Terrorizing the Masses: Identity, Mass Shootings, and the Media Construction of “Terror” A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA BY Ruth DeFoster IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Dr. Catherine R. Squires June, 2015 © Ruth DeFoster 2015 Acknowledgements I am so grateful to the many people who sustained me during the process of completing graduate school and finishing this dissertation—my parents, Steve and Gail, whose unwavering love and support have strengthened and buoyed me during hard times, my wonderful in-laws, Lori and Marty, and my husband, Matt, who gallantly took on the challenge of countless long weekends and evenings alone with three little boys while I worked. I am also thankful for the support of many friends I’ve made along the way in the SJMC—too many to name, but among them Sara Cannon, Melissa Thompson, Chelsea Reynolds, Brett Johnson, Stephen Bennett, Colleen Callahan, Kriste Patrow, Jennifer Moore, Jake DePue, Susan LoRusso, Meagan Manning, Peter Gloviczki, Whitney Walther-Martin, Sarah Jackson, Anna Popkova and Melody Hoffman. I’m thankful for the patience of my three sweet boys, Calvin, Anthony, and Dominic, who put up with my long hours and constant writing over the last two years. My wonderful church community—especially Vanessa, Georgia, Christie, Brooke, Andrew L and Andrew N, Tyler and Lani, and the many wonderful women who watched the twins while I taught classes and wrote in the evenings (Brooke, Analaya, Christie, Lani, and Heidi). Many thanks as well to Mark Kriss and the generous support of a Kriss Research Grant that enabled me to obtain clips from the Vanderbilt Television News Archive for this research (and my infinite gratitude to the extraordinary Van Houlson for helping me navigate this system). I’m also thankful for the know-how and technical wizardry of Scott Dierks and Wally Swanson, especially on the day of my defense, when all available technology rose up in unison and aligned against me. My eternal gratitude to Keith Jones as well, for his formatting/Chicago style wizardry. I’m grateful for my wonderful committee—Shayla Thiel-Stern, Mary Vavrus, and Heather LaMarre. And finally, I must acknowledge the tireless efforts of my incomparable adviser, Catherine Squires, a fellow mother of twins and one of the best people ever to have in one’s corner, whose relentless advocacy and consistent support are responsible in large part for the completion of this dissertation, the conclusion of my doctoral studies, and my frankly miraculous survival of these first years of parenting twins. i Dedication This project is dedicated to four men who helped shape me: my grandfather, Theodore Christiansen, a true Renaissance man who hoped I would go to law school (I hope this is an adequate alternative), my father, Steve DeFoster, whose love of history and insatiable intellectual curiosity have always been infectious, my sweet, radiant firstborn, Calvin, whose kind, inquisitive and generous heart inspires me daily, and finally, my husband, Matt Huss, a consummate mensch whose patience and goodness deserve far more praise than they get. ii Table of Contents List of Tables......................................................................................................................iv List of Figures......................................................................................................................v Introduction..........................................................................................................................1 Chapter 1: Terrorism and Mass Media: The History of a Slippery Term..........................13 Chapter 2: Mass Shootings in the United States: Mass Media & Effect of Columbine....47 Chapter 3: The 1995 Fort Bragg Shooting.........................................................................76 Chapter 4: The 2009 Camp Liberty Shooting....................................................................97 Chapter 5: The 2009 Fort Hood Shooting .......................................................................120 Conclusion.......................................................................................................................163 Bibliography....................................................................................................................190 iii List of Tables Table 1: Common elements of terrorism definitions…………………………………21-22 Table 2: The prevalence of descriptive terms for the Fort Hood shooting……………..121 iv List of Figures Figure 1: Sniper Icon….…………………………………………………………………88 v Introduction This dissertation analyzes broadcast media coverage of a specific type of large- scale shooting event: mass shootings that take place on American military installations. Specifically, this project examines the ways in which both events and shooters are framed in mainstream American broadcast media, analyzing media coverage through the lens of two pivotal shifts in public understanding of similar tragedies that took place around the turn of the 21st century—the 1999 Columbine shooting (which almost singlehandedly coined the phrase “mass shooting” and produced enduring tropes in media coverage), and the September 11, 2001 attacks, which permanently and drastically refigured the image of “terror” in the American imagination. This dissertation examines three case studies (one taking place before Columbine and September 11; two taking place after)—the 1995 Fort Bragg shooting, the 2009 Camp Liberty shooting, and the 2009 Fort Hood shooting. While the Fort Bragg shooting resulted in fewer fatalities than the Camp Liberty and Fort Hood shootings (and failed to meet the somewhat arbitrary benchmark of four fatalities that some consider a prerequisite to the term “mass shooting,” at least in the legal sense) it was analogous to the other two shootings in many ways. All three resulted in the death or serious injury of dozens of people, all three were committed by men of similar age and rank who had served in the military for a similar amount of time, and the factors leading up to all three shootings (clear preexisting signs of mental illness, the repeated involvement of commanding officers and the intercession of other soldiers prior to the shooting, the growing alienation of each shooter from other soldiers in his unit) were closely 1 analogous. Additionally, all three shootings took place in venues or spaces on base that were considered “weapons-free” zones—an exercise training field, a medical stress clinic, and a soldier readiness center, respectively. This research is important because of the timely and high profile nature of these kinds of tragic events. Mass shootings are an almost uniquely American problem, and the question of what constitutes terror—what it looks like, who is responsible for it, and how to best combat it—are pressing and visible issues for our time. This research is also important because the construction of concepts like “terror” and “mass shootings” in the mainstream media are often far more influential than technical, scholarly or policy-level definitions of these terms—as cultural theorist Stuart Hall noted, mass media do not simply reflect our lived realities; to a large degree, they construct them.1 Consequently, while this dissertation charts the historical evolution (and trends in media coverage) of concepts like “terror” and “mass shootings” in chapters two and three, it is far more focused on the way these mainstream broadcast media construct, selectively invoke, contextualize and explain these terms. In other words, examining the ways in which news media construct large-scale tragedies, in light of two interrelated shifts in public discourse stemming from two visible and large-scale events around the turn of the century (September 11 and Columbine), is as important or even more important than examining official or policy definitions or constructions of these types of events, because most Americans do not experience these kinds of events firsthand. Rather, they interact with, relate to, and understand these events solely through the prism of news media. 1 S. Hall, Policing the Crisis: Mugging, the State, and Law and Order (London: Macmillan, 1978). 2 This analysis is strongly informed by a cultural studies framework that recognizes the meaning-making potential of mass media, as well as the role of mass media in shaping and reinforcing existing dominant power dynamics.2 Decades of scholarship have reinforced the primacy of television news in terms of its considerable power to reinforce certain attitudes or behaviors3, and I chose to focus specifically on broadcast news for this reason. In my approach, I also draw upon Carey’s ritual model of communication, which views communication, in alignment with the social constructionist paradigm, as a “symbolic process whereby reality is produced, maintained, repaired, and transformed.”4 This dissertation asserts four key and interrelated points: (A) the primacy and importance of considering the two drastic shifts in public discourse at the turn of the 21st century that are described in this dissertation (the 1999 Columbine shooting and the 2001 September 11 attacks) to contextualize any current analysis of large-scale acts of public violence; (B) the evidence that points to two basic causal elements behind the vast majority of mass shooting events: severe, preexisting mental illness on the part of shooters (who are often informed by long-standing ubiquitous masculine cultural scripts