English Literature Terms

time devoted to their sounding. Old English poems such as Beowulf and Caedmon’s Hymn are accentual. They fall ENGLISH LITERATURE clearly into two halves, each with two stresses. • accentual-syllabic verse the normal system of verse composition in England since the TERMS fourteenth century, in which the meter depends upon counting • abecedarian poem both the number of stresses and the total number of syllables a poem having verses beginning with the successive letters in any given line. An iambic pentameter for example contains of the alphabet. five stressed syllables and a total of ten syllables. • abstract • acephalexis used as a noun, the term refers to a short summary or initial truncation (the dropping of the first, unstressed syl- outline of a longer work. As an adjective applied to writing lable at the beginning of a line of iambic or anapaestic verse). or literary works. Abstract refers to words or phrases that • acephalous (Greek ‘headless’) name things not knowable through the five senses. Ex- a line of verse without its expected initial syllable. amples of abstracts include the ‘Cliffs Notes’ summaries of • acrostic major literary works. Examples of abstract terms or con- 1. a poem in which the first letter of each line spells out a cepts include ‘idea’, ‘guilt’ ‘honesty’ and ‘loyalty’. name (downwards). • abstract language 2. a word, phrase, or passage spelled out vertically by the first words that represent ideas, intangibles and concepts such letters of a group of lines in sequence. Sir John Davies’ ‘Hymns as ‘beauty’ and ‘truth’. of Astraea’ dedicates 26 acrostic poems to Elizabeth I. • abstract poetry • act poetry that aims to use its sounds, textures, rhythms and a major section of a play. Acts are divided into varying num- rhymes to convey an emotion, instead of relying on the bers of shorter scenes. From the ancient times to the nine- meanings of words. teenth century, plays were generally constructed of five acts, • absurd theatre see theatre of the absurd. but modern works typically consist of one, two, or three • absurdism see theatre of the absurd. acts. Examples of five-act plays include the works of • academic verse Sophocles and Shakespeare, while the plays of Arthur Miller poetry that adheres to the accepted standards and require- commonly have a three-act structure. The ends of acts are ments of some kind of ‘school’. Poetry approved, officially, typically indicated by lowering the curtain or turning up the or unofficially, by a literary establishment. houselights. Playwrights frequently employ acts to accom- • acatalectic modate changes in time, setting, characters on stage, or a verse having a metrically complete number of syllables in mood. In many full-length plays, acts are further divided the final foot. into scenes, which often mark a point in the action when • accent the location changes or when a new character enters. 1. the emphasis or stress placed on a syllable in poetry. • acto Traditional poetry commonly uses patterns of accented and a one-act Chicano theatre piece developed out of collective unaccented syllables (known as feet) that create distinct improvisation. rhythms. Much modern poetry uses less formal arrange- • adonic ments that create a sense of freedom and spontaneity. The a verse consisting of a dactyl followed by a spondee or trochee. following line from William Shakespeare’s ‘Hamlet’: • adynaton ‘to be or not to be: that is the question’ has five accents, on a type of hyperbole in which the exaggeration is magnified the words ‘be’, ‘not’, ‘be’ and ‘that’, and the first syllable of so greatly that it refers to an impossibility, for example, ‘I’d ‘question’. walk a million miles for one of your smiles’. 2. the rhythmically significant stress in the articulation of • aesthetic movement words, giving some syllables more relative prominence than a literary belief that art is its own justification and purpose, others. In words of two or more syllables, one syllable is advocated in England by Walter Pater and practiced by almost invariably stressed more strongly than the other syl- Edgar Allan Poe, Algernon Charles Swinburne and others. lables. In words of one syllable, the degree of stress nor- • aestheticism mally depends on their grammatical function; nouns, verbs a literary and artistic movement of the nineteenth century. Fol- and adjectives are usually given more stress than articles or lowers of the movement believed that art should not be mixed prepositions. The words in a line of poetry are usually ar- with social, political, or moral teaching. The statement ‘art for ranged so the accents occur at regular intervals, with the art’s sake’ is a good summary of aestheticism. The move- meter defined by the placement of the accents within the ment had its roots in France, but it gained widespread impor- foot. Accent should not be construed as emphasis. tance in England in the last half of the nineteenth century, 3. the emphasis, or stress, given to a syllable in pronuncia- where it helped change the Victorian practice of including moral tion. Accents can also be used to emphasise a particular lessons in literature. Oscar Wilde is one of the best-known word in a sentence. ‘aesthetes’ of the late nineteenth century. • accentual meter • affective fallacy a rhythmic pattern based on a recurring number of accents an error in judging the merits or faults of a work of literature. or stresses in each line of a poem or section of a poem. The ‘error’ results from stressing the importance of the work’s • accentual verse effect upon the reader — that is, how it makes a reader lines whose rhythm arises from its stressed syllables rather ‘feel’ emotionally, what it does as a literary work — instead than from the number of its syllables, or from the length of of stressing its inner qualities as a created object, or what it ‘is’. The affective fallacy is evident in Aristotle’s precept things or abstract ideas are used to convey a message or from his ‘Poetics’ that the purpose of tragedy is to evoke teach a lesson. Allegory is typically used to teach moral, ‘fear and pity’ in its spectators. Also known as sympathetic ethical, or religious lessons but is sometimes used for sa- fallacy. tiric or political purposes. Examples of allegorical works • afflatus include Edmund Spenser’s ‘The Faerie Queene’ and John a creative inspiration, as that of a poet; a divine imparting of Bunyan’s ‘The Pilgrim’s Progress’. knowledge, thus it is often called divine afflatus. 2. a figurative illustration of truths or generalisations about • Age of Johnson human conduct or experience in a narrative or description, the period in English literature between 1750 and 1798, by the use of symbolic fictional figures and actions which named after the most prominent literary figure of the age, resemble the subject’s properties and circumstances. Samuel Johnson. Works written during this time are noted • alliteration for their emphasis on ‘sensibility’ or emotional quality. These a poetic device where the first consonant sounds or any works formed a transition between the rational works of the vowel sounds in words or syllables are repeated. Age of Reason, or Neoclassical period and the emphasis The following description of the Green Knight from the anony- on individual feelings and responses of the Romantic pe- mous ‘Sir Gawain and the Green Knight’ gives an example riod. of alliteration: Significant writers during the Age of Johnson included the And in guise all of green, the gear and the man: novelists Ann Radcliffe and Henry Mackenzie, dramatists A roat cut close, that clung to his sides Richard Sheridan and Oliver Goldsmith and poets William An a mantle to match, made with a lining Collins and Thomas Gray. Also known as Age of Sensibil- Of furs cut and fitted — the fabric was noble.... ity. • allusion • Age of Sensibility see Age of Johnson. a reference to a familiar literary or historical person or event, • agrarians used to make an idea more easily understood. a group of Southern American writers of the 1930s and 1940s For example, describing someone as a ‘Romeo’ makes an who fostered an economic and cultural program for the allusion to William Shakespeare’s famous young lover in South, based on agriculture, in opposition to the industrial ‘Romeo and Juliet’. society of the North. The term can refer to any group that • ambiguity promotes the value of farm life and agricultural society. allows for two or more simultaneous interpretations of a Members of the original Agrarians included John Crowe Ran- word, phrase, action or situation, all of which can be sup- som, Alien Tate and Robert Penn Warren. ported by the context of a work. Deliberate ambiguity can • alazon contribute to the effectiveness and richness of a work, for a deceiving or self-deceived character in fiction, normally example, in the open-ended conclusion to Hawthorne’s an object of ridicule in comedy or satire, but often the hero Young Goodman Brown. However, unintentional ambiguity of a tragedy. In comedy, he most frequently takes the form obscures meaning and can confuse readers. of a pedant. • Amerind literature • alcaic verse the writing and oral traditions of Native Americans. Native a Greek lyrical meter, said to be invented by Alcaeus, a American literature was originally passed on by word of lyric poet from about 600 B.C. Written in tetrameter, the mouth, so it consisted largely of stories and events that greater Alcaic consists of a spondee or iamb, followed by were easily memorised. Amerind prose is often rhythmic an iamb plus a long syllable and two dactyls. The lesser like poetry because it was recited to the beat of a ceremo- Alcaic, also in tetrameter, consists of two dactylic feet, nial drum. Examples of Amerind literature include the auto- followed by two iambic feet. biographical ‘Black Elk Speaks’, the works of N. Scott • alcaics Momaday, James Welch and Craig Lee Strete and the po- a four-line Classical stanza named after Alcaeus, a Greek etry of Luci Tapahonso. poet, with a predominantly dactylic meter, imitated by Alfred • amphibrach lord Tennyson’s poem, Milton. a metrical foot consisting of a long or accented syllable • Alexandrine between two short or unaccented syllables. 1. an iambic line of twelve syllables, or six feet, usually • amphigouri with a caesura after the sixth syllable. It is the standard a verse composition, which is although apparently coher- line in French poetry, comparable to the iambic pentameter ent, contains no sense or meaning. line in English poetry. • amplification 2. a metrical line of six feet or twelve syllables (in English), the use of bare expressions, likely to be ignored or misun- originally from French heroic verse. Randle Cotgrave, in his derstood by a hearer or reader because of the bluntness. 1611 French-English dictionary, explains: ‘Alexandrin. A Emphasis through restatement with additional details. verse of 12, or 13 syllables’. In his Essay on Criticism, • anachronism Alexander Pope says, ‘A needless Alexandrine ends the the placement of an event, person, or thing out of its proper song.That like a wounded snake, drags its slow length along’ chronological relationship, sometimes unintentional, but (359). Examples include Michael Drayton’s Polyolbion, often deliberate as an exercise of poetic license. Robert Bridges’ Testament of Beauty and the last line of • anaclasis each stanza in Thomas Hardy’s The Convergence of the the substitution of different measures to break up the rhythm. Twain. • allegory 1. a narrative technique in which characters representing ENGLISH LITERATURE AT A GLANCE ENGLISH LITERATURE THE AGE OF CHAUCER (1340-1400) POETRY IMPORTANT POINTS Geoffrey Chaucer (1340-1400) The Romaunt of the Rose (1360-65?); The Book of the ENGLISH LITERATURE AT A GLANCE Duchesse (1369); The Parlement of Foules; Troilus and MAIN PERIODS OF ENGLISH LITERATURE Criseyde (1379-83); The House of Fame (1383-84); The C. 450-C. 1066 Old English (or Anglo- legend of Good Women (1385-86); The Canterbury Tales Saxon) Period (1386 onward). C. 1066-C.1500 Middle English Period William Langland (1330-1386) C. 1500-1660 The Renaissance The Vision of william Concerning Piers the Plowman (1362 1558-1603 Elizabbethan Age 90). 1603-1625 Jacobean Age John Gover (?1330-84) 1625-1649 Caroline Age Speculum Meditantis(1378?), Vox Clamantis(1382), 1649-1660 Commonwealth and Confessio Amantis(1390) Protectorate Period John Barbour (1320-95) C. 1660-C. 1800 Neo-classical Period Bruce(1375). 1660-1700 The Restoration Age PROSE C. 1700-C.1745 The Augustan Age or The Sir John Mandeville (died 1372) Age of Pope Mandeville’s Travels (1356). C. 1745-C. 1798 Age of Sensibility or The John Wycliffe (1320-84) Age of Johnson Wycliffe’s Bible (1380). C. 1798-C. 1832 Period of the Romantic Sir Thomats Malory (died 1471) Revival Le Morte D’ Arthur (1469). 1832-1901 Victorian Age FROM CHAUCER TO ‘TOTTLE’S MISCELLANY’ 1901-1918 Edwardian Age (1400-1557) 1918-1939 Modern Age POETRY 1939- The Present Age Geoffrey Chaucer(1340-1400) TABLE OF THE SOVEREIGNS SINCE THE CONQUEST The Tale of Melibeus, The Parson’s Tale. [1066] James I (1394-1437) I. THE NORMAN KINGS The King’s Quair (1423-1424). 1. William I [1066-87] 2. William II [1087-1100] . Sir David Lyndsay (1458-1555) 3. Henry I [1100-35] 4. Stephen [1135-54] The Dreme(1528), The History of Squyer Meldrum(1549), II. PLANTAGENET KINGS The Testment and Compleynt of the Papyngo,(1530), Satyre 5. Henry II of Anjou [1154-89] 6. Richard I [1189-99] of the Thire Estaitis(1540). 7. John [1199-1216] 8. Henry III [1219-54] Robert Henryson(1430-1506) 9. Edward I [1272-1307] 10. Edward II [1307-27] Lament for the Makaris (1508), The Testament of cresseid 11. Edward III [1327-77] 12. Richard 11[1377-99] (1593), Orpheus and Eurydice; Robene and Makyne; III. THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER Garmond Qf Gude Ladies. 13. Henry IV [1399-1413] 14. Henry V [1413-22] William Dunbar(?1456-?1513) 15. Henry VI [1422-61] The Goldyn Targe (1503), The Dance of the Sevin Deidlie IV. THE HOUSE OF YORK Synnis (1503-1508), Tua Mariit Women and the Wedo 16. Edward IV [1461-83] 17. Edward V [1483] (1508), Lament for the Makaris (1508). 18. Richard III [1483-85] Gawin Douglas(?1474-1552) V. THE TUDOR EYNASTY The Palice of Honour (1501),published (1533),King Hart 19. Henry VII [1461- 1509] 20. Henry VIII [1509-47] (first printed 1786). 21. Edward VI [1547-53] 22. Mary [1553-58] John Skelton(?1460-1529) 23. Elizabeth I[1558-1603] Garlande of laurell (printed 1523),Dirge on Edward Iv, The VI. THE STUART DYNASTY Bowge of Court(1499). 24. James I [1603-25] John Lydgate(1370-1451) [Commonwealth [1689-1702]; Protectorate (1653-60)] ‘Iroy Book (1412-1420), The Falls of Princes(1430-1438), 25. Charles I (1625-49) The Temple of Glass; The Story of Thebes(1420), London 26. Charles II (1660-85 Lickpenny. 27. James II (1685-88) Thomas Occleve(1368?-1450?) 28. William and Mary (1689-1702) The Regement of Princes (1411-12), La Male Regle (1406); 29. Anne (1702-14) The Complaint of Our Lady, Occleve’s Complaint. VII. THE HOUSE OF HANOVER Stephen Hawes (?1474-1530) 30. George I (1714-27) 31. Geroge II (1727-60) The Passtyme of Pleasure (1509), The Example of Virtue 32. George III (1760-1820) 33. Geroge IV (1727-60) (1512), The Conversion of Swerers; A Joyfull Medytacyon. 34. William IV (1831-37) 35. Victoria (1837-1901) Alexander Barclay (?1475-1552) 36. Edward VII (1901-10) 37. George V (1910-36) Ship of Fools (1509), Certayne Ecloges (1515). 38. Edward VIII (1936) 39. George VI (1936-52) PROSE 40. Elizabeth II (1952-) Reginald Pecock (?1390-?1461) The Repressor of over-much Blaming of the Clergy (1455), Michael Drayton (1563-1631) The Book of Faith (1456). The Harmonie of the Church (1591), Englnad’s Heroicall Willism Caxton (?1422-91) Epistles (1597), The Baron’s Wars (1603), Polyolbion (1622), Recuyell of the Historie of Troye(1471), (?1422-91) Game . Nymphida (1627). and Playe of the the chesse (1475), The Dictes and Thomas Campion (1567-1620) Sayengis of the Philosphers (1477). A Book of Ayreas (1601), Songs of Mourning (1613), Two John Fisher (1459-1535) Books of Ayres (1612). Tracts and sermons; The Ways to Perfect Religion. Phineas Fletcher (11582-1650) Hugh Latimer (?1485-1555) The Purple Island, of The Isle of Man (1633). Sermons (1562). Giles Fletcher (11588-1623) Sir Thomas More (1478-1535) Chirst’s Victorie and Triumph (1610). Utopia (1516); The Lyfe of John Picus (1510), The Historie Samuel Daniel (1562-1619) of Richard III (1543). Delia (1592), The Complaynt of Rosamond (1592), The Civil Sir Thomas Elyot (?1478-1535) Wars (1595). The Boke named the Governour (1531), The Doctrine of William Shakespeare (1564-1616) Princes (1534) The Rape of Lucrece (1594), Venus and Adonis (1593). A John Capgrave (1393-1464) Collection of Sonnets, (1609), The Passionate Pilgrim The Chronicle of English History extending to A. D. 1417. (1599). Sir John Fortescue (?1394-?1476) DRAMA On the Govenance of England, A Delcaration upon Certain George Peele (1558-98) Wrytinges (1471-73). The Araygnement of Paris (1584), The Famous Chronicle DRAMA of King Edward the first (1593), The Old Wives’ Tale John Heywood (?1494-?1580) (159194). The Love of King David and Fair Bathsabe (1599). The Four p’s (?1545), Play of the Wether (1533), A Play of Robert Greene (1558-92) Love (1433). Alphonsus, King of Aragon (1587), Friar Bacon and Friar Thomas Norton (1532-84) and T. Sackville (1536-1608) Bungay (1589), Orlando Furioso (1591), The Scottish Gorboduc (1561). Historie of James of Fourth (1592). Thomas Preston (1536-1608) Thomas Nashe (1567-1611) A Lamentable Tragedy mixed full of Mirth Containing the Summer’s Last Will and Testament (1592). life of Cambyses, King of Percia (1569). John Lyly (11554-1606) WIlliam Stevenson Alexander and Campasye (1584); Endymission (1591), Gammer Gurton’s Needle (1562). Midas (1592), The Woman in the Moon (1597) Nicholas Udall (1505-56) Thomas Lodge (1558-1625) Ralph Roister Doister (written 1553, published 1567) Henry VI (1591-92), The Woundes of Cicil War, Rosalynde, THE ELIZABETHAN AGE (1558-1603) THE JACOBEAN Euphues Golden Legcie (A Romance) (1590), Scillaes AGE (1603-1625) THE AGE OF SHAKESPEARE (1558- Metamorphosis (1589). 1625) Thomas Kyd (1558-94) POETRY The Spanish Tragedy (1585), Cornelia (1593), Soliman and George Gascoigne (?1525-77) Perseda (1588), First Part of Jernimo (1592). Jocasta Jocasta (1566), Supposes (1566). Christopher Marlowe (1564-93) Edmund Spenser (1552-99) Tamberlaine the Great (1587), The Second Part of The Shepherds Calendar (1579), Mother Hubberd’s Tale Tamberlaine the Great (1588), Edward II (1591), The Jew of (1591), The Ruins of Rome (1591), Amoretti (1595); Malta (1589, Docator Faustus (1592), The Tragedy of Dido, Epithalamion; Colin Clout Comes Home Again (1595), Four Qween of Carthage (1593). The Massacre of Paris (1593). Hymns (1596), Prothalamion (1596), The Faerie Queene William Shakespeare (1564-1616) (Book I-III, 1589, IV, 1596). 1. Henry VI (1591-92) 2. Henry VI (1591-92), 3. Henry VI John Donne (1573-1631) (1591-92), Richard III (1593), The Comedy of Errors (1593), Satires (1590-1601), The Songs and Sonnets (1590-1601), Titus Andronicus (1594), The Taming of The Shrew (1594), The Elegies (1590-1601), Of the Progress of the Soule (1601) Love’s Labour’s Lost (1594), Romeo and Juliet (1594), A Holy Sonnets (1617). Midsummer Night’s Dream (1595), The Two Gentlemen of Sir Thomas Wyatt (1503-42) Verona (1595), King John (1595), Richard II (1596) The In Tottel’s Miscellany (1557), Included in Songs and Merchant of Venice (1596), Henry IV (1598),Much Ado About Sonnetts (1557) ed.Tottel. Nothing(1598), Henry V (1599), Julius Caesar (1599),The Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey (1517-47) Merry Wives of Winsor (1600), As you Like It (1600), Hamlet Certain Bokes of Virgiles Aeneis turned into English Meter (1601), Twelfth Night (1601), Troilus and Cressida (1602), (1557)his poems; in Tottle’s Miscellany (1557). All’s Well that Ends well (1602), Measure for Measure (1604), Thomas Sackville (1536-1608) Othello (1604), Macbeth (1605), King Lear (1605), Antony The Induction (1563), The Complayment of Henry, Duke and Cleopatra (1606), Coriolanus Timon of Athens (1607), of Buckingham, (1563). Pericles (1608), Cymbeline (1609), The Winter’s Tale (1610), George Gascoigne (1534-77) The Tempest (1611), Henry VIII (in part) (1613). The Steele Glas, A Satyre (1576) Sir Philip Sidney (1554-86) Astrophel and Stella (1591). INDIAN WRITERS IN ENGLISH Matorom in the Bengali language) and as a result came SRI AUROBINDO into frequent confrontation with the British Raj. In 1907 he Sri Aurobindo (Sri Orobindo) (August 15, 1872-December attended a convention of Indian nationalists where he was 5, 1950) was an Indian nationalist, scholar, poet, mystic, seen as the new leader of that movement. evolutionary philosopher, Yogi and spiritual Guru. After a It was at this point that Rabindranath Tagore paid him a short political career in which he became one of the leaders visit and wrote the lines: of the early movement for Indian independence from British “Rabindranath, O Aurobindo, bows to thee! O friend, my rule, Sri Aurobindo turned to the exploration of the subtle country’s friend, O Voice incarnate, free. Of India’s realms of human existence and, as a consequence, devel- soul....The fiery messenger that with the lamp of God Hath oped a new spiritual path which he termed Integral Yoga. come...Rabindranath, O Aurobindo, bows to thee”. The Times Literary Supplement wrote of Aurobindo: CONVERSION FROM POLITICS TO SPIRITUALITY “In fact, he is a new type of thinker, one who combines in His conversion from political action to spirituality occurred his vision the alacrity of the West with the illumination of gradually, first at Vadodara (then Baroda) under the spiri- the East. To study his writings is to enlarge the boundaries tual instruction of a Maharashtrian Yogi called Vishnu of one’s knowledge... He is a yogi who writes as though he Bhaskar Lele, and second, while awaiting trial as a pris- were standing among the stars, with the constellations for oner in Alipore Central Jail (in Kolkata in the province of his companions”. Bengal). Here his study and practice of the teachings of The central theme of Sri Aurobindo’s vision is the evolution the Bhagavad Gita led to a number of mystical experiences. of life into a “life divine”. In his own words: Sri Aurobindo claimed to have been visited in his medita- “Man is a transitional being. He is not final. The step from tions by the renowned Swami Vivekananda, a Hindu phi- man to superman is the next approaching achievement in losopher of great importance to Advaita Vedanta, who guided the earth’s evolution. It is inevitable because it is at once Sri Aurobindo in an important aspect of his spiritual prac- the intention of the inner spirit and the logic of Nature’s tice or yoga. Sri Aurobindo later said that while imprisoned process”. he saw the convicts, jailers, policemen, the prison bars, The principal writings of Sri Aurobindo include: The Life Di- the trees, the judge, the lawyers as different forms of Vishnu vine, The Synthesis of Yoga, Secrets of the Vedas, Essays in the spiritual experience of Vasudeva. on the Gita, The Human Cycle, The Ideal of Human Unity, The subsequent trial involving Aurobindo was one of the Renaissance in India and other essays, Supramental Mani- defining moments in the Indian nationalist movement. There festation upon Earth, The Future Poetry, Thoughts and Apho- were 49 accused and 206 witnesses, 400 documents were risms, Savitri, several volumes of letters, and the collected filed and 5000 exhibits produced—including bombs, hand- poems. guns and acid. The English judge, C.P. Beachcroft, turned EARLY LIFE out to have been a student with Sri Aurobindo at Cambridge. Sri Aurobindo was born Aurobindo Ghose, pronounced and The Chief Prosecutor Eardley Norton displayed a loaded often written as “Ghosh” (or “Arabindo Ghosh”), in Kolkata revolver on his briefcase during the trial. The case for Sri (Calcutta), India, on 15th August, 1872. Aravind means Lo- Aurobindo was taken up by Chittaranjan Das who said in tus (pronounced “Aurobindo” in Bengali). His father was Dr his conclusion to the Judge: K. D. Ghose and his mother Swarnalata Devi. My appeal to you is this, that long after the controversy will Dr. Ghose (who had lived in Britain and studied medicine at be hushed in silence, long after this turmoil, this agitation Aberdeen University), was determined that his children will have ceased, long after he (Sri Aurobindo) is dead and should have an English education free of any Indian influ- gone, he will be looked upon as the poet of patriotism, as ences. He therefore sent the young Aurobindo and his sib- the prophet of nationalism and lover of humanity. Long after lings to the Loreto Convent school in Darjeeling. Subse- he is dead and gone, his words will be echoed and re-ech- quently, at the age of seven, Aurobindo was taken (along oed, not only in India, but across distant seas and lands. with his two elder brothers Manmohan and Benoybhusan) Therefore, I say that the man in his position is not only to Manchester, England and placed in the care of a Mr and standing before the bar of this Court, but before the bar of Mrs. Drewett—an Anglican clergyman and his wife—who the High Court of History. tutored Aurobindo privately. Mr. Drewert, himself a capable The trial (“Alipore Bomb Case, 1908”) lasted for one full scholar, grounded Aurobindo so well in Latin that Aurobindo year, but eventually Sri Aurobindo was acquitted. Afterwards was able to gain admission into St Paul’s School in Lon- Aurobindo started two new weekly papers: the Karmayogin don. At St. Paul’s Aurobindo learned Greek and Latin. The in English and the Dharma in Bengali. However, it appeared last three years at St Paul’s were spent in reading litera- that the British government would not tolerate his national- ture, especially English Poetry. At St. Paul’s he received ist program as Lord Minto wrote about him: “/ can only the Butterworth Prize for literature, the Bedford Prize for repeat that he is the most dangerous man we have to reckon history and a scholarship to King’s College, Cambridge with.” University. He returned to India in 1893. Sought again by the Indian police, he was guided to the During the First Partition of Bengal from 1905 to 1912, he French settlements, and on April 4, 1910 he finally found became a leader of the group of Indian nationalists known refuge with other nationalists in the French colony of as the Extremists for their willingness to use violence and Pondicherry. advocate outright independence, a plank more moderate PHILOSOPHICAL AND SPIRITUAL WRITINGS nationalists had shied away from up to that point. He was In 1914, after four years of concentrated yoga at Pondicherry one of the founders of the Jugantar party, an underground (now Puducherry), Sri Aurobindo launched Arya, a 64 page revolutionary outfit. He was the editor of a nationalist Bengali monthly review. For the next six and a half years this be- newspaper Vande Mataram (spelt and pronounced as Bonde came the vehicle for most of his most important writings, which appeared in serialised form. These included The Life and supervised the Sri Aurobindo International Centre of Divine, The Synthesis of Yoga, Essays on The Gita, The Education (which, with its pilot experiments in the field of Secret of The Veda, Hymns to the Mystic Fire, The education, impressed observers like Jawaharlal Nehru). Upanishads, The Foundations of Indian Culture, War and When Sri Aurobindo died in 1950, the Mother continued Self-determination, The Human Cycle, The Ideal of Human their spiritual work and directed the Ashram and guided Unity, and The Future Poetry. Sri Aurobindo however re- their disciples. In the mid 1960s she started Auroville, an vised some of these works before they were published in international township sponsored by UNESCO to further book form. human unity near the town of Pondicherry, which was to be Somewhat later, he wrote a small book entitled The Mother a place “where men and women of all countries are able to which was published in 1928 as a kind of “instruction live in peace and progressive harmony above all creeds, all manual” for the practice of Integral Yoga. In this short book, politics and all nationalities.” It was inaugurated in 1968 in Sri Aurobindo wrote about the Divine Mother, the conscious- a ceremony in which representatives of 121 nations and all ness and force of the Supreme, and about the “Four great the states of India placed a handful of their soil in an urn Aspects of the Mother, four of her leading Powers and Per- near the center of the city. Auroville continues to develop sonalities (which) have stood in front in her guidance of the and currently has approximately 1700 members from 35 Universe and her dealings with the terrestrial play...” He countries. The Mother also played an active role in the merger also wrote about the conditions to be fulfilled by the of the French pockets in India and, according to Sri “Sadhaka” or practitioner of the yoga in order to be recep- Aurobindo’s wish, helped to make Pondicherry a seat of tive to the Mother’s Grace. He explained his view of money cultural exchange between India and France. The Mother and wealth: “Money is a sign of universal force, and this stayed in Pondicherry until her death on November 17,1973. force in its manifestation on earth works on the vital and Her later years —including her myriad of metaphysical and physical planes and is indispensable to the fullness of outer occult experiences, and her attempt at the transformation life. In its origin and its true action it belongs to the Divine. of her body—are captured in her 13 volume personal log But like other powers of the Divine it is delegated here and known as Mother’s Agenda. in the ignorance of the lower Nature can be usurped for the GOING BEYOND HINDU PHILOSOPHY AND VISION uses of the ego or held by Asuric influences and perverted One of Sri Aurobindo’s main philosophical achievements to their purpose.” was to introduce the concept of evolution into Vedantic For some time afterwards, Sri Aurobindo’s main literary thought. Samkhya philosophy had already proposed such output was his voluminous correspondence with his dis- a notion centuries earlier, but Aurobindo rejected the mate- ciples. His letters, most of which were written in the 1930s, rialistic tendencies of both Darwinism and Samkhya, and numbered in the several thousands. Many were brief com- proposed an evolution of spirit along with that of matter, and ments made in the margins of his disciple’s notebooks in that the evolution of matter was a result of the former. answer to their questions and reports of their spiritual prac- He describes the limitation of the Mayavada of Advaita tice—others extended to several page carefully composed Vedanta, and solves the problem of the linkage between explanations of practical aspects of his teachings. These the ineffable Brahman or Absolute and the world of multi- were later collected and published in book form in three plicity by positing a transitional hypostasis between the volumes of Letters on Yoga. In the late 1930s, Sri Aurobindo two, which he called The Supermind. The supermind is the resumed work on a poem he had started earlier—he con- active principle present in the transcendent Satchidananda; tinued to expand and revise this poem for the rest of his life. a unitary mind of which our individual minds and bodies are It became perhaps his greatest literary achievement, Savitri, minuscule subdivisions. an epic spiritual poem in blank verse of approximately Sri Aurobindo rejected a major conception of Indian phi- 24,000 lines. losophy that says that the World is a Maya (illusion) and Although Sri Aurobindo wrote most of his material in En- that living as a renunciate was the only way out. He says glish, his major works were later translated into a number that it is possible, not only to transcend human nature but of languages, including the Indian languages Hindi, Bengali, also to transform it and to live in the world as a free and Oriya, Gujarati, Marathi, Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, evolved human being with a new consciousness and a new and Malayalam, as well as French, German, Italian, Dutch, nature which could spontaneously perceive truth of things, Spanish, Chinese, Portuguese, Slovene and Russian. A and proceed in all matters on the basis of inner oneness, large amount of his work in Russian translation is also avail- love and light. able online. EVOLUTIONARY PHILOSOPHY THE MOTHER Sri Aurobindo argues that humankind as an entity is not Sri Aurobindo’s close spiritual collaborator, Mirra Richard the last rung in the evolutionary scale, but can evolve spiri- (b. Alfassa), was known as The Mother. She was born in tually beyond its current limitations associated with an es- Paris on February 21, 1878, to Turkish and Egyptian par- sential ignorance to a future state of supramental exist- ents. Involved in the cultural and spiritual life of Paris, she ence. This further evolutionary step would lead to a divine counted among her friends Alexandra David-Neel. She went life on Earth characterized by a supramental or truth-con- to Pondicherry on March 29, 1914, finally settling there in sciousness, and a transformed and divinised life and mate- 1920. Sri Aurobindo considered her his spiritual equal and rial form. collaborator. After November 24, 1926, when Sri Aurobindo There are parallels between Sri Aurobindo’s vision and that retired into seclusion, he left it to her to plan, run and build of Teilhard de Chardin. the growing Sri Aurobindo Ashram, the community of dis- ciples that had gathered around them. Some time later when families with children joined the ashram, she established HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE ENGLISH FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH CENTURY GEOFFREY CHAUCER (1340-1400) Geoffrey Chaucer (1340-1400} is one of the greatest poets LITERATURE-NET of England. He is known as the ‘father of English poetry.’ This does not mean that there was no poetry or poets in PAPER-III (A) England before him. But before Chaucer there was no (CORE GROUP) national language; there were merely a number of regional 1.BRITISH LITERATURE FROM CHAUCER TO THE languages. Chaucer used one of these languages-the East PRESENT DAY Midland-and by the force of his genius raised it to the level of the national language of England. He was, therefore, both 2.CRITICISMAND LITERARY THEORY the father of English poetry as well as the father of the UNIT-I English language. He is the first national poet of England. LITERARY COMPREHENSION There were other poets also such as John Gower and (WITH INTERNAL CHOICE OF POETRY STANZA AND William Langland. But their poetry is little read and enjoyed PROSE PASSAGE) today, while Chaucer continues to be as fresh and enjoyable UNIT-II as when he lived and wrote. UP TO THE RENAISSANCE Chaucer’s chief works are-The Book of the Duchess; The Parliament of Fowls; The House of Fame; Troilus and UNIT-III Cresseyde : Legend of Good Women, and The Canterbury JACOBEAN TO RESTORATION PERIODS Tales. “THE CANTERBURY TALES” UNIT-IV The Canterbury Tales, the greatest work of Chaucer, is a AUGUSTAN AGE: 18TH CENTURY LITERATURE collection of stories fitted into a general frame-work which serves to hold them together. A number of pilgrims meet at UNIT- V the Tabard Inn in Southwark, near Canterbury in England, ROMANTIC PERIOD where the poet himself is also staying at the time; and as he too is going on the same pilgrimage, he is easily UNIT-VI persuaded to join the party. One of the favourite places of VICTORIANAND PRE-RAPHAELITES pilgrimage is the shrine of St. Thomas a Becket at Canterbury; and to it these particular pilgrims are bound. UNIT-VII The jolly host of the Tabard Inn, Harry Bailly, gives them MODERN BRITISH LITERATURE hearty welcome and a good supper and, after they are satisfied, he makes three proposals: that to pass the time UNIT-VIII each member of the party shall tell two tales on the way to CONTEMPORARY BRITISH LITERATURE Canterbury, and two on the way back: that he himself shall be the judge; and that the one who tells the best tale shall UNIT-IX be treated by all the rest to a supper on their return. The LITERARY THEORYAND CRITICISM UP TO T.S. ELIOT suggestion is warmly welcomed, and The Canterbury Tales is the result. UNIT-X All this is explained in the Prologue: after which Chaucer CONTEMPORARY THEORY proceeds to introduce his fellow pilgrims. Though limited to what we may broadly call the middle classes, the company PAPER-II is still quite representative of the various ranks and 1. CHAUCER TO SHAKESPEARE professions of the time. In his descriptions of the most prominent of these people, Chaucer’s powers are shown at 2. JACOBEAN TO RESTORATION PERIODS their very highest. All the characters are individualised, yet their thoroughly typical quality makes them representatives 3.AUGUSTANAGE: 18TH CENTURY LITERATURE of men and manners in the England of his time. As according to programme each of the pilgrims was to 4. ROMANTIC PERIOD have told four stories, the poet’s plan was a very large one. He lived to complete a small portion only, for the work, as 5. VICTORIAN PERIOD we have it, is merely a fragment of twenty-four tales. Yet even as it stands its interest is wonderfully varied, for 6. MODERN PERIOD Chaucer is guided by a sense of dramatic propriety and so the tales differ in character as widely as do those by whom 7. CONTEMPORARY PERIOD they are told. The tales are not original in theme. Chaucer takes his raw material from many different sources, and 8.AMERICANAND OTHER NON-BRITISH LITERATURES the range of his reading and his quick eye for anything and everything which would serve his purposes wherever he found 9. LITERARY THEORYAND CRITICISM it, are shown by the fact that he lays all sorts of literature, learned and popular, Latin, French and Italian, under 10. RHETORIC AND PROSODY contribution. But whatever he borrows he makes entirely his own, and he remains one of the most delightful story never lashes bitterly at folly or vice, but ever looks on and tellers in verse. smiles. He is the first of the great modern humorists of CHAUCER AS THE EARLIEST England. OF THE GREAT MODERNS (d) Chaucer as the Maker of Modern English Chaucer has been called the father of English poetry and Chaucer is the first great national poet of England. By freeing E. Albert calls him “The earliest of the great moderns.” himself from foreign influences and by using his own native Chaucer stands at the end of the Middle Ages and the language as the medium for his art, he became the founder beginning of the modern age. He has been called “The of modern English poetry. While even in his own age poets Morning Star of the Renaissance.” His poetry reflects the like Gower, used Latin and French, he concentrated his medieval spirit as well as that of the Italian Renaissance energies on the development of his native tongue and made which was making its first influence felt in England in his it a fit medium for literary expression. Lowel rightly estimates age. There can be no greater tribute to his genius than the Chaucer’s greatness in this respect and says, “He found fact that, for the next one hundred and fifty years, there English a dialect and left it a language.” While all others was none to match him and that he is enjoyed with the poets of his age were local or provincial, he alone is national. same enthusiasm today, despite the lapse of five centuries, He imparted to the English language the modern ease, during which time the English language has undergone suppleness, flexibility and smoothness and breathed into it radical changes. He stands head and shoulders above his a high poetic life. He is certainly what Spenser called him, contemporaries and successors. “The well of English undefiled.” He is the first national poet (a) His Realism of England, for he gave to the people a language, so reformed Chaucer’s modernism is best reflected in his realism. He and reshaped, as to be a potent instrument for the reflects the real life of the England of his day. He began his expression of thought. career with following the tradition of courtly love, allegory (e) The Modern Note in Chaucer’s Versification and dream poetry. But he soon discarded these traditions Chaucer is one of the most musical of English poets. His and turned his eyes to the life and people of his times. In English looks very difficult at first, but it can easily be his Canterbury Tales Chaucer comes to his own. His mastered with a little labour and perseverance. He struck a Prologue is an epitome of 14th century England. With great modern note when he abandoned altogether the Old English force and realism he has painted the life and people of his irregular lines and alliteration and adopted the French times. His realism is nowhere seen to better advantage method of regular metre and end rhymes. Estimating his than in the delineation of character. A.C. Ward says, contribution to English verification W.H. Hudson writes, “Chaucer is the first great painter of character.” With a few “Under his influence rhyme gradually displaced alliteration deft touches he brings his characters to life. They are in English poetry.” He discarded complicated stanza forms individuals as well as types. In his twenty-nine pilgrims, all and for the first time, in his verse, achieved that union of the different classes, peoples and professions of his time simplicity and freedom which is the characteristic note of find a vivid expression. He represents his age not in modern English poetry. fragments but as a whole. “The Heroic Couplet he introduced into English verse; the (b) The Renaissance Note Rhyme Royal he invented.” His claim on our gratitude is Just as Chaucer rejected the medieval poetic tradition, so two fold: first, for discovering the music that is in English also he broke free from the religious influences of the Middle speech and secondly, for his influence in fixing the East Ages. Ecclesiastical ideas and medieval habits of mind were Midland dialect as the literary language of England.” still the controlling elements in Chaucer’s period, but in (f) The Modernism of Chaucer him poetry their sway is broken by the spirit of Italian Chaucer’s realism, his characterization, his humour, his Renaissance. He is the “Morning Star of the Renaissance.” rejection of medieval conventions, his zest for life, and last “It is through him that its free, secular spirit first expresses but not least, his services to the English language and itself in English poetry.” He loves human nature, including versification - all entitle him to be called “the earliest of the all its weaknesses, and takes a frank joy in the good things great moderns.” When we enter his world we feel entirely at of life. He takes interest in his follow men, enjoys their home as much as we do with Spenser, Shakespeare, or company and is not repelled even by the wicked, the foolish, anyone of the other great luminaries of modern English and the rascal. He is aware of the corruption in the church, literature. Chaucer is a modern who can be enjoyed by us but nowhere lashes at it fiercely as does Langland, his great with perfect ease. contemporary. His wide sympathy, gentle humanity, tolerance, etc., make him really the first of the great moderns. (c) His Humour Chaucer is the first true humorist in English literature. His humour is the expression of his joy in life and of his wide sympathy and tolerance. Humour is also present in the predecessors and contemporaries of Chaucer. But in them we find only occasional and fitful flashes of humour. Humour is the life and soul of Chaucer’s works. His humour is many- sided and all-pervasive, like that of Shakespeare or Dickens. His eyes take on a merry twinkle as they fall on folly or wickedness of human nature. He is a true humorist, for he has the capacity to laugh even at his own expense. He 15.Which is the month in which groups of pilgrims used ENGLISH LITERATURE to march towards the Canterbury? UNIT - 1 (a) January (b) March AN OBJECTIVE APPROACH TO ENGLISH LITERA- (c) April (d) None of these TURE 16.Who is the twentieth century poet that alluded to FROM CHAUCER TO MILTON ‘April’ in one of his poems? 1.Who called Chaucer -”The Father of English Poetry?” (a) W. H. Auden (b) Ezra pound (a) Spenser (b) Sidney (c) W. B. Yeats (d) T. S. Eliot (c) Arnold (d) None of these 17.Arnold’s Judgement of Chaucer is that Chaucer was 2. The dialect that Chaucer used was... (a) A great classic (b) Not as great as the classisists (a) East Midland (b) Northern Dialect (c) As great as the classisists (c) Both V and V (d) None of these (d) None of these 3. The total number of the pilgrims in The Canter- 18. Lollards are the followers of Protestant and Refor- bury Tales is... mation leader? (a) 29 (b) 30 (c) 31 (d) 39 (a) John Wycliffe (b) King Edward 4.The name of the fictional inn where the pilgrims in (c) Martin Luther King (d) Martin Luther The Canterbury Tales met is... 19. Who was the first translator of the Bible into En- (a) Tabard (b) Canterbury glish? (c) Southwark (d) None of these (a) Chaucer (b) Sir Thomas Malory 5.What is the reward suggested by Harry Baily, the (c) John Wycliff (d) None of these host of the pilgrims and judge of the stories, for the 20. Which version of the Bible did Wycliff make use of best story told by the Pilgrims? for the translation? (a) The best story teller was to .be made the Poet Laureate (a) Greek (b) Latin (c) French (d) None of these (b) The rest of the Pilgrims were to offer a supper. 21. The War of the Roses’took place during... (c) No reward (a) 1555-85 (b) 1466-95 (d) None of these (c) 1455-85 (d) None of these 6. Who is Lowea talking about in the following line? 22. Why is The War of the Roses’ known by that “He found English a dialect and left it a language.” name...? (a) Shakespeare (b) Milton (a) Roses were the cause of the War. (c) Chaucer (d) T. S. Eliot (b) The Rose was the national flower of England. 7. Who described Chaucer as “The Well of English (c) The two rival factions had roses (red and white) as their undefiled”? symbols. (a) Pope (b) Dryden (d) None of these (c) Shakespeare (d) Spenser 23. Valentine and Proteus are? 8.What quality of Chaucer does the phrase “The Well (a) The proponents of puritanism. of English Undefiled” refer to? (b) Originators of the Morality play. (a) His diction. (c) The Gentlemen in the Two Gentlemen of Verona (b) His linguistic competence. (d) None of these (c) His avoidance of foreign influences. 24. William Caxton printed History of Troy—the first (d) None of these book in English in the year... 9.Who introduced the heroic couplet into English? (a) 1575 (b) 1550 (c) 1440 (d) 1474 (a) Chaucer (b) Pope 25. Who was the first translator of Virgil’s works into (c) Spenser (d) None of these English? 10.Why is Chaucer known as “The earliest of the great (a) John Dryden (b) Chaucer moderns”? Because of his (c) Gawin Douglas (d) None of these (a) Realism (b) Humour 26. Henry Vaughan was influenced by... (c) Rejection of Medieval conventions (a) Donne (b) Thomas Carew (c) Crashaw (d) George Herbert (d) All the three 27.Romantic Movement had its antecedents in... 11.Why did W.J. Long call Prologue to the Canterbury (a) The Poetry of Chaucer Tales, “The Prologue to modern fiction”? Because of (b) Shakespearean Comedy its (c) The 15th Century ballad (a) Lack of Poetic Quality (b) Narrative unity (d) None of these (c) Formlessness (d) None of these 28.Who wrote the following—”Stone walls do not a 12.According to Arnold, what is lacking in Chaucer? prison make/Nor iron bars a cage.” (a) Good Language (b) High Seriousness (a) Richard Lovelace (b) Robert Herric (c) The Touch Stone (d) The Lyric Quality (c) Abraham Cowley (d) Thomas Carew 13.Who was the poet that lived during the periods of 29. Who first employed the Blank Verse? Edward II, Richard II and Henry IV? (a) Sackville (b) Norton (a) Shakespeare (b) Lovelace (c) Both a and b’ (d) None of these (c) Spenser (d) None of these 30.Who is the proponent of the geocentric theory? 14.Who was known as Morning Star of Reformation? (a) Ptolemy (b) Copernicus (a) John Wycliff (b) Langland (c) Galileo (d) None of these (c) Pope John Paul (d) None of these 31.Whom did Legouis criticise as one who writes “Charming verses on nothing”? (a) The Tempest (b) All is Well that Ends Well (a) Marvel (b) John Suckling (c) Twelfth Night (d) None of these (c) John Senlam (d) Edmund Waller 48. Out of the twenty complete and four incomplete 32. Which poet expressed surprise at his having loved stories of Chaucer, what is common between Tale one woman “Three whole days together? ofMelibensand The Parson’s Tale? (a) Suckling (b) John Donne (a) These Tales were told by Chaucer himself (c) D’Avenant (d) None of these (b) They do not figure in The Canterbury Tales 33. Henry VII, the patron of education came to the (c) These two are the only tales told in prose throne in... (d) None of these (a) 1485 (b) 1414 (c) 1458 (d) None of these 49. Name the story that Chaucer told during the pil- 34. Thomas More’s Utopia was published in... grimage (a) 1551 (b) 1316 (c) 1613 (d) 1516 (a) Tale of Melibens (b) The Parson’s Tale 35. Utopia appeared in English translation in the year... (c) He did not tell a story (d) None of these (a) 1551 (b) 1516 (c) 1515 (d) None of these 50. Arnold wrote, “With him is born our real poetry” 36. ...is described as “The true prologue to the Re- Who does “him” refer to? naissance”. (a) Spenser (b) Shakespeare (a) The Prince (b) Utopia (c) Chaucer (d) Wordsworth (c) Poetics (d) None of these 51.Arnold, in his The Study of Poetry, estimated 37. Cromwell, the dictator, was said to have been in- Chaucer in terms of fluenced by... (a) ‘Historical estimation’ (b) ‘Personal estimation (a) Utopia (b) The Capital (c) ‘Real estimation’ (d) None of these (c) The Prince (d) None of these 52. What does Shakespeare refer to in these lines? 38. Calvin was a... “This royal throne of kings; this sceptred isle This earth (a) French Reformer (b) Literary writer of Majesty, this seat of Mars This other Eden, demi (c) King of England (d) None of these paradise.” 39. Book of Martyrs, which is about the killings by the (a) Denmark (b) London (c) England (d) France Catholic Queen Mary, was written by... 53. The hero in Spenser’s Faerie Queene is... (a) Calvin (b) George Foxe (a) Prince Arthur (b) Arthur Hallam (c) Pope (d) None of these (c) Prince Charles (d) None of these 40. Which of the following Catholic dictator was suc- 54. Spenser is known as the ‘Poets’ poet’. Who called ceeded by his/her step sister, Elizabeth? him so? (a) Edward II (b) Henry IV (a) Matthew Arnold (b) Sir Philip Sidney (c) Mary (d) None of these (c) Charles Lamb (d) Hazlitt 41.The Kingdom of Nowhere ia the other name of... 55. In which of his poems did Spenser celebrate his (a) Utopia (b) The Prive love? (c) Mort d’Arthur (d) None of these (a) The Tears of the Muses (b) Epithalamion 42. Match the following works with their writers (c) Prothalamion (d) Amoretti (a) Ship of Fools(1) Geoffrey Chaucer 56.Spenser wrote a poem in honour of his marriage. (b) The Parliament (2)William Dunbar of Fowles Identify it. (c) Dance of the Seven (3) John Lydgate Deadly Sinnis (a) Epithalamion (b) The Faerie Queene (d) The Temple of Glass (4)Stephen Hawes (c) The Ruins of Time (d) None of these (e) The Passetyme of (5)Alexander Banklony 57. Spenser wrote a preface to The Faerie Queene, in Pleasure the form of a letter. Who is this letter addressed to? 43. Which of the following wrote plays that are all (a) John Donne (b) Sir Walter Ralegh tragedies? (c) Sir Thomas Wyatt (d) Thomas Sackville (a) Shakespeare (b) Marlowe 58. Prince Arthur, the hero in the Faerie Queene, is to (c) Thomas Dekkar (d) None of these marry...in the end. 44. Who wrote “Donne for not keeping of accent de- (a) Lady Diana (b) Hellen of Troy served hanging”? (c) Gloriana (d) Elizabeth (a) Samuel Johnson (b) BenJonson 59. The Faerie Queene is an allegory. In this poem (c) Arnold (d) T.S. Eliot Elizabeth is allegorised through the character 45. Who headed the Puritan Government that was (a) Duessa (b) Archimago formed after the hanging of Charles I ? (c) Artegal (d) Gloriana (a) Cromwell (b) James II 60. Spenser wrote an elegy entitled “Astrophel”. (c) Charles II (d) None of these Whom did he commemorate in this elegy? 46. Who wrote the following about Milton? “...he is (a) Chaucer (b) Sidney admirable as Virgil or Dante and in this respect he is (c) John Donne (d) None of these unique among us. None else in English literature pos- sess the like distinction”: (a) Coleridge (b) T.S. Eliot (c) Arnold (d) None of these 47. Which the following begins with this line? “If Music be the food of love, play on.”