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C:\Documents and Settings\lproctor.ULL\Local Settings\Temporary Internet Files\OLK36\Copyright - thesis.doc Race, Nation and Gender in Ecuador: A Comparative Study of Black and Indigenous Populations, c. 1895-1944. Nicola Claire Foote University College London PhD History UMI Number: U593045 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publishing UMI U593045 Published by ProQuest LLC 2013. Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 Abstract This thesis presents an analysis of the relationship between race, gender, and nation in early twentieth century Ecuador. Specifically, it seeks to explore the racialisation of state structures under the Liberal project developed and advanced in the half-century following the 1895 Liberal Revolution, and the role of racial ideas in the more inclusionary vision of the nation that begin to be articulated in this period. By taking as its central focus the experiences, activities and ideologies of black and indigenous populations who were the ‘subjects’ of this “re-imagining”, it aims to create a political history from below, which will uncover the hidden histories of groups who have been marginalised within narratives of state and nation, and as such advance a fuller understanding of the nation-building process. By considering black and indigenous groups within an explicitly comparative framework, it aims to advance a more nuanced understanding of the way ideas about race affected the development of national identity, the operation of state and national institutions, and the positioning of subaltern groups in relation to the nation. The thesis argues for the re-centring of the state as a key locus of nation-building and the process of racialisation. As such, the formation of state policy as a site of contestation and negotiation is taken as the primary focus. The thesis outlines the relationship between race, gender and nation-building in the formation of the Ecuadorian state, before shifting the focus to liberalism and exploring the nature of Liberal ideology as related to race, seen through the lens of negotiations over the extension of citizenship. It then undertakes case studies of three key dimensions of state discourse: the integration of national territory and resources; social policy - specifically education and health and sanitation; and the politics of land. A consideration of black and indigenous responses is integrated into each of the case studies, while a final chapter looks at the issues of liberalism and nationalism more directly from below, exploring how black and indigenous involvement in rural guerrilla movements and uprisings reflected their own conceptions of their role in the nation and their understandings of the meaning of citizenship. Contents Page Abstract: i List of maps: iii List of figures: iv Acknowledgements: v Introduction: Engendering race, racialising the nation, recentering the state. 1 Chapter One: Race and the Liberal Project, 1895-1944. 38 Chapter Two: The Politics of National Integration. 87 Chapter Three: The Politics of Land. 140 Chapter Four: Race and Social Policy. 189 Chapter Five: Liberalism From Below: Rural resistance and the Struggle for 244 Citizenship. Conclusion: The Racialisation of the Liberal Nation-Building Project and the 295 Question of State Hegemony. Appendix One: Maps. 308 Appendix Two: Photographs. 315 Bibliography: 325 ii List of Maos Map One: Political Map of Ecuador, showing land claimed prior to Rio de Janeiro protocol of 1941. Map Two: Topographical Map of Ecuador. Map Three: Areas of indigenous settlement - highland region. Map Four: Areas of indigenous settlement - Amazonia. Map Five: Province of Esmeraldas, including site of Quito-San Lorenzo Railway. Map Six: Province of Chimborazo. Map Seven: Provinces of Azuay and Canar. List of Figures Figure One: Ceremony for the opening of a minga, Ambato, 1912. Figure Two: Work on minga for Ibarra-San Lorenzo Railway, Section Yacualle - Yaruvi, n.d Figure Three: Indians working on minga for Loja-Zaruma highway, n.d.. Figure Four: Scene at Railway Station, Riobamba, 1930. Indian women selling goods, Indians begging. Figure Five: Table showing number of comunas by province 1937-1960. Figure Six: Jivaro children in Catholic missionary-run Escuela de Mendez, Province ofMomoa-Santiago, 1930. Figure Seven: Schoolchildren in Esmeraldas on school outing, 1925. Figure Eight: Conchista rebels in San Mateo camp, Esmeraldas, 1915. Figure Nine: Handover of weapons at negotiated end of Concha Revolution, Rioverde, November 1916. Figure Ten: Revolutionary leaders after the capture and handover of arms, Rioverde, 1916. Figure Eleven: Funeral of Carlos Concha, Esmeraldas, 1919. Acknowledgements This thesis would not have been possible without the financial, practical and moral support of many different people and institutions. Funding for this thesis was generously provided by an Arts and Humanities Research Board doctoral studentship, and by an Institute of Historical Research Scouldui Fellowship. Overseas fieldwork in 2001 and 2002 was made possible by grants from the AHRB, the Central Research Fund at the University of London, UCL Graduate School, the Halle Bellot Fund in UCL History Department, the Society for Latin American Studies Travel Fund, and the Royal Historical Society. I am also very grateful for awards from SLAS, the Society for Caribbean Studies, the UCL Graduate School, and the RHS, which enabled me to present my work at conferences in the UK, Amsterdam and Ecuador. John North and Julian Hoppitt have both signed forms at short notice which enabled me to receive this funding. My research has been greatly aided by the generous help and advice of many scholars, librarians and archivists. Training courses provided by Simon Renton at UCL, and James Dunkerely, Maxine Molyneux, Christian BraMnstruam, and Nancy Naro at the Institute of Latin American Studies helped me formulate and refine the aims of my thesis, and devise effective research strategies. Alan Biggins at the ILAS library went out of his way to help me with library resources in the UK and US. Rachel Seider, Donna Lee Van Cott, Robert Andolina, Jean Rahier, Kris Lane, and Ernie Capello all presented me with names of potential contacts and resources in Ecuador. The staff at the British Library, the Public Record Office, the National Newspaper Collection, and in the libraries of UCL, Senate House, and ILAS all made this research much easier. Nazneen Razwi has been wonderfully patient with all my administrative shortcomings. In the USA, I am grateful to staff in the Hispanic Studies Reading Room at the Library of Congress, and to the staff of the Nettie Lee Benson Latin America Collection at the University of Texas, Austin. The Benson Collection has been something of a second home during large chunks of the writing of this thesis, and I am especially grateful to Jorge Salinas who has gone out of his way to procure me rare books and microfilms, despite the fact that I am not a UT student, and to Linda Gill and Craig Schroer, who gave their personal time to aid me. Greg Knapp and Virginia Garrard-Bumett at UT gave me important suggestions for research possibilities. My work in Ecuador would not have been possible without the support of several individuals who helped me overcome the challenges of working in Ecuadorian archives. Thanks are especially due to Mercedes Preito, who was so generous with her time and knowledge in orienting me in the Quito archives, and to Marc Becker, who has been such an amazing source of information, advice and support throughout this thesis. I am especially grateful for his help with procuring photos from the Banco Central Archive.