; Sesame-cotton-seasme; tef-ch ickpea or vertiso!s=ch ickpea-tef- sesame-cotton-sesame; sesame- sesame-sorghum-cotton- vetch/, chickpea- maize-millet/ sorghum- sesame-sorghum or cotton- sesame; sesame- pepper, barley, chickpea,-miilet/tef- sesame-tef; sesame/sorghum-sesame millet, sorghum, black cumin onion-tomato; cumin red soil=maize-bar!ey or maize-onion; tef, bariey-millet,/ tef- maize-tomato barley-maize/ barley- potato
3.2.2. Crop management
Soil fertility improvement
DAP and UREA are the most applied chemical fertilizers by farmers in the surveyed districts. Fanners access these inorganic fertilizers from the agricultural extension service. They often use lower amount as compared to the blanket recommendations. The amount of inorganic fertilizers applied by farmers is highly similar across different crops, specifically among cereal crops like tef, wheat, and barley. The most commonly used rate of fertilizer is !00kg DAP/NPS and 100kg UREA per hectare for most cereals except maize, potato and vegetable crops which normally increases. The farmers told that they often apply inorganic fertilizers for tef. maize, wheat, barley, pepper, onion and garlic.
30 All the DAP was applied at planting, smaller amount of urea applied at planting and the remaining urea applied immediately after 2"" weeding. Other economically important crops like sesame, faba bean, potato, and sorghum rarely receive inorganic fertilizers. Application of fertilizer is not soil- test based; rather, it is still based on old blanket recommendations though a lot of area specific or regional fertilizer rate determination was recommended by the research Centers.
From the result o f the survey, it was learnt that most farmers did not apply inorganic or organic fertilizer for food barley, sorghum, sesame, banana, and mango. These might have exerted influence on crop yield reduction observed in the districts. Soil fertility improvement research and developmental actions should be conducted for these crops in order to enhance crop yield.
Applying die same rate and under dose o f chemical fertilizer for most cereal, pulse and oil crops and for all soil types are the roost observed problems. Fertilizer application rate is lower than the recommended rate o f national and blanket due to economic reasons. Not more than 300-400 farmers are reposted to use fertilizer at the rate o f I OOkg/ha DAP and 50kg/ha UREA for sesame in 2014/15 cropping season. Most farmers bdieve applying fertilizer will increase sesame yield, still some farmers bdieve their land is fertile enough and does no! need chemical fertilizer. Fertilizer rate determination for horticultural crops (onion, tomato, mango, banana, coffee) at Metema, Quara, Takusa and Alefa districts is lughh needed.
Farmyard manure, oooqmsi. and bio-fertilizer are among organic fertilizers applied. Farmyard marare. and compost ane applied m much lower amount compared to inorganic fertilizer, due to buikmess. transportation, and inconvenience o f application and farm yard manure is used higher than compost, indicAmg the presence o f lack of skill and experience in preparing compost. It was reported that 13.000 m' compost was prepared by farmers from Gondar Zuria in 2014/15 cropping season. Farmers apply FYM and compost for home stead and nearby field grown crops and mainly for m a o . potato, wheat, le t barley, faba bean, sorghum and some vegetables (onion, pepper, garlic, iomato) and fruit crops. At Dembia and Gondar Zuria there is a starting use of bio-fertilizer for chidgsea and faba bean. It was reported that 270 sachets and 160 sachets were distributed in 2014/15 growing season at Gondar Zuria and Dembia respectively.
Pest and pest management practice
Weed
Hand weeding is the most common control measure. Regularly one up to three times hand weeding is done for most field crops. Weed infestation causes a major yield loss in the project districts. Some weeds like striga, boren, needs specialized research since they are difficult to control. All field crops are weeded but, faba bean and sorghum fields are weeded after the crop finish its vegetative growth and after it has been already damaged. Chemicals e.g.2,4-D, and round up are frequently sprayed to control weeds. But the safety measures for human and environmental
31 protection, skills in calibration are not sufficient and , capacity building training for DAs and fanners should be given and monitoring and evaluation systems should be strengthened. insect pest
Pests are among the major causes of crop yield reduction in the surveyed districts. Crop rotation, field sanitation, applying pesticides is among the measures taken by the farmers to control pest insects. Maiathion, diazinon and endosulfan are the pesticide chemicals which are used commonly in the surveyed districts although endosulfan was already banned. IPM is not fuliy practiced. It was possible to know that there is insect identification problem by farmers and experts and lack of trained crop protection experts. Some farmers use traditional way to control insect pests e.g. cow urine, where it needs scientific justification. Over all there is a big challenge in controlling insect pests.
Disease
Diseases are the main causes of crop yield loss in the surveyed districts. Crop rotation, draining excess water, field sanitation, increasing tillage frequency and spraying chemical pesticides e.g. mancozeb to potato late blight disease is the main control/management options practiced by farmers. IPM approaches are not fully practiced by farmers.
3.23 . Harvesting and post harvest handling Harvesting
Harvesting is conducted using traditional methods i.e. using manual sickles for mowing cereal crops; however, threshing machinery was introduced by ATA for tef, barley, wheat and millet.
T ransportation
They use donkey, horse, push cart, human carrying, rarely trucks for horticultural crops, vehicle, tractor to transport their products and inputs.
Storage types
Storage techniques for major crops were traditional; the farmers use storage types such as Gota, or gotera, sack to store most cereals (tef, wheat, barley, millet ) and sack for most pulse, spice, and oil crops (faba bean, chickpea, lentil, fenugreek, , sesame and cotton),on loft or roof space for maize, sorghum and millet. Farmers also use traditional baskets and floor to store horticultural crops (potato, onion and banana).
32 3.2.4. Constraints to crop production
3.2.4.1. Major pests
Disease
The major crop diseases in the high and mid altitude areas of North Gondar that affect crop production include wheat yellow rust, chocolate spot (faba bean), potato late blight and bacterial wilt, Ascochyta blight and root rot (chickpea), tef head smudge(Dembia and Alefa-Takusa), sorghum head smut, cigar end rot (banana), CBD, coffee wilt, and die-back (coffee). The following major diseases also occur in the lowlands of North Gondar: blight and t'aylodi-ajengul (sesame), smut and downy mildew ( sorghum-), -anthracnose and cigar und root (banana), , anthracnose, and powdery mildew (mango)-, purple blotch , bulb rot, (onion) powdery mildew, seedling stage root rot (may be damping off) -leaf curl virus, anthracnose, late early blight (tomato). Insect and rodents Insects of major crops in high and mid altitude areas of North Gondar include aphid, tuber moth on potato , cricket (tef, barley, and wheat), shoot fly (tef), stalk borer (maize and sorghum ), boll worm (chickpea and faba bean), cut worm (chickpea), weevil. and rodents. Insects of major crops at Metema and Quara include sesame seed bug, adiri til (sesame), cricket, termite, stalk borer, beetle, bird damage (sorghum), banana weevil, mango fruit fly, scale, aphid, thrips (onion) bollworm, aphid (tomato). Weeding and Other abiotic factors The major weeds identified in the studied areas are boren (wheat and food barley field), ager-atifa, mechi (tef, baley. faba bean),Bantekermie(tef wheat, maize, barley), on tef, sorghum and maize (striga). Hand weeding and spraying are the most commonly practiced way of weed control in the studied project areas. Frost is also a major a biotic factor for potato production especially during irrigation season (Oct~Dec). Diseases, pests, weed and frost have contributed a lot in production loss. However, the amount of yield loss and the extent of production loss from each diseases, pests, weed or frost should be further investigated and determined. Few of these pests are controlled through improved cultural practices e.g. crop rotation and field sanitation while farmers use chemical spray to control or prevent most of these pests. There is lack of effective improved Dest management options in the studied areas causing a significant crop yield reduction. There was no data on the magnitude of the crop damage, which should be further established through specialized research. Major pests and weeds identified in different districts are listed in Table 14.
33 Table 14. Summary of major pests and weeds in different districts
District name C ro p type W ogera Crop type Chilga M ajor weeds M ajo r M ajor diseases Major weeds M ajor insects M ajor diseases insects Bread Boren, ginchi, serdo , Cut worm, L eaf rust Bread ginchi, gicha, barley fly L eaf rust wheat loot, muja, alma, ager- aphid Stem rust wheat Stem rust Yellow Rust atifa. meskel-ferchie, Yellow Rust Septoria blotch wajema, Septoria blotch yellow rust, Food Boren, ginchi. serdo , Cut w orm , L eaf rust Food ginchi, gicha barley fly smut, rust, barley loot, muja, alma, ager- aphid Stem rust barley meskel ferchie, atifa, meskel-ferchie, Yellow Rust mechi wajema, Septoria blotch Faba bean ginchi, serdo , loot, muja, Cut w orm , Chocolate spot Faba bean M echi boll worm, aphid chocolate spot alma, ager-atifa, meskel aphid Korimed ferchie, wajema, Potato tuber moth Late blight of Potato ginchi., gicha tuber moth late blight, bacterial wilt, on potato potato meskel ferchie Zim amit- mechi (keyi ant) M aize ginchi, gicha stalk borer termite meskel ferchie mechi Major weeds Major insects Major diseases Major weeds Major insects Major diseases T ef mechi, kurimba( its has shoot fly, powdery mildew T ef Mechi, gicha, Shoot fly grass spines), koki sar, chewu fenta, bantekermie, hopper tami, ye derg eshoh, ager temechi, chilka atifa(gid zemdie) rodents
34 District name C ro p type W ogera C i op t \ pc C hilga Major weeds M a jo r Major diseases Major weeds Major insects Major diseases insects Chick pea Gagirdci cut worm, root rot, ascoyta Wheat bantekermie, Shoot fly grass African boll blight hopper worm, weevil, rodents. Sorghum striga, mechi, kurimba, stalk borer, head smut Maize bantekermie. Stalk/com borer avanda, ager atifa cut worm, weevil, rodents M aize mechi, ager atifa stalk borer, Food Mechi, grass hopper barley bantekermie. tikur sar Tomato aphid, boll late blight leaf Faba bean Mechi boll worm worm cut curl virus worm Onion aphid, thrips bulb rot root rot Chick pea Chilka Boll worm cut worm M ango Mango fruit Anthracnose Tomato Aphid, boll ■worm Late blight, leaf curl virus fly Onion Aphid, thrips Bulb rot root rot Mango Mango shoot fly Anthracnose Coffee Die back T ef lanbudie-(bro'&d leaf, shoot fly, head smudge Sesame amira, dodder sesame seed bug, blight, phylodia, or white flower, and red #> (yenug anbessa), adiri til/worm, agengul, blight stem ), mechi, adey diriya, zemen sar, grasshopper.
35 District name C ro p type W ogera C ro p type C hilga Major weeds Major Major diseases Major weeds M ajor insects M ajor diseases insects abeba. chewu tami, dodder , yeko/ce sar Chick pea grass weed {chewu tami) Boll worm wilt, root rot, Sorghum striga. amir a, Stalk borer, beetle Smut, rust, downy cui worm diriya, zemen sar , large grain borer mildew Sorghum striga, adey abeba, stalk borer, loose smut, Banana Banana weevil Cigar end rot, m echi. termite, anthracnose , powdery weeevil mildew M aize mechi, adey abeba termite, green leaf spot M ango Mango fruit fly, anthracnose , powdery weevil white fly, aphid mildew Faba bean mechi, adey abeba Aphids chocolate spot, Onion Scale, aphid, Bulb rot, root, rot, purple leaf blight thrips blotch, damping off, downy mildew, powdery mildew Tomato Boll worm Late blight Tomato Boll worm, cut Leaf curl virus, late cut worm worm aphid, white blight, early blight, wilt, aphid fly damping off, downy mildew, anthracnose Onion Thrips Root rot Potato Potato tuber Late blight moth M ango Powdery mildew Coffee CBD
36 3.2.4.2. Technology constraint
Access to improved variety
Lack of improved varieties was identified as one of main challenges of crop production. In most of the studied districts, improved varieties were demonstrated; however there is a very limited access to seeds of improved varieties and sustainable supply of seeds of improved varieties could not be established. Inefficient seed distribution systems, absence of several formal and/or informal seed suppliers or multipliers have contributed much for the lack of access to improved seeds. From the discussion with key informants it was able to learn that the informal system of seed distribution has resulted in favoring of seed borne diseases dissemination, e.g. potato bacterial wilt.
In the studied area, the released and recommended varieties have become susceptible to diseases, e.g. rust for wheat and gall disease of faba bean. The majority of wheat varieties are currently out of production due to rust problem. This might be resulted from the use of the same variety for longer time. In the surveyed districts it was observed that there is a good access for maize and chick pea improved varieties, where it seems almost all crop fields are covered with improved one.
These crop varieties are preferred over the old ones due to their high yield, quality, market preference, or tolerance to stresses. However, improving its quality e.g. high protein maize or other bio-fortified varieties need to be demonstrated. The farmers have underlined that developing or generating improved disease resistant varieties for some crops (wheat rust, potato bacterial wilt, chick pea wilt and ascocyta blight, sesame phylodia, faba bean kormid and chocolate spot, pepper root rot, etc) and other pest management options should be the foremost research themes unless and otherwise these devastating diseases will continue to be the major treats for crop production.
Even though being low yielder and susceptible to diseases, some local varieties are identified to have some merits e.g. early maturing and tolerant to adverse conditions. Since some improved crop varieties were released for favorable climatic condition, it was seen performing poorh during extreme or adverse climatic condition e.g. drought and excess moisture. Farmers also complain some unwanted traits linked with improved varieties, e.g., lodging in tef varieties specifically to Quncho.
Bureau of Agriculture and Natural Resources (BoANR), cooperatives, unions. Amhara Seed Enterprise (maize and tef), Gondar Agricultural Research Centre and NGOs (SBN sesame for Quara and Metema ) and farmers are main sectors that provide improved seeds 10 farmers. Quara and Alefa districts are the most inaccessible districts in the AGP-1J districts of North Gondar for inpul supply service specially improved seed.
37 In almost all surveyed districts there has been a severe problem in accessing improved seed (onion and tomato), sucker (banana), tuber (potato), and seedlings *(mango and coffee) for horticultural crops. Farmers do not have a well access to seeds of these crops. Especially at Metema and Quara even though there is a big potential for horticultural crops under irrigation conditions, very few improved varieties of horticultural crops (tomato, onion, mango, banana etc) were introduced or demonstrated.
3.2.4.3. Crop management
Cultivation
It has been observed that plowing frequency is related with the altitude of districts. The plowing frequency ranges one to four times. In the lowlands, Metema and Quara the fanners plow just one time for sesame and sorghum production. They also spray round up chemical followed by one time plowing or cow stamp after few days before sowing tef. In the mid and highlands mostly two to three times plowing is practiced for cereal and pulse crops. Excess water is a problem during sowing period and farmers apply traditional way to drain excess water. Broad bed making (BBM) is not adopted for different reasons. In the lowland areas farmers say that due to very short planting period for sesame i.e. June they are not interested to plow their land frequently as well as to use BBM. Almost all farmers use animal draft for plowing except commercial farmers in Metema and Quara. Very short sowing season in Metema and Quara and weak draft power have challenged farmers who do not have sufficient time for land preparation using traditional way. Therefore, easy and cheap mechanized way of land preparation must be demonstrated.
Sowing date and method
The sowing date of most crops is based on rainfall onset. In the highland areas sowing is started in the mid of May and early June in the lowland areas. Row planting is adopted well for maize in cereal crops and for most vegetable crops. Row planting for other cereals is at its infant stage. Transplanting tomato in mid August under wet season could be taken as a good farmer's experience. However, diseases and insect infestations are highly severe in the wet season than in the dry season tomato cultivation.
Seed rate
Relatively, the seed rate was the one, which is practiced appropriately better than other improved agronomic practices. However, the farmers do not know the seed rate for row planting very well since row planting of cereal, pulse, and oil crops is not practiced widely.
3.2.4.4. Cropping system Mono cropping, inter cropping, double cropping, alley cropping, and crop rotation are practiced in different project districts. Inter cropping and double cropping are practiced in the mid and highland areas of the project especially at Takusa. The lowland area of the project districts are more characterized by mono-cropping. Moreover, the commercial farmers in Metema and Quara practiced mono-cropping
38 without crop rotation. In the era of commercialization, mono-cropping might be not treated as constraint. Hence, it would be important to intensify the cropping system using appropriate inputs. Crop rotation could also be recommended to intensify the cropping system in sustainable way even under mono cropping, for instance, rotating sesame with commercial!) grown pulses.
In Gondar zuria there is lack of adopted pulse crops to be used as rotation crop, which contribute in soil fertility. More intensified cropping system is practiced in the mid and highland areas of project districts. In the lowland areas of the project districts, more extensive system o f crop production is prevalent. This might be resulted from the size of land owned by farmers, which normally vary between lowland and highland areas.
3.2.2.5 Harvesting and post-harvest handling Harvesting and threshing
Harvesting and threshing are undertaken using traditional way. The main constraints during harvesting and threshing period indentified in the surveyed districts are the following:-
• Quality loss due to moisture, rodents problem, and traditional way o f threshing i.e. threshing on floor made of mud;
• Shattering problem in sesame chickpea and faba bean;
• Mixing with soil, weed seed and with other inert materials;
• Difficulty in harvesting of mango fruit from non grafted long trees;
• Yield loss due to insect pests like sesame seed bug, termite and rodents;
• Lack of modern ripening technique for banana to achieve fully yellow marketable banana fruit;
Storage
Goto, gutvra and sacks are the main storage materials The main constraints during storage period indentified in the surveyed districts are the following:-
• There is weevil and rodent problem in cereal and pulse crops stored in gota, got era and sacks
• There is lack of improved storage facilities for potato tuber for both food/table and seed purpose;
• There is lack of improved storage facilities for onion bulb;
• High post harvest losses due to high perishable crops l\g. tomato and onion;
• Lack of modem ripening technique for banana to achieve fully yellow marketable banana fruit;
39 • Lack of storage facilities e.g. box or container for tomato and onion which can reduce post harvest damage;
• Sesame seed bug during storage;
• Weevil damage during storage for most cereai and pulse crops;
• Lack of improved storage faciiiiies for fruit crops e.g. banana, mango;
• Quality reduction due to over storing in inappropriate stores;
Transportation
The main causes of yield loss during transportation includes post harvest yield loss due to inaccessibility to market centers and roads especially for horticultural crops which are bulky for transportation.
Processing and marketing
The main sources of problems that reduces benefits from crop production related to processing and marketing includes:-
• Price fluctuation with amount of production; • Low price during surplus production e.g. potato, tomato and maize;
• Low price for some cereal crops e.g. food barley, sorghum and maize;
• Low price for some horticultural crops e.g. tomato ,potato and onion;
• Almost no value addition is practiced for most crops that are produced largely e.g. potato, maize , tomato, onion and sesame;
• Less strong market linkage created for most crops;
• Reduced market price due to less crop grain quality;
• There is no any processing and value addition practices for all crops;
• Farmers benefited less because of traders and brokers due to inaccessibility to market information and farmers immediate sell after harvest with low price in order to pay their debt;
« No any private or public agro industry involved in agro processing;
• No sesame value addition is practiced except sieving;
3.2.5. Prioritized overall production constraint by districts Focus Group Discussions (FGD) were made with each district AGP-II steering committees and technical teams using the checklists and the technical group and farmers identified the problems prioritized problems using CLPP techniques. As a result, the prioritized overall production constraint by districts and crops are stated below.
40 Table 125.Prioritized overall crop production constraint at Wogera
Bread w heat Food barley F aba bean Potato • High infestation of boren weed • boren weed • Chocolate diseases problem • late blight diseases • yellow rust diseases • lack of improved • Qorimid disease • lack of frost resistant potato varieties • lack o f diseases resistant variety variety • Lack of improved varieties • limited access to seed for improved • lack of improved high yielder • limited access to seed • High yield loss due to no varieties variety for improved varieties weeding for faba bean • lack of disease resistant variety • soil acidity is a major problem • soil acidity is a major production • lack o f access to sprouted potato tuber seed • lack of pre-basic seed for improved problem • soil acidity is a major • shortage of post harvest handling varieties • soil fertility reduction problem techniques including storage techniques for • soil fertility reduction and soil and soil erosion • soil fertility reduction and soil food and seed purpose erosion • low price and less erosion • value addition ways are needed • low price and less market problem market problem for • lack of pre-basic seed for • low price and less market problem for for wheat food barley improved varieties potato
Table 16. Prioritized overall crop production constraint at Chilga
Bread wheat Food barley Faba bean M aize Potato • yellow rust diseases • lack o f • lack of • Stalk borer • Bacterial wilt disease • lack of improved improved improved • low price and less market problem • late blight diseases variety variety variety for maize • limited access to tuber seed for improved • lack of disease • limited access • lack of • lack of high protein or bio varieties resistant variety to seed for disease fortified maize varieties • Lack of improved variety • limited access to improved resistant • lack of mechanisms/techniques/ • lack of disease resistant variety seed for improved varieties variety ways to process maize yields and • lack of access to sprouted potato tuber seed varieties • low price and • limited increase value addition • shortage of improved post harvest handling • low price and less less market access to • value addition ways are needed techniques including storage techniques for market problem for problem for seed for food and seed purpose wheat food barley improved • value addition ways are needed varieties • low price and less market problem for potato
41 Table 17.Prioriti/ed overall crop production constraint at Dembia and Takusa
T ef C hick pea Sorghum Maize Tomato O nion » Lack of access to • Ascocy • Lack of improved • Stalk borer • late blight disease • Bulb/root rot disease seed of improved ta sorghum variety for • low price and • leaf curl virus disease • Aphid varieties shoot fly blight mid altitude less market • aphid « Thrips • Unidentified disease • Striga weed problem for • boll worm • lack of improved and diseases called s infestation maize • lack of improved and disease disease resistant "ameday " • Boll • stalk borer • lack of high resistant varieties varieties • Lack of tef-Row worm • yield loss due to protein or bio • Lack of access to seed of improved • Lack of access to seed planting machineries • Wilt sorghum is produced fortified maize varieties of improved varieties • Weeds called mechi disease without appropriate varieties • lack of long shelf life varieties • lack of improved and ager atifa • cut weeding practice « lack o f • price fluctuation and less market storage and ® Excess water worm • low price and less mechanisms/tee problem transporting management • lack o f market problem for hniques/ ways • lack of improved storage and facility/container problem (water disease maize to process transporting facility/container problem during logging) and • determination of maize yields problem during transportation transportation pest fertilizer weeding and increase • high post harvest yield loss due to <* high post harvest yield resistan • Excess water value addition high perishable loss due to high t management • value addition • irrigation water management perishable varietie problem (water ways are problem • irrigation water s logging) needed • fertilizer rate determination management problem • fertilizer rate determination
42 Table 18. Prioritized overall crop production constraint at Gondar Zuria
T ef Food barley F aba bean C hick pea • Lack of access to seed of improved varieties • lack of improved variety • lack of improved • Ascocyta blight diseases shoot fly insect • limited access to seed for variety • Boll worm • Head smudge diseases improved varieties • lack of disease • Wilt disease • Lack of tef-Row planting machineries • soil fertility reduction and soil resistant variety • cut worm • Weeds called inechi and ager atifa erosion • limited access to • lack of disease and pest resistant • Excess water management problem (water • low price and less market problem seed for improved varieties logging) for food barley varieties
t j Table 13.Prioritized overall crop production constraint at Alefa
Tef Chick pea Sorghum Maize Faba bean • Head smudge diseases • lack of improved • Lack of improved sorghum • lack of bio fortified • lack of improved • Shoot fly and cut worm pesls problem variety variety for mid altitude improved varieties variety • lack of improved and high yielder • lack of diseases • Striga weed infestation • low price and lack • lack of disease variety resistant variety • lack of access to seed of o f market resistant variety • lack of access to seed of improved • root rot and wilt improved varieties • lack of processing • limited access to varieties diseases • stalk borer and value addition seed for • lack of improved machineries for row • lack o f access to • determination of fertilizer practices improved planting and other facilities seed o f improved rate and weeding frequency varieties varieties
43 5. REFERENCES Berhanu G.. Gebremedhin W.. Yigzaw D., Tilahun G., and Worku T. (2009).Sustainable Land Management Through Market Oriented Commodity Development: Case Studies From Ethiopia.Conference on International Research on Food Security, Natural Resource Management and Rural Development. University of Hamburg, October 6-8,2009
CSA (Central Statistical Authority), 2007.Sutnmary and statistical report of the population and housing census, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
MoARD (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development),20 35.2014-2015 Annual Report - Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development. Add is Ababa. Ethiopia.
MoFED (Ministry of Finance and Economic Developmen03l5.Grovvth and Transformation Plan (GTP) 2010/11-2015/l5.Volume I, main Text. Addis Ababa. Ethiopia.
NBE (National Bank of Ethiopia), 2014.Annual report for the year 2010/20I4.Economic Research Department of National Bank of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Teshome M (2017) Perceived Impact of Climate Change on Crop Yield Trend in Denbia Woreda of Amhara Region, Northwest Ethiopia. MOJ Eco Environ Sci 2(7): 00047. DO 1:10.15406/mojes.2017.02.00047
The Department of Primary Industries, Parks, Water and Environment (Tasmania). (2014). Agriculture: soil condition, http:/Avww.tas.gov.au/ accessed on 4/24/2018
Wikipedia contributors. (2018. January 26). Metemma. In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 19:46, April 23,2018, from htips^/en.wikipedia.ora/w/index.DhD?title^Metemma&oldid=822496378
Wikipedia contributors. (2018, April 6). Quara (woreda). In Wikipedia. The l-ree Encyclopedia. Retrieved 19:51, April 23, 2018, from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Owara (woreda)&oldid=834536601
94 4. CONCLUSION
This assessment study would provide key benchmark information with regards to agriculture production constraints at smallholder level in the AGP-II intervention districts. In the study areas different socio-economic, crop production, livestock husbandry and natural resource potentials and related constraints were assessed in depth. The identified constraints were categorized in to thematic areas and recommendations were developed to curve the problems. Furthermore, for ease of interventions, recommendations were suggested based on the availability of technologies. Those constraints which do not have available technologies at hand are identified as researchable issues. However, constraints which already have technology suggested to be done by direct development and policy interventions.
Though there are efforts in demonstrating and introducing different agricultural technologies, the productivity of agriculture is still very low and far from the potentials. Currently, it was found out that most of smallholder farmers are using local varieties with traditional production system which results in low production and productivity. Production and productivity in the selected districts could be boosted if the identified constraints were systematically addressed through the participation of different actors in the sector. Since AGP-II program has a short implementation time frame and intervenes in few commodities, the constraints that were assessed in this study may not be fully addressed by the project life span. Therefore, to realize the overall agricultural development in the study area, coordinated actions with the involvement of different stakeholders are required.
93 —
'■ Conservation of important indigenous forest species;
> Agro-forestry practices;
> Introduction of fast growing multi-purpose trees to regenerate deforested and degraded hills;
> Evaluation and implementation of area closures; r Evaluation and introduction of alternative fuel energy sources;
92 3.4.3,3 Summary of Research Intervention Outlines
The main intervention areas are stated here for each discipline of natural resources. Some of the technologies are already made available and only promotion works are needed.
Soil Resource Interventions
> Determination of soil test based inorganic fertilizer applications for main and cash crops in each districts:
> Evaluation of quality, rates and application timing of compost for productivity and soil characteristics improvement;
> Conservation agriculture practices;
> Interaction of inorganic and organic fertilizers in multi-perspectives;
> Soil acidity mitigation and adaptation strategies (Wogera);
r Increasing vertisols productivity using appropriate soil and water management;
> Biological and physical soil conservation measures (in the highland and midlands);
> Evaluation and promotion of best inoculants strains for legume crops (faba-bean, chickpea, lentil and field pea)
Water Resource Interventions
> Determining irrigation regime for major irrigated crops (onion, tomato, pepper.,.);
> Selection of appropriate field irrigation water measuring devices;
> Selection of appropriate hand dug wells construction design, potential and duration;
> Evaluation of technical socioeconomic and institutional aspects of pond water harvesting system;
> Strengthening water users association (training, experience sharing to other places, discussion);
Forest Resource Interventions
> Evaluation /determination of gum harvesting frequency;
"r Economical impact of deforestation and land use shifting;
> Appropriate forest management strategy;
91 A ecology Potentials Opportunity Constraints wereda’s experts water conveyance support as well NGOs systems financial supports
Forest management I) Possible agro- f) Government requirement to 0 Deforestation and eco logic, economic apply integrated watershed/ land use shifting and social benefit out 'landscape management, o f integrated tree plantation and area watershed closure U) Free grazing management. II) A need to integrate livestock with land 11) High farmers' fodder management using cut and and feed demand to carry feed system their livestock production and productivity
90 A ecology Potentials Opportunity Constraints the application of their irrigated crops fertilizer for their irrigated crops I) Possible agro- I) Government requirement to I) Deforestation and ecologic, apply integrated watershed/ land use shifting economic and landscape management, social benefit out tree plantation and area of integrated closure II) Free grazing watershed 11) A need to integrate management. livestock with land management using cut and 11) High farmers’ carry feed system fodder and feed demand to their livestock production and productivity Irrigation practice a. Fanners are aware of a. High possibility of a. Excess or under use using optimal improving water o f irrigation for irrigation water productivity thereafter irrigated crops amount at appropriate reducing water wastage stage can maximize b. Farmers do not use yield of target crops b. Fanners are aware of yield agricultural inputs increase from the at the right time and b. Farmers are aware of application of fertilizer for in the right amount yield increase from theiv irrigated crops c. Water Use the application of Associations are fertilizer for their c. Irrigation water not fully functional irrigated crops management considering and weak the social aspect is also paramount in addition to c. Currently increasing technical aspect a. Poor market irrigation production linkage (garlic); with farmers a. Access to road and possible market linkage to b. Problems related to a. Farmers are too Gondar city hand-dug wells in interested to produce terms of pumping horticultural crops b. Government and NGOs are system, cracking using irrigation interested to develop, and sliding, poor maintain all irrigation construction quality b. Sufficient labor source schemes. of ponds and wells availability and as well as irrigation
89 A ecology Potentials Opportunity Constraints stage can maximize productivity thereafter c. Farmers do not use yield of target crop reducing water wastage agricultural inputs at the right time and c. Fanners are aware of c. Farmers are aware of yield in the right amount yield increase from increase from the the application of application of fertilizer for fertilizer for their their imgated crops irrigated crops Forest management I) Possible agro- 1) Government requirement to I) Deforestation and ecologic, apply integrated watershed/ land use shifting economic and landscape management. social benefit out tree plantation and area of integrated closure U) Free grazing watershed 11) A need to integrate management. livestock with land management using cut and HI) knowledge gap on 11) High farmers' carry feed system eucalyptus fodder and feed 111) Appropriate climate for management i.e, demand to their eucalyptus production and plant spacing livestock its high demand as a raw coppicing cutting production and material for board factories, time productivity fuel, charcoal and home construction III) High present economic benefit of farmers out of eucalyptus Irrigation practice a. Increasing irrigation a. High effort from a. Irrigation water production demand governmental to utilize deficit in the from farmers irrigation water and second irrigation maximize yield production cycle b. Farmers are aware of and productivity from using optimal irrigation irrigation water b. High possibility of b. Excess or under use amount at appropriate improving water of irrigation for stage can maximize productivity thereafter irrigated crops yield o f the target reducing water wastage crop c. Farmers do not use c. Farmers are aware of yield agricultural inputs c. Farmers are aware of increase from the at the right time and yield increase from application of fertilizer for in the right amount A ecology Potentials Opportunity Constraints production and productivity Highlands Fertilizer use c) Most part of the a) High organic fertilizer a) Farm yard manure farmland in the requirement than inorganic is applied for wereda is fertilizers both in terms of selective home intensively product quality and land garden crops while cultivated, hence sustainability compost is seldom degraded due to prepared and its high mass loss quality is poor than mass input. b) Fanners are aware of b) Government and NGOs b) Fertilizers are not yield increase due to interest to identity the applied on the application of appropriate site specific right frequency at inorganic fertilizers demanded inorganic the right time in fertilizer adjacent to their the right amount; c) Significant legume economical rates, besides, farmers crops yield increase couldn’t afford the due to the c) Government and NGOs price of inorganic management of soil effort to identify and fertilizer micro-biology recommend best soil micro-organisms i.e. c) Strains for d) Crops' yield inoculants/ strain to chickpea and faba reduction due to soil legume crops' production bean is a new acidity is more d) Possibility of acidic soil practice used less severe. reclamation with lime and often other amendments e) Crop yield loss due d) Soil acidity to excess water can e) Integrated vertisol problem be saved using management increases excess water land productivity removal in appropriate way e) Water logging problem Irrigation practice a. Increasing irrigation a. High effort from a. Potential of rivers production demand governmental to utilize in the wereda is not from farmers irrigation water and exploited well maximize yield production b. Farmers are aware of and productivity from b. Excess or under use using optimal irrigation of irrigation for irrigation water b. High possibility of irrigated crops amount at appropriate improving water
87 A ecology Potentials Opportunity Constraints water demand from governmental and non water management farmers governmental i.e surface organizations to maximize irrigation method yield production and with belter productivity from efficiency is not irrigation applied and the (amount and frequency of b. Fanners are aware of irrigation) for each yield increase from crop is not known the application of b. There is not input supply b. Farmers do nol use fertilizer for their problem in terms of agricultural inputs irrigated crops quantity from the at the right time and government in the right c. Irrigation water use c. Irrigation water c. Water user conflict is very often management considering associations are the social aspect is also non-existent and paramount in addition to the established ones technical aspect are not functional d. There is sufficient d. There is a need to produce d. Geo-membrane potential water to be food from irrigation plastics for water harvested from the harvesting are rain and irrigation is fragile, high possible with the evaporation rate of harvested water some water harvesting parts of the wereda ponds, Uncertain economic feasibility of pond water harvesting and irrigation system Forest management 1) Possible agro- I) Government requirement to I) Deforestation and eco logic.. apply integrated land use shifting economic and watershed/landscape social benefits out management. tree of integrated plantation and area closure II) Free grazing watershed II) A need to integrate management. livestock with land 11) High farmers' management using cut and fodder and feed cany feed system demand to their livestock
86 A ecology Potentials Opportunity Constraints for irrigation water to affect uniform soil volunteer to use moisture distribution irrigation production d. Lack of maintenance, quick drop down and inappropriate pumping system Forest management i) Appropriate i) High fanners/producers i) Un proper gum condition for gum effort to utilize gum trees. harvesting tree growth, and frequency practice presence of more ii) Appropriate environmental glim trees. condition for quick forest ii) Quick deforestation growth and regeneration and land use ii) Higher forest shifting coverage Midland Fertilizer use a) Some effort of a) High organic fertilizer a) Compost organic fertilizer use requirement than application is not to with farmers by inorganic fertilizers the recommended preparation of both in terms of quality, crop compost product quality and residues are not left land sustainability in the farm fields. a) Farmers are b) Government and aware of yield NGOs interest to b) Fertilizers are not increase due to identity the appropriate applied on the right application of site specific demanded frequency at the fertilizer inorganic fertilizer right time in the adjacent to their right amount; b) Significant economical rates, besides, farmers legume crops couldn't afford the yield increase due c) Government and price of inorganic to the NGOs effort to fertilizer management of identify and c) Strains for chickpea soil micro recommend best soil is a new practice yet biology micro-organism i.e, used less often inoculants/ strain to legume crops’ production
Irrigation practice a. Increasing irrigation a. High effort from a. Poor irrigation
85 3.4.3.2. Opportunities, Potentials and Constraints
Table 32.0pportunities, Potentials and Constraints
A ecology Potentials Opportunity Constraints Lowlands Fertilizer use 1. Some farmers/ 1. Government and NGOs Almost all farmers investors use an effort effort to characterize, do not apply the to get inorganic evaluate and recommend right timing and rate fertilizer rates that are site specific inorganic of inorganic specific for their fertilizer types and rates fertilizers farm. 2. Potentials to produce 2. Though it causes compost under farmers’ 2. Yield reduction due disease transmission, level, government policy to to disease, farmers farmers use organic use intensive agriculture fright to “michr if fertilizer for their with great consideration on they try to prepare home garden crops sustainable land use. compost. where intensive cropping is taken 3. High organic fertilizer 3. Residues are burnt place. requirement than inorganic instead of fertilizers both in terms o f incorporating to the 3. High organic matter product quality and land soil; green manure accumulation in the sustainability production is not farm surface and practiced in the existent of area. appropriate condition for green manure crop’s growth Irrigation practice a. There are good a. Sufficient irrigation water, indicators that very land and appropriate a. Farmers do not use few farmers are using weather for most of the agricultural inputs appropriate horticultural crops. at the right time and agronomic practice in the right amount for horticultural cops b. There is not input supply with efficient water problem in terms of b. Irrigation frequency use. quantity from the and amount is not b. Farmers are very government known for all interested to use irrigated crops agricultural inputs for their irrigation c. The irrigation command c. Farmers with high production areas are appropriate for irrigation command c. Possible future water quantification and area holding farmers’ competition the soil is less diversified (>50lia) are not
84 > improper niche selection during tree plantation: > Stakeholder commitment on forest management is too low; > Integrated forest management approach is not applied; > Forest trees' seed purchasing faces budget deficit; > Low media coverage on forest management improvement; > Lack of trainings for DAs and Farmers;
Highlands:
> Lack of farmers’ awareness on sustainable land management, lack of trainings on natural forest management; > Knowledge gap on eucalyptus management (plant spacing , coppicing , cutting time, eucalyptus is not planted in the ideal places and not used for the right use); > Acacia gum is not harvested on time; > Low government attention to forest management: > Lack of ownership to the natural forest; > Deforestation for agricultural implements, home construction, charcoal and fuel: > Over grazing; > Rules and regulations are not applied accordingly; > Shifting of grazing land to cultivation; > Tourism and culture don’t encourage farmers who try to protect forest (lack of follow up, incentives or other awards); > Legal action is not taken on those who destroy forest;
3.4.3.1. Area closure
Though limited in coverage, area closure is practiced in some areas of North Gondar zone AGP-II weredas. Example, in Metema wereda, there is nearly 800ha of land closed out of reach of animal grazing. Awareness creation, protection and plantation are some of the efforts that are exercised to undertake area closure in the wereda.
Similarly, there is 459ha of land closed for the purpose of regeneration in Amba-giorgis wereda. Low public perception of natural forest management (few farmers accept area closure while others disagree on its importance). Farmers with higher livestock holdings are not willing to have area closure. A total of 68L5ha of land in Dembia wereda is under closure. About 4347.51 ha of land in Chilga wereda is closed to allow the degraded land to regenerate. But, in Quara wereda, there is no area closure practice; neither the government nor the public does this.
83 > Geo-membrane frequent failure onsite; > Lack of on time pond water harvesting maintenance; > High seepage water loss in the small earthen dams; > Geo-membrane plastics are costly (>700Q.00ETB); > Distributions of geo-membrane plastics are too lale and most of the distributed ones are fragile and cracked;
3.4.3 Forest Management Constraints by Agro Ecology
The major issue in forest management is the annual destruction of forests for agricultural expansion and other purposes while plantation is very poor. According to the survey results obtained from the farmers and other secondary sources from the woreda and kebele offices o f agriculture, the main problems in each agro-ecology are mentioned below.
Forest management constraints in the Lowlands: > Deforestation for farm implements and fuel (though some strict management practices have been implemented since recent moments) > Lack of ownership (farmers mostly use forest for their temporary use than considering sustainable use); > Lack of awareness on forest management among stakeholders, communities and partners; > Lack of forest management: the right soil mix ratio for seedlings' growth is not known well, transplanting and transplantation problem, pits for seedlings growth are not supplied with enough moisture, loose seedlings management and seed viability problem; r Farmers/ gum producers have no sufficient knowledge on gumming and low experience of cooperatives and experts on gumming; > Poor institutional responsibility share: there is no clear responsibility share between Bureau of Agriculture (BoA) and Environmental Protection on addressing forest management gaps on time; i H ’? p > Frequent fire outbreak ; I > Budget insufficiency;
Midlands r Deforestation and degradation but failing to carry out plantation land use change/ land use shifting (Farmland expansion); > Cutting before maturity'; > Lack of accountability/responsibility : government policies/declarations/regulations related to forest management are not applied strictly; .» * > Free grazing; > High demand of construction material and fuel wood; > Technology generation is not easy: appropriate seedling stage is not well known and applied , lack of pure trees’ seedlings supply;
82 3.4.2.S Agronomic practices constraints by districts
Fertilizer use
In all AGP II districts fertilizer use is poor; fertilizers are rarely used for irrigated crops. The application time and amount are not based on recommendations. Organic fertilizers are not used during irrigation seasons. Generally, agronomic practices such as; crop spacing, fertilizer rate, seed rate, planting date, chemical rates are not appropriately applied.
3.4.2.6 Rain Water Harvesting
Exi-tu rain water harvesting is not usual in most AGP-II weredas of north Gondar zone. The weredas with no exi-tu water harvesting structures are Metema. Quara, Dembia, Takusa, and Alefa. On the contrary, Gondar zuria, Chilga and Wogera weredas are the users of exi-tu water harvesting structures.
In Metema wereda, pepper, maize and tomato are supplemented by pumping from rivers. These crops are planted initially during the main rainy season but are supplemented with irrigation water from the rivers. This indicates that there is also an opportunity of using rain exi-tu water harvesting structures if and only if there is excess rainfall and appropriate and economical water harvesting ponds.
There is a huge effort in developing and using of exi-tu water harvesting structures in Gondar-zuria wereda. But, the following main issues are hindering the development and use of this system.
> Lack of canal clearance and maintenance; r- Geo-membrane plastics for water harvesting are not durable ; > High evaporation rate of water harvesting ponds; > Uncertain economic feasibility of pond water harvesting and irrigation system;
In Wogera wereda, there is very limited practice of the exi-tu water harvesting system. Even the limited use of this system is hardly ongoing due to the following reasons. > Excavation was not applied according to proper design; > The water is not maintained and used properly, due to quick seepage and evaporation: > Plastic geo-membranes are sold for other purpose than using as a lining material for pond water harvesting;
Exi-tu water harvesting is well exercised in Chilga wereda compared to that of the AGP-II weredas in north Gondar zone. The most used exi-tu water harvesting structures are plastic lined, cement lined water harvesting structures, community earthen dam. Community lined dam, supplementary irrigation is applied in September for pepper that is planted in late July.
But, this practice is limited due to the following reasons:
SI ' Lack of experts to maintain motor pumps-> there are 25U motor pumps in the wereda. ^ Farmers believe irrigation as laborious and exhausiive activity;
Table 31.Irrigation water management available in the AGPIf woredas
Vo A. ecology Method of Amount Irrigation Drainage Moisture Irrigation Irrigation of water interval Management Stress Water
T- ' management Salinity 1 Lowlands Furrow and not Varies In rare cases, Not practiced Not basin known depending the) use identified irrigation on crop type furrowing ring) Planting to irrigation for flowering banana. each 3days papaya and and fruit to mango maturity Flooding is every 5days common in some farmers 4 that is causing excess water 1 Midland - Boarder not farmers use None Not practiced Not and partly known various time identified furrow of (shallot. applications onion, and depending cabbage. on crop type carrot ~ irrigation interval 4 to 5 days) - Flood irrigation - Furrow 5 Highlands Furrow, not Varies None Not practiced Not flooding and known r depending identified basin on crop type irrigation f Pump maintenance problem: lack of spare parts of these pumps is the main problem together with the need of experts to maintain.
M idlands:
Dembia is one of the districts in this agro ecology having high potential perennial and seasonal water resources for small scale irrigation (Teshome, 2017). It was stated that in 2013 the district had a total of 3051 hectares of farmland cultivated with traditional irrigation (mainly flooding) (woreda Agriculture Office (2013) as cited by Teshome, 2017). Similarly, in Chilga wereda, irrigation is highly practiced. The main irrigation sources are hand dug wells, rivers, springs and exi-tu water harvesting structures. Most farmers use furrow irrigation method, while few use flooding. The other districts have also irrigation practice and there is irrigation water shortage in Gondar Zuria woreda. But, there are many problems associated with crop production using irrigation. The main problems are mentioned as follows:
r Improper irrigation water management and low technical efficiency in irrigation water management (irregularity of irrigation interval and amount); > Conflict between adjacent farmers on canal crossing and water use: to resolve these problems water user associations are not established, and the already established ones are not strong and functional; > Farmers’ attitude on irrigation. They consider irrigation as additional income source than as a back bone of their income; a- Poor well digging technique causing sliding of banks during irrigation season and hand dug wells are not developed well in terms of quality and quantity; r Lack of obstruction materials during pumping from rivers; > Weak extension approach; > Geo-membrane frequent failure onsite; > Lack of on time pond water harvesting maintenance; r High seepage water loss in the small earthen dams; k Development and construction of irrigation water infrastructures is not implemented on time. Target farmers and responsible wereda experts are not involved during reconnaissance study of the irrigation infrastructures and schemes. This causes lack of ownership for these schemes. Water resource constraints in the highlands
Similar to the above agro ecologies the highland areas have also enormous problems related to irrigation water management. These include: > Irrigation regime of irrigated crops is not known and poor irrigation method; poor irrigation scheme management; 'r Shortage of irrigation water on late crop growth stages; > Potential of rivers in the wereda is not exploited well; > Ground water is not used well, allocated well;
79 3.4.2.3 Soil conditions
Soil condition can be defined as the capacity o f the soil to function, within land use and ecosystem boundaries, to sustain biological productivity, maintain environmental health, and promote plant, animal, and human health. (Tasmania, 2014). In this paper die soil conditions are measured by soil acidity, soil salinity, status of vertisols management, soil erosion conditions, and applied soil conservation methods in the AGP II districts. Accordingly, there are no both soil acidity and salinity problems in the AGP II districts except soil acidity problem in die highland parts (Wogera) of the districts. Soil erosion is low in the lowlands, and from medium to high in the midlands, however, high soil erosion problems in the highlands. In al) the districts vertical management is poor and there are only few physical and biological soil conservation practices.
3.4.2.4 Water Management constraints by districts
Water management is managing the water resources based on a set of policies and regulations. Water is becoming a more valuable commodity due to droughts and overuse, so its management is very important to use the resource effectively. In most of AGP H districts there is high irrigation water potential but there are a lot of constraints hindering the exploitation of the resource efficiently. The constraints that were mentioned by the tanners during the survey are presented here in below .
Water management constraints in the lowlands (Metema and Quara) The lowlands have high potential and actual irrigation production. The main sources of irrigation are rivers. The methods of irrigation are basin (ring) irrigation, furrow irrigation and flooding which is common in some areas causing wastage of excess water. Pepper, maize and tomato are supplemented by pumping from rivers. These crops are planted initially by rainfall and supplemented by die river irrigation water. The mam constraints are farmers’ willingness to use irrigation and awareness on how to use irrigation. Irrigation use in the weredas is generally low while water is available around their fanns and farmers didn't consider irrigation vital for changing their life. Irrigation scheduling (amount and frequency for each crop) is not known by farmers and experts; there is also low expert technical support (no experience sharing, experts lack skills). Other constraints include: r Irregular water budgeting (excess irrigation during the rivers potential period and irrigation scheme water distribution across the season are not regular); > Problems related to hand dug wells: knowledge gap on ground water -pumping difficulty because of quick dropdown of wells, low water capacity of some wells for irrigation water sources, salinity problem, sliding problem and lack of on time maintenance; r Irrigation scheme based problems; > Potential irrigation command areas are owned by some individuals who are not volunteer lo use intensive agriculture (farmers believe their land will loss fertility for main season crops);
78 Table 30.Soil types with their coverage in percent
Inorganic/Chemical fertilizer Oi ganic fertilizer Bio-fertilizer Lowlands S Only few farmers use it / Compost is not used because of Not used yet (Metema / Type, rate and time of its labor demanding and and application is not known by farmers’fear to “mchi” disease Quara) farmers; experts recommend the prevalence blanket rate of fertilizer / Green manure never used for soil Problems related with farmers fertility purposely attitude and lack of skill / Farmyard manure is used only in ✓ Increased price of chemical homestead growing crops: maize fertilizers and pepper / compost preparation is not based on known guideline (quality problem) / no on time application Midland ✓ The soil is deficient in N and P ✓ only few farmers use compost Very few farmers fertilizers quality problem for chickpea and ✓ Chemical fertilizers like DAP, ✓ compost preparation is not based faba bean Urea, NPS+Zn/B are used on known guideline only for selective crops (Tef, ✓ farmers consider compost Maize) technology as laborious exercise / High fertilizer leaching on time compost application is missed S Lengthy fallowing is used in the lowland part of the wereda (fallowed for 3-4 successive years) S Farm yard manure (FYM) and compost are used only for selective homestead growing crops like: maize, potato, onion and pepper 3 Highland S Acidity problem (clay soil) ^ only few farmers use compost Very few farmers S degraded and exhausted quality problem for chickpea ant soil ^ compost preparation is not based faba bean S N and P deficit in light soils on known guideline J Chemical fertilizers like ^ farmers consider compost DAP, Urea, NPS+Zn/B are technology as laborious exercise used only for selective on time compost application is missed crops (Wheat and malt bavly )
77 3.4.2.2 Fertilizer Utilization Though there is high government commitment and efforts to use fertilizers both in type and amount, the reality in the ground is typically different, which is the main constraint in the current crop production. Generally fertilizers (chemical, biological and organic) utilizations in the AGP II woredas are very poor and the soil nutrient content particularly N and P fertilizers are becoming deficient. „ Farmers access inorganic fertilizers from agricultural extension service. The most commonly used rate ot fertilizer is 100kg DAP/NPS and 100kg UREA per hectare for most cereals except maize, potato and vegetable crops which normally increase. The core fertilizer use constraints in the districts mainly in the midlands are fertilizers are not applied on the right frequency at the right time in the right amount based on the crops need. Financial constraints to purchase fertilizers are also raised as a draw backs for many farmers. To resolve the problem, farmers get a debit but difficult for them to pay back. The quality of the fertilizer is questionable since it is stored for long time and transported Jong distance to reach to farms. The limitations and drawbacks of current fertilizer utilization in agricultural production of AGP-II beneficiary weredas has been assessed and listed below.
76 No Forest type Area of forest coverage (ha) in each Wereda Lowlands Highlands Midlands ~ Acc. Saligna ~ Acc. Abysinica ~ Olea Africana - Moringa ~ Lucinia ~ Rhamenus Prenoids (T>fi) - Sesbania
- Cajorinia equisetifolia ( f i r m - Cuproses Lustania
3.4.2 Constraints
3.4.2.1 Soil Productivity Soil is complex and dynamic in nature and it is the most important variable in agricultural production. Resource degradation has been recognized as harsh environmental problem in Ethiopia, especially since the early 1970s. It was stated that the country losses around 2 billion tons of fertile soil consequently losses 2% of the annual crop production, which is about 120, 000 tons of cereal yearly (Mesfln, 2004 and Birhanu et.al, 2009). The method followed to evaluate the fertility status of the agricultural land in the vveredas is through asking farmers whether the soil gives best yield with the addition of Nitrogen or Phosphorus otherwise not. Similarly, the wereda experts were asked whether there is a significant yield increase with the addition o f Nitrogen and Phosphorus or not.
* But as per the farmers in Metema who responded about the fertility of their soils, indicated that their farmlands are fertile and moderately fertile, while the remaining is non-fertile. To perform agricultural operations, farmers walk for some hours depending on the distance to their farmlands from home. Based on this, farmers walk for a single trip about half an hour to reach the near-by plot. ■ In some cases, neither the participation of retailers nor the governmental organizations distribute agricultural inputs, especially chemical fertilizers in the irrigation season. ■ Generally, low' soil fertility is mainly the result of degradation of land and the decline in soil fertility thereby contributing significantly to low' yield .The causes of these out standing problems are, continuous cropping because of high human pressure on land and minimum use of appropriate soil erosion control and soil fertility maintenance methods. Presence of high livestock population along with deforestation has also aggravated the situations.
75 Table 29.Forest land coverage in type No Forest type Area of forest coverage (ha) in each Wereda Lowlands Highlands Midlands
f i iNatural i l i I - i Acacia i i i seyai i i (girar) i i i i - Parkinsonia acculata forest - Accacia Senegal - Phoenix reclinaia Major tree - Bezoila (ineqerzaf) - Pinus patula 1 species - Papiphora (etan zaf) - Pinus radiata - Kikra - Podocarpus gracillor - Chara - Prosopis juliflora ~ Firmha - Zkiphus mauritania - Wenbela - Cordia africana - Chamda - Accacia - Zobbi 'e & = ~ Olia africana - Kumer - Grevilla robusta ~ Diza za f - Jacaranda mimosifolia - Zomu ~ Leucaena leucocephala - Lowland bamboo - Olea Africana - ‘HK’f:hChC:W «B‘f,C - Phoenix reclinata (Bosotia) - Pinus patula - - Pinus radiate - - Podocarpus gracillor ~ tHDC:rtCtV} - Prosopis juliflora ■ - fb'HW 2 Plantation _ Nim Eucalyptus ~ Cordia africana (Wanza) Major tree ~ Acacia seyal Decc urrence “ Cupressus lusitanica species Accacia Senegal Tid - melon ix regia - Moringa Yeferenj - Dochmea anguistifolia - Bozolia girare - oitada - Bamboo Tulursr ~ Eucalyptus comaldunesis - -juniperus procera - Sespania sesban - Kondo Berbere I 1 - Nim - Yetebenja Enchet Eucalyptus Glo 3 Multipurpose - Accacia Cial ~ - (iravillia robust a tree species - Accacia Senegal - - Acc. Decurrence - Cordia - Croton macrostachvus africana WVW)
74 Table 28.AvailabIe irrigation water resources
No Wereda Surface water sources Ground Harvested water w ater River diversion Springs Shallow Ponds (num ber) (number) 1 Metema 4 - 17 - 2 Quara 4 --- 3 Takusa -- --
4 Gondar-zuria 12 + 31* 96 - 18 geo-membrane lined ponds 5 Wogera 14 175
6 Dembia 461 139 1854
7 Alefa 3+21* 96
8 Chilga * Seasonal rivers
3.4.1.3. Irrigation
3.4.1.4 Forest land coverage in type
As we understand and many researches confirmed, forest has enormous use in keeping the environment productive, generating food for both human and animals, protecting the soil resource from water and wind erosion, maintaining the water cycle and making the soil porous. Furthermore, it is important for construction, tourist attraction, extraction of medicines and others Curry-Lindahl (1972), Sahle (1984), Gebremarkos (1998), Demele (2001), FAO (2003) and Tsegaye (2006), as cited by Amogne Asfaw Eshetu (2014). The AGP II Woredas in West Gondar, Centra] Gondar North Gondra Zones have the following forest cover types with the above mentioned uses.
73 3.4.1. Resources
3.4.1.1. Soil Table 27. Soil types with their coverage in hectare
Wereda’s name Soil types Coverage W ereda's Soil types Coverage (ha) name (ha) Metema Nitisols 158131 Gondar- Cambisols 59873.5 Solonchaks 78932.9 zuria Xerosols 24233.68 Vertisols 32973.3 Regosois 21854.6 Luvisols 31773.9 Vertisols 21443.3 Cambisols 21175.9 Others 9438.80 Others 51502.6 Quara Vertisol 346006 Wogogera Nitosols 67031.40 Nitosols 171494.25 Cambisols 58171.22 Cambisols 114765.47 Luvisols 34376.30 Fluvisols 87407.5 Vertisols 12979.30 Luvisols 50110.7 Others 14520.59 Others 11863.24 Takusa Luvisols 38575.8 Dembia Regosois 60299.3 Cambisols 31883 Vertisols 36319.7 XerosoJs 30781.1 Solonchaks 12170.8 Fluvisols 24903.9 Xerosols 11127.1 Regosois 23300 Others 4679.235 Alefa Luvisols 47999.8 Chilga Cambisols 65724.4 Nitisols 41196.5 Luvisols 50633.8 Leptosols 31672.1 Xerosols 47904.2 Vertisols 21717.2 Fluvisols 45999.9 Regosois 19565.6 Nitosols 39113.5 Fluvisols 13440 Solonchaks 32123.9 Cambisols 7966.9 Vertisols 20971.7 Others 19208.56
3.4.1.2 Water
The issue of water for agricultural production in the form of irrigation was
> Surface water: number of rivers, streams and springs. > Ground Water: ground water potential in water table depth. > Other water resources such as rain water harvested in ponds and reservoirs.
72 To enhance agricultural productivity, availability of improved technologies and information are vital. Currently, agricultural research is undertaken by the national agricultural research system mainly by the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (E1AR) and the Regional Agricultural Research Institutes (RARIs). Limited availability of agricultural technologies, inadequate capacity in multiplying source technologies and limited on-farm pre-extension demonstration of technologies are key problems hindering the availability of technologies to small scale fanners. It is thus imperative to accelerate the release of technologies (Crop, livestock, NRM, agricultural mechanization etc.), adopt technologies from elsewhere (within or outside the country), demonstrate available technologies released by the research system, and develop demand-driven agricultural technologies tailored to specific agro-ecologies and socio-economic conditions of the farming community.
Access to and application of agricultural inputs is a decisive factor to improve agricultural productivity and production. In addition to fertilizers, improved seeds and animal breeds are crucial. Likewise, there is a considerable opportunity to promote the use of machinery for production and post-harvest activities. Innovations such as row planters for tef have a significant impact on productivity. However, input markets in Ethiopia are typically overly dependent on cooperatives and unions and the agro-dealer market is small and underdeveloped. Cooperatives can play an important role in linking smallholder farmers to input and output markets; nevertheless, they are often hampered by weak management and facilities, and currently only handle a small percentage of agricultural output. There is potential for strengthening cooperatives while also enabling greater private engagement in both input and output markets. Agricultural water development is crucial to improve smallholders’ livelihoods since irrigation can help farmers increase their crop diversity with high value crops and enable multiple cropping.
71 Poultry development proposals
• Strengthen the improved poultry extension system;
• Increased improved chicken supply;
Animal health research proposals
S Epidemiological study of different livestock diseases;
^ Evaluate the efficacy of different drugs and vaccines:
Animal health development proposals
• Capacity building o f veterinary technicians to improve their skills;
• Strengthen the capacity of the veterinary' clinics by materials and human power;
• Strengthen the institutional capacity of the region, zone and districts on veterinary medicines and vaccine supply;
Animal product processing research proposal
J Develop milk post-harvest technologies;
S Introduce and evaluate milk post-harvest materials;
S Introduce and evaluate different poultry management materials;
Animal product processing development proposals
• Facilitate the supply of different processing technologies;
Crop residue improvement and forage conserv ation research proposals
• Development of feed conservation methods for crop residues (e.g. Silage); • Development of efficient utilization techniques o f crop resides (physical, biological, and chemical techniques); Crop residue improvement and forage conservation research development proposals S Build the capacity of farmers on improved forage production, forage conservation and crop residue management;
3.4. Natural Resource Management World population rise, climate variability and land degradation are the major occurrences in this decade. This happening is more worsening in the third world countries, especially in the Sub- Saharan countries. Ethiopia, which is one of these Sub-Saharan African countries, is facing these occurrences resulting to food shortage. Ethiopia has been planning and implementing different projects to reduce the climatic variability with possible adaptation and mitigation measures, to decrease food shortage by maximizing production and productivity o f crops and live-stock while maintaining the resources in sustainable way.
70 3.3.13. Recommendations and outlines of research and development proposals
Dairy research proposal
J Assessment of previous estrus synchronization problems;
v'' Evaluate different synchronizations protocol and demonstrate the effective protocol;
S Assessment of the performance of dairy cattle breeds in different agro-ecologies;
S Evaluate and demonstrate different type/breeds of dairy cows suitable to the given area;
S Develop and demonstrate improved dairy cattle management;
Dairy development proposal
• Strengthen the institutional capacity of the agricultural extension system for provision of liquid nitrogen and Ai;
• Strengthen the agricultural extension system on improved dairy' management;
• Support institutional capacity of dairy cows feed;
Feed research proposals
S Introduction and evaluation of different forage species;
/ Determine the appropriate agronomic I management options for adapted forage species;
S Identify suitable forage species for cut and carry system and integrated to crop production;
S Development of technological package for grazing land management of natural pasture;
S Demonstration of adapted forage species;
S Multiplications of forage seeds;
Feed development proposals
• Strengthen the capacity of agricultural extension system on feed development;
• Establish livestock feed supply system in all districts;
Poultry research proposal
S Evaluate tine adaptability and productivity of different chicken breeds in each agro ecologies;
S Develop poultry feeding package from locally available feeds;
/ Demonstrate improved poultry management suitable to the given agro-ecology (such as housing, brooding);
69 Table 26. Prioritized researchable problems identified
Prioritized Problems Options Intervention Intervention Areas Less efficient Different protocols Survey Mid altitude synchronization Evaluation districts Feed shortage Improved forage Adaptation/identification All districts Feed management Demonstration Pasture improvement Seed multiplication Lack of appropriate Different breeds Survey Mid and highland dairy breed Evaluation districts Demonstration Lack of knowledge on Technologies Training Mid and highland improved dairy Skills Demonstration districts management Lack of knowledge on Technologies Training All districts improved poultry Skills Demonstration management Lack of alternative Exotic chicken breed Adaptation All districts chicken breed Demonstration Multiplication Low adoption rate of Adapted forage species Demonstration Ail improved forage Scale up Seed multiplication Poor quality of Commercial feeds Evaluation All commercial feeds Locally available feed Feed formulation/testing Demonstration High disease prevalence Technologies, Epidemiological study All Different medicine and Evaluation Vaccines Demonstration Poor efficacy of the Different type of Survey All medicines and vaccines medicines and vaccines Evaluation Lack of technologies on Post-harvest techniques Introduction and Mid and highland animal product evaluation districts processing Demonstration Lack of tech Different technologies Introduction and All districts nologies and knowledge (physical, chemical...) evaluation for crop residue Demonstration improvement and Training conservation
68 Takussa
Animal Genotype related constraints
• Limited AI service; • Lack of crossbred heifer supply; • Lack of knowledge on how to manage improved dairy and poultry genotypes; • Lack of information about which exotic blood level of dairy cow is suitable to the district; • Skill gaps of the technicians on AI service;
Animal feed related constraints
• Poor quality of commercial feeds; • The price of commercial feeds is very expensive; • Lack of knowledge on how to utilize locally available feed resources; • High feed shortage (it is very severe in dry season);
Forage related constraints
• Poor quality of crop residues; • Less adoption rate of improved forages; • Poor forage seed supply system; • Lack of recommended improved forage crops; f:: • Lack of recommended agronomic practices for improved forages;
Animal health related constraints
• Less participation of farmers during vaccination; « High disease prevalence; • Lack of information on epidemiology of diseases;
Animal product processing related constraints
• Lack of modem technologies on milk handling and processing; • Lack of modem transportation equipment for animal products (egg and milk); • Lack of modem equipment for chicken production;
3.3.12. Prioritizing problems, screening options and interventions
Prioritized researchable problems identified and their possible options (Table 26) which have possible research interventions are presented in the following table.
67 • Lack of knowledge on feed conservation techniques;
Alefa , f H Animal Genotype related constraints
• Limited supply of liquid nitrogen; • Lack of crossbred heifers; • Lack of knowledge and skills on the management of improved genotypes; • Less attention given by farmers for chicken management; • Lack of alternative and recommended chicken breeds; • Lack ol recommendation about which exotic blood level dairy cow is appropriate for the area;
Animal feed related constraints
• Lack of know ledge how to formulate dairy and poultry feeds from locally available feed resources: • Poor supply system of commercial feed; • Poor quality of commercial feed; • High purchasing price of commercial feeds;
Forage related constraints
• Poor forage seed supply system; • Disease problem on improved forages (Cowpea and Vetch): • Less adoption/dissemination rate of improved forages; • Lack of alternative improved forage crops;
Animal health related constraints
• Limited supply of medicines and vaccines; • Knowledge gap of the farmers in animal health management; • High disease prevalence especially for chicken;
Animal product processing related constraints
• Lack of modem technologies on milk handling and processing; • Lack of modem milk and egg transportation materials;
Animal feed management related constraints
• Lack of technologies on pasture improvement and crop residue treatment;
Lack of knowledge on feed conservation techniques:
66 • Lack of technologies on pasture improvement technique;
W ogera
Animal Genoty pe related constraints
• Knowledge gap of farmers and extension agents on how to manage the improved dairy and chicken breeds; • Poor supply o f liquid nitrogen, semen and AI materials; • Skills gap o f technicians on Al and PD test; • High price of exotic chicken breeds; • Poor supply system of exotic chicken breeds; • Lack of recommended and alternative chicken breeds; • Low milk production of local cows; • Lack of information on the appropriate exotic blood level of dairy cows
Animal feed related constraints
• Limited access to quality feed; • Lack of knowledge on how to utilize the available feeds properly; • No institutional arrangement for feed supply; • Commercial dairy and poultry feeds are very expensive;
Forage related constraints
• Less adoption rate of improved forages; • Lack of alternative improved forage crops; • Lack of knowledge on agronomic practice of forage crops; • High feed shortage in terms of quality and quantity;
Animal health related constraints
• Efficacy problem of the available medicines and vaccines; • Lack of awareness of farmers on animal health management; • Limited skills of veterinary technicians on identification and treatment of all cases; • Lack of information on the epidemiology of diseases;
Animal product processing related constraints
• Almost all farmers handle and process their milk traditionally; • Limited access, supply and introduction of milk handling and processing equipments; • Limited access and supply of milk and egg transportation materials;
Animal feed management related constraints
• Lack of technologies on pasture improvement and crop residue treatment;
65 Dembia
Animal Genotype related constraints
• Low efficiency of AJ and mass synchronization: • Lack of knowledge on the management of crossbred dairy animals and exotic chickens; • Limited supply of crossbred heifers; • Low milk productivity of local cows; • Poor supply system of exotic chicken breeds; • Lack of recommended and alternative exotic chicken breeds: • Low productivity of local chicken breeds; • Lack of information on the appropriate exotic blood le\ el of crossbred cow;
Animal feed related constraints
• Lack of institutional arrangement for commercial feeds; • Industrial by-products are expensive; • Poor quality of industrial by products;
Forage related constraints
• Farmers lack awareness on the importance of improved forages; • Less adoption rate of improved forages; • Lack of knowledge on the agronomic practices of improved forages; • Lack o f alternative/ recommended/ improved forages; • Poor supply of improved forage seeds; • Feed shortage during the dry season;
Animal health related constraints
• Less efficient drugs and vaccines; • Lack of awareness of fanners on animal health management; • Limited skills of veterinary technicians on identification and treatment of all cases; • Lack of knowledge on the prevalence of diseases:
Animal product processing related constraints
• There is no introduction of milk processing materials in the district/ farmers process their milk in traditional way/; • No introduction of modem poultry equipments;
, . :n> ‘'s't > jl Animal feed management related constraints 1 • Lack of technologies on crop residue management; • Lack of technologies on feed conservation;
64 • Adaptation problem of exotic breeds (high exotic blood level); • Lack of knowledge on management of improved dairy cows and chicken; • Accessibility and alternative problem of exotic chicken breeds; • Less attention given by the fanners for poultry production;
Dairy and poultry feed related constraints
• The price of commercial feed is very expensive; • Limited supply of commercial feeds; • Lack of knowledge on the utilization of commercial feeds(concentrate feed); • Lack of knowledge on how to formulate feeds from locally available feed resources;
Forage related constraints
• Lack of recommended forage crops; • Less adoption rate of improved forages; • Poor forage seed supply system; • Lack of technologies on appropriate agronomic practice for improved forage; • Severe feed shortage in the dry season;
Animal health related constraints
• Lack of supply of medicines and vaccines for dairy as well as poultry; • Poor animal management practices leading to health problem; • Poor efficacy of the available medicines and vaccines; • Lack of knowledge on the management, application and handling of poultry vaccines and medicines; • Lack of information on the epidemiology of animal diseases;
Animal product processing and handling related constraints
• Limited access to milk processing materials (only few materials in one cooperative at Maksegnit town); • Lack of technical capacity to use the available milk handling and processing materials; • Lack of access to modem poultry production equipment;
Animal feed management related constraints
• Lack of technologies on pasture improvement; • Lack of alternative and feasible technologies on crop residue management; • Lack of knowledge on animal feed conservation and management;
63 Animal feed management related constraints
• Lack of technologies on crop residue and pasture management; • Lack of knowledge on crop residue treatment and pasture management: • Lack of knowledge on forage conservation (no practice oJ hay making, silage making ...);
Q uara
Animal genotype related constraints
• Lack of information on the type of breeds adapted to the area; • Lack of access to liquid nitrogen and Al materials; • Lack of alternative exotic chicken breeds adapted to the area; • Poor supply system of improved chicken;
Dairy and poultry feed related constraints
• Lack of supply of commercial feeds for dairy and poultry; • High cost of commercial feeds;
Forage related constraints
• Lack o f recommended forage species;
Animal health related constraints
• Efficacy problem of available medicines and vaccines; • Poor supply of drugs and vaccines; • Treatments given by non-professionals (farmers themselves treat their animal); • Problems o f keeping the recommended cold chine of the vaccines; • H igh d i sease preva 1 ence;
Animal product processing and handling related constraints
• Lack of information and knowledge on milk processing and animal product handling;
Animal feed management related constraints
• Lack of technologies on crop residue and pasture management; • Lack of knowledge on crop residue and pasture management; • Lack of knowledge on forage conservation (no practice of hay making, silage making ...);
Gondar Zuria
Animal genotype related constraints
• Failure of Al and mass synchronization; • Lack o f supply o f crossbred heifers;
62 Animal product processing and handling related constraints
• Modern milk processing technique is limited to one cooperative; • Lack o f access on milk processing and poultry equipment;
Animal feed management related constraints
• Less adoption rate of crop residue improvement (urea treatment); • Lack of alternative technologies for crop residue management;
Metema
Animal genotype related constraints
• No exotic breed introduction at all; • Farmers believe that their indigenous cattle are enough for the area; • Fistrus synchronization technical problem; • Access problem to liquid nitrogen; • Exotic breeds are less suitable to the hot temperature and extensive management of the area; • Lack o f alternative chicken breeds; • Lack of knowledge on exotic chicken management;
• Adaptation problem of exotic chicken breeds; • Accessibility problem for improved /exotic chicken breeds; • Genetic erosion of the adapted local sheep breed (Gumuz Sheep);
Dairy and poultry feed related constraints
• Accessibility problem for commercial feed both for dairy and poultry; • High price of commercial animal feed;
Forage related constraints
• Lack of recommended forage crops;
Animal health related constraints
• Poor supply system of medicines and vaccines; • Poor efficacy of the available medicines and vaccines; • Lack of veterinary capacity (low number of clinics, shortage of material and veterinarians) • Lack of information on epidemiology of diseases; • High animal disease prevalence especially for chicken; Animal product processing and handling related constraints
• Lack of information and knowledge on milk processing and animal product handling;
61 • Lack of technologies for forage conservation: Excess quality feed is available in the wet season; however, there is technology and knowledge limitation for conserving those feeds for the dry season. There is also a problem of making hay at appropriate time. There is excess grass in the lowland districts which can be used for hay making; however, hay making in those districts was very limited. • Lack of access and knowledge on technologies for forage processing and conservation: There is no any machineries for forage conservation and processing.
3.3.11. Livestock production constraint by Districts
Chilga
Dairy and poultry genotype related constraints
• Awareness problem of fanners on improved dairy cow and chicken breeds; • Skill gap in pregnancy diagnosis test, heal detection and AI management; • Lack of materials for AI; • Poor adaptability of the crossbred animals in the lowland areas of the district; • Shortage of liquid nitrogen; • Lack of alternative chicken breeds (only Sasso); • Poor dissemination strategies for exotic chicken; • Poor efficiency of mass synchronization;
Dairy and poultry feed related constraints
• Lack of dealers for concentrate feed at district level;
• Lack of awareness on the utilization of concemraie feed for improved dairy cattle; • No supplier and no institutional arrangement for concentrate at district level; • Poor quality of formulated feed; • High cost; Forage related constraints
• Less adoption rate of improved forages; • Lack of adapted forage species; • Severe feed shortage in the dry season;
Animal health related constraints
• Low supply of medicines in terms of quantity and quality; • Under dose and/or over dose treatment given by veterinary technicians; • Less cooperation from farmers during vaccination; • Limited number of veterinary clinics;
60 3.3.10.3. Animal Health Constraints in AGP 11 Districts
Similar to the feed problem, animal health problem is the most important problem reported by livestock production experts and farmers. The major animal health problems reported were:
• Poor vaccine and medicine supplies As mentioned by the veterinarian in all districts, vaccines and medicines were not provided to districts in required amount and type. The types of medicines are very few and the procurement process is lengthy.
• Lack of knowledge on the prevalence and the type of disease: No enough information on the epidemiology of livestock disease.
• Poor efficacy of some medicines: There are complaints from the expertise and fanners on the efficacy of some medicines.
• Lack of veterinarian and veterinary clinic: There is a good effort in the government side to build veterinary clinic at every kebele. However, still there are kebeles without veterinary clinics and veterinarians.
• Skill problem of veterinary technicians to treat all types of cases: Most of the veterinary technicians have got lower level vocational training. Therefore, they lack skill and knowledge to treat all cases of livestock diseases.
• Less cooperation of farmers during vaccination: Many fanners were not willing to bring their animals to health centers during vaccination time.
• Lack of access for chicken vaccination: there is difficulty of getting vaccines for chickens’ and most of the chicken vaccines need the cold chain. Because of the high temperature and electric power fluctuation, this problem is much more severe in the lowland districts.
3.3.10.4. Technology constraints
As the production is more of traditional and extensive, the use of modem machines and technologies for dairy and chicken production is very rare. Therefore, there are a lot of knowledge, skill and access of modern techniques and machine on milk handling and processing and egg handling and storage..
3.3.10.5. Forage and crop residue management constraints
As described in the feed resource part, the most important feed source for the highland and mid altitude districts were crop residue. However, the quality and the palatability of the feed are very poor. The following constraints on forage and crop residue management were identified:
• Limited technologies for crop residue improvement: Urea treatment is the only available technologies in surveyed districts for crop residue improvement. The adoption rate of this technology is also at minimum level.
59 chicken breeds in all surveyed districts. The major problems identified related to chicken genotype are:
• Less attention given by the farmers for poultry production and knowledge gap on management of exotic breeds - Farmers consider poultry production as extra activity;
• Lack of alternative chicken breeds - There is only one breed (Sasso) and this exotic chicken breed has been distributed from the single source throughout North Gondar zone. However, according to the livestock production experts and farmers in the study areas, this breed had some problems like late age at first egg laying, more of meat type and less adapted to the lowland districts.
3.3.10.2. Feed and feeding constraints
Shortage of feed in quality and quantity were identified as important livestock production constraints in all study areas. However, feed availability in the lowland districts was relatively good. The major problems identified were:
• Cost o f commercial feed: The cost o f commercial feed for dairy as well as poultry' is very expensive:
• Accessibility problem: Except for Dembia and Gondar Zuria, the source (Gondar town) of commercial feed is far from the surveyed districts. There were no organized dealers for animal feed at district level. Farmers buy the animal feed from the zonal capital, Gondar.
• Poor quality of commercially available feed: There is problem of getting quality (well formulated) feed for dairy and poultry production. This problem is more severe for poultry' production. It was reported that it is very difficult to get properly formulated feed for different growth stage of chickens (starter, grower and finisher feed).
• Less adoption rate of introduced forage species: Many improved forages were introduced at mid and highland districts in the past years. However, the coverage and the utilization are very limited.
• Lack of recommended forage species for each agro-ecology and farming system: Many of the forage species were introduced without adaptation test
• Severe feed shortage in the dry season in mid and high altitude areas. Grazing lands are highly degraded and shrinking from time to time because of expansion of crop farming. The animals are totally dependent on feeds of crop residues which are poor in quality. • Lack of forage seed system: There is no institutional arrangement for forage seed multiplication and distribution in all districts.
58 3.3.9. Livestock product Processing
In the lowland districts, milk processing is totally traditional. Farmers make yoghurt and cheese for home consumption and butter for home and market, There is small scale milk processing plant in Maksegnit capital of Gondar Zuria, Ayikel capital of Chilga, and Amba-Giorgis capital of Wogera which were established by the milk producers' cooperatives. Those cooperatives collect milk from the members and process the milk into cheese, yogurt and butter.
3.3.10. Identified Production Constraints in the AGP II districts
Many constraints that hinder livestock production were reported by the agricultural expert (AGP technical team) and farmers. The main problems related to breed (genetic material), feed, forage, health, technologies and markets are summarized as follows.
3.3.10.1. Constraints related to Genoty pe
As discussed in the previous section, the dairy production in the lowland districts (Metema and Quara) is totally dependent on extensive and traditional management. All dairy animals in the two districts are local type and there is no introduction of dairy type animals. In addition, there is no information on which breeds are suitable to those specific areas. In the mid altitude areas of the districts (Dembia, Gondar Zuria, Alefa, Takusa, and Chilga) and in the highland areas of Wogera, the following problems related to dairy genotype were mentioned.
• Skill and knowledge gap of farmers on how to manage the crossbred animal (dairy animals): Fanners want to keep their traditional production system.
• Skill gap of technicians and expertise on AI management and Pregnancy Diagnosis test: Most of the technicians were trained in the low level of training (Most of them are below diploma level)
• Poor efficiency of estrus synchronization- There was mass synchronization effort made in all districts; however, the success rate was very low.
• Lack of access for liquid nitrogen: There is a liquid nitrogen plant in Gondar. However, it wasn’t functioning very well. Therefore, the districts got liquid nitrogen from Bahir Dar.
• Lack of information on which breed and blood level are appropriate to the given areas: Different exotic blood level dairy cows are available but there is no any specific recommendation as to which blood level is appropriate to the given management and agro ecology.
Similarly, the majority of poultry production is from the local chicken and traditional management system. The local chickens are less productive in terms of egg and meat. There was a long-time government effort t to introduce exotic chicken breeds to improve their productivity. However, since recent years, there has been a strong effort in distributing exotic Table 25.Major disease and parasite in AGP districts
District Dairy Sheep and goat Poultry
Disease Parasite Disease Parasite Disease Parasite Chilga Mastitis, Tick PasteureJlosis Menges Newcastle Mites Hypocalcemi Anthrax, PPR , Ticks, a, Lice, Tuberculosis Liver fluke Metma LSD Ticks Pasteurellosis Tick Newcastle Mastitis Internal Pox Gumboro CBPP parasite PPR Blackleg CCPP Quara Trypanosomi Menges PPR. Pox, Ticks, Newcastle, Mite asis Tick Pasteurellosis Menges Fowl pox, Babiosis Nematode Salmonella LSD Black leg Gondar Anthrax, Strongie,Fasci Sheep pox, Lung Newcastle. Coccidia, Zuria Black leg ola,Paraphysto Pasteurellosis, worm, Gumboro, worm Pasteurellosis mona PPR. Anthrax Fasciola Salmonella y , Fowl pox Menges Dembia Pasteurellosis Fasciola, Sheep fox, Newcastle, Salmonella, > Systosomia Pasteurellosis, Gumboro Coccidia Trypanosomi Anthrax, PPR asis. Mastitis, LSD Alefa Anthrax, Fasciola, Pasteurellosis, Newcastle Pasteurellosis Strongie Anthrax Salmonella Wogera Anthrax, Fasciola, Sheep pox, Lung Newcastle, Coccidia, Black leg Paraphystomo PasteureJlosis, worm, Gumboro, worm Pasteurellosis na PPR. Anthrax, Fasciola Fowlpox CCPP Menges Takusa Pasteurellosis Fasciola, Newcastle Menges Source: - District Livestock and Fisheries Development Office
56 3.3.7. Animal feeding system by production purpose
Few farmers practiced cattle fattening and kept crossbred cows tethered, otherwise, all farmers in all surveyed areas follow free grazing. In all surveyed districts, supplementary feeds such as grain and industrial by-products are given to animals (dairy, beef and poultry) through feeding troughs. However, grass, hay and crop residues are given to the animals without feeding troughs.
3.3.8. Disease and disease management by animal type
The types of diseases and parasites reported for different species of livestock in the surveyed districts are presented in Table 25. Disease was mentioned as important livestock production constraint in all surveyed districts. Different types of diseases and parasitic infestations were reported in the study areas. Lumpy Skin Disease, Mastitis, CBPP, Blackleg, Trypanosomiasis and Babiosis were reported as major cattle diseases in the lowland districts whereas Ticks and Menges were mentioned as important parasites in the lowland districts. Anthrax, Pasteurellosis, Black leg and Mastitis were reported as the major diseases in the mid altitude districts (Alefa, Takusa, Wogera, Dembia and Gondar Zuria) and Wrogera districts. Although the severity varies from place to place and season to season, Pasteurellosis. Anthrax, PPR, Pox and CCPP were mentioned as small ruminant diseases while Menge, ticks and Fasciola were reported as parasites o f small ruminants. The infestation of Fasciola is very severe in the wetland areas of Gondar Zuria. Alefa, Takusa and Dembia districts because those areas are bordering to Lake Tana.
Farmers use some traditional medicines to treat the diseased animals. Lemon juice and endod were frequently mentioned as traditional medicinal plants for poultry diseases while the juice of endod and zegita leaves were mentioned as the traditional medicine for cattle and small ruminant parasite. However, in most cases modern medicines and vaccines were used for treatment and disease control, respectively.
55 Animals are allowed to stay outside (without any shed) in the dry season in Metema and Quara districts. While in the wet season, sheep and goats are kepi in separate house. Cattle are kept in the open bam (the bam without any shed). In the highland and mid altitude districts, different housing was reported. Some farmers construct separate house for their animals mostly for their sheep and goats, some others construct kraal adjacent to family house while some keep their animals inside their house. Almost all chicken in all districts are kept inside the main house. Only few farmers constmct separate house for chickens. This practice is more common by the farmers who have exotic chicken.
Table 24 Available forage types in the study districts
District Forage type Local grass Local browse Improved grass Improved legume Chillga Serdo, Geja, Oat Napier grass Sesbania, Cow Senbelet pea Metema Serdo, Jingra, Char a, Girrar, Napier grass Cow pea and Zemen sar, Srsra Warka. Gaba Pigeon pea Quara Jingra, Serdo, Lalo, Chara, • * Muja Gaba Gondar Zuia Natural pasture, Elephant grass, cow pea, Vetch Gaja, Serdo, Rhodes grass, and and Pigeon pea Muja, Chiliqa Sesbania Dembia Serdo, Tucha, Ficus Elephant grass, vetch, cow pea, Gaja. Senbelet, thonningii, Rhodes grass, Pigeon pea Gicha Cordial Desho, Sesbania af'ricana. Acacia Senegal
Alefa Koke sar,geta, Ficus Elephant grass. Vetch, Cow pea. bebera, thonningii, Bana grass. Pigeon pea chewtame cordial Africana, Acacia Senegal,
Wogera Gaja, Chibeha, Napier grass. Cow pea, Pigeon Abejeshign, Wanza, Girar, Rhodes grass. pea Tucha, Senbelet Kirkira, Shola Oat,
Takusa
Source: - District Livestock and Fisheries Development Office
54 farmers at Wogera and Chilga districts, who have enough farm land, used their private land for hay production. Many grass types (Serdo.Muja, Zemen sar and Jingira) were mentioned as important feed sources. Chain, Girrar, Gaba and Lalo were mentioned as the most important browse trees that are used as animal feeds in the lowland districts whereas in mid and highland districts Ficus thonningii (Chibha), Chordia africana (Wanza) and Acacia (Girar) were mentioned as important browse trees. Improved forage species such as Napier grass, Oat, Vetch, Rhodes grass, Sesbania, Cow pea and Pigeon pea were introduced in the mid and highland districts. However, the area coverage and the utilization were at lower level. Tef straw, sorghum Stover and maize Stover were mentioned as the most important crop residues that were used for animal feeding in the mid altitude districts whereas barley straw, wheat straw and faba bean haulm were reported as major crop residue in Wogera district. Sorghum Stover was reported as the main crop residue in the lowland districts. However, its utilization was found to be at lower level.
3.3.5. Feed and feeding management in different season
In the wet season, almost all animals in all districts depend on natural pasture. In the dry season, animals didn't get anything from the grazing lands. The utilization of communal grazing lands is free and uncontrolled so that everybody can use it without any limitation. This practice creates low productivity of the grazing lands and degradation of natural resource. The grazing lands are used simply for rendering. However, in the lowland areas, the condition of grazing lands is good. Even if the quality of the feed is poor, animals can get feed from the natural pasture in the dry season also.
Crop residues were reported as the major dry season feed sources in the high and mid altitude areas of the AGP II districts. Farmers give crop residues for all livestock species; however, they gave special emphasis for their oxen. Hay, industrial by products, grain like sorghum, maize and faba bean were also used as supplementary feeds in the dry season. These feeds are supplemented only for milking cows and weak animals. Farmers supplement hay, commercial feeds and grains for cross breed cows and fattened cattle. Hay making practice has been mentioned as a common practice in the highland and the mid attitude areas of districts whereas in the lowland districts hay making is in the lowest level. The utilization of improved forage is very low in all districts. A few farmers in the high and mid altitude areas used improved forages as supplementary feed. The leaves of different trees and shrubs were also mentioned as useful green feed during the dry season.
3.3.6. Watering and water source
Rivers, streams and water well are the major water sources for the livestock. Tap water is also used as water source in few areas. Water shortage was reported as the problem in dry season at all districts. In Metema and Quara districts farmers permanently move their animals to the areas where water is available as the problem is serious in the two districts.
53 Table 23.Livcs(ock population in AGP II districts
Districts Cattle Poultry Sheep Goat Bee Hive
_o "3 "5 "w JS '■v = « — i i I g £ * Exotic Donkey Horse Modern Cross nal j -J u -J S H e Transitio Chilga 349,469 935 250,631 NA 43,170 146.646 20,391 491 857 20,256 657 2,294 Metema 315,123 - 114,206 8,208 26,649 67,496 19,802 284 - 12,999 267 475
Quara 248,430 - 179,174 2,890 30,588 117,672 10,980 151 - 17,427 78 279 G/Zuria 56,452 372 122,528 68,000 67,046 48,897 28,940 344 1,023 10,951 491 5,909
Dembia 60,191 916 109,977 21,120 52,352 15,745 18,285 257 48 18,635 377 1,382 Alefa 65,360 120 110,781 3,876 38,550 72,571 14,998 722 (I 15,051 40 612
Wogera 63,927 3,221 329,303 48,500 174,740 153.482 26,709 1,632 17,534 15,800 585 398
Takusa NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA
Source: - District Livestock and Fisheries Development Office
3.3 J. Production system and livestock management system
The farming systems of all the study areas are crop-livestock mixed fanning systems with crop taking the lead. The dominant management system for dairy cattle is extensive system; however, few farmers who live near to the district capitals of the mid and highland areas who owned crossbred cows follow semi-intensive management. They construct and clean the shed and give some quality feed like commercial concentrate and hay. In addition to this, few farmers and small- scale investors follow intensive management of beef farming in Gondar Zuria, Dembia, and Chilga districts. In the lowland areas of Metema and Quara, farmers who have many animals follow agro- pastora) type of livestock production system. They only keep weak and few lactating animals around the homestead and keep other animals in areas far from them where there is abundant feed and water. Similarly, the dominant management system for chicken production is extensive (scavenging) type. However, few farmers who owned exotic chicken practice intensive chicken management. They construct separate house for the chicken and provide feed.
33.4. Feed resources
The forage type available in AGP II districts are described in Table 24. Even though, their importance varies from district to district, natural pasture, crop residue, crop aftermath, hay, browse trees, improved forage, industrial byproducts (commercial feed) and by product of local drinks were mentioned as animal feeds. Natural pasture and crop residues were identified as the major animal feeds in mid and highland districts. However, the area of grazing land and its productivity is declining through time because of the expansion of crop land and overgrazing. Few
52 populations of Chilga, Metema, Quara, Gondar Zuria, Dembia, Alefa, and Wogera districts were 349,469; 315, 123,; 248,430; 56,452; 60,191; 65,360 and 63,927, respectively. The cattle population in the lowland districts is relatively higher than the mid and high-altitude areas. According to the district officers and fanners opinion, the cattle population in the highland (Wogera) and mid altitude (Gondar Zuria, Dembia and Alefa) has been constant and with some decreasing trends because of the expansion of crop land and controlled gazing measures taken by the government. However, the number of crossbred animals in the highland and mid altitude district has been in increasing. This trend is happening because of the government’s (extension) efforts to increase the number of crossbred cows through providing artificial insemination service. The milk yield and lactation length of local cattle was found to be very low. The cattle populations in lowland districts (Metema and Quara) are in increasing trend. This is due to the availability of vast grazing land in the lowland districts. The estimated milk yield in the study areas was 1 to 3 liters per day after calf suckling. Milking is limited only to the wet season (July-November) when there is relatively good feed availability. After this season milking is not practiced, milk is left for the suckling calf. The milk yield of crossbreed dairy cow was estimated to be 5 to 10 liters per day. Relatively higher milk (10-12 liters) yield is estimated from crossbreed cow in Wogera and Gondar Zuria districts. It might be due to the availability of infrastructures and extension services for dairy production.
Higher goat population was recorded in Metema and Quara districts. The lowland condition and availability of browse trees create a good potential for goat production in the lowland districts. Except in the lowland districts, the goat population has been at decreasing trends in all study districts. The decreasing trend of goat population is associated with the government measures against free grazing as goats are not suitable for controlled grazing management. Sheep population in Wogera district is relatively higher than other districts. The highland agro-ecological condition of the district (Wogera) has created a good condition for sheep production.
Chickens were found as the most populous animal species in all AGP II districts. The local chicken population in Chilga, Metema, Quara, Gondar Zuria, Dembia, Alefa and Wogera were 250,631, 114,206, 179,174, 122,528, 109,977, 110,781,329 and 303, respectively. While the exotic chicken population were, 8,208; 2,890; 68,000; 21,120; 3,876 and 48,500. The egg productivity of the local chicken was very low. It was estimated around 30-40 egg/hen/year. The egg production of exotic chicken was estimated to be between 150-270 egg/hen/year. The maximum (270) eggs from exotic chicken were estimated in the highland and mid altitude areas of AGP II districts.
Honey production was also found to be the common farming practice in all study districts. However, it has high economic significance and potential in Dembia Gondar Zuria and Chilga districts. The majority of honey production comes from the traditional hives whereas the honey from modem hives was very low. In the lowland areas, the majority of honey production is coming from the natural forest. The estimated honey productivity per traditional and modem hive was 10 kg and 15 kg, respectively. According to the respondents, the yield difference between modem and traditional hive is minimum but the significant difference is in terms of quality.
51 Table 22.Livestock types in AGP II districts
District Dairy Poultry Sheep Goat Indigenous Cross Local Exotic Local Local Chilga Highland zebu Local X Local Sasso and Local and Central Holstein and Bovans Brown Washera highland Local X Jersey Metema Local, Rutana, - Local Sasso Local, Gumuz, Begait Gumuz, Felata Rutana, Rutana Quara Felata, - Local Sasso Felata, Felata, Highland Zebu, and Gumuz, Gumuz, and Angete Rutana Rutana Mahiberesilasie me lata Gondar Highland Zebu, Local X Local Sasso Local, Central Zuria Fogera Holstein Washera highland Local X Jersey Dembia Highland Zebu, Local X Local Sasso,Bovans Local, Central Fogera Holstein Brown, Washera highland Local X Koekoek Jersey Wogera Highland Zebu Local X Local Sasso Simien, Central Holstein Washera highland Local X Jersey Alefa Highland Zebu, Local X Local Sasso Washera Central Fogera Holstein highland Local X Jersey Takusa Highland Zebu, Local X Local Sasso Central Fogera Holstein highland Local X Jersey Source: - District Livestock and Fisheries Development Office
3.3.2. Livestock population and productivity
The livestock population in the survey districts is described in Table 23. Chicken, small ruminant and cattle were the most populated livestock species in the surveyed areas, respectively. The cattle
50 3.3. Livestock Production 3.3.1. Livestock ty pes and breeds
The livestock type and breeds kept in the study areas are presented in Table 22. In all surveyed areas, farmers kept different species of livestock. The most important species of livestock are cattle, sheep, goat and poultry'. Cattle were reported as the most important species of livestock throughout the surveyed areas. A few fanners living near to the district capital of the mid and highland areas (Gondar Zuria, Chilga, Wogera, Takusa and Dembia) of the survey areas kept crossbred dairy' cattle. Holstein Frisian is the major source of exotic blood and few Jersey crossbreds are also available. However, more than 95% of the cattle populations are indigenous (local) breed. Almost all cattle breeds in the lowland areas are indigenous type. Highland Zebu, Rutana, Regait, Felata and Mehabereselasie are the type o f cattle breeds found in the Metema and Quara districts.
With regard to sheep and goat breeds almost all are indigenous type. Gumuz, Felata and Rutana are the name of sheep and goat breeds in the lowland districts. Central highland goat breed is the breed type found in the mid and highland districts. Simien sheep is the dominant sheep breeds found in the highland district (Wogera). The sheep breed in Gondar Zuria, Chilga, Alefa, Takusa and Dembia districts are indiscriminate type. A few Washera sheep are also found in mid and highland AGP II districts. The breed was introduced to the areas through governmental and non governmental organizations for sheep improvement program. Similar to the other type of livestock species, local chicken is the dominant chicken breed in all study districts. There was a long-time effort of introducing different type of exotic chicken breeds through agricultural extension program to improve the productivity of chicken especially in mid and highland districts. Sasso breed is the major chicken breed distributed to the farmers in recent years in all surveyed districts. 3.2.7 Recommendations and outlines of research and development proposals
The following research interventions are suggested to address crop production constraints in different districts:
• Generating, adapting and popularizing improved varieties for yield and early maturity; • Generating, adapting and popularizing improved varieties for quality; • Generating, adapting and popularizing improved varieties for insect resistance; • Generating, adapting and popularizing improved varieties for disease resistance; • Generating, adapting and popularizing improved varieties for a biotic factors (water logging, soil acidity, drought, frost) • Generating, adapting and popularizing improved varieties for a biotic factors unfavorable climatic condition; • Generating, adapting and popularizing improved varieties for yield; • Introduction and adaptation of high yielder and pest tolerant cereal, pulse and horticultural crops for main season; • Collection, evaluation, conservation and utilization of crop land races in the district for biotic and a biotic traits; • Introduction and adaptation trial for cereal, pulse and horticultural crops for irrigation season; • Developing and demonstrating of IPMs for major diseases; • Developing agronomic recommendations for crop management in both rain fed and irrigated crops; • Developing and pre-scaling up of integrated pest management; • Conducting and documenting survey on weeds, insect pests and diseases of cereal, pulse, oil, and horticultural crops, • Conducting chemical screening, time of application, frequency and rate of different pesticides; • Capacity building on chemical screening, time of application, frequency and rate of different pesticides; • Developing fertilizer rate and time of application trial on different rain fed and irrigated crops; • Capacity building and demonstration of irrigation methods; • Capacity building and demonstration of horticultural crops production methods; • Capacity building and demonstration of farm machineries; • Demonstration of post harvest handling techniques, storage facilities, transportation containers, processing and value addition mechanisms;
48 Intervention Priority research/develo Thematic areas Prioritized Locations pment areas Crops frequency and rate of different pesticides Cropping systems Demonstrating and popularizing recommended All AGP-II All AGP-II agronomic practice technologies and selected crops districts information as well as regional packages (sowing date, seed rate, plowing frequency, cropping pattern, crop rotation ) under both rain fed and irrigated crops Updating the existing agronomic practices for All AGP-U All AGP-11 different production system, purpose and selected crops districts agricultural agro ecology capacity building and demonstration farm All AGP-II All AGP-II machineries selected crops districts Harvesting and Developing, introducing, and popularizing of All AGP-U All AGP-II post harvest harvesting and post harvesting , storage selected crops districts handling facilities, handling technologies and information Value addition Developing, introducing, and popularizing of All AGP-II All AGP-II and processing value addition, quality management and selected crops districts processing technologies and information Multiplication of starting breeder, basic and pre- All AGP-II All AGP-II Source basic seed, seedling, tuber, and, sucker and selected crops districts technology seedlings on both irrigation and rain fed multiplication condition as well as using tissue culture and Establishing and strengthen formal and informal All AGP-II All AGP-II Pre-scale up seed multiplication and distribution system selected crops districts activities Provide technical support to seed producers for All AGP-11 All AGP-11 the production of quality and sufficient quantity selected crops districts of crop varieties. enhancing demonstration and popularization of All AGP-11 All AGP-II improved technologies through tailored training selected crops districts for farmers, DA’s and SMS, and developing leaflets, fliers, production manuals in improved technologies, and strengthening the linkage with concerned stakeholders Enhance the use of appropriate modern farm All AGP-II All AGP-II implements that could be used by smallholder selected crops districts farmers to increase labor efficiency, increase production and productivity. Capacity building and demonstration farm machineries
47 Intervention Priority research/develo Thematic areas Prioritized Locations pment areas Crops Generating, adapting and popularizing improved Wheat, food Wogera varieties for soil acidity barley, potato, faba bean Generating, adapting and popularizing improved Wheat, food Wogera varieties for frost barley, potato, faba bean Generating, adapting and popularizing improved Wheat, tef, Gondar Zuria varieties for drought sorghum, chik pea, food barley Collection, evaluation, conservation and All AGP-II All AGP-II utilization of crop land races in the district for selected crops districts biotic and a biotic traits Application of biotechnological tools to multiply Banana and Chilga, potato seed tubers and banana suckers potato wogera, quara and metema capacity building and demonstrating of Banana, potato, horticultural crops production methods mango, tomato, onion, coffee Crop protection Enhance the use of already developed and All AGP-II All AGP-II location specific disease, insect and weed control selected crops districts options, integrated crop management practices, mainly good agronomic practices, fertilizer application and crop protection demonstration and validation of already All AGP-fl All AGP-II identified integrated pest management (1PM) selected crops districts options and create better awareness for smallholder famers on pest management. Generating, adapting and popularizing adaptive All AGP-II Ail AGP-II and appropriate Integrated pest management selected crops districts technologies /practices/options and information's developing pest resistant/tolerant crop varieties, All AGP-II All AGP-II selected crops districts identification of effective, safe and economical All AGP-II All AGP-II pesticides selected crops districts Conducting and documenting survey on weeds , All AGP-II All AGP-II insect pests and diseases of cereal, pulse , oil, selected crops districts and horticultural crops capacity building /training for farmers and DAs, All AGP-II All AGP-II experts on pest and diseases identification, selected crops districts chemical screening, time of application.
46 3.2.6. Prioritizing interventions areas of research and development for crop production constraints
Crop diseases, pests and weeds greatly reduce the potential of cereal, pulse, oil, fiber, and horticultural crops both in quality and quantity. Generation and popularizing of crop technologies and information is a key to enhance productivity. The following research interventions are required to address crop production constraints in AGP-II beneficiary districts of North Gondar.
Table 21.Interventions areas of research and development for crop production constraints
Intervention Priority' research/develo Thematic areas Prioritized Locations pment areas Crops Crop Demonstration and popularization of existing All AGP-II Ail AGP-II improvement packages of crop production technologies selected crops districts (improved seed along with appropriate agronomic and crop protection practices) Generating, adapting and popularizing improved All AGP-II All AGP-II varieties for early maturity stable, high yielding, selected crops districts disease and insect pests and stress resistant/tolerant crop varieties along with their appropriate crop management practices. Generating, adapting and popularizing improved maize and Chilga and varieties for nutritional quality and bio potato Wogera fortification Generating, adapting and popularizing improved chickpea, tef, All AGP-II varieties for insect resistance sorghum, districts tomato, onion, seasame, mango, banana, potato, maize, Generating, adapting and popularizing improved All AGP-II All AGP-II varieties lor disease resistance selected crops districts Generating, adapting and popularizing improved Sorghum Dembia, varieties for weed resistance Alefa, Takusa ,metema, Quara, G/zuria Generating, adapting and popularizing improved Tef, wheat, Dembia, varieties for water logging sesame, Alefa, Takusa sorghum, ,metema, wheat, food Quara, barley ,faba bean,
45 Table 20.Prioritized overall crop production constraint at Metema and Quara
Sesame Sorghum Banana Mango Onion Tomato • phylodia diseases • stalk borer • cigar end rot • anthracnose diseases • insect pests damage , aphid • pests damage , boll • blight diseases insect • poor and • mango fly insect and thrips worm, aphid • post harvest loss damage unmarketable fruit which causes for • lack o f improved varieties • diseases late blight , quality flowering dropping • diseases root tot and purple damping off , late • sesame seed • Striga weed infestation • banana ripening • lack of access to blotch, damping off blight, leaf curl virus • lack o f improved technique to get grafted seedling • lack o f improved storage • lack o f improved varieties • lack of access to fully yellow fruit • lack of access to scion technique and varieties • lack of diseases improved • lack of improved or mother trees transportation box • perishable and short resistant varieties seed and diseases • lack o f training or • lack o f access to seed of vase life of tomato • lack o f less • lack of resistant varieties capacity building on improved varieties • lack of access to shattering varieties improved • lack of access to mango production • fertilizer rate determination improved varieties • dodder weed varieties sucker of improved method and grafting • water requirement and • container for • termite damage • market varieties technique irrigation method transportation • lack of access to problem and • fertilizer rate • fertilizer rate • lack o f access to improved • fertilizer rate seed of improved low price determination determination seed determination seed • irrigation method • irrigation method • lack o f access to chemical • water requirement • striga input and irrigation method
44