The War of 1812: Conflict for a Continent J

Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-72686-3 - The War of 1812: Conflict for a Continent J. C. A. Stagg Index More information

Index

Adams, Henry: History of the United armaments: cannon, 63, 76, 108, 122, 153; States, 4–5 carronades, 122, 132; musket balls, 153; Adams, John, 26, 148, 159 muskets, 164; of navy, 122; shot, 76, Adams, John Quincy, 84–85, 140, 158, 91–92, 105, 122, 132, 164 168 Armstrong, John: and alliance with Adams, William, 143–144, 146 Federalists, 112; American minister to Address to the People of the United States Paris, 36–38; and British attack on D.C., (R. Smith), 38–39 129–130; conflict with Madison, 126; Adjutant and Inspector General (office), and conscripted army, 110–112; critical 56–67; troop strength, 118–119 of Lake Huron expedition, 119–120; agricultural workers, 56–57, 58–59 dismisses danger to D.C., 127, 128;goes agriculture, 50, 69–70, 103–104 to N.Y. frontier, 100; on joint Alabama River, 104–105 operations, 125; as Madison’s political Albany, N.Y., 56, 69–70 opponent, 38; and orders for W. H. alcohol, 56–57, 102 Harrison, 89, 90; plans for Canadian alcoholism, 104 campaign, 97–103, 117–118; replaces Alexander I (of Russia), 30, 39–40;and older generals, 117–118; resigns, British maritime rights, 96–97; offers to 130–131; as secretary of war, 80, 85–86, mediate, 84–85, 94, 141 87, 89, 105–106, 115–116, 160 Alexandria, D.C. (now Va.), 130 Army, U.S.: appropriations for, 82; Alien and Sedition Acts, 25–26, 148 assessment of officers, 161, 162–163; Amelia Island, E.Fla., 34 inadequacy of, 17, 163–164; joint American Revolution: and French debts, operation with navy, 119; monetary 23; and Indian relations, 62; Madison on bounty, 110–112; professional training, aftermath, 18; as military experience, 69; 165; recruitment methods, 56–57; and national debt, 52–54; as precursor re-enlistments, 112; regiments and to War of 1812, 2, 14–15, 17; relations training, 59–60, 121, 162–165; supplies, with Russia, 140–141 50, 57–58, 67, 161; troop size, 48–49, Amherst, Lord Jeffrey, 97 161–162; and war preparation, 40–42. Ancaster Assizes, 11 See also Dearborn, Henry; Northwest Annapolis, Md., 127 Army Appalachicola River, 150 Arnold, Benedict, 69

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Astoria, 141, 167–168 Brock, Isaac, 9, 64–65, 71–72 Astor, John Jacob, 83–85, 113–114 Brooke, Arthur, 132–133 Auglaize River, 61 Brown, Jacob Jennings: advises Wilkinson, Austerlitz, Battle of (1805), 27 100; authorized to use force, 148–150; Austria, 22–24, 140–141 and Canadian campaign, 121, 131–132, Austrian Succession, War of the, 22–23 164; controversy with Ripley, 124;and joint campaign, 119; Madison’s scheme Bagot, Charles, 167 to assist, 125–126; marches to Batavia, Bainbridge, William, 75, 76 117–118; repels Prevost, 87–88; Baines, Edward, 13 strategizes with Monroe, 137–138;to Baltic region, 29–30, 40, 47, 140, 166 take Lake Erie, 121–123; wounded at Baltimore, Md., 76, 131, 132–133 Lundy’s Lane, 123–124 Baltimore Patriot, 127–129, 131 Brown, Roger, 6 Bank of the United States, 52–54, 83–84, Brownstown, Mich. Territory, 63 113, 165 Buel, Richard, 8 Barataria, Bay of, 151–152 Buffalo, N.Y., 77–78, 85–86, 115–116, Barataria, Lake, 151–152 121, 148–150 Barbary Wars, 76 Burgoyne, John, 132 Barclay, Robert H., 91–92 Burlington Heights, Ontario, 86, 119, Barker, Jacob, 113–114 121–122 Barlow, Joel, 44 Burlington, Vt., 56 Batavia, N.Y., 117–118 Burnt Corn, Battle of (1813), 104–105 Bathurst, Henry Bathurst, Third Earl, 143 Baton Rouge, La., 150 Cadore, duc de.SeeChampagny, Bautzen, Battle of (1813), 96, 140–141 Jean-Baptiste-Nompere` de, duc de Bayard, James A., 41–42, 84–85, 120, Cadore 140 Caledonia, HMS, 77 Bayou La Fourche, 151–152 Calhoun, John C., 41, 46, 165 Bayou St. John, 151–152 Caller, James, 104–105 Bayou Terre aux Boeufs, 151–152 Campbell, George Washington, 113–114, Beard, Charles A., 5–6 129, 133–134 Beaver Dams, Upper Canada, 87, 88–89 Canada: American supplies into, 110; Benton, Thomas Hart, 106–107 boundary issues, 142–143, 167;and Berlin and Milan decrees, 29–30, 31–33, challenge of British control, 155; 36–38, 39, 42–44 economic impact of war, 157; expansion Big Warrior (Creek chief), 104–105 of, 39–40; historic importance of war, Black Rock, N.Y., 115–116 10; historiography of war, 8–12; impact blacks, free, 58–59, 115, 150–152 of war on, 155; and legacy of war, Black Swamp (Ohio), 61, 67 168–169; navy of, 48–49; population of, Bladensburg, Battle of (1814), 129 48–49, 64–65; pro-American, 10–11; blockades, 19–20, 29, 47, 96.Seealso and smuggling, 39–40; trade with, 168 Navy, Royal Canadien Voltigeurs, 102–103 Bloomﬁeld, Joseph, 56 Canning, George, 32–33, 34–35 Blount, Willie, 106–107, 116–117 capitalism, 6–7 Boerstler, Charles, 88–89 Caribbean, 25, 29, 31–33 Bonaparte, Napoleon.SeeNapoleon I Cass, Lewis, 60–61 “borderlands” history, 14–15 Castine, Mass. (now Maine), 131, 148 Borgne, Lake, 152, 153 Castlereagh, Robert Stewart, Viscount, Boston, Mass., 110, 113, 127, 131 140, 141, 143, 144 Boyd, John Parker, 87, 88–89, 103 Champagny, Jean-Baptiste-Nompere` de, Bristol, R.I., 76 duc de Cadore, 36–38, 93–94

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Champlain, Lake: agreement reached on, Congress, Twelfth (1811-13): early session 167; approach to, 69–70; British naval of, 39–40; and Madison’s messages, force at, 78; engagement on, 131–132; 18–22, 40–43; right to declare war, 21; enroute to Montreal, 97–99; naval forces and Seamen’s Bill, 83 on, 102–103, 118–119 Congress, Thirteenth (1813–15): bill on Champlain Valley, 131–132 state troops, 137; and Madison’s Chandler, John, 88 messages, 109–110; and measures to Chateauguay, Battle of (1813), 12, increase troops, 110–112; meets in 102–103 Patent Ofﬁce, 133–134; passes embargo, Chattahoochee River, 103–104, 107–108 110; reopens trade with G.B., 115;and Chauncey, Isaac: assessment of, 160;and war effort, 93–96 attack on York, 85–89; controversy with Connecticut, 72–73 Brown, 124; ill health of, 125; inﬂuences Constitution, U.S., 21 Brown, 117–118; and Lake Ontario, 98; Constitution, USS, 76 naval operations, 100, 102, 119; resists Continental Army, 59 army-navy plan, 121–122, 124–125;and Continental System, 29–30, 114–115 Sackett’s Harbor, 77–78, 87–88 Convention of Mortefontaine, 25–26 Cherokee Indians, 104 Coosa River, 103–105, 107–108, 116–117 Chesapeake, USS, 19, 32–33, 95–96 Corps of Engineers, 165 Chesapeake affair, 62 Crawford, William Harris, 80 Cheves, Langdon, 74–75, 133–134 Creek Indians (Muscogee): American Chickasaw Indians, 104 offensive against, 116–117; attack Chippawa, Battle of (1814), 122–123 American settlements, 104–105; Battle Chippewa Indians, 92–93 of Burnt Corn, 105; and cultural contact, Choctaw Indians, 104 104;destroyFortMims,106; Red Sticks, Christianity, 50–51 104–105, 106–107, 116–117; territory Civil War, 3–4 of, 103–104 Claiborne, Ferdinand, 107–108 Crimean War, 166 Claiborne, William C. C., 150–151 Crysler, John, 103 Clay, Henry: and embargo, 42–44;and Cuba, 166–167 peace negotiations, 141, 146;as Cuyahoga (schooner), 62 Speaker of the House, 40–41, 45–46, 65 Dallas, Alexander James, 133–134 Cleveland, Ohio, 89–90 Dayton, Ohio, 61 Clinton, DeWitt, 46–47, 69–70, 72–73 Dearborn, Henry: accepts armistice, 70; Clinton, George, 34, 46–47 and attack on York, 85–89; considered clothing: allowance, 61; army, 57–58;for for War Dept. secretary, 80;and Harrison’s army, 67; inadequate, Federalist opposition to war, 72–73; ill 118–119; Indian, 50; uniforms, 57–58, health of, 88; Montreal campaign, 65, 122–123 73–74; Niagara strategy, 52;orders Cochrane, Alexander, 115, 128, capture of British troops, 88; and plans 150–153 for invasion of Canada, 69–70; Cockburn, George, 128, 132–133, 150 reassigned, 117–118; resists aiding Cocke, John, 107–108 Niagara campaign, 70, 72; retires, 89 Coffee, John, 106–107, 108 debt, national, 31, 157 Columbia River, 141, 167–168 Decatur, Stephen, 3, 76, 125 Columbia, S.C., 56 Delaware, 56 Commissary General, 54–55 Denmark, 30, 35 Congregationalists, 72–73 Dennis, Richard, 56–57 Congress, Eleventh (1809-11): Macon’s desertions, 121 Bill No. 2, 36–37 Desha, Joseph, 41

190 Index

Detroit, HMS, 77–78, 91–92 147–148; as Van Rensselear’s officers, Detroit, Mich. Territory: fall of, 71;fortat, 70–71; in war historiography, 8 50; Hull reinforces, 60–69; Hull’s Federal Republican (Baltimore newspaper), campaign for, 50, 51–52, 60–63, 69, 148 77–78; recaptured by Harrison, 89–93 Findlay, James, 60–61 Detroit River, 62–63 fishing rights, 120, 143, 144, 146, 167 District of Columbia.SeeWashington, Florida: and Creek Indians, 103–105; D.C. invoked in treaty negotiations, 145;and Dobbins, Daniel, 77–78, 90 smuggling, 39–40.SeealsoEast Florida; Drummond, Gordon, 115–116, 123, West Florida 125–126 Floyd, John, 107–108 Duane, William, 163 food.Seeprovisions Dull, Jonathan, 17 Fort Bowyer, Mobile Bay, 151, 153 duties, 82 Fort Defiance (Ohio), 61, 67 Fort Deposit (Ala.), 107–108 East Florida, 42–44, 80–81, 110, 143, Fort Erie (Upper Canada): demolished, 166–167.SeealsoFlorida; West Florida 125–126; seige of, 11; Smyth plans Eastport, Maine District, 127–128 attack on, 72; U.S. to gain by treaty, 145 Egypt, 24 Fort George (Upper Canada), 71, 85–89, elections, 72–73;of1812, 38 115–116, 121–122 Elliott, Jesse D., 77–78, 91–92 Fort Harrison (Ind. Territory), 66 Embargo of 1807, 20, 33–34, 39–40 Fort Jackson (Miss. Territory), 116–117 Embargo of 1812, 42–44, 45 Fort McHenry (Baltimore), 132–133 Embargo of 1813-14, 110, 115, 147–148 Fort Malden (Upper Canada): Harrison to emigrants, 10–11 take, 67, 68, 92–93;Hullnears,62–63; Emmons, Richard, 3 planned attack of, 89–90; Tecumseh at, Eppes, John Wayles, 95, 134 62, 64; U.S. to gain by treaty, 145 Erie, Lake: and British naval vessels, Fort Meigs (Ohio), 68–69, 89–90 62–63; freezes, 67; Hull’s route along, Fort Michilimackinac (Mich. Territory), 61; naval strength on, 50, 51–52, 77–78, 145 160; Proctor retreats along, 92–93 Fort Mims (Miss. Territory), 106 Erskine, David, 34–35, 36 Fort Mitchell (Ga.), 107–108 Essex, USS, 118–119 Fort Niagara (N.Y.), 87, 115–116, Eustis, William: and the navy, 74; resigns 125–126, 145 as secretary of war, 79–80; as secretary Fort Strother (Miss. Territory), 106–107 of war, 51, 54–55, 62–63, 65, 67 Fort Washington (Md.), 130 executive power, 159 Fort Wayne (Ind. Territory), 50–51, 66 expansionism: interpretation of war, 5–6 Fort Williams (Miss. Territory), 116–117 Exposition on the Causes and Character of Foster, Augustus John, 38–39, 40, 44, 47 the Late War between the United States Fox, Charles James, 29, 31–33 and Great Britain (Dallas), 135 France: allies invade, 114;and Anglo-French war, 22–24; burns U.S. Farmer’s Brother (Iroquois Indian), vessels, 42–44; power of wanes, 96–97; 121–122 Quasi-War with U.S., 25–26, 27, 76–77, fasting: as opposition to war, 72–73 95, 148; restoration of Bourbon Federalist party: and anti-French sentiment, monarchy, 120; war with feared, 45.See 25–26; call for Hartford Convention, also Berlin and Milan Decrees; 147–148; and Decree of St. Cloud, Napoleon I 93–94; as Madison’s opponents, 18–19; Francis, Josiah, 104–105 newspapers of, 148–149; and opposition Frankfort, Ky., 65 to war, 41–42, 46–47, 69–70, 72–73, Franklinton, Oh., 66–67

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Frederick, Md., 129 158; and terms of peace settlement, Fredoniad, The: poem by Emmons, 3 120–121, 141–142; war with France, French Mills, N.Y., 103 18–20 French National Assembly, 23–24 Great Lakes: agreement with G.B., 167; French Revolution, 18–20, 23–24 boundary issues, 143; British goods Frenchtown, Mich. Territory, 68 exchanged on, 40; British supply line to, Friedland, Battle of (1807), 30 10; ﬁshing rights, 120–121, 167; naval construction on, 81–82;asU.S.army Gaines, Edmund Pendleton, 119 target, 159–160; U.S. navy on, 50, Gallatin, Albert: advises Madison, 80; 118–119 advises on war expenses, 80–82; limits Greenbush, N.Y., 69, 70 war expenses, 89; and the navy, 74, 75; Gregg, Andrew, 46 private visit to London, 120; Republican Grundy, Felix, 41 opposition to, 34; and Russian Guerriere` , HMS, 76 mediation, 84–85, 93, 94–95, 140;as Gulf Coast, 151, 166–167 treasury secretary, 35–36, 52–54, 65 Gulf of Mexico, 103–104 Gambier, Lord James, 143–144 gun boats, 74–75, 81–82 Gansevoort, Peter, 70 George III (of Great Britain), 38, 127–128 habeas corpus, writs of, 72–73 George IV (of Great Britain), 38, 147 Hacker, Louis M., 5–6 Georgia, 105–106, 107–108, 151 Halifax, Nova Scotia, 11–12, 52, 75–76 Gerry, Elbridge, 72–73 Hamilton, Alexander, 113 Ghent, Belgium, 142, 144–145 Hamilton, Paul, 74–76, 77–78, 79–80, Ghent, Treaty of (1814): article 9, 81–82 144–145; and British diplomacy, Hampton, Va., 95–96 154–155; centennial of, 169–170; made Hampton, Wade: prepares winter quarters, permanent, 168; news arrives of, 101–102; resigns, 117–118; summoned 153–154; reception of, 154; signed, 147 by Wilkinson, 102–103; and Wilkinson, Giles, William Branch, 34, 41–42, 43, 46 99 Gilman, Nicholas, 41–42 Harper, John Adams, 41 Girard, Stephen, 84–85, 113–114 Harrison, William Henry: and Battle of Gleig, George Robert, 13 Tippecanoe, 20–21, 50–51;and Goodrich, Chauncey, 149 command of Northwest Army, 65–68, Gothenburg, Sweden, 112, 118–119 115–116; Peale’s portrait of, 3; Goulborn, Henry, 143–144 recaptures Detroit, 89–93; resigns, Graham, John, 46 117–118; to take Fort Malden, 98 grain, 69–70 Hartford, Conn.: convention at, 147–150 Grand Manan Island, 34, 167 Harvey, John, 88 Great Britain: and alliance with Spain, Hawkins, Benjamin, 104, 105–106 105–106; alliance with Tecumseh, 62, health.Seesickness 64; and Anglo-French war, 22–24;army Heligoland (now Germany), 34 of, 10; blockades France, 19–20;and Henry, John, 42–44 Cadore letter, 36–38; and Canadian historiography: British, 12–13; Canadian, boundary issues, 142–143, 167–168; 8–12; on outcomes of the war, 4–6, declines Russian mediation, 96–97; 158–159; transnational, 13–15 forces in No. America, 118; offers peace Hixson, Walter, 7–9 negotiations in Sweden, 112, 141–142; Holland, 23–24, 27 and outcome of war, 154–155; resumes Holland Land Company, 69–70 trade with U.S., 167; Royal Navy, 10, Holy Roman Empire, 24 11–12; seizes American vessels, 30; seizes Hornet, USS, 44 Cuyahoga, 62; stronghold in Canada, horses, 67

192 Index

Horseshoe Bend, Battle of (1814), 116–117 peace treaty with Creeks, 116–117;as House of Representatives, U.S.: and army president, 168; reputation in N.O., 153; spending, 82; Committee on Foreign Vanderlyn’s portrait of, 3 Relations, 49, 74; and Macon’s Bill No. Jackson, Francis James, 34–35, 36 1, 35–36; and Madison’s annual James, William, 12–13 message, 40–41; and naval spending, Java, HMS, 76 81–82; passes Madison’s embargo, Jay, John, 25 95–96; and troop increase, 110–112; Jay Treaty, 18–19, 25–27, 31–33, 143 and war declaration, 46–47; and war Jefferson, Thomas: as Francophile, 8; preparations, 41–42; Ways and Means makes military cutbacks, 54;and Committee, 93–94, 95, 134–135 Monroe-Pinkney Treaty, 31–33;and Hull, Isaac, 76 national debt, 31; and the navy, 74–75; Hull, William: and Detroit campaign, 50, as possible secretary of state, 65;as 51–52, 60–63, 69, 77–78; military skills president, 26–27; as secretary of state, questioned, 61–62, 63–64; proclamation 25; and war ﬁnance, 134 of, 145 Jena,Battleof(1806), 30 Humphreys, Joshua, 76–77 Jesup, Thomas Sidney, 90, 149 Huron, Lake, 63, 119–120 Jim, High-Headed, 104–105 Johnson, Richard M., 3, 91, 92–93 Illinois Territory, 62 Jones, William: as acting treasury secretary, illness.Seesickness 94–95, 112–113; assessment of immigrants, 58–59, 157 Canadian campaign, 135–136; and joint impressment: of American seamen, 19, 25, operation, 125; predicts violent summer, 28; as condition of peace, 47, 139; 120–121; resigns, 133–134;andretreat dropped from peace treaty, 120–121; from Bladensburg, 129; as secretary of and Leopard affair, 32–33;and navy, 80, 81–82, 114–115, 118–119, Monroe-Pinkney Treaty, 31–33;no 122; threatens to quit, 125 agreement reached, 167; and Seamen’s Bill, 83 Kanawake Indians, 88–89 India, 22–23, 24 Kaskasia, Ill. Territory, 62 Indiana Territory, 50–51, 66–67 Kentucky: militia from, 90; troops from, Indians: alliance with British feared, 63–64, 66–67, 68, 151; volunteers from, 26–27, 91; British alliance diminished, 92–93 92–93; as British allies, 87, 88–89, 150; Key, Francis Scott: “Star-Spangled buffer state for, 144, 150; impact of war Banner,” 4, 132–133 on, 155–156; mortality rates, 156–157; King, Rufus, 94, 153–154 and resistance to settlement, 15.Seealso Kingsford, William, 12 under tribal names Kingston, Upper Canada: Armstrong’s plan individualism, 7 to take, 85–89, 99–100; British position Ingersoll, Charles Jared, 73–74, 149–150 at, 77–78, 87–88, 97–98, 101–102, Irish: as army recruits, 58–59 121–122; U.S. fails to take, 160 Iroquois Indians, 71–72, 121–122 Isle aux Pois, 152 Labrador, 167 Italy, 22, 24, 27 Lachine riot, 12 Izard, George, 117–118, 119, 125–126, La Cole Mill, Battle of (1812), 73–74 131–132 Laﬁtte, Jean, 151–152 Lambert, John, 153 Jackson, Andrew: campaign against land bounty, 136–137 Creeks, 106–107; and defense of N.O., laudanum, 102 151–152; at Fort Strother, 107–108, law of nations, 18–20 116–117; military promotion, 126;and Lawrence, James, 3

Index 193

Lawrence, USS, 91–92 72–73; on histories of the war, 13; ill Leander, HMS, 19 health of, 95, 100, 111, 118; issues Leib, Michael, 44, 46 proclamation ending war, 131;andJay Leipzig, Battle of (1813), 114 Treaty, 25; justification for war, 141; Leopard, HMS, 19, 32–33 messages to Congress, 18–22, 40–41, 74, levee´ en masse, 23–24 79, 109–110; military appointments, Lewis, Morgan, 87, 100, 117–118 54–55; proclaims war, 45–47; Lewiston, N.Y., 71–72, 115–116 reconvenes cabinet, 130; and relations liberalism, 6 with R. Smith, 38; requests embargo, Lincoln, Abraham, 159, 168–169 95–96, 110; as secretary of state, 26–27; Liverpool, Robert Banks Jenkinson, second seeks armistice with G.B., 115; seeks earl of: on controlling Canada, 155; lifts coastal defense plan, 127–128; seeks to Orders in Council, 139; and peace talks, build military, 36; visits Montpelier, 35, 112, 142, 143, 144; proposes to send 65, 91, 105–106; as war time president, Wellington to U.S., 145–146; on Russian 159; and W. Florida, 105–106 mediation, 140 Madison, Dolley, 129 Livingston, Robert LeRoy, 54–55 Madrid, N.Y., 98–99 Locke, John, 6 Maguaga, Mich. Territory, 63–64 Lossing, Benson J.: The Pictorial Mahan, Alfred Thayer, 4–5 Field-Book of the War of 1812, 2 Maine, District of (Mass.): boundary of, Loudoun County, Va., 129 143, 146; British attack on Castine, 131, Louisiana, 24, 150–151 148; occupation of, 147–148;partof, Louisiana Purchase, 27, 52–54, 120–121, ceded to Britain, 145; protection of, 52 143, 145 Manifest Destiny, 5–6, 169–170 Louis XVI (of France), 23 Manrique, Matteo Gonzalez, 104–105 Louis XVIII (of France), 120 manufacturing, domestic, 157 Lower Canada: Armstrong’s plan for, Maritimes (Canadian), 11–12, 143, 146, 97–103; boundary issues, 143; British 157, 159–160 forces in, 48–49; Dearborn’s strategy Maryland, 86, 127 for, 69–70, 73–74; and impact of war, Mason, Jeremiah, 112 11–12, 157 Massachusetts, 72–73 Loyalists, British, 9, 10–11, 64 Massachusetts General Court, 147–148 Lundy’s Lane, Battle of (1814), 123–124 Mathews, George, 42–44, 105–106 Lutzen,¨ Battle of (1813), 96–97, 140–141 Maumee River (Miami of the Lake River), 61, 90, 91 McArthur, Duncan, 60–61 Mediterranean Sea, 24, 29 Macdonough, Thomas, 3, 77–78, Meigs, Return Jonathan, 60, 61, 90, 91 102–103, 131–132 merchantmen, 41 Macedonian, HMS, 76 Miami of the Rapids, 61, 62, 63, 67, 68 Macomb, Alexander, 117–118, 131–132 Michigan Territory, 50 Macon’s Bill No. 1, 35–36 Michilimackinac, Mich. Territory, 63, 119 Macon’s Bill No. 2, 36–37 mid-Atlantic, 55–57, 58–59 McQueen, Peter, 104–105 Military Academy.SeeUnited States Madison, James: cabinet appointments, 80, Military Academy (West Point) 113, 133–134; cabinet meetings, militia: assessment of, 161; Canada, 10; 118–119, 120; conflict with Armstrong, classification, 110–112; 1795 law 126; declares end of war, 153–154; 1812 regarding, 72–73; in N.Y., 73–74; state, election, 69–70; and Embargo, 33–34; 40–41; as supplement for the army, 60 and Federalist opposition to war, Miller, James, 60–61, 63–64 147–148; first presidential election, 34; Mississippi River, 35, 143, 146, 151–152, as Francophile, 8; hanged in effigy, 153

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Mississippi Territory, 107–108, 150, 152 exempts N.E. from blockade, 112–113; Mitchell, David B., 106 fleet size, 48–49; and the Great Lakes, Mobile Bay, 104, 151 77–78, 122; and impressment, 19, 25, Mobile, Miss. Territory, 150 28, 32–33; looses naval strength, 76–77; monetary bounty, 56, 111–112 materiel´ needs, 28–29, 40;Pitt Monroe, James: and Armstrong, 98, strengthens, 23; prevents French 110–112; and British resistance, 130; expansion, 24; protection of trade, 29; and command of Northwest Army, 65, retreat from Baltimore, 132–133 66; and Decree of St. Cloud, 93–94;as Navy, U.S.: founded, 25–26; frigates, minister to London, 31–33; opposes 74–75; joint operation with army, 119; Madison in 1808 election, 34;as preparedness, 35, 40–41, 118–119; president, 165; as secretary of state, 38, reforms for, 165;roleof,inwar,4–5, 40–41, 43, 47, 65, 141; as secretary of 74–76; status in 1814, 118–119 war, 80–81, 130–131, 133–134, 135, Nelson, Horatio, 27 136–138, 148–150 neutrality, 25, 30 Monroe-Pinkney Treaty, 31–33 neutral trade, 19–20, 35–36 Montpelier (Madison’s Orange Co. home), Newark (now Niagara-on-the-Lake), 35, 65, 91, 105–106 115–116 Montreal, 49, 73–74, 97–98, 101–102, New Brunswick, Canada, 52, 72–73, 149 159–160 New England: banks in, 134; blockaded, Moore, Michael (filmmaker), 169 115; exempted from blockade, 113; Moravian Town, 92 Federalist victories in, 72–73;and Morrison, Joseph, 103 Hartford Convention, 149–150;and mortality rates, 156–157; troop, 156 opposition to the war, 72–73, 147–148; Mulcaster, William, 102 separatist interests in, 42–44;and music: martial tunes, 56–57; smuggling, 11–12; troops from, 55–57, “Star-Spangled Banner” (Key), 4, 58–59, 86; volunteers from, 69–70 132–133 Newfoundland, 167 New Jersey, 56 Napoleon I: abdication, 114; anti-British New Orleans: Cochrane’s plan against, measures, 140–141; anti-neutral 150–151; in historiography, 13; Jackson measures, 35; and Berlin and Milan defends, 151; Jackson’s reputation in, decrees, 39, 93–94; and Cadore letter, 153; martial law declared, 151–152; 36–38; and Continental System, 29–30, vulnerability of, 127, 150–151;and 39–40; defeats Austria and Russia, 27; Wilkinson’s encampment, 35 imperial ambitions of, 25–26; invades New Orleans, Battle of (1815), 152–153 Russia, 48–49, 83; power wanes, 96–97, Newport, R.I., 76 118–119, 142; and Saint-Domingue, 24, newspapers: British, 12; Republican, 27; and Treaty of Tilsit, 30, 35, 40;and 110–112 war with G.B., 18–20 New York (city), 56, 131, 148–150 Napoleonic Wars, 13, 14 New York (state), 58–59, 69–70, 86, National Intelligencer (Washington, D.C.), 115–116, 121–122, 137 45, 49, 129–130 New York Navy Yard, 77–78 nationalism, 154 New Zealand, 29 Navy Department: appointments to, 80; Niagara, USS, 91–92 expansion of, 81–82 Niagara Campaign, 72, 79, 124–125, 126, Navy, Royal: blockades French ports, 156 19–20; blockades N.E., 95–96, 115, Niagara Peninsula: attacks across, 52; 147–148; bombards Stonington, Boerstler ambushed at, 88–89; 127–128; coastal strength, 118–119, boundaries of, 143; British stronghold 127, 149–150; defeats gunboat fleet, on, 97–98, 123; Brown’s rearguard 152; enters American waters, 19; action, 131–132; site of Brock statue, 9;

Index 195

U.S. retreat from, 115–116;asU.S. Perdido River, 105–106 target, 69–70, 85–89, 98, 99;Van Perry, Oliver Hazard, 90, 91–92 Rensselear arrives at, 70–71 Pettrich, Ferdinand, 3 Niagara River: American prisoners Philadelphia, 131, 133–134 paraded long, 71; British forces on, Pierce, John, 19 64–65; Brown skirmishes near, 122–123; Pike, Zebulon Montgomery, 86 planned attack across, 52; troops at, 49; Pinkney, William, 31–33, 37–38 Van Rensselear crosses, 71–72 Piqua, Ohio, 62 Niagara, Upper Canada, 115–116 Pitt, William, 23 Nicholas, Wilson Cary, 137 Plains of Gentilly, La., 151–152 Nine Years’ War, 22–23 Plattsburg, N.Y., 73–74, 77–78, 115–116, Non-Importation Law, 20, 31, 82, 115 125–126, 131–132 Non-Intercourse Law of 1809 and 1811, Poland, 39–40, 146 20, 34–35, 44 Pontchartrain, Lake, 150, 151–152 Norfolk, Va., 56, 127 popular culture: of the war, 3, 9 North America, 28–29, 40 Porter, Moses, 127 Northwest Army, 51–52, 65–68, Porter, Peter B., 40–41, 46, 52, 72, 74, 89–91, 93 121–122 Northwestern Indians, 62 Portland, Mass. (now Maine), 56 Norton, John, 71–72, 87 potash, 69–70 Nova Scotia, Canada, 149 Potawatomi Indians, 51 Potomac River, 127, 128 Oconee River, 103–104 Prague, 96, 140–141 Ohio: Hull’s campaign in, 60–69; troops Pratt, Julius W., 5–6 from, 63–64, 66–67, 91 president’s house (White House), Ontario, Lake, 49, 69–70, 77–78, 98, 129–130 121–122, 160 President, USS, 75–76 Orders in Council (1807): anti-neutral Presque Isle, Pa., 77–78, 90 policies, 33; conditions for removal, 39; Prevost, George: and armistice, 70, 115, instituted by G.B., 30; removal sought, 127; assessment of, 158–159; attacks 19–20, 34–35, 36–38, 47; repealed by Sackett’s Harbor, 87–88; and joint G.B., 44–45, 82, 139 operation, 124–125; to take Plattsburg, Ordnance Department, 54–55 131–132 Oregon Country, 167–168 Prince Regent (of Great Britain).See Ottawa Indians, 51, 92–93 George IV (of Great Britain) Proctor, Henry, 68, 92–93 Pacific Northwest, 141, 166–167 Prophetstown, 20–21, 51 Pacific Ocean, 118–119, 167–168 Prophet, The.SeeTenskwatawa (the Packenham, Edward, 152–153 Prophet) Panic of 1819, 157, 165 provisions: acorns, 107–108; Parish, David, 84–85, 113–114 contaminated, 88, 100; for Harrison’s Paris, Treaty of (1783), 138, 142–143, 146 army, 67; inadequate, 118–119, Passamaquoddy, Mass. (now Maine), 34 160–161; and starvation, 156–157 Patapsco River, 132–133 Prussia, 23–24, 30, 96–97 Patent Office, 129–130 Puerto Rico, 166 Patuxent River, 127, 128, 129 Put-in-Bay, Battle of (1813), 91–92 Peale, Rembrandt, 3 Pennsylvania, 56, 58–59, 66–67, 86, Quartermaster’s Department, 54–55 121–122 Quasi-War (1798–1800), 25–26, 27, Penobscot River, 143 76–77, 95, 148 Pensacola, W.Fla., 151 Quebec, 49–50, 52, 159–160 Perceval, Spencer, 32–33, 38, 44–45, 139 Quebec Act (1774), 143

196 Index

Queen Charlotte, HMS, 91–92 St. Cloud, Decree of, 93–94 Queenston Heights, 71–72, 122–123 St. Francis, Lake, 98–99 St. Joseph Island, 119 Raisin, Battle of the River (1813), 68–69 St. Lawrence, HMS, 122 recruits, Army: age of, 55, 56, 58, 59; St Lawrence River: Armstrong proposes to higher officers, 55; junior officers, cross, 97–98; British supply line to, 10, 55–56, 57; minors, 56; Monroe’s plan 40; forts on, 26–27; goods transported for, 80–81, 136; Ohio force, 60–69 on, 69–70; Wilkinson enters, 101–102 Red Jacket, 121–122 St. Mary’s River, 153 republicanism, 6 Salaberry, Charles-Michel d’Irumberry de, Republican party: and anti-British 102–103 sentiment, 25–26, 27; and Bank of the Salmon River, 103 United States, 52–54; and call for war, salt, 53 6–7, 8; in Congress, 82, 94, 95;and1808 Sandwich, Upper Canada, 62–63 election, 34; on Hartford Convention, Saranac River, 131–132 148; and naval expansion, 75; in N.E., Sawyer, Herbert, 75–76 72–73; as Niagara volunteers, 70–71; Scott, Charles, 65 nominates Madison, 44; and opposition Scott, Winfield: at Fort George, 87; leads to banks, 113; and opposition to war, Canadian campaign, 121, 164;and 46–47, 69–70; and response to military training, 163; Monroe consults belligerents, 31; supports war, 46–47 with, 136; replaces older officers, Rhode Island, 72–73 117–118; to take Lake Erie, 121–122; Riall, Phineas, 122–124 wounded at Lundy’s Lane, 123–124 Ripley, Eleazar Wheelock, 117–118, seamen, 58–59 123–124 Seamen’s Bill, 83, 84–85 Risjord, Norman, 6 secession: of northern states, 72–73, River Thames, 92–93 148 Roberts, Jonathan, 153–154 Secord, Laura, 9 Rodgers, John, 75–76 Senate, U.S.: and army spending, 82;and Rodriguez Canal, 152–153 Jay Treaty, 26–27; and Macon’s Bill No. Roosevelt, Theodore, 4–5, 12–13, 159 I, 35–36; military appointments, 54–55; Ross, Robert, 128, 132–133 and Monroe-Pinkney Treaty, 31–33;and “rule of ’56,” 25, 29, 31–33 naval spending, 81–82; requests War Rush-Bagot agreement, 167 Dept. policy, 135–136; and Russian Rush, Richard, 21, 54, 65, 167 mediation, 94–95; and war declaration, Russell, Jonathan: charge´ d’affaires in 46–47; and war preparation, 41–42 London, 44–45, 139; minister to Seven Years’ War, 22–23 Sweden, 94, 141; as minister to Sweden, Sevier, John, 107–108 93, 94–95 Shannon, HMS, 96 Russia: and anti-British league, 140–141; Shawnee Indians, 20–21, 51, 156–157 and Continental System, 30; Napoleon Sheaffe, Roger, 71–72, 86 invades, 39–40, 83; and Poland, Shelby, Isaac, 91, 92–93 145–146; and restraint on British power, Sheldon, Daniel, 114 119; trade with U.S., 140.Seealso shipbuilding materials: canvas, 28;flax,28; Alexander I (of Russia) pitch, 28;timber,28–29, 67, 74–75 sickness: among troops, 35, 87, 88, 100, Sackett’s Harbor, N.Y.: Armstrong’s plan 107–108, 121; Chauncey’s, 125; for, 98–99; Chauncey to relocate to, Dearborn’s, 88; fever, 122; laudanum, 77–78; naval base at, 85–89; as target, 102; Madison’s, 95, 100, 111, 118; 69–70; troops gathered at, 117–118; during Niagara Campaign, 72;and Wilkinson’s troops at, 100–101 wartime mortality, 156; Wilkinson’s, Saint-Domingue, 24, 27 100, 102

Index 197

Sinclair, Arthur, 119–120 taxes, 41–42, 52–54, 82, 93–94, 95, slaves: as British allies, 150; British 112–113 encourage emigration, 115; British to Taylor, Alan, 13–15 recruit, 150; employed by Indians, Taylor, Zachary, 66 103–104; in N.O., 150–151; runaway, Tecumseh: and alliance with G.B., 62, 64; 128; seized by British, 127; suppression and Battle of Tippecanoe, 20–21, 50–51; of trade, 147 death of, 92–93; and Emmons’s epic of Smith, Robert, 34, 38–39 war, 3; inﬂuence on Creek Indians, 104; Smith, Samuel, 34, 46, 128–129, 132–133 Pettrich’s sculpture of, 3 smuggling, 11–12, 33–34, 39–40, 151–152 Tennessee: and defense of N.O., 151, 152; Smyth, Alexander: disdains Van militia, 107–108; and suppression of Rensselear, 71; dispatched to Greenbush, Creeks, 105–107; volunteer force from, 70; ends Niagara Campaign, 72;as 116–117 inspector general, 56; military manual, Tennessee River, 103–104, 106–107 163; proclamation of, 145; training Tenskwatawa (the Prophet), 20–21, 50–51 regulations, 121 Tenth Military District, 128–129 Spain: French defeat in, 96–97;and Thames, Battle of the (1813), 3 Louisiana Purchase, 145;and Tilsit, Treaty of (1807), 30, 35, 40 Napoleonic Wars, 27, 33–34;and Tippecanoe, Battle of (1811), 20–21, relations with France, 23–24;and 50–51, 60–61 relations with U.S., 166–167; seizes Tombigbee River, 103–104 American vessels, 30; War of the Spanish Tompkins, Daniel D., 70, 80, 86, 115–116, Succession, 22–23; and W. Florida, 27 133–134, 148–150 Spanish Succession, War of the, 22–23 trade: with Canada, 168; with G.B., 115, Spencer, Ambrose, 70 167;neutral,19–20, 35–36; protection Stacey, Charles, 10 of by Royal Navy, 29; with Russia, 140; Stanley, George, 10 of slaves, 147 “Star-Spangled Banner” (Key), 4, 132–133 Trafalgar, Battle of (1805), 27 starvation: among Indians, 156–157 Treasury, U.S.: effect of Embargo, 33–34; State Department, U.S., 28; and relations loans, 52–54, 83–84; Madison appoints with G.B., 37–38 secretary, 113; and national debt, 31, status quo ante bellum (“the state in which 157; and war funding, 41–42, 112–113, things were before the war”), 142, 144, 134–135 145, 146, 154 Tuckabatchee, Miss. Territory (now. Ala.), Stephen, James, 32 104–105 Steuben, Baron von, 163 Turner, Frederick Jackson, 5–6 Stewart, Charles, 75 Stoney Creek, Battle of (1813), 127 Ulm, Battle of (1805), 27 Stonington, Ct., 127–128 United Empire Loyalist Association, 9 Strachan, John, 9 United States, USS, 76 Strong, Caleb, 148 United States: alliance with France (1778), Stuart, Gilbert, 3 23, 24; assessment of military strategy, Sweden, 94–95, 112, 118–119, 141–142 159–161;commerceof,26–27;as continental power, 166–167; declares Talladega, Miss. Territory (now. Ala.), war, 16–17; economic impact of war, 106–107 157; and frontier war, 160–161;and Tallapoosa River, 103–104, 116–117 legacy of war, 169–170; population of, Tallashatchee, Miss. Territory (now Ala.), 48–49; resolves boundary issues, 106–107 167–168; resumes trade with G.B., Talleyrand-Perigord,´ Charles-Maurice de, 167 24 United States Military Academy (West Tangier Island, 128 Point), 54, 162–163, 165

198 Index

Upper Canada (Ontario), 9–11;and “War Hawks” (in Twelfth Congress), 5, Ancaster Assizes, 11; British forces in, 41 48–50; economic impact of war, 157; Warrenton, Va., 56 Hull’s campaign in, 62–63; Provincial Washington, D.C.: British attack likely, Marine, 77–78 126–127; British burn, 129–130; citizens urban workers, 56–57 fear invasion, 128; ill prepared, uti possidetis (“as you possess”), 145, 128–129;inWarof1812 histories, 13 146 Washington, George, 25–26 Waterhouse, Benjamin, 61 Vanderlyn, John, 3 Waterloo, Battle of (1815), 154 Van Rensselaer, Solomon, 70–71 Watmough, E. C., 3 Van Rensselaer, Stephen, 70–72 Webster, Daniel, 93–94 Vermont, 72–73, 131–132, 137 Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, Duke of, veterans: and War of 1812 histories, 13 96–97, 145–146, 154 Vienna, Congress of, 145–146, 165–166 West Florida, 105–106, 143, 151, Villere´ Canal, 152 166–167.SeealsoEast Florida; Florida Villere´ Plantation, 152 West Indies, 29, 31–32, 95–96, 168 Vincent, John, 87, 88 West Point.SeeUnited States Military Virginia, 55–57, 66–67 Academy (West Point) Vitoria, Battle of (1813), 96–97 Wewocau, Little Warrior of, 104–105 volunteers: and bounty, 136–137;and White, Richard, 15 enlisting ofﬁcers, 59–60; for immediate Wilkinson, James: advances on Montreal, service, 42–44;Ky.,92–93;andN.W. 101–102; Armstrong promotes, 97;goes Army, 91; state run, 137; Tenn., 108; to N.Y. frontier, 100; and Hampton, 99; and war preparation, 40–42 ill health of, 100, 102; and New Orleans encampment, 35; relieved of command, wagons, 67 117–118; reputation of, 97 Wales, Prince of, 9 Willcocks, Joseph, 11 Walsh, Paddy, 104 Winchester, James, 66, 67, 68–69 War Department, 41–42; appointment of Winchester, Va., 56 Harrison, 66; appointments to, 55–56, Winder, Levin, 127, 128–129 80; Armstrong makes policy changes, Winder, William Henry, 88, 115, 126; communications breakdown, 62; 127–129 confusion over strategy, 51–52;and Winnebago Indians, 51 Dearborn, 72–73; expansion of, 165; Woods, John, 116 funds depleted, 135; prescribes training Woods, Lake of the, 143 methods, 163; recruits, 43, 54–55, World War I, 10 56–60, 90–91; requests for coastal Wyandot Indians, 63, 68, 92–93 defense, 127–128; strategy for invasion of Canada, 69–70, 80–81; troop Yeo, James Lucas, 87–88, 89, 100, strength, 162 122–123, 124–125 War in Disguise or the Frauds of Neutral York, Upper Canada, 85–89, 119, Flags (J. Stephen), 32 121–122