Index © Copyright by the Endowment of the United States Institute of Peace

Index

aboriginal associations, Canadian government constitution in 1977, 537 choice for representation, 29 constitution-making process, 540–54. aboriginal people. See indigenous people See also Constitutional Loya Jirga (CLJ; ACCAPP (Administrative Center for the Afghanistan) Coordination of Assistance and Public 1964 process, 538 Participation), 315, 327 basic rights in constitution, 538 accessibility, in South Africa constitution-making Bonn Agreement, 540–43 process, 127 commission, 19n72, 620 Acción Democrática (AD; Venezuela), 507 delegate selection for CLJ, 546–47 accountability draft from reconciliation council, 553 (lugam) in Eritrea, 68, 69 drafting new constitution, 543–45 in Cambodia foreign experts, 641 need for, 221 public consultation process, 545–46 for past, 229–30 constitutional court, elimination in draft weakness of, 34 constitution, 545 ACFODE (Action for Development), 164 constitutional history, 536–40 Ackerman, Bruce, 382 constitution of 1964, 538–40 acronyms list first 80 years, 536–38 for Cambodia, 238 democratic constitution passage, 536 for Hungary, 384 foreign involvement issues, 651 for South Africa, 148 government changes, 535 © Copyrightfor Spain, 432 by the Endowmentinclusiveness, 628 of Action Christian National (Namibia), 109n49 laws and Islam, 552 constitutional proposals, 87 loya jirga (grand national assembly), 535 theAction United for Development (ACFODE), States 164 Institutepolitical realities of, of 554 Peace AD (Acción Democrática; Venezuela), 507 presidency vs. parliamentary government, Additional Act (Brazil), 460n2 550–51 Administration of Estates Act of 1997, 194 provincial governors in, 556 Administrative Center for the Coordination public consultative process, 544 of Assistance and Public Participation Shura (parliament), 537 (ACCAPP), 315, 327 technical assistance, 641 ADST. See Associaçao Social Democrata test of new constitution, 557 Timorense (ASDT) U.S. and UN involvement, 641–42 advertising in South Africa, 9, 134–35 pressure from U.S., 558 affirmative action Africa as Fiji constitutional commission issue, 299 approaches to constitution making, 8 in Namibia constitution, 96 constitutional changes, 158 Afghan transitional administration (ATA), 543 constitutional drafting in 1990s, 7–10 Afghanistan, 14, 535–62, 566 public participation, 15 center-periphery issues in, 556–57 root causes of cultural problem of consensus-building absence, 651 constitutionalism, 195 667 668 Index

African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights of democratic representation, 318–20 1981 (Banjul Charter), 24, 189, 190 draft constitution African Christian Democratic Party (South rejection, 623 Africa) transparency in, 326–27 1994 election results, 126 elections, 624 objections to South Africa court certification, in 1997, 314 140 foreign involvement issues, 651 African Commission on Human Rights and international community role, 322–25 Peoples’ Rights, 190 attempted coup d’Etat, 324–25 African customary law, and gender discrimination, parliamentary delegations, 323–24 194 international law role, 325–26 African National Congress (ANC), 113, 115, 124, loss of faith in constitutional order, 314 192, 194 Ministry of Institutional Reform and 1994 election results, 126 Relations with the Parliament, 315, 316 bilateral discussions with NP, 132 parliament on constitutional development process, 116 Decision 339, 314–15, 318, 320 draft constitution, 150n41 election of 1996, 313 encouragement of involvement by parliamentary commission, 611 constituency, 139 public consultation, quantifying impact, formation, 179 632–33 private meeting with NP before talks public input to constitutional changes, 41 resumption, 119 public participation, 315–18 proposals for interim constitutional civic education initiatives, 317–18 arrangements, 118 development of national program, role in South Africa negotiating process, 146 316–17 “Strategic Perspectives” position paper, 119 quasi nongovernment organization, 615 transition to revolutionary liberation referendum in 1999, 36 movement, 114 transition to democracy, 12 violence between IFP supporters and, 145 Albanian Party of Labor, Sixth Congress, directive African Workers Voice Association, 179 for new constitution, 312 Afrikaner Volksunie, 125 Albertyn, Cathi, 41 Afrikaners, and Namibia constitution drafting Aleixo, Pedro, 438 panel, 89 Alemán, Arnoldo, 496 Afwerki, Isaias, 75, 76–77 and constituent assembly, 503n116 Agrarian Party (Albania), 328n26 Ali, Adnan, 585 ©Agreement Copyright on Provisional Arrangements by in theAlianza Endowment Popular, 423 of Afghanistan Pending the Re-Establishment Alkatiri, Mari, 250 of Permanent Government Institutions (Bonn Alkubesi, Moamer, 594n81 theAgreement), United 536, 540–42 StatesAll-in Institute Conference in 1961, 113–14 of Peace Ahtisaari, Martti, 84, 86 Alliance of Democratic Left (SLD; Hungary), 402, Akabway, Steven, 166 412n4 Akashi, Yasu, 212, 214, 231, 236 Alliance of Democratic Left (SLD; Poland), 394, Albania, 311–27 396, 399 conclusion, 326–27 Alliance of Free Democrats (Szabad Demokraták constituent assembly, 11 Szövetsége; SZDSZ), 353, 358, 362, 367, 383 constitution-making process division with MDF, 363 boycott, 635 expectations vs. results, 375 foreign experts, 640 support for new constitution, 371 by parliament, 613 Alliance of Young Democrats (Fiatal Demokraták structure, 314–15 Szövetsége; FIDESZ), 357, 362, 366, 367, 378, timing and sequencing, 320–22 383 constitution of 1976, 312 support for new constitution, 371 constitution of 1998, 326–27 alternative-vote system, for Fiji parliament, 297 constitutional assembly in 1946, 312 Amanullah (king of Afghanistan), 536 constitutional court, 313, 319 Amaral, Francisco Xavier do, 257 Framing the State in Times of Transition 669

amendments, in Brazil, 445 Arniston, 131 American Bar Association, 572 Arzallus, Xabier, 424 Central East European Law Initiative Asia Foundation, 227, 255, 264 (ABA/CEELI), 315 technical support for East Timor, 266–67 American Convention on Human Rights, 516 Asian Charter of Rights, 24 and Nicaragua constitution, 493 Asmara, 66 American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Assembly Watch, 263 Man, and Nicaragua constitution, 493 Associaçao Popular Democrata Timorense Americas Watch, 487 (Apodeti), 247 Ames, Barry, 441 Associaçao Social Democrata Timorense (ASDT), Amin, Bakhtiar, 596n110 247 Amin, Idi, 161 Association of Uganda Women Lawyers (FIDA), al-Amiri, Hadi, 595n94 164 Amnesty International, in Colombia, 476 ATA (Afghan transitional administration), 543 amnesty law in Brazil, 439 Al-Atiyyah, Ghassan, 583 amparo, action of, 510 Atlantic Charter, 113 Ample Front for Agriculture (FAA), 447 attorney general, in South Africa, appointment, Anbar, 570 130 ANC. See African National Congress (ANC) AUC (United Self-Defense Force of Colombia), Angola, and public participation, 26 469 Ankole, 160 Aucoin, Louis, xviin3, 227 Annan, Kofi, 190, 541 Austin, Reginald, 212, 216, 225 Antall, József, 366, 374, 388n58 Australia, pressure on Fiji, 292 Ante-Proyecto, 425 authentic participation, conditions making AP (Fijian Alliance Party), 278 possible, 27 apartheid, 105n3, 153n88 authoritarian electoral reform model, 354 ending, 116, 122, 144 authoritarian regime and international treatment of South Africa, combining with democratic practice, 420 143 constitution framed to develop, 505 introduction in South Africa, 113 in Spain, 418 and Namibia, 89 transition to democracy, 417 plans in South-West Africa, 94 authority South Africa hope for South West Africa, 83 for constitution-making power, 404 Apodeti (Associaçao Popular Democrata of UNCHR comments, 29 Timorense), 247 autogolpe, 436 © CopyrightApril Agreement (1989; Poland), by 402 the Endowmentautonomy of April Amendment (Poland), 404, 409, 663n100 arguments for, in Iraq, 568 replacing provisions, 394 vs. self-determination, in Nicaragua, 494 theArabic United States Instituteautonomy (federo), 169 of Peace Muslim intellectuals and, 79n48 autoruptura, 420, 430 as potential official language of Eritrea, 71 AWS (Electoral Action Solidarity; Poland), 399, Arato, Andrew, xviin3, 389n73, 591n43, 604, 400–01, 412n4, 415n37 656n24, 665n117 Azanian Peoples Organization, 116 “Constitution Making and Transitional Azerbaijan, 11 Politics in Hungary,” 350–84 Azimi, Abdul Salam, 543 Arendt, Hannah, 379 Argentina, 483 Baath party, collapse of secular nationalism of, 568 Arias Navarro, Carlos, 419 Baganda, animosity with Bunyoro, 160 Arias, Oscar, 494 Baganda Kabaka Yekka party (KY), 159 Arif, Haseeb, 594n80 Baghdad International Zone, closed-door meetings Arinos, Afonso, 443 of political party leaders, 574 armed resistance Banaban Land Act, 305n12 for Eritrean independence, 62 Banaban Settlement Act, 305n12 in South Africa, 114 Banjul Charter (African Charter on Human and Arnault, Jean, 545 Peoples’ Rights of 1981), 7, 24 670 Index

Barco, Virgilio, 469, 470–71 peace negotiations proximity talks, bargaining situation, characteristics, 358 335–36 Barnes, Catherine, 34 substance of constitution, 338–40 Barroso, Luis Roberto, 460 Constitutional Court, 340 Bartlett, Justice (Zimbabwe), 188 ethnic groups and key government positions, Barzani, Massoud, 574, 575, 593n72, 594n91 339 Barzani, Saedi, 593n76 peace agreement, 332 Basic Constitutional Dilemmas, 397 presidency for, 337 Basque problem in Spain, 428 war in, 334 Basque separatism, 660n67 Bosnia and Herzegovina Dayton Constitution, Basters in Namibia, 108n39 332–48 Bavadra, Timothy, 280, 283 conclusion, 347–48 Bayati, Abbas, 573 entering into force, 345 Belarus, 11 international community role after talks, Belo, Carlos Filipo Ximenes, 248 345–47 Ben-Guriab, Mr., 110n54 multilateral groups attendance at conference, Benin, 7, 8 346–47 Benomar, Jamal, xviin3, 590n22 news blackout, impact of cell phones, 336 Bequiri, Idajet, 328n26 perceived need for complete constitution, Berisha, Sali, 12, 313, 324–25, 328n26 343–44 Berlin Wall fall, and Namibia, 86, 88 public participation, 344–45 Besigye, Kizza, 170, 171 shortcomings, 347 arrest, 172 tension, 342–43 Betancur, Belisario, 469 Bosnian Serbs, in negotiations, 342 Biden, Joseph, 597n126 Bossa, Salome, 164 Bihari, Mihaly, 356 Botha, Pieter Willem, 106n12, 114 Bildt, Carl, 336 boycott bill of rights of constitutional commission by NCA, 186 in Colombia, 477 of national assembly elections, and self- in Fiji, 278 exclusion, 629 in Namibia, 86, 94, 109n50 of national assembly elections by Sunni Arabs, in South Africa, 130 568, 569–71, 645–46 Blaustein, Albert, 282, 306n35 Brahimi, Lakhdar, 541, 550, 553, 554 BLDP (Buddhist Liberal Democratic party), 223 Bravo, Cardinal Obando y, 496 1993 election results, 214 Brazil, 435–60 ©Blount, Copyright Justin, 657n31 by the businessEndowment groups in, 446–47 of BLV (Bose Levu Vakataranga), 305n10 Centrão Coalition, 450 Bogdanor, Vernon, 293 conflict resolution, 435, 454–55, 646 Bolañosthe administration, United 504n116 States Institutevia litigation, 456–57 of Peace Bolívar, Simón, 467, 506, 509 congress as constituent assembly, 611 Bonime-Blanc, Andrea, xviin3 constituent assembly, lack of political Bonn Agreement, 536, 540–43 domination, 450–51 Bose Levu Vakataranga (BLV), 305n10 constitution Bosnia and Herzegovina, 611, 642–43 of 1824, 436 background, 333–34 of 1891, 436 central government, 339–40 of 1934 and 1937, 436–37 conflict resolution and, 646 of 1946, 437 constitution-making process of 1967 and 1969, 437–38 central institutions architecture, 340–42 of 1969, 438–39 context, 606 of 1988, 452–54, 456 flaws, 649 of 1988, lack of coherency, 458 international control of process, 336–38 Amendment 23, 458 lessons learned, 332–33 democracy restoration, 437 motivation, 651 human rights issues, 459 Framing the State in Times of Transition 671

plebescite, 453 Brewer-Carias, Allan R., 47n50 Transitory Article 8 on amnesty, 458 Brice, Lord, 72 constitution-making process, 439–52 Britain congress as constituent assembly, 440–42 and independence of territories after WWII, 5 constituent assembly composition, 442 queen as Uganda head of state, 159 constituent assembly internal rules, British Cameroons, 5 442–43 British Commonwealth context, 606 and Fiji, 293 legislature, 612 Queen as head, 307n68 public participation, 445–46 British protectorate, Zimbabwe territory as, 177 results, 452–58 British South Africa Company, 177 review, 647 British Togoland, 5 theme committees, 443–45 Broadcasting Act (Zimbabwe), 184 transition to democracy, 439–40 Brown, McAlister, 226–27 constitutional amendments, 439–40, 455, 459 Brown, Nathan, 595n95 number 22, 461n8 Buddhism number 23, 458 belief in reconciliation and love, 211 submission, 452 in Cambodian culture, 209 draft constitution clergy involvement in Cambodia education, absence at start, 442–43 218 from Cabral, 449 monks, Khmer Rouge and, 219 preparation, 617 Buddhist Liberal Democratic party (BLDP), 223 elections, 457–58 1993 election results, 214 demand for direct presidential, 440 Budgetgate scandal (Brazil), 453 income distribution, 459 Bueno, Cunha, 453 inflation, 441 Buganda stabilization plan, 454 divisions of, 160 Institutional Act 12, 438 federal status of, 159–60 Institutional Act 17 (1969), 438 federalism and, 168–69 land reform, need for, 459 Lukiiko (parliament), 160 military, 458, 612–13 Buganda Caucus, 167 Old Republic (1891–1930), 435 Bulawayo, 177 organized labor in, 445 Bulewa, K.R., 289 peasant groups in, 448 Bulgaria, 12 provisional measure, 455–56 authoritarian rule transition, 350 © Copyrightpublic hearings, 41 by the Endowmentconstituent assembly, 11 of public involvement, 632 transition to democracy, 11 ratification of constitution, absence, 452 Bulgarian Socialist Party, 12 the republicanUnited government vs.States monarchy, 453 InstituteBunyoro, 160, 169 of Peace Roman Catholic Church, 447–48 animosity with Baganda, 160 rural landowners in, 447 Burkina Faso, term limits, 171 Senate information and data processing Burma, 5 center, 615 Bush, George W., 573, 574, 581 social democracy, 437 Bushati, Zef, 328n26 Supreme Court, 438 Bushmen in Namibia, 92, 108n39, 109n46 systemization committee role, 448–50 as constitutional delegates, 93 universal suffrage, 466n81 business committee (Uganda), 174n24 Vargas dictatorship, 436–37 business groups, in Brazil, 446–47 Brazilian Bar Association (OAB), 448, 461n12 Busoga, 169 Brazilian Press Association, 461n12 Buter, David, 293 Brazilian Rural Society (SRB), 447 Buthelezi, Mangosuthu, 116, 145 Brazilian Social Democratic Party (Partido de Social-Democracia Brasileira; PSDB), 450 cabildos abiertos (town hall meetings; Nicaragua), Bremer, L. Paul, 566 488 672 Index

cabinet of ministers international community role, 225–28 in Afghanistan, foreign passports as debated foreign experts, 226–28 issue, 553 United Nations, 225–26 in Namibia, 91 international law role, 228–30 in South Africa, allocation to political parties, monarchy 123 restoration by constitution, 209–10 Cabral, Bernardo, 449, 450 traditional role of king, 209 Cabral Zero, 449 NGOs, clergy and press in constitution- Cambodia, 207–38 making process, 218–20 acronyms list, 238 Office of the High Commissioner for Human civil war, 210 Rights, 236 impact, 210–11 political parties, participation, 223 communist legacy, 222–23 prime minister, 232 conclusion, 233–37 public participation, 217–22, 633 constituent assembly, 207, 213, 614 education, 217–18 election and functioning, 213–15 substantive issues, 230–33 influence on, 221 monarchy restoration and government need for transparency, 222 structure, 230–32 transition to national assembly, 216 Cambodian Human Rights Coordination constitution Committee, 219 civil society impact on drafting process, Cambodian Institute of Human Rights, 219 220–22 Cambodian League for the Promotion and human rights provisions, 232–33 Protection of Human Rights (LICADHO), legitimacy, 222 220 reasons to avoid return to previous, Cambodian People’s Party (CPP), 212, 223, 236, 215 239n4 constitution-making flaws, 649 1993 election results, 214 constitution-making process, 656n16 and 2007 & 2008 elections, 237 control over process, 215–17 power sharing with FUNCINPEC, 208 foreign experts, 641 Canada and national reconciliation, 234 Charter of Rights, 41 outside involvement, 642 Mikmaq tribal society, 7, 27–28 structure, 212–13 public participation, change due to, 633 timing and sequencing, 223–25 referendum on Charlottetown Accord 1992, constitution of 1947, 212, 216 35 © constitutionCopyright of 1989, 212, 216 by theCanadian Endowment Supreme Court, Reference re Secession of of constitution of 1993, 210 Quebec, 22 Angkor tradition and, 209 Canotilho, Gomes, 443 thedemocratic United representation, 222–23 Statescapital Institute punishment. See death penaltyof Peace draft constitution Capital radio (Pvt) Ltd. v. Minister of Information criticism of, 221 & Others, 184 preparation, 617 Caprivi, 92 Sihanouk’s influence, 618 Caprivian ethnic group in Namibia, 108n39 timing of, 224 Carcassone, Guy, 543 drafting committee, 214–15 Cardoso, Henrique, 442, 454 elections, 208 as president, 455 voting eligibility, 216 Carlson, Scott N., 592n61 foreign aid to, 244n136 Carpenter, Gretchen, 81 fragile nature of democracy, 232 Carrero Blanco, Luis, 418–19 historical background, 209–12 Carrillo, Santiago, 423, 424 influence on constitution-making Carrington, Lord, 180 process, 209–10 Carrington plan of 1991, 344 Paris Agreements influence, 211–12 CASE (Community Agency for Social Enquiry), interim arrangements, 626 153n94 Framing the State in Times of Transition 673

case studies, 601 Chamorro, Carlos, 502n64 chronology, 605 Chamorro, Violeta, 495 conclusion from, 604 and constitutional reform, 496 overview, 604–06 Chandler, David, 209 selection, xiv–xvi channel bilateral, 119, 131 Catholic Church Charlottetown Accord (Canada, 1992), 35 in Brazil, 447–48 Charter of Rights and Freedoms, 29 committee recognition of role in Poland, 408 charters of rights, 22 and constitution referendum, 414n28 Chaskalson, Arthur, 88, 107n26, 140 and constitutional coalition, 399 Chaskalson, Matthew, 121 hierarchy in Nicaragua, 498 Chaudhry, Mahendra, 290, 300 position on Polish constitution, 401, 405 and coup, 301 Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace Chavez Frías, Hugo, 505, 522, 623 (CCIP), 197n27 and calling of constituent assembly, 511 CCOO (Workers Commissions; Comisiones and constitutional process, 506–07 Obreras), 419 control of government branches, 518 CDN (Coordinadora Democrática unilateral action on consultative referendum Nicaragüense), 485 on constituent assembly, 512 cease-fire checks and balances, system of, 510 in Bosnia, 335 Chem Sngoun, 214, 227 in Zimbabwe, impact of constitution-making Chile, 32, 354, 483 process, 191 Christian Democratic Party (Hungary), 371 Ceausescu, Nicolae, 12 Christian Democratic People’s Party (KDNP; CEDAW (Convention on the Elimination of Keresztény Demokrata Nép Párt), 359 All Forms of Discrimination Against Women Christian Democrats (Albania), 328n26 1979), 23, 189, 295 Christianity, in Namibia, 109n45 Ceka, Neritan, 328n26 Chrusciak, Ryszard, 399 Center Alliance (Porozumienie Centrum; PC; Churchill, Winston, 113 Poland), 412n4 Cimoszewicz, Wlodzimierz, 398 center-periphery issues, in Afghanistan, 556–57 Citizens’ Constitutional Forum (Fiji), 288, 291–92 Central America, political rights in new civic education constitutions, 26 in Eritrea, 66–70 Central Council in Eritrea, 60 government-funded, 37 Central Council of Physicians, 413n20 Civic Platform Party (PO), 412n4 Central Election Commission (CEC; Albania), civil society, in Fiji, dialogue on constitutional © Copyright321 by the Endowmentreform, 291–92 of Central Europe civil war constitution-making process in 1990s, 11–14 in Cambodia, transition to democracy. See also the lowUnited regard for U.S. version States of separation of InstituteKhmer Rouge of Peace powers, 372 risk in Albania, 323 central government, in Afghanistan, distrust of, Clinton, Bill, 249 556 CLJ. See Constitutional Loya Jirga (CLJ; centralization of state, 505 Afghanistan) centralized governance of Venezuela, 509 closed-door meetings for constitution-making, in Centrão Coalition (Brazil), 450 South Africa, 123 Centre for Democracy and Development, 36 CNA (Confederation of Agriculture; Brazil), 447 certification of constitution, 194 CNBB (National Conference of the Bishops of César, Alfredo, 495 Brazil), For a New Constitutional Order, 448 Chad, term limits, 171 CNRM. See Conselho Nacional de Resistência Chakrapong (Prince of Cambodia), 208 Maubere (CNRM) attempted secession, 216 CNRT, 250–51 as head of state after election, 223 Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea Chamber of Deputies (Brazil), 457 (CGDK), 210 Chambliss, William J., 486 Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA), 564 674 Index

CODESA I and II, 117–18, 147 Commonwealth decision, to renew Zimbabwe’s Codification Committee (Colombia), 473 suspension, 202n124 draft constitution, 474 Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative (CHRI), coffee cultivation, in Colombia, 468 43, 654n3 Cold War, impact on Namibian conflict, 102 Communal Council Law (Venezuela), 521 Colombia, 657n29 communal councils, public participation, absence, coffee cultivation, 468 521 conclusion, 481–82 communism conflict, 605 constitution-making after, 11 conflict resolution, 644 Hungary transition from, 352–53 Congress dissolution, 474 Community Agency for Social Enquiry (CASE), constitution-making process, 614 153n94 during conflict, 643 community liaison, for South African citizen democratic representation, 472–73 participation, 9 structure, 473–75 composition of commission, 65 constitution of 1886, 468 compromise, in Reeves Commission (Fiji), 289 constitutional amendments, on consecutive Conac, Gérard, xviin3 terms for president, 481 concept paper, as research guide for authors, xv constitutional assembly concerts in Eritrea, constitutional themes for, 67 of 1910, 468 Conciliation Resources (Fiji), 291 agreement on, 471 Concordat treaty, 409, 415n47 commissions, 473–74 Confederation of Agriculture (CNA; Brazil), 447 constitutional court, 478 Confederation of Independent Poland (KPN), defense expenditures, 481 412n4 existing law and constitution making, 648 draft constitution, 396 history, 467–70 Confederation of Polish Employers, 413n20 international and foreign law role, 477 Confederation of States of Venezuela, 506 international community role, 476–77 Conference for a Democratic Future (South issues of substance, 478–80 Africa), 115 political rights, 26 conflict, and constitution making, 605 presidential agency for technical support, 615 conflict resolution public participation constitution-making impact on, 644–47 change due to, 633 draft constitution and, 332 with constitutional assembly, 470–72 Eritrean constitution-making and, 70–72 referendum, 622 methods, 72 © Copyrightand support for constitutional by reform, the publicEndowment will and, 71 of 471 in Spain, 421 subsequent developments, 480–81 time for, in East Timor, 246 theSupreme United Court, 627 Statesel CongresitoInstitute (the little Congress), of 474 Peace timing of reforms, 475–76 Congress of the People (South Africa), 113 underrepresentation of women in Congress of Trade Unions (Zimbabwe), 187 constitution-making, 41 Congress of Traditional Leaders (South Africa), 131 Venezuela separation from, 506 congressional constitutional committee, in Spain, violence in, 469 425 working group proposals, 41 Conselho Nacional de Resistência Maubere colonial period, in Zimbabwe, injustices and (CNRM), 248 suffering in, 197n27 Conselho Nacional de Resistência Timorense Coloureds in Namibia, 108n39 (CNRT), 248 Comisión Dictaminadora (Nicaragua), 488 consensual agenda setting phase, in Spain, 426–27, Comisiones Obreras (Workers Commissions; 428 CCOO), 419 consensual approval phase, in Spain, 428–29 commission. See constitutional commission Consensual Coalition (Spain), 427, 429–30 Commission of Inquiry Act, 186, 188 consensus building, 57, 183, 484, 651 commission of judicial emergency (Venezuela), 514 in constitution-making process, 422 Framing the State in Times of Transition 675

in Reeves Commission (Fiji), 288 drafting phase conditions for new, 63 in South Africa, 124 legitimacy of democracy and, 421 in Uganda, 9 long-term viability, 237 in Zimbabwe, 186, 192 ownership, 191 consensus decison making, by Iraq drafting recency of, 44n5 committee, 572 Constitution for the Kingdom of Iraq, 564 consensus democracy, in Hungary, 365–66 Constitution Inquiry and Advisory Committee Conservative Party (Colombia), 468 (Fiji), 281 Conservative Party (South Africa), 116 constitution-making process. See also case studies; objections to South Africa court certification, public participation 140 advantages and implications of procedural consociationalism, Fiji constitution and, 302 choices, xiii constituent assembly, 194, 424 analysis of state practice, 7–14 advantages, 612 conclusion, 649–54 appointment of government heads, 517 by constitutional commission, 619–20 in Brazil, 440–42 criteria for success, 603 lack of political domination, 450–51 and democratic governance, 21 in Cambodia, 213 design, 601–54 in Colombia, 470–72 in Eastern and Central Europe in 1990s, in constitution-making process, 611–19 11–14 conversion to regular legislature, 614 and existing law, 648–49 in East Timor expectations for, 566 arguments for, 253 external assistance and intervention, 640–42 pressure to consult with public, 263–64 impact of nature of, 601 single-party domination, 254 impact on conflict resolution, 644–47 in Eritrea, 73 inclusiveness and representation, 627–29 failure to take steps to elect new international law norms relating to, 3–15 government, 75 literature review on, xviin1 in Hungary, proposals calling for early lost knowledge, 654n2 election, 356 parliamentary and/or plebiscitary, 6 in Namibia participation as requirement of, 20 elections, 86, 101 in peacemaking, 642–44 equal ethnic representation, 100 pitfalls to avoid, 651–52 in Nicaragua, elections, 487, 489 in Poland, 395 ordinary legislature vs. extraordinary, 611–15 preconstitutional arrangements, 659n49 © Copyrightorganization and professional by support, the 615 Endowmentprocedure options, impact on public, of 640 rejection of election in Hungary, 357 processes vs. outcome, 602, 603 responsibility for draft, 616–18 relevance of international law, 647–48 the inUnited Uganda, 8–9 States Instituteright to participate ofin, 21 Peace in Venezuela and right to take part in public affair, 20–44 calling, 510 sorting cases by type, 656n24 decree establishing transitory structure, 606–29 constitutional regime, 517 interim arrangements, 624–26 drafting phase, 515–16 judicial roles, 626–27 elections, 512–13 parliamentary and constituent opposition group, 513 assemblies, 611–19 time constraints for integrating drafts, referendums and plebiscites, 622–24 515–16 roundtable negotiations, 620–22 Constituent Assembly Act of 1993 (Uganda), 9, timelines and deadlines, 638–40 18n34, 165–66 two-phase approach, 257 constitution. See also draft constitution; under types, 422 specific country names as vehicle for national dialogue, 176 adoption process importance, 193 window of opportunity for, 370 amending process, 49n91 The Constitution Making Process in Afghanistan, 544 676 Index

Constitution of the Fiji Islands, 289 constitutional jurisprudence, 373 Constitution of Zimbabwe Amendment (No. 14) Constitutional Law on the Procedure for Preparing Act, 185 and Enacting of the Constitution (Poland), constitution review committee in Fiji, 280–81 394–95 constitutional advisers Constitutional Loya Jirga (CLJ; Afghanistan), 536, independent panel, for South Africa, 129 547–54, 559n6, 614 reward for services in Namibia, 108n43 blocs of delegates in, 550 constitutional advisory commission, for boycott by delegates, 553 Afghanistan, 538 delegate selection for, 546–47 constitutional assembly, in South Africa, 121 rules of procedure on final ratification, 553–54 constitutional commission, 619–20 subcommittees, 548–50 appointment, 8 United Nations and, 551 Cambodia and, 216 constitutional monarchy for constitutional review (Fiji), 284–86 Afghan 1964 constitution on, 539 timing and sequencing, 286–90 and liberal democracy, 231–32 for draft constitution preparation, 257–58 constitutional principles in Spain, 424 for Namibia, 95, 96 in East Timor, proposal for appointing, 259 for South Africa, 120, 122–23 principles applied to approach, 65 agreement on, 123, 151n48 question and answer method of, 65–70 constitutional court and, 140 selection process, 258 Constitutional Talk (South African newspaper), in Uganda, 162–65 18n40, 137 activities, 163 constitutionalism, 378, 381, 467 key issues, 164–65 challenge of introducing, 311 nongovernmental civic education, in Hungary, 365–66 163–64 “revived” classical Western, 485 selection of members, 162–63 and U.S. vision of democratic identity, 566 in Zimbabwe, 186 constitutionality of federal or state law in Brazil, Constitutional Commission of Eritrea, 58, 61, 62 456, 457 ad hoc committees, 67 Constitutions, Democracy, and a Summary of the law establishing, 62–63 Working Draft, 137 position papers, 67 constrained parliamentary phase, in Spain, 428 question and answer method of, 65–70 consultation process, 37–40 report to National Assembly, 64 democracy and institutionalization of culture role of, 62–65 of, 195 ©constitutional Copyright court by the difficultyEndowment measuring impact, 631 of in Afghanistan, elimination in draft in East Timor, 261–62 constitution, 545 elements of, 261 thein Albania, United 319 States Institutein Eritrea, 66–70 of Peace in Bosnia, 340 methods, 38 and ethnic group rights, 342–43 in South Africa, 121 in Colombia, 478 Contact Group at Dayton conference, 336–37 as guarantor of constitutional principles, 120 plan in 1994, 344 in Hungary, 352, 353, 366, 368–70, 376 CONTAG (National Confederation of in Poland, creation, 393 Agricultural Workers), 448 in South Africa, 30–31, 139–43, 147, context for constitution-making, 604, 656n18 155n127, 194 in future cases, 652–54 appointment of judges, 124 Contribution to the Future Brazilian Constitution, proceedings and judgment, 141 445–46 Constitutional Court of Albania, Venice Convention for a Democratic South Africa Commission and, 319 (CODESA), 117–18 constitutional democracy Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Eritrea commitment to, 64 Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW as goal for Iraq, 564 1979), 23, 189 Framing the State in Times of Transition 677

Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Czechoslovakia, 354 Discrimination (CEAFD), 189 authoritarian rule transition, 350 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of constitutional politics, 12 Racial Discrimination (1965), 23, 295 self-constituted assembly, 11 Convention on the Rights of the Child, translation transition to democracy, 11 for Eritrean citizens, 67 Convergencia Catalana, 423 da Fonseca, Deodoro, 436 Coordinadora Democrática Nicaraguense (CDN), da Silva, Luis Inácio Lula, 460 485 Dahl, Robert, polyarchy concept, 59 Coordinadora Guerrillera Simón Bolívar, 469 Damara ethnic group in Namibia, 92, 93, 108n39 COPEI (Partido Social Cristiano; Venezuela), constitutional proposals, 94 507–08 education on constitutional issues, 95 Cortes (Spain parliament), 419 Daoud, Mohammad, and political modernization constitution-making process, coalitional in Afghanistan, 537 strategies, 427 Dayton constitution. See Bosnia and Herzegovina Cosgrove, Peter, 249 Dayton constitution Council of Europe, 45n15, 349n19 de Borbon y Borbon, Juan Carlos, 418–19 and Albania, 323, 326 de Klerk, Frederik Willem, 115, 650 Parliamentary Assembly, 330n64 on Congress of the People, 149n11 and rights, 23 crossing the Rubicom speech, 115–16 state admission to, 7 leadership quality, 147 Venice Commission, 12, 312, 313, 317 meeting with Mandela, 132 Council of Iraqi Minorities, 584 meeting with Mandela in early 1990s, 116, 124 signing of Record of Understanding, 119 Council of Ministers, in Bosnia, 340–41 de Mello, Fernando Collor, 454, 460 Council of South West Africa, and council for de Mello, Sergio Vieira, 249, 250, 252, 254, 261, drafting national constitution, 87 262 Council of State (Colombia), 474, 485 de Soares, Aderito Jesus de, 260 Council of the State (Nicaragua) De Zulueta, Tana, 330n64 electoral law, and public participation, 488 deadline, for Zimbabwe draft constitution, 192 political parties law in 1983, 487 deadlock-breaking measures, for constitution coup d’état approval in South Africa, 127, 152n78 attempted in Albania, 324–25 death penalty in Brazil, 435, 460 abolition in Hungary, 369 courts. See judiciary in Eritrea, 69 © CopyrightCovenant of the National Front, by469 the Endowmentin South Africa, 130 of C P P. See Cambodian People’s Party (CPP) in Zimbabwe, 184, 200n70 Crawford, James, 293 debate on political questions, organizing, 65 thecredibility. United See also legitimacy States InstituteDecember Amendment of(Poland), Peace 393 as South Africa goal, 133 decentralized government Croatia, 333, 349n19 in Namibia, 91 declaration of independence, 333 in Uganda, 162 war in, 334 in Venezuela, 509 Cruz, Arturo, 488 crisis, 520 Cruzado Plan (Brazil), 441 decision-making process, 193 CSE (Supreme Electoral Council; Nicaragua), 487, vs. institutions, 654n4 497 Declaration of Manaus (Brazil), 439 CSN (National Security Council; Brazil), 447 declaration of rights (Zimbabwe), 178 cultural traditions, East Timor desire to preserve, decree-law in Brazil, 455 262 Decreto numero 1926 (Colombia), 471 customary law, 3, 15n1 defender of the people (Venezuela), 517–18 implications for a state, 4 Demeti, Arben, 330n60 Cyprus Group (Afghanistan), 541 democracy, 77 Czech Republic, 12 authoritarianism transition to, 417 678 Index

Brazil transition to, 439–40 D.F. Malan Accord, 116 central feature, 59 al-Dhari, Harith, 570 central rights, 183 d’Hondt system, 423, 508 civil war in Cambodia transition to, 207 Diamond, Larry, 597n125 competing versions in Nicaragua, 486 DIAP (Inter-Union Department for Parliamentary critique of international law approach to, Action; Brazil), 446 49n94 Dias, Clarence, xviin3, 40 definition by Supreme Court, 30 dictatorship, minimizing danger of, 182 dilution of efforts to promote, 327 Dimitrijevic, Nenad, 14 Elshtain on, 59 discrimination, banned by Namibia constitution, and institutionalization of culture of 108n31 consultation, 195 disobedience of fundamental precept, 457 legitimacy of, constitution for, 421 dissensual constitution-making, 422 right to, 21 dissensual precongressional phase, in Spain, Democratic Alliance (Brazil), 440 427–28 Democratic Alliance Party (Albania), 318, 328n26 DK. See also Khmer Rouge democratic consolidation, 483 Doctors for Life International v. Speaker of the democratic governance National Assembly and others, 30–31 and Cambodia, 228 Documentation Center of Cambodia (DC-Cam), right to, 20 230 Democratic Party (Albania), 314, 316, 317, 318, “dog washers,” 561n82 328n26 Dom Pedro (emperor of Brazil), 436 disinformation, 330n54 Donavan, Dolores, 227 encouragement of voter boycott, 320, 321, 324 Dostum, Abdul Rashid, 551, 555 Democratic Party (DP: Uganda), 159 Draft A (Projeto A; Brazil), 449 boycott of referendum, 171 substantive revisions, 451–52 Democratic Party (South Africa) draft constitution 1994 election results, 126 for Afghanistan, 538, 543–45 and deadlocked issues, 131 from reconciliation council, 553 objections to South Africa court certification, for Brazil, 449 140 from constitutional commission, 257–58, democratic regimes, 417 619–20 democratic representation in Iraq, changes, 582 in Colombia, 472–73 for Nicaragua, 488 in East Timor, 270–71 preparation process options, 271 © inCopyright Namibia, 99–100 by the responsibilityEndowment for, 616–18 of in Nicaragua, 489–91 risk of executive interference, 192 in Poland, 407–08 Draft Declaration on Indigenous Peoples, 299 thein Venezuela, United 508 StatesDraft Institute Declaration on the Rights of of Indigenous Peace Democratic Turnhalle Alliance (DTA), 83–84 Peoples (Fiji), 295 Democratic Union Party (Albania), 328n26 DTA. See Democratic Turnhalle Alliance (DTA) Democratic Union (UD; Poland), 394, 396, 412n4 DTA (Namibia), 98 democratization Dunstan, Don, 293 challenge in Third World, 235 Duran, Esperanza, 492 in Latin America, 483 Durollari, Guri, 328n26 requirements for, 237 Dzialocha, Kazimierz, 397, 415n39 sociopolitical preconditions for, 419 and Spain constitution-making process, East Germany, transition to democracy, 11 430–31 East Timor, 14, 245–72, 566, 660n64 Deng, Francis, xviin3 annual per capita GDP, 272n3 dependent territories, self-determination for, 5 background, 246–50 destaque para votação em separado, 450 civic education vs. popular consultation, 630 destaques, 450 conclusion, 268–72 Deuba Accord (Fiji), 281 democratic representation, 270–71 Framing the State in Times of Transition 679

impact of process on conflict, 271–72 Ecuador legal framework, 269 constitution 1998, 47n50 public participation, 269–70 political rights, 26 consensus-building absence, 651 education, 37–40 constituent assembly, 614, 619 in Afghanistan, 545–46 arguments for, 253 in Albania, of voters, 321 seats reserved for women, 256 difficulty measuring impact, 631 constitution, 25 of general public vs. constitutional advocacy, failings of, 271 405 constitution-making process, 258 in South Africa, 121, 134 constitution-making process structure, Edwar, Hansa, 583–84 250–56 effective date, absence from Eritrea constitution, 75 legal framework, 254 EKA (Round Table of the Opposition; Hungary), legal framework debates, 250–54 353, 357–61, 375–76, 379, 387n41 single-party domination in assembly, constitution of 1989, 370 254–56 formation, 359 constitutional commission, proposal for legitimacy carried over from, 381 appointing, 259 elders democratic representation, 256–58 mediation in conflict resolution, 72 draft constitution elections debate over body to draft, 252–53 in Albania preparation, 618 in 1997, 314 elections in, 256–57 parliament in 1996, 313 foreign involvement issues, 651 in Brazil, 453 ICCPR and, 6 demand for direct presidential, 440 international community role, 265–68 in Brazil Old Republic, 435 technical advisers, 266–67 in Cambodia, 208, 211 technical assistance objectives, 267–68 in Colombia, for constituent assembly, 472 United Nations, 265–66 in East Timor, 256–57 international law role, 264–65 in Fiji, 279 official language issue, 264 1987, 280 public meetings, 661n77 1992, 283 public participation, 258–64, 634, 637 1999, 300–01, 304 civic education and consultation, in Hungary, 353, 355 261–63 rules, 364 © Copyrightdebates on framework, by 258–60 the Endowmentimportance of free and fair, 624 of pressure for constituent assembly to in Iraq, Sunni boycott of national assembly consult with public, 263–64 elections, 569–71 the UNUnited pressure to rush process, States 638 Institutelaw in Afghanistan, of 557 Peace unanswered questions, 272 as means to end, 59 voter registration, 257 in Namibia, 106n10 East Timor Jurists Association, 260 proportional representation, 83, 86 Eastern Europe in Nicaragua, 487 constitution-making process in 1990s, 11–14 Paris Agreements on right to, 217 innovation, 372 in Poland, 392, 411 low regard for U.S. version of separation of of representatives in constitution-making powers, 372 bodies, 32–40 political change, and South Africa, 115 in South Africa, 125–26 public participation, 15 in Spain, 51n116, 420, 423 Ebrahim, Hassen, 148n1 trust in process, 551 Echandía, Camilo, 468 in Uganda, for constituent assembly, 166–67 economic groups, participation in consultations, 37 in Zimbabwe, 181 economic growth rate, of Cambodia, 244n138 2000 and 2002, 189 Economic Institute of Cambodia, 244n138 2008, 181, 187 680 Index

Electoral Act (South Africa), 125 democratic transition, 60–61 Electoral Act (Zimbabwe), amendments, 181 draft constitution, 69 Electoral Action Solidarity (AWS; Poland), 399, from appointed commission, 619–20 400–01, 412n4, 415n37 commission’s approach to process, 72–73 electoral college, 373 failure to implement constitution, 76 in Brazil, 440, 461n10 four-state process, 63 electoral rule, in Hungary, 373–74 importance of recording public debates, 66 ELF (Eritrean Liberation Front), 60, 78n14 legitimacy, 623 Elkins, Zachary, 657n31 public education and consultation, 631 ELN (National Liberation Army; Colombia), 469, public participation, 634, 636–37 480 referendum on association with Ethiopia, 58 Elshtain, Jean Bethke, on democracy, 59 representation in constitution-making bodies, Elster, Jon, xviin3, 383, 656n24 628 Emergency Fund (Brazil), 455 societal diversity, 63 Emergency Loya Jirga (Afghanistan), 542, 543 transitional arrangement, 625 leadership problems, 547 trust in government, 75 emergency powers of president (Colombia), Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF), 60, 78n14 480–81 Eritrean People’s Liberation Front (EPLF), 57, Ennals, Martin, 291 78n14 Entity constitutions (Bosnia), conforming to as provisional government, 60–61 Dayton, 345 Esquipulas Ageement on Regional Peace, Entity governments (Bosnia), dispute resolution Nicaragua and, 492 between, 348n9 Esscher, Dr., 109n44 EPL (Popular Liberation Army; Colombia), 469, Estado Novo (New State) in Brazil, 437 471 Estatuto Fundamental (Fundamental Statute) of EPLF (Eritrean People’s Liberation Front), 57, 1979 (Nicaragua), 486 78n14 Estatuto sobre Derechos y Garantías de los as provisional government, 60–61 Nicaragüenses (Statute of Rights and equal protection of the law, 189 Guarantees of the Nicaraguan People), 486 equality of persons, 6 Estonia, 11 Erasmus, Gerhard, 88, 107n26 ETA (Euzkadi ta Azkatasuna; Spain), 419 Erickson, Kenneth P., 435 Ethiopia, 43, 660n65 Eritrea, 18n45, 57–77, 615. See also Constitutional action against South Africa, 82 Commission of Eritrea constituent assembly, 65, 74 armed struggle for independence, 62 constitution-making process, 40 © citizensCopyright living abroad in constitution-making by the constitutionalEndowment commission, 39 of process, 74 constitutional committee, and Eritrea civic education and consultative process, constitution-making, 67 the66–70 United States Instituteon democratic participation, of 26 Peace conflict resolution, 646–47 Eritrean referendum on association with, 58 constituent assembly, 611 Ethiopian-Eritrean War of 1998–2000, 69 constitution in 1997, 10 “ethnic,” word use in Bosnia negotiations, 349n10 constitution-making process ethnic division of country, rejection by Namibia, 96 approval, 73 ethnic groups and conflict resolution, 70–72 allegiances, and Uganda assembly elections, foreign experts, 640 167 historical perspective, 59–60 in Bosnia, 341 problems of promulgation and and key positions in government, 339 implementation, 74–76 diversity in Zimbabwe, 182 public participation, 61–62 in Eritrea, fighting experence as building ratification, 69 block for nationhood, 62 ratification of constitution, 73–74 in Fijian institutions, 302 constitutional crisis, 75 and interim constitution for South West debates on official language, 71 Africa/Namibia, 83 Framing the State in Times of Transition 681

marginalization in Iraq, 583 Falvey, John, 280 in Namibia, 108n39 Falvey Committee (Fiji), 279–81 in South Africa, reconciliation, 144 Faoro, Raymundo, 439 ethnic nationalism, in Yugoslav republics, 333 FARC (Revolutionary Armed Forces of ethnicity, expert on institutional approaches to Colombia), 469 accommodating, 293 campaign of terror after 1991 constitution, ethnicization of politics, in Fiji, 279–81 480 ETTA (Transitional Administration of East military attack on headquarters, 475 Timor), 259 federalism, 575 Europe. See also Central Europe; Council of in Iraq, 565, 575 Europe; Eastern Europe proposal, 576 European Arrest Warrant, 411 Sunni Arab position on, 577–78, 579 European Convention for the Protection of rejection by Eritrea, 68 Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, 7, in Uganda, and Buganda status, 168–69 88 in Venezuela, 509 Bosnia and, 338 Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 334. See European Convention for the Protection of also Bosnia and Herzegovina Human Rights (ECHR: 1950), 23 Federation of Industries of São Paulo (FIESP; First Protocol addition in 1952, 23 Brazil), 445 European Convention on Human Rights, 373, federo (autonomy), 169 409, 627 Feto Timor Loro Sac Timorese Women’s Network Albania and, 326 (Women’s Network), 262 European Economic Community, pressure on FGTS (Fund for the Guarantee of the Time of Spain, 421 Service), 446 European Framework Convention for the FIDESZ (Fiatal Demokraták Szövetsége; Alliance Protection of National Minorities (1995), 23 of Young Democrats), 357, 362, 366, 367, 378, European Union 383 and Albania, 323 support for new constitution, 371 France and Netherlands referendum on FIESP (Federation of Industries of São Paulo; constitution, 36 Brazil), 445 participation modes, 32 fifth brigade, in Zimbabwe, 180 Polish constitutional amendment for harmony, Figueiredo, João Baptista de Oliveira, 439 411 Fiji, 275–304 Euzkadi ta Azkatasuna (ETA; Spain), 419 2000 coup and abrogation of constitution, 300 Evans, Gareth, Australian Plan in 1989, 210 background, 276–83 © CopyrightEvans, Tony, 22 by the Endowmentethnicization of politics, 279–81 of Executive Committee in Eritrea, 60 Manueli committee and 1990 and draft constitution approval, 73 constitution, 281–83 theexecutive United council (South Africa), States for transition, Institutepolitical developments, of Peace 278–83 123 society and economy, 276–78 executive powers cabinet committee on constitutional review, in Colombia, procedures for strengthening 284 controls over, 478 conclusion, 303–04 in Uganda, in 1960s, 160 constitution-making process, coup after, 646 expectations, factors to consider for future, 652 constitution of 1970, 278–79 experts, for drafting constitution, vs. delegates, 616 constitution of 1990, amendment bill, 289–90 Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of constitutional commission, 620 Cambodia (ECCC), 230 proposed models, 285 public hearings as priority, 288 FAA (Ample Front for Agriculture), 447 timing and sequencing, 286–90 factual state of affairs, 100 constitutional commission issues, 296–300 Fagundes, Miguel Seabra, 439 affirmative action, 299 FALANTIL (Forças Armadas de Libertaçao ethnicity, 296 Nacional de Timor Leste), 248 Fijian interests, 297–98 682 Index

human rights, 298–99 “A Framework for Decentralized Government in land, 298 Iraq,” 580 political control, 296–97 Framework Law (Nicaragua), 496, 499 reconciliation, 299–300 France religion, 298 referendum in 2005, 51n122 context for constitution-making, 606 referendum on European Union constitution, economy, 284 36 elections Franck, Thomas, xvi, 21, 42, 183, 635, 647 1987, 280 on “emergence” of a right, 26–27 1992, 283 on General Comment 25, 29 1999, 300–01, 304 Franco, Francisco, reform record, 418 failure to provide public participation, 635 Franco, Itamar, 454 international community role, 292–96 Freedom Alliance, 124 experts and academics, 293–94, 617 Freedom Charter (South Africa), 113, 192 finance, 294 Freedom Front, 125, 131 foreign experience, 294–95 1994 election results, 126 international law role, 295–96 Freedom House, 584 military communication on constitution, 282 Nations in Transit, 327 parliament, vs. constituent assembly, 613 freedom of association, risk to, in Uganda, 170 political developments, structure of process, freedom of expression 284–86 in Cambodia, 219–20 pronunciation in, 306n20 Zimbabwe constitution on, 184 public participation, 290–92 French Fifth Republic, 373 consultation, 661n70 Frente Revolucionária de Timor-Leste religious input, 292 Independente (Fretilin), 246 race and ethnicity in political structure, Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional (FSLN), 275–76 484, 485 indigenous people, 277 and 2000 constitutional reforms, 496–97 reform process, 283–300 and constitutional reform, 495, 496–97 reasons for, 283–84 and public participation, 498 state religion, call for, 282 Fretilin party (East Timor) Fiji Council of Churches, 292 control of constitution-making process, 258, Fiji-I-Care, 292 266, 618 Fiji Labour Party (FLP), 280, 300 dominance in East Timor, 253 Fijian Affairs Act, 305n12 draft constitution, 255 ©Fijian Copyright Alliance Party (AP), 278 by the electionEndowment results, 257 of Fijian Development Fund Act, 305n12 FSLN-Center Group coalition, 495 finance, for Fiji constitution development, 294 Fuerza Nueva (New Force; Spain), 419 Firstthe Nations, United 29 StatesFüggetlen Institute Kisgaza Párt (FKgP; of Independent Peace Small Fischer, Leni, 330n64 Holders Party), 359 Fiss, Owen, xviin3, 62, 63 FUNCINPEC. See National United Front FKgP (Független Kisgaza Párt; Independent Small for an Independent, Neutral, Peaceful, and Holders Party), 359 Cooperative Cambodia (FUNCINPEC) Fleischer, David, 442 Fund for the Guarantee of the Time of Service FLP (Fiji Labour Party), 280 (FGTS), 446 FNLI (National Front for Free Enterprise), 447 Fundamental Laws (Leyes Fundamentales) of Folha of São Paulo, 442 Franco, 418 Fonseca, Joaquim, 253 Furley, Oliver, 159 Forças Armadas de Libertaçao Nacional de Timor Leste (FALANTIL), 248 Gabon, 8 Ford, Gerald, 272n2 term limits, 171 Ford, Robert, 592n59 Gaitán, Jorge Eliécer, 468 foreign experts, in Afghanistan, 544 Galán, Luis Carlos, 470 Fraenkel, Jon, 304 Galbraith, Peter, 252, 253, 593n64, 597n126 Framing the State in Times of Transition 683

Gaviria, César, 471, 475 Goure, Claude Gille, 226–27 GCC (Great Council of Chiefs), 278, 279, 289, government-funded civic education campaigns, 305n10 37 Gdansk Agreement (Porozumienie Gdanskie), 392 government of national unity (GNU), 283–84 Geingob, Hage, 89, 110n54 Great Council of Chiefs (GCC), 278, 279, 289, Geisel, Ernesto, 439 305n10 Gelb, Leslie, 597n126 Green, Joyce, 41 gender-equity issues, in Zimbabwe, 194 grievances General Captaincy of Venezuela, 509 inclusion and, 70 General Comment on Article 25, 31, 51n127 public consultation to facilitate airing of, 62 General Comments, for UNCHR, 29 Groote Schuur Minute, 116 general controller of the republic (Venezuela), Grundnorm, 484 517–18 Grzybowski, Marian, 397, 415n39 General Framework Agreement for Peace in GTZ (German Technical Cooperation Agency), Bosnia and Herzegovina, 334 315, 316 general prosecutor of the republic (Venezuela), guerilla group in Colombia, 469 517–18 pardons and amnesty for, 479 General Workers Union (Union General del Guimarães, Ulysses, 440, 442, 446, 450, 451 Trabajo; UGT), 419 Guinea, term limits, 171 genocide Gusmão, Kay Rala Xanana, 248, 252, 260 of Iraqi Kurds, 567 Guterres, Francisco, 255, 257 Paris Agreements and, 211, 242n87 Guyana, 276 Genocide Convention, 229 Guzmán, Luis, 496 Geremek, Bronislaw, 403 German Democratic Republic, authoritarian rule habeas data (Portugal), 456 transition, 350 Habibie, B.J., 248 German Federal Republic, 373 Hajdari, Azem, 324 German Technical Cooperation Agency (GTZ), al-Hakim, Abdul Aziz, 574, 575, 578, 581 315, 316 Hale, Charles, 494 Germany, administration of South West Africa Halmia, Gabor, 14 territory, 91 Hammarberg, Thomas, 236 al-Ghadban, Thamir Abbas, 592n51 Hamoudi, Sheikh Humam, 567, 573, 579, 580, Ghai, Yash, 65, 236, 281, 291, 294, 580, 592n61 584, 592n49, 592n53 Ghana, 5 Hanafi school of sharia, 540 Ghazi, Ashraf, and minority rights in Iraq Hani, Chris, assassination, 120 © Copyrightconstitution, 584 by the EndowmentHarare Commonwealth Declaration, 201 ofn110 al-Ghitta, Fateh, 583 Harare Declaration (1989), 143 Ghosananda, Maha, 219 Harare Declaration (1991), 24, 115 theGinsburg, United Tom, 657n31 States InstituteHart, Vivien, xvi, xviin 3, of622, 623, Peace 633, 635–36, Gjata, Rustem, 324 645, 647 Gjinushi, Skender, 328n26 al-Hassani, Hajim, 574, 584, 592n53 Global Political Agreement (Zimbabwe), 181 Havel, Vaclav, 372 GNU (government of national unity), 283–84 Haysom, Nicholas, 579, 579–80, 660n59 god-kings, in Cambodian culture, 209 Hekmatyar, Gulbuddin, 559n23 Godo, Sabri, 319, 329n38 Herceg-Bosna, 334 Godoy, Virgilio, 495 Herero council, 107n25 Goetz, Anne Marie, 47n46 Hereros ethnic group, 108n39 Gold Coast, 5 in Namibia, 92 Gómez, Laureano, 468 High Representative (Bosnia), 341, 342, 345 Gönecz, Arpád, 366 Dayton Agreement creation of, 345–46 Gonzalez, Felipe, 423, 424, 427, 428 Hirschman, Albert, 454 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 355 Holbrooke, Richard, 334, 335, 336 Gordon, Arthur, 305n10 homeland governments in Namibia, elections, Goulart, João, 435, 437 108n35 684 Index

Horowitz, Donald, 293, 297, 654n2, 658n40, absence of agreed timetable, 639 664n113 achievements and failures, 378–84 Horta, Jose Ramos, 248, 271 legitimacy absence, 380–82 House of Assembly (South Africa), 114 acronyms list for, 384 House of Peoples (Bosnia), 341 constituent assembly House of Representatives (South Africa), 114 proposals calling for early election, 356 Hoxha, Enver, 311, 312 rejection of election, 357 hukum sharii, 565 constitution amendments, 376, 386n32 Human Development Index, 244n135 constitution as product of models and Human Rights Commission, treaty enforcement bargains, 372–78 through judicial process, 25 bargaining and presidency nature, Human Rights Committee (Zimbabwe), 183 374–75 human rights issues electoral rule and power conversion, in Albania, 312 373–74 in Bosnia innovation and models, 372–73 ethnically based provisions in veil of ignorance and guarantees, negotiations, 342–43 375–78 guarantees in constitution, 338 constitution-making agents, 364–70 in Brazil, 438–39 constitutional court, 368–70 in Cambodia new parliament with MDF-SZDSZ constitutional provisions, 232–33 pact, 365–68 education, 217, 218 old parliament, 364–65 and Colombia constitution, 478 constitution-making process, 354–72, 622 in East Timor constitution, 265 development of transition strategy, in Fiji, 298–99 354–57 international law, 228–29 failure in 1996–97, 370–72 and Colombia, 477 from Round Table to referendum, international norms 361–64 and Fiji, 295 constitution of 1949, change by two-thirds and Zimbabwe constitution-making, majority, 364 183 constitutional amendments in 1989, 357 responsibility in Cambodia for gross constitutional court, 352, 366, 376 violations, 229 activist practice, 382 South African court and, 87 agreement on, 375 violation in Rhodesia, 179 on law affecting basic rights, 377 © inCopyright Zimbabwe, 181, 189 by the elections,Endowment rules, 364 of Human Rights Party (Albania), 328n26 impact of Poland on transition, 358 Human Rights Task Force for the Cambodian intellectuals as opposition, 357 theElections, United 218 States Instituteinterim constitution, 351 of Peace human rights treaties, 3 ratification issues, 383 Human Rights Watch, 223, 476 legal continuity, 648 Hun Sen, 208, 214, 215, 221, 224, 234 legislature election, 362 Hungarian Democratic Forum (Magyar national roundtable, 621 Demokrata Fórum; MDF), 353, 356, 358, 366, opposition in, 356, 613 367, 383 peaceful transition from dictatorship to liberal expectations vs. results, 375 democracy, 350 support for new constitution, 371 presidency in, 356 Hungarian Social Democratic Party (MSZDP; referendums, 351, 623–24 Magyar Szociáldemokrta Párt), 359, 360 roundtable negotiations, 351 Hungarian Socialist Party (Magyar Szocialista self-constituted assembly, 11 Párt; MSZP), 354, 355, 366, 385n12 transition from communist rule, 352–53 Hungary, 13–14, 350–84, 604, 658n42 transition to democracy, 11, 645 1989 amendment, 13 Hurtado, Gómez, 473, 475 1990 election, 374 Hussein, Saddam, on constitutions, 567 Framing the State in Times of Transition 685

Hyden, Goran, on constitution-making, 484 and constitutional amendment process, 142 Hyman, Jerry, xviin3 objections to South Africa court certification, hyperinflation in Brazil, 454 140 violence between ANC supporters and, 145 ICCPR. See International Covenant on Civil and Institutional Act 12 (Brazil), 438 Political Rights (ICCPR) Institutional Act 17 (Brazil, 1969), 438 IDEA study, 662n83 institutional compromise, and transition to Ieng Sary, 242n92 democracy, 484 Ieng Thirith, 242n92 institutional ethnic categories, rejection by IFES (International Foundation for Election Namibia, 87 Systems), 321 intellectuals, as opposition in Hungary, 357 IFP. See Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP; South Inter-American Democratic Charter (2001), 24, Africa) 510, 521 Imami, Arben, 319, 329n38 Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), 221, 266 Imbeni, Renzo, 330n64 Inter-Religious Mission for Peace in Cambodia, immunity, for former Nicaragua presidents, 497 219 immutable principles, 518 Inter-Union Department for Parliamentary Action inclusiveness, 627–29 (DIAP; Brazil), 446 constitution-making process to promote, 245 Interfaith Search (Fiji), 292 factors to consider for future, 653 INTERFET (International Forces in East Timor), and grievances, 70 249 impact, 660n61 interim authority in Afghanistan, Bonn Agreement impact on process in South Africa, 145, 146 on, 542 public participation and, 138 interim cabinet for Afghanistan, Bonn Agreement in South Africa constitution-making, 127 on, 542–43 independence interim constitution of commission for constitution-making, 65 and constitution-making process, 127 process of achieving, 5 final political agreement on text, 125 Rhodesia from Britain, 179 for South Africa, 38, 120–25, 625 independent constitution commission (ICC), democratic credentials, 122 proposal for Iraq, 583 framework for government of national Independent Electoral Commission (South unity, 123 Africa), 126 for South West Africa/Namibia, 101, 105n8 Independent Small Holders Party (FKgP; ethnic component, 83 Független Kisgaza Párt), 359 interim government in Namibia, dissolution, © CopyrightIndia, 5 by the Endowment106n12 of Indian culture, and Cambodian political traditions, Internal Security Decree (Fiji), 281 209 International Alert, 291 theIndian United House of Delegates (SouthStates Africa), 114 Instituteinternational community of Peace Indian population, in Fiji, 276, 277 and Cambodia, 225–28 indigenous people foreign experts, 226–28 in Fiji, 277 United Nations, 225–26 group rights, 295 and East Timor, 265–68 in Nicaragua, 493 in Nicaragua constitution-making process, resettlement, impact on credibility, 491 491–93 Indo-Fijian National Federation Party (NFP), 278, pressure on South Africa from, 145 279 responsibility for Iraq, 588 Indonesia, 210 and Rhodesia, 179 military invasion of East Timor, 246, 247, 248 role in Albania, 322–25 inflation in Brazil, 441, 464n64 attempted coup d’Etat, 324–25 stabilization plan, 454 parliamentary delegations, 323–24 Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP; South Africa), role in Colombia, 476–77 110n55, 116, 117, 124, 125 role in Fiji, 292–96 1994 election results, 126 experts and academics, 293–94 686 Index

role in Namibia, 101–03 constitution-making process, 569–84 role in Poland, international community role, civil society exclusion, 582–85 410–11 committee absence of rules, 576 role in Zimbabwe, 190–91 and conflict, 645 and South Africa, 143 foreign experts, 641 International Covenant on Civil and Political illegality charges, 581–82 Rights (ICCPR), 3, 5–7, 14, 20, 43, 45n13, impact of rushed process, 575–77, 588 199n57, 299, 635 implications of bad process, 649 Article 25, 21, 22–23 increased U.S. visibility, 580–81 and Cambodia, 233 lost opportunities for international and Nicaragua constitution, 493 mediation, 579–80 as source of universal procedural norms, 4–5 motivation, 651 Zimbabwe and, 188 prelude, 564–69 International Covenant on Economic, Social, and time limitations, 572–74 Cultural Rights (ICESCR), 188, 299 time pressures, and exclusion of Sunni International Criminal Tribunal for the former Arab negotiators, 571–75 Yugoslavia, 338, 342 constitutions, 564 International Criminal Tribunal in The Hague, 335 interim, 565 International Crisis Group, 566, 591n33, 597n134 deadline pressure, 638 international customary law, state practice, 7 draft constitution, 563 International Forces in East Timor (INTERFET), changes, 582 249 multiple versions, 584 International Foundation for Election Systems preparation, 617 (IFES), 321 elections, 624 international governance, and Bosnia, 346 ethnic, religious, and political identities, 589n3 International IDEA and Interpeace, xviin2 foreign involvement issues, 651 International Labor Organization (ILO), internal domestic pressures for new Committee on Freedom of Association, constitution, 566 criticism of Zimbabwe, 190 Kurds, 567, 575, 583, 586–87 international law National Assembly, 565 and Cambodia, 228–30 public participation, 633–34, 634–35 change in democracy concept, 21 referendum on constitution, 564, 623 instruments promising public participation, Shia Arabs, 567, 575, 587 22–23 negotiating position of, 578 norms relating to constitutional-making Sunni Arabs, 574, 587 © Copyrightprocess, 3–15 by the Endowmentabsence from constitution-drafting of relevance in constitution-making process, process, 563 647–48 boycott of national assembly elections, therole of, xviUnited States Institute568, 569–71, 645–46 of Peace in Albania, 325–26 criticism of committee members, 576 in Colombia, 477 efforts to include in constitutional in East Timor, 264–65 process, 571–73 in Fiji, 295–96 elimination of representation from in Namibia, 103 national assembly, 570 time delays in clarifications, 31 exclusion from negotiations, 571–75 international legal instruments, translation, 67 insurgency, 564, 568 International Republican Institute (IRI), 227, 572 moderating position on federalism, investment, net foreign direct, to Cambodia, 577–78 244n137 opposition to constitution, 570–71 Invincible draft agreement (Bosnia), 337 opposition to referendum, 588 IPU (Inter-Parliamentary Union), 221 public, 568 Iraq, 563–88 technical assistance, 641 conflict in, 605 Transitional Administrative Law for Iraq consensus-building absence, 651 (2004), 21, 565 Framing the State in Times of Transition 687

Iraq Foundation for Development and Democracy, Junta de Gobierno de Reconstrucción Nacional, 583 487 Iraq Institute of Peace, 594n79 justice, in Angkor, Cambodia, 209 Iraq National Foundation Conference, 572 juveniles, corporal punishment in Zimbabwe, 184 Iraqi National Foundation Congress, 570 Iraqi Prospect Organization, 566 Kaczyński, Jaroslaw, 411 IRI (International Republican Institute), 227, 572 Kádár, János, 358 Iribarne, Manuel Fraga, 418, 424 Kahn, Abdul Rahman, 551 Islam Kahn, Ismael, 555 in Afghanistan constitution, 551–52, 557 Kaing Guek Eav (Duc), 230 role in Afghan legal system, 539 Kalakula, Petrit, 328n27 as state religion under 1964 constitution, 540 Kamikamica, Josefata, 281 Islamic, amendment to remove from Afghanistan Kanin, David, 349n18 name, 549 Kapuuo, Clemens, 83, 92, 98, 108n42 Issa, Sheikh Mijbil, 573, 594n80 assassination, 105n8 ittihadiyyah (federalism), in Iraq, 577 and Turnhalle Consitutional Conference, 108n37 al-Jaafari, Ibrahim, 574 Karadzic, Radovan, 335, 342 Jackson, Vicki, 656n17, 659n50 Karmal, Babrak, 537 Jakarta Information Meeting ( JIM), 210 Karzai, Hamid, 542, 543, 547, 551, 554, 620 al-Janabi, Adnan, 592n51 control of draft, 545 al-Janabi, Shiekh Abd al-Nair, 593n75 draft constitution modification, opposition to, Jarquín, Agustín, 497 548 Jaruzelski, Wojciech, 392, 393, 413n21 Kasfir, Nelson, 235 Jefferson, Thomas, 462n21 Katalikawe, James, 159 Jennar, Raoul, 220 Kategaya, Eriya, 170 jihadi leadership Kavango, 92 distribution in CLJ subcommittees, 548–49 Kazakhstan, 11 views of others on, 549 Kelsen-type independent tribunal, for Hungary, Jimenez, Marcos Perez, 507 375 JNA (Yugoslav People’s Army), 333 João, Prince Regent of Portugal, 435 Kempton Park conference (1993), 107n26 Joaquim, José, 443 Kenya, 7, 64 Jobim, Nelson, 452 Keresztény Demokrata Nép Párt (KDNP; Joint Parliamentary Select Committee ( JPSC; Christian Democratic People’s Party), 359 © CopyrightFiji), 288 by the EndowmentKerina, Murumba, 108n38 of Journal of Democracy, 158 al-Khafaji, Sallama, 583 Journal of Laws, 401 Khalilzad, Zalmay, 548, 550, 553, 554, 574, 581 theJoya, Malali,United 549 States InstituteKhieu Samphan, 236, 242ofn92 Peace JPSC ( Joint Parliamentary Select Committee; Khmer empire (Cambodia), 209 Fiji), 288 Khmer Institute of Democracy, 220 Juan Carlos, king of Spain, 650, 651 Khmer People’s National Liberation Front judiciary (KPLNF), 210, 239n4 in Afghanistan, 540 Khmer Rouge, 207, 229 in Brazil, caseload, 466n78 1994 law outlawing, 242n90 in Cambodia, 233 attempted reconciliation with, 223 in Eritrea, 74 criticism of UNTAC, 222–23 in Namibia, 91 and Paris Agreements, 211 in Nicaragua, 492 and voter registration, 214 roles in constitution-making, 626–27 Khoi-San people in Namibia, 92 in South Africa, appointment, 130, 151n65 king in Cambodia, traditional role, 209 in Venezuela kingdoms in Uganda, constitution abolishing, 160 loss of independence, 519 Kinoy, Arthur, 492 power encroachment, 514 Kiraly, Zoltan, 365 in Zimbabwe, 184, 189 Kirby, Michael, 233, 236 688 Index

Kis, János, 362, 372, 379 in Fiji, 298 kisanja, 173 in Nicaragua, 496 Kissinger, Henry, 272n2 language Kiszczak, Czeslaw, 392, 413n21 in Afghanistan, debate over official, 553 Kiwanuka, Benedicto, 159 in East Timor Klug, Heinz, 144, 660n62 draft constitution, 264 Kosanguisi, Fanuel, 108n42 simultaneous translation in constituent Kosovo, 333, 663n97 assembly, 266 Kotako, Hosea, 92 in Eritrea, 79n48 Kovango population group, 108n39 debates on designating official, 71 Koya, Siddiq, 278 La Pergola, Antonio, 330n54 KPN (Confederation of Independent Poland), Latin American Studies Association (LASA), 487 412n4 Latvia, 11 draft constitution, 396 Law and Justice Party (PiS), 412n4 Kritz, Neil, xviin3 Law and Order Maintenance Act of 1960 Kruk, Maria, 397 (Zimbabwe), 179 Krzaklewski, Marian, 396, 398 Law of the Sea, U.S. position, 4 Kulscàr, K., 386n24, 389n88 Law of Treaties, U.S. position, 4 Kurdish Region parties, preparation for ad hoc Law on the Establishment of Extraordinary negotiations, 578 Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia for the Kurdistan, 588, 590n31 Prosecution of Crimes..., 230 regional government, 568 Law, Sylvia, 492 Kurdistan Coalition List, 570 Leaders’ Council (Colégio de Líderes; Brazil), 451 Kurdistan Referendum Movement, 568, 623 leadership, 650–51 Kurds in Iraq, 567, 575, 583, 586–87 negative role, 664n114 Kuron, Jacek, 372 Leadership Council, 574, 581, 584 Kuvend Popullore (People’s Assembly), 12 League of Nations, and Namibia, 81–82 Kwasniewski, Aleksander, 371, 398, 400, 406 Lee Kwan Yew, 295 KwaZulu/Natal province, objections to South legal continuity, 379, 648 Africa court certification, 140, 142 in South Africa, 664n107 Kyrgyzstan, 11 legal tradition in South Africa, 146 Legality Party (Albania), 328n26 labor relations in Brazil, 439 legislature, in Eritrea, 68 Labour Party (Fiji), 283, 290 legitimacy, 150n35, 193, 385n4, 661n79 ©Laço, CopyrightTeodor, 328n26 by the assumptionEndowment of, 74 of Lal, Brij, 279, 284, 286 of Bosnia constitution, 643 Lamounier, Bolivar, 354 of democracy, constitution for, 421 Lancasterthe House,United London, 198n48 States Institutedifferent modes of, 351 of Peace Lancaster House model, 58, 77n6, 180, 181–82, ensuring maximum for constitution, 194 183, 644 of Hungary constitution, 352, 367 lack of public participation, 193 absence, 380–82 process leading to, 191 of Iraq election, 570 time frame, 193 as issue in South Africa, 122, 127 Land Act of 1998 (Uganda), 173 Lancaster House constitution failure to gain, Land Apportionment Act (Zimbabwe), 178 182 land issues, in Fiji, 277 normative expectations and, 183 land ownership for Polish parliamentary decisions, 396 rural, in Brazil, 447 of power of leaders, 64 in Zimbabwe, 178, 182, 190 public participation and, 138 limitations on women, 194 and Round Table agreement, 407 land reform and rule of law in Venezuela, 511–12 in Brazil, 448 Leifer, Michael, on Sihanouk, 243n101 need for, 459 Leuprecht, Peter, 236 Framing the State in Times of Transition 689

Levine, Daniel, 499 macro constitutional politics, 47n46 LeVine, Victor, xviin3 Madzimbamuto v. Lardner-Burke (Southern Leyes Fundamentales (Fundamental Laws) of Rhodesia), 179 Franco, 418 Magaya v. Magaya (Zimbabwe), 194 “liberal democracy” Magyar Demokrata Fórum (MDF; Hungarian and Cambodia, 211 Democratic Forum), 353, 356, 358, 366, 367, and constitutional monarchy, 231–32 383 Liberal Front Party (Partido a Frente Liberal; expectations vs. results, 375 PFL), 440 support for new constitution, 371 Liberal Party (Colombia), 468 Magyar Szociáldemokrta Párt (MSZDP; Liberal Party (PLC; Nicaragua), and 2000 Hungarian Social Democratic Party), 359, 360 constitutional reforms, 496–97 Magyar Szocialista Párt (MSZP; Hungarian Liberal Republic, 468 Socialist Party), 354, 355, 366, 385n12 liberalization Mahlangu v. Khumalo (Zimbabwe), 194 impact of constitution-making process, 354 Major Constitutional Provisions (Albania), of socioeconomic policies, 417 312–13, 318 liberation war, in Zimbabwe, 180 majority rule Liberia, action against South Africa, 82 in Hungary, constraints on, 381 LICADHO (Cambodian League for the Zimbabwe and, 178–79 Promotion and Protection of Human Rights), Malawi, 7, 178 220 term limits, 171, 182 Lijphart, Arend, 35, 293 Malaysia, 276 lineage (mataqali), in Fiji, 277 review by Fiji, 294 Linz, Juan, 417, 447, 483, 660n67 Mali, 8 literacy rate Al-Maliki, Nuri, 588 in East Timor, and public participation, 264 mandado de injunção (mandate of injunction), 457 in Eritrea, and civic education, 67 mandado de segurança (writ of security; Brazil), Lithuania, 11 456 Little Constitution (Poland), 13 Mandate Commission of League of Nations, 81 lobbying in South Africa, 131 mandate of injunction (mandado de injunção), 457 Lobel, Jules, 485 Mandela, Nelson, 114, 650 U.S. intervention and, 492 government leaders’ meetings with, 115 Lobengula (Ndeble king), 177 leadership quality, 147 local government (municipalities), in Venezuela, 521 meeting with Buthelezi in 1991, 116 Local Government Statute of 1993 (Uganda), 162 meeting with de Klerk, 116, 124, 132 © CopyrightLon Hol, 210 by the Endowmentsigning of constitution, 10, 144 of Lost Counties, 160 signing of Record of Understanding, 119 loya jirga (grand national assembly; Afghanistan), as South Africa president, 126 the535, United 558, 558n2, 611 States InstituteMansoor, Abdul Hafiz, of547 Peace 1964 constitution and, 539 Manueli committee (Fiji), and 1990 constitution, Afghanistan option to call, 557 281–83 constitution ratified by, 537, 538–39 Manueli, Paul, 281, 283 of party loyalists, 537 Maoist movement, 210 Lú-Olo, 264 MAQL (Quintín Lame Armed Movement; lugam (accountability), in Eritrea, 68, 69 Colombia), 471, 473 Luís, Washington, 436 Mara, Ratu Kamisese, 278, 279, 281, 283 Lukiiko (parliament), 168–69 Marçal, Arlindo, 263 Lula da Silva, Luis Inácio, 446 Marçal, Francisco, 257 Lusaka Institute, 87, 106n20 marginalization, referendum as voters’ protest on, 36 M-19 (Movement of April 19; Colombia), 469, 474 marginalized groups, 271 Macedonia, 333 Marker, Jamshee, 248 constitutional amendments, in peace Marks, Susan, 36, 41, 49n94 agreement, 644 Marr, Phebe, 589n9 690 Index

Marshall v. Canada (1991), 27–28, 29, 31, 42 military martial law, in Poland 1981, 392 in Brazil, 447, 612–13 Marxist Leninist Party of Colombia, 469 communications on Fiji constitution, 282 Mashonaland, 177 Venezuela as police state, 505–06 Mass Democratic Movement (South Africa), 115 in Venezuela, increasing power of, 520 Matatiele Municipality and Others v. President of the military coup d’état, in Brazil, 435 Republic and Others , 30–31 military government, in Brazil, 438, 439 Matebele ethnic group, 177 Milosevic, Slobodan, 333, 335 Matebeleland, 177 at Dayton, 338 Matembe, Miria, 170 Ministério Público (Public Ministry; Brazil), 457 Maubere people, 246 Ministry of Constitutional Affairs (Uganda), 162 Mauritius, 279 Ministry of Defense (Brazil), 458 and Fiji, 294, 295 Ministry of Institutional Reform and Relations Mazowiecki, Tadeusz, 393, 403 with the Parliament (Albania), 315, 316 conflict with Walesa, 415n38 Ministry of Local Government (Albania), 321, 322 Mazurkiewicz, 400 minorities Mbeki, Thabo, 181, 187 failure to speak, 38 McConnell, Shelley, 486, 496 protection in Namibia, 87 McDonald, James H., 492 representation in constitutional commissions, McWhinney, Edward, 484–85, 489, 491 70 MDF (Magyar Demokrata Fórum; Hungarian Miskito Indians, relocation by Sandinistas in Democratic Forum), 366, 367, 383 Nicaragua, 487 division with SZDSZ, 353, 356, 358 Miskitos, Sumus, Ramas, and Sandinistas Working expectations vs. results, 375 Together (MISURASATA), 493 support for new constitution, 371 MISURA (Miskitos, Sumus, and Ramas), 493 media mixed race, persons of, 149n9 in Brazil, 445 Mladic, Ratko, 335, 342 liaison for South African citizen participation, Moehler, Devra, 39 9 Mohammed, Mahathir, 294 in Namibia, 98 Moi, Daniel Arap, 64–65 and public knowledge in Poland, 406 Mojadeddi, Sebaghatullah, 547, 549, 553, 554 Uganda NRM candidates use of, 166 Moldova, 11 media campaigns, 38 monarchy in Albania, 321 in Afghanistan, constitution maintaining in South Africa, 137 power in, 537 ©Mediu, Copyright Fatmir, 328n27 by the inEndowment Brazil, 435 of megaconstitutional politics, 54n162 Monomotapa, kingdom of, 177 Meidani, Rexhep, 320 Montenegro, 333, 349n19 Melbournethe ConferenceUnited on East Timor, States 251 Morgan, Institute Martha I., 41, 489 of Peace Melo, Vasil, 328n26 Mouvement de Liberation Nationale du “men from heaven,” 107n30 Kampuchea (MOLINAKA), 240n33 Mengo government, 169 1993 election results, 214 Meron, Theodor, 4 Movement for Democracy Party (Albania), mesas de trabajo (working groups; Colombia), 470, 328n27 471–72 Movement for Democratic Change (MDC; Meshrano Jirga (House of Elders; Afghanistan), Zimbabwe), 180 539, 555 Movement of April 19 (M-19; Colombia), 469, Mesopotamia. See Iraq 474 Methodist Church in Fiji, 292 Movement of National Salvation (MSN; metropolitan areas, vs. urban areas, 154n106 Colombia), 471, 474 Mexico, 354 Movement of the Landless Rural Workers (MST; Meyer, Roelf, 119, 124, 131, 147, 157n155 Brazil), 448 Michnik, Adam, 372 Movement system (Uganda), 167 Mikmaq tribal society (Canada), 7, 27–28 as de facto single ruling party, 166 Framing the State in Times of Transition 691

internal division after 1995, 170 constituent assembly, 65, 74, 194, 614 multiparty vs. no-party, 164 proportional representation, 86 Movimiento Nacional (National Movement; constitution-making process, experts for, 616, Spain), 422 640 Movimiento V República (MVR; Venezuela), 515 constitution of 1968 for territory, 91, 108n34 MPNP. See Multi-Party Negotiating Process constitutional committee, 89–90 (MPNP) constitutional principles in 1982, 84–85, 103, MSN (Movement of National Salvation; 106n13, 109n48, 127 Colombia), 474 democratic representation in, 99–100 MST (Movement of the Landless Rural Workers; draft constitution, benefit as starting point, Brazil), 448 618–19 MSZDP (Magyar Szociáldemokrta Párt; drafting panel of consitutional experts, 88–89 Hungarian Social Democratic Party), 359, 360 elections MSZP (Magyar Szocialista Párt; Hungarian for constituent assembly, 86 Socialist Party), 354, 355, 366, 385n12 for homeland governments, 108n35 Mudge, Dirk, 83, 88, 94, 105n8, 106n12, 651 elite participation, 629 Mugabe, Robert, 180, 181, 187, 189, 620 essential issues of substance, 103 Mugisha, Ann, 158 ethnic groups, 108n39 Muhindo, Amos, 164 geography, 92 mujahideen (Afghanistan), 541 head of state for, 90 Soviet military against rebel forces of, 537 impact of process, 104 view of urban elites, 549 independence day, 90 Multi-Party Negotiating Forum (South Africa), international community role, 101–03 192 international law role, 103 Multi-Party Negotiating Process (MPNP), 119, lack of nonwhite group experience in 123, 124, 621–22 government, 92 multipartyism in Uganda, 164 League of Nations and United Nations, 81–82 acceptability, 171 lessons learned, 95 municipalities (local government), in Venezuela, political parties’ constitutional proposals, 521 86–88 Muntu, Mugisha, 170 population complacency, 104 Murray, Christiana, 38, 137 preconstitutional principles, 626 Museveni, Yoweri, 158, 159, 162, 173, 606, 619 process structure, 97 donors’ support and, 173 public participation, 97–99 presidential election victories, 166 revocation of mandate on South Africa in © CopyrightMuslim Scholars Association, 572, by 591n42 the EndowmentSouth West Africa, 82–83 of Mutesa, Edward, 160 Security Council Resolution 435 (1978), 84 Mutlaq, Saleh, 580 South Africa learning from, 143 the onUnited missed Iraq deadline, States595n107 InstituteSouth Africa role inof transition Peace to Mutua, Makau, xviin3 indepedence, 93 mutual recognition, 62 South African administrator-general, 84 MVR (Movimiento V República; Venezuela), 515 South African occupation of, 102 Mwaka, Victoria, 165, 174n24 South West Africa name change to, 106n9 timing and sequencing of constitutitional Nadhmi, Wamidh, 572 process, 100–01, 639 Nagy, Imre, reburial, 360 Turnhalle constitutional conference and Najibullah, Mohammad, 537 Democratic Turnhalle Alliance, 83–84 Nama ethnic group in Namibia, 108n39 UN administration of transition to Namibia, 7, 81–110 independence, 6 adoption of constitution and independence, United Nations Transition Assistance Group 90–91 (UNTAG), 85–86 conclusion, 103–04 Nano, Eatos, 324, 328n26 conflict resolution, role of constitution- national assembly, in South Africa, 126 making in, 91–96 National Assembly (Iraq), 565 692 Index

National Assembly (Nicaragua), 485, 494 objections to South Africa court certification, National Assembly of Eritrea 140 in constitution approval process, 63 private meeting with NP before talks and draft constitution approval, 73 resumption, 119 and transition, 75 role in South Africa negotiating process, 146 National Caucus for Democracy (Uganda), 167 National Patriotic Front (Namibia), constitutional National Committee of Unity (Colombia), 470 proposals, 87 National Confederation of Agricultural Workers national reconciliation, Cambodia constitution- (CONTAG), 448 making process and, 234 National Conference of Lawyers, 439 National Resistance Army (NRA; Uganda), 162 National Conference of the Bishops of Brazil National Resistance Movement (NRM; Uganda), (CNBB), 461n12 39, 47n46, 159, 161, 165, 167, 606, 612 For a New Constitutional Order, 448 and constitution-making process, 169–70 national conference to enact constitution, 8 election process and, 629 national constitution week, in South Africa, 138 limits on political parties, 161–62 National Constitutional Assembly (NCA; power concentration at top, 168 Zimbabwe), 185 National Round Table (NKA; Hungary), 351, 353, national constitutions, and public participation, 365 25–27 role in constitution-making, 362 National Consultative Council (NCC; East structure of talks, 360–61 Timor), 249, 265 National Salvation Front (NSF), 12 National Council (East Timor), Standing national-sector public hearing program (South Committee of Political Affairs, PAC report, 256 Africa), 136 National Council on Parties (Nicaragua), 487 National Security Council (CSN; Brazil), 447 National Democratic Institute for International National Union of Disabled Persons of Uganda, Affairs (NDI), 227, 263, 574, 591n35, 593n67 165 National Democratic Party (NDP), 179 National United Front for an Independent, National Dialogue Council, 580 Neutral, Peaceful, and Cooperative Cambodia National Endowment for Democracy, 227 (FUNCINPEC), 208, 210, 212, 231, 239n4 National Front for Construction and Defense, 219 1993 election results, 214 National Front for Free Enterprise (FNLI), 447 National Unity Party (Albania), 328n26 National Front Party (Albania), 328n27 national unity vs. provincial power, in South National Information Service (SNI; Brazil), 447 Africa, 124 National Liberation Army (ELN; Colombia), 469, National Women’s Summit (Cambodia), 219 480 National Youth Council (Uganda), 165 ©National Copyright Liberation Movement of Kampuchea, by 223thenationalism, Endowment in South Africa, 113 of National Movement (Movimiento Nacional; nationalists, in Bosnia, 338 Spain), 422 Native Land Act, 305n12 Nationalthe Organisation United for Civic Education States and Native Institute Land Trust Act, 305n 12of Peace Election Monitoring (NOCEM), 163 Native Women’s Association of Canada (NWAC), National Organisation of Trade Unions (Uganda), 29 165 Nauru, 279 national ownership, constitution-making process to NCA (National Constitutional Assembly; promote, 245 Zimbabwe), 185 National Party (Namibia), constitutional proposals, NCC (National Consultative Council; East 87 Timor), 249, 265 National Party of South West Africa, 108n40 NDI (National Democratic Institute for National Party (South Africa), 108n40, 113, 147, International Affairs), 227, 263, 574, 591n35, 153n88 593n67 1994 election results, 126 NDP (National Democratic Party), 179 bilateral discussions with ANC, 132 Ndreu, Remzi, 328n26 and deadlocked issues, 131 Negotiation Planning Conference (South Africa), on interim constitution adoption, 125 119 and international involvement, 143 Nekyon, Adoko, 166 Framing the State in Times of Transition 693

Németh, Miklós, 358 review process, 78n31 neocolonialism, 195 term limits, 171 Néppárt (People’s Party), 359 Ninevah, 570 net foreign direct investment, to Cambodia, Njoba, Cornelis, 109n45 244n137 Njoma, Sam, 90, 105n8, 108n38 Netherlands, referendum, 36, 51n122 NKA (National Round Table; Hungary), 351, 353, neutrality, 72 365 of foreign experts in Poland, 410 role in constitution-making, 362 Neves, Tancredo, 440 structure of talks, 360–61 “new constitutionalism,” 25 Nkomo, Joshua, 179, 180 New Force (Fuerza Nueva; Spain), 419 no-fly zone after 1991 Gulf war, 567 New March Front, 356 Nobel Peace Prize, 248 New State (Estado Novo) in Brazil, 437 NOCEM (National Organization for Civic New Zealand, 5 Education and Election Monitoring), 163 pressure on Fiji, 292 nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), in Fiji, news blackout, cell phone impact, 336 293 newsletter, in South Africa, 135 Normative Kraft des Faktischen, 100 newspapers, in Cambodia, 220 North and South Atlantic Autonomous Regions, NFP (Indo-Fijian National Federation Party), 278, in Nicaragua, 494 279 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) NGO Forum (East Timor), 253, 260 Poland and, 409 Nicaragua pressure on Spain, 421 autonomy law, 493–94 troops in Albania, 314 competing versions of democracy, 486 Northern Alliance (Afghanistan), 540–41, 543 conflict resolution, 644–45 Panjshiri Tajik faction, 542 consensus building, 634 Northern Ireland, representative participation, 34 constituent assembly Northern Mariana Islands, 5 elections, 487 Northern Rhodesia, 178 women members, 490–91 N P. See National Party (South Africa) constitution-making process NRM. See National Resistance Movement (NRM; after 1979 revolution, 484 Uganda) international community, 491–93 NSF. See National Salvation Front (NSF) international law and, 493 al-Nu’aimi, Abd-al-Rahman Sa’id Husein, 592n51 public participation, 488–89 Nuon Chea, 242n92 structure, 488 Nyai, Dick, 168 © Copyrighttiming, 491 by the EndowmentNyasaland, 178 of constitution of 1987, 486–93 constitution, reforms in 1995, 494–96 OAB (Brazilian Bar Association), 448 the constitutionalUnited commission, States 489 InstituteObote, Milton, 159, 160 of Peace constitutional reform in 2000, 496–97 Observatory of the Protection of Human Rights democratic representation, 489–91 Defenders, 2003 report, 189 elections, Reagan administration Odoki, Ben, 163, 172 encouragement of boycott in 1984, 492, Office of Comptroller General (Nicaragua), 497 499 Office of Inspector General (Colombia), 481 foreign debt renegotiation, 496 Old Republic (1891–1930) of Brazil, 435 lessons from, 497–99 O’Linn, Bryan, 104 open town meetings, 41 Oliviero, Melanie Beth, xviin3 public participation ombudsman, in Namibia, 91 and acceptance, 634 one-party state, 185 change due to, 633 one-person one-vote system, opposition in South transition through armed struggle, 484 Africa, 115 transitional arrangement, 625 open meetings Nigeria, 8 by constitutional commissioners, 39 attempts at constitution-making, 8 for public information gathering, 187 694 Index

Open Society Justice Initiative, 242n92 parliament openness of constitution-making process, in South in Afghanistan, 555 Africa, 127 in 1964 constitution, 539 Operation Alba, 314 in Albania, election of 1996, 313 Operation Murambatsvina (Zimbabwe), 189 of Buganda, 160 OPZZ, 413n20 in constitution-making process, 6, 611–19 Organization for Security and Cooperation in in Fiji, 278 Europe (OSCE), 314, 322–23, 342, 640 vs. constituent assembly, 613 Office for Democratic Institutions and in Hungary Human Rights (ODIHR), 320 elections, 353 Serbian opposition to conduct of elections, government shift to, 363 349n16 new parliament with MDF-SZDSZ Organization of African Unity, 78n28, 85, 93, 143 pact, 365–68 declaration, 149n18 old parliament, 364–65 Organization of American States (OAS), 510 in Poland on right to participation, 24 elections, 394–96, 411 organized labor, in Brazil, 445 political fragmentation, 394 Ortega, Daniel, 495, 497 preparations for constitution, 394 Ortiz, Roxanne Dunbar, 494 transitory, 393–94 Osborne, Milton, 215 vs. presidentialism, 453 OSCE. See Organization for Security and in South Africa, change to three houses, 114 Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) in Spain, 419 OSCE Presence in Albania, 314, 318, 323, 325 in Uganda Osiatynski, Wiktor, 13, 393, 395, 397 constitutional expansion of powers, 173 Ospina Pérez, Mariano, 468–69 NRM members, 165 O’Sullivan, Meghan, 573, 592n53 in Zimbabwe Othman, Mahmoud, 573, 593n62 as center of power, 193 Ottaway, Marina, 597n125 and constitution writing, 188 Ovambo population group, 88, 92, 108n39 parliamentary procedure, rules for Afghanistan, 548 nationalism, 104 parliamentary republics, 373 and SWAPO, 105n5 participation. See public participation ownership, public participation and, 138 participation deficit, 44 “participatory democracy,” 485 Pack, Doris, 330n54, 330n64 Partido a Frente Liberal (Liberal Front Party; Pacto de Punto Fijo (1958), 508 PFL), 440 ©Pan AfricanistCopyright Congress (PAC; South Africa),by 116thePartido Endowment Comunista Espanol, 423 of 1994 election results, 126 Partido Conservador Demócrata (PCD; paramilitaries in Colombia, 468–69, 481 Nicaragua), 488 Paristhe Agreements United for Cambodian settlement,States 207 Partido Institute de Social-Democracia ofBrasileira Peace (Brazilian Annex 3 on Cambodian rights to participate Social Democratic Party; PSDB), 450 in election process, 217 Partido Democrático Social (Social Democratic Annex 5, 228 Party; PDS), 440 formal inclusion in constitution, 235 Partido do Movimento Democrático Brazileiro Article 23, 228 (Party of the Brazilian Democratic Movement; on constituent assembly election, 213 PMDB), 439, 450–51 documents comprising, 238n1 in constituent assembly, 442 emphasis on freeness and fairness in election representation on theme committees, 444 process, 216 Partido Liberal Independiente (PLI; Nicaragua), emphasis on pluralism, 222 488 influence, 211–12 Partido Nacional Vasco, 423 missing components, 213 Partido Revolucionario de los Trabajadores (PRT), timing for constitution from, 223–24 471 Paris International Conference on Cambodia Partido Social Cristiano (COPEI; Venezuela), (PICC), 210 507–08 Framing the State in Times of Transition 695

Partido Socialista Espanol Obrero, 423 periodic review process, rejection of proposal in Partido Socialista Obrero Espanol (Spanish Namibia, 99 Socialist Workers Party; PSOE), tensions with Permanent Court of International Justice, on rules UCD, 428 of law binding on States, 3 Partnership for Peace (PfP), 349n19 personal relationships, importance in negotiations, Party of Democratic Kampuchea (PDK; or DK), 157n155 207, 239n4. See also Khmer Rouge Peru, right to participate as fundamental, 26 Party of Labor (Albania), 312 Peshawar Group (Afghanistan), 541 Passarinho, Jarbas, 452 PFDJ. See Peoples Front for Democracy and Pastrana, Andés, 480 Justice (PFDJ) [Eritrea] Pastrana, Misael, 469 PFL (Liberal Front Party; Partido a Frente Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK), 593n72 Liberal), 440 Paul, James N.C., 40, 43 Phnom Penh Post, 220 PC (Center Alliance; Porozumienie Centrum; PIC (peace implementation council; Bosnia), 346, Poland), 412n4 349n17 PCD (Partido Conservador Demócrata; PICC (Paris International Conference on Nicaragua), 488 Cambodia), 210 PDK. See also Khmer Rouge Pinochet constitution of 1980, 355 PDS (Social Democratic Party; Partido PiS (Law and Justice Party), 412n4 Democrático Social), 440 Plan Colombia, 481 peace agreement, for Bosnia, first U.S. outline, Plano Real (Brazil), 453, 454–55, 459 337–38 Plato, The Laws, 467 Peace Forum, 34 PLC (Liberal Party; Nicaragua), and 2000 Peace Implementation Council (PIC; Bosnia), 346, constitutional reforms, 496–97 349n17 plebescite, 6, 622–24 peace processes on Brazil constitution, 453 and 1991 Colombian constitution, 479 plebescite democracy, in Venezuela, 521 analysis of, 34 PLI (Partido Liberal Independiente; Nicaragua), 488 in Bonn Agreement, 542 pluralization of society, 417 for Bosnia, proximity talks, 335–36 in Spain, 419 constitution-making process and, 642–44 PMDB (Partido do Movimento Democrático constitutional change related to, 402 Brazileiro; Party of the Brazilian Democratic in Namibia, 81, 86 Movement), 439, 450–51 peace treaty, interim constitution of South Africa in constituent assembly, 442 and, 121 representation on theme committees, 444 © Copyrightpeacekeeping by UN, 234 by the EndowmentPol Pot, 236 of peasant groups, in Brazil, 448 Polaca, 437, 460n3 Peasant party (PSL; Poland), 399, 412n4 Poland, 12–13, 353, 391–411, 604, 613–14. See also thePeasant United party (PSL)-Union ofStates Labour (UP) draft InstituteSolidarity (Poland) of Peace of Polish constitution, 396 amendments, 393–94 Peces-Barba, Gregorio, 427 April Constitution 1935, 391 Pedro, Prince Regent of Brazil, 435 authoritarian rule transition, 350 Peixoto, Floriano, 436 bill of rights, 409 Pentagon attack on September 11, 2001, and Communist Party in, 391 Afghanistan, 535–36 constitution Peoples Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ; in 1997, 402, 403 Eritrea), 60, 74 Catholic Church position, 401 People’s Party (Néppárt), 359 first, 391 people’s republic, Albania as, 312 March 1921, 391 People’s Republic of Kampuchea, 210, 239n4 opposition, 401 People’s Revolutionary Party of Kampuchea problems from absence of full (PRPK), 239n4. See also Cambodian People’s document, 409 Party (CPP) PSL-UP (Peasant party-Union of Pérez, Carlos Andrés, 494 Labour) draft, 396 696 Index

constitution-making process, 19n60, 614, 622 marginalization in Venezuela, 518 drafting 1993-97, 396–400 in Namibia, 100 experts for, 640 charters development, 95 principles, 395 constitutional proposals, 86–88 structure, 404–05 restrictions in Uganda election, 165 subcommittees, 395–96 in Venezuela, 508 timing and deadlines, 408–10, 639 Political Parties and Organisations Bill (Uganda), writing process function, 402–03 171 constitution-making process and political prisoners reconciliation process South Africa release of, 115 conclusion, 411 in Uganda, 172 democratic representation, 407–08 political process, rights of persons to participate, 6 international community role, 410–11 political rights, legal interpretations, 27–31 and old constitution, 403–04 political will, 650 public participation, 405–07, 636 politics, intentions vs. outcomes, 563 substance issues, 411 Ponchaud, François, 209 constitutional committee Ponleu Khmer (Cambodian Illumination), 219 control of, 408 on draft constitution, 220 drafts submitted to, 396–97 formation, 226 membership, 404 popular democracy, 485 constitutional court, creation, 393 Popular Liberation Army (EPL; Colombia), 469, constitutional referendum 1997, 400–02 471 elections in 1989, 392 popular movement, in Brazil, 448 impact on Hungary transition, 358 popular sovereignty, vs. constitutional supremacy in legitimacy for parliamentary decisions, 396 Venezuela, 511 martial law in 1981, 392 pork-barrel benefits, for Brazil congress, 441 national assembly, constitutional drafting, 616 Porozumienie Gdanskie (Gdansk Agreement), 392 parliament elections and Small constitution Portugal 1991–93, 394–96 and East Timor, 247 parliamentary procedure conclusion 1997, 400 ratification of constitution, 35 presidency, 371 post-conflict, 656n22 Round Table agreement in 1989 and April postimperial approach, to political community amendment, 392–93 organizing, 61 roundtable negotiations, 621, 663n100 poverty, in Fiji, 277 self-constituted assembly, 11 Powell, Colin, 46n33 © Soviet-styleCopyright constitution 1952, 391 by thepower, Endowment 20 of Supreme Court, 627 in Afghanistan, 556 timing for expert assistance, 617 allocation in South Africa between national thetransition United to democracy, 11, 645 States Instituteand provincial governments, of 123Peace transitory parliament and constitution writing concentration, 505 in 1989–91, 393–94 risk in, 551 voting percentages, 51n116 constitution making and, 40 polarization, in Venezuela, 507 conversion of, 373–74 Polish Round Table agreements, and Hungary division among national and regional Eritrean draft constitution, 355 governments, 71–72 Polish United Workers Party, 391 of leaders, legitimacy of, 64 political activities, in Spain, 418 transfer from old to newly elected political crisis, constitutional process in 1999, 506 government, 74 political parties, 37 in Venezuela, seizure by Chavez regime, 507 ban on activities in Uganda, 161–62 in Zimbabwe, need to decentralize, 182 in Brazil, 458 power sharing, 210 centralization in Venezuela, 509 in Afghanistan, 550 classic definition of function, 32 vs. concentration in Afghanistan, 548 in Fiji, ethnic focus, 278 in Fiji, 299–300 leadership in Namibia, 98 Hungary movement away from, 381 Framing the State in Times of Transition 697

in South Africa, 151n58 Proclamation 55/1994 (Eritrea), 63 under South Africa interim constitution, 122 Proclamation 92/1996 (Eritrea), 75 Power, Timothy, 455 PRODASEN (Center for Informatics and Data- Pozsgay, Imre, 361, 374, 386n23 Processing of the Federal Senate), 443, 445 Prasad, Satendra, 291 Projeto A (Draft A; Brazil), 449 prayer, in Namibia meetings, 109n45 substantive revisions, 451–52 preconstitutional period in Spain, 430 propaganda, in Namibia, 98 preconstitutional principles, in interim proportional representation, 508 arrangements, 626 East Timor citizens’ preference, 262 prereferendum, in Poland, 398, 414n23 and Fiji option for parliament, 297 presidency in Nicaragua, 490 in Afghanistan, 554–55 proportional representation in Namibia, for arguments for and against, 551 constituent assembly, 83, 86, 91 for Bosnia, 337, 341 protests, against Zimbabwe government multiperson, 340 corruption, 182 in Brazil proto-parties, in Hungary, 357 in 1968, 438 provinces in South Africa provisional measure, 455–56 constitutional court on powers, 141, 142, in Cambodia, Sihanouk on role of, 230–31 156n134 collective for Yugoslavia, 333 council of, 130 defeated candidates inclusion in Nicaraguan provincial governors, in Afghanistan, 556 Assembly, 490 provincial power vs. national unity, in South East Timor citizens’ preference, 262 Africa, 124 in Hungary, 356 Provisional Assessment on the Movement or bargaining and nature of, 374 Transfer of Securities, Credits, or Rights of a elections, 365, 374 Financial Nature, 455 in Namibia, term limit, 104, 110n59 provisional government in South Africa, in Nicaragua, 494 commission on, 129 immunity for, 497 Provisional Government of National Union and vs. parliamentary government, 453 National Salvation (Cambodia), 236 vs. parliamentary government, in Afghanistan, Proyecto Constitucional (Spain), 425 550–51 PRT (Partido Revolucionario de los Trabajadores), in Poland, 371 471 in South Africa, 126 Przeworski, Adam, 354, 484 trust in electoral process and, 551 PSDB (Partido de Social-Democracia Brasileira; © Copyrightin Uganda, term limits, 171 by the EndowmentBrazilian Social Democratic Party), 450of in Venezuela. See also Chavez Frías, Hugo PSL (Peasant party; Hungary), 412n4 increasing power of, 519–20 PSL (Peasant party; Poland), 399 the Unitedterm length increase, States 519 InstitutePSL-UP (Peasant party-Union of ofPeace Labour) draft of in Zimbabwe, to publish constitution Polish constitution, 396 commission results, 187 PSOE (Spanish Socialist Workers Party; Partido Presidential Powers (Temporary Measures) Socialista Obrero Espanol), tensions with Broadcasting Regulations, 184 UCD, 428 Prestes, Júlio, 436 PT (Workers’ Party; Brazil), 446 Pretoria Minute, 116 public Prillaman, William, 457 access to hearings in East Timor, 255 prime minister evidence of change in, 41 in Cambodia, 232 public affairs, 42 in Fiji, ethnic identity, 297 constitution-making inclusion, 31–32 in Namibia, 91 public comments in Zimbabwe, 180 impact on South Africa constitutional text, Primero Justicia (Venezuela), 515 154n105 procedural democracy, 59 on Refined Working Draft of South Africa process, xiv. See also constitution-making process constitution, 130 relationship to substance, 58–59 public consultation, 603 698 Index

public debates principal modes, 32 in Eritrea, 63, 68 purposes, 636–37 before Eritrean ratification, 73 referendums’ impact on, 35 importance of recording in Eritrea, 66 regional charters, 24–25 public groups, consultation process, 37 review process for submissions, 637 public meetings in South Africa, 135 in South Africa, 9–10, 133–39, 146 Public Ministry (Ministério Público; Brazil), 457 level of involvement, 136 public participation, 20, 629–38, 652 and Refined Working Draft, 134 absence “take part” clause, 31. See also “take part” in communal councils, 521 concept in Hungary, 372, 380 transitional government, 57–58 in Iraq, 576 in Uganda, 9, 163 in Venezuela, 507, 515, 516 value and significance of, xvi in Albania, 315–18 public will, and conflict resolution, 71 development of national program, publicizing and mobilizing phase, in Spain, 427 316–17 Pujol, Jordi, 424 in Bosnia Dayton constitution, absence of, Pushtins, in Constitutional Loya Jirga, 550 344–45 Putumayo region in Colombia, 481 in Brazil, 445–46 pyramid schemes in Albania, 313–14 in Cambodia, 217–22 court decision on control of assets, 319 education, 217–18 and change in constitution-making agenda, Al-Qaddo, Hunain, 574, 584 41 Qadir, Shahid, 235 in Colombia, 470–72 al Qaeda, 536 conditions making possible authentic, 27 Qanooni, Younis, 559n23 consitutional commission program in Qarase, Laisenia, 300 Zimbabwe for, 186–87 Quadros, Jânio, 437 constitution-making process to promote, 245 Quebec, legitimacy of hypothetical unilateral consultation and education, 37–40 secession of, 30 determining form of, 30 Quentin-Baxter, Alison, 286 in East Timor, 258–64, 269–70 questions, to guide research, xv–xvi debates on framework, 258–60 Quintín Lame Armed Movement (MAQL; in Eritrea, 57, 61–62 Colombia), 471, 473 and sense of ownership, 69 factors to consider for future, 653 Rabbani, Burhanuddin, 549, 553 © inCopyright Fiji, 290–92 by theRabuka, Endowment Sitiveni, 278, 280, 281, 288 of flaws, 53n148 government scandals, 284 FSLN and, 498 as prime minister, 283 thegeneral Unitedrequirement of, 14 Statesracial Institute discrimination, in Zimbabwe of land Peace allocation, human rights issues, 183 178 impact on Spain constitution-making, 429 racism, and Manueli report and 1990 constitution, importance, 192 282 international instruments promising, 22–23 radio in Iraq, 567 and civic education in Eritrea, 67 by Sunni Arabs, 568 in Namibia, 98 in Iraq, loss, 585–86 for South African constitutional education, judicial rulings on rights, 42 18n40, 135 level of, 15 stations in Zimbabwe, 184 in Namibia, 97–99 Ramaphosa, Cyril, 39, 119, 122, 124, 128, 131, 132, national constitutions, 25–27 147, 157n155, 293 in Nicaragua, 488–89 Ramírez, Sergio, 495 relationship to consensus, 499 Ranariddh, Prince, 214, 215, 224, 236 in Poland, 405–07 ratification of constitutions, 383, 658n43 power redistribution and, 40 absence in Brazil, 452 practical benefits, 633 in Spain and Portugal, 35 Framing the State in Times of Transition 699

Rattigan and Others v. Chief Immigration Officer in Hungary, 351, 353, 362, 363 and Others (Zimbabwe), 185 impact on participation, 35 Reagan, Ronald, 488 in Iraq, 564, 591n43 administration encouragement of boycott of Sunni Arabs opposition, 588 Nicaragua election, 492 in Namibia, of white voters, 97 recall referendum, 521 in Poland Rechtsstaat principle, 404 public participation, 405, 406 Recognition of the Independence of Namibia Act usefulness, 407 34 of 1990 (South Africa), 106n14 for public participation, 630 recommendations, for future constitution-making in South Africa, all-white in 1992, 118 procedures, challenge in producing, 602 in Spain, 420, 425–26, 429 reconciliation. See also peace processes in Uganda, 170–71 of ethnic groups in South Africa, 144 in Venezuela, 506 as Fiji constitutional commission issue, for constitution approval, 516 299–300 decree by Chavez calling for, 512 time for, in East Timor, 246 as voters’ protest on marginalization, 36 Record of Understanding (South Africa), 119, 122 Refined Working Draft of South Africa Reddy, Jai Ram, 278, 288, 289 constitution, 130 Reding, Andrew, 41 public participation and, 134, 137 Reeves, Paul, 284 reform process, 503n101 Reeves Commission (Fiji), 285, 286 transition preservation through, 354 constraints, 303 regional assemblies, in Eritrea, 74 issues, 296–300 regional charters, and public participation, 24–25 affirmative action, 299 regional norms, for citizen participation in ethnicity, 296 constitution development, 7 Fijian interests, 297–98 regional power in Iraq, 575 human rights, 298–99 regionalism, in Spain, 428 land, 298 Reisman, Michael, 293 political control, 296–97 religion. See also Catholic Church; Islam reconciliation, 299–300 Eritrean commission’s position on, 79n47 religion, 298 as Fiji constitutional commission issue, 298 proposed models, 285 leaders’ participation in consultations, 37 public hearings as priority, 288 minorities marginalization in Iraq, 583 and public participation, 290–91, 301 organizations’ separation from state in Eritrea, research papers for, 293 70 © Copyrightreversal of proportion of racial by to nonracial the Endowmentrepresentation in constitution-making bodies,of seats, 304 627–29 timing and sequencing, 286–90 constitution-making process to promote, 245 the visionUnited of Fiji, 302 States Instituteelection, 32–40 of Peace Reeves Report (Fiji), 276 factors to consider for future, 653 Reference re Secession of Quebec, 22, 29–30, 31 “representative participation,” 34 Referendum Act of 1999 (Uganda), 171 Republican Party (Albania), 318, 328n27 Referendum Law of 1994 (Albania), 320 Republican Party (Namibia), 98, 105n8 referendums, 622–24 Republican Press (Namibia), 98 in Albania, 313 Republika Srpska (RS), 334, 343 on Albania constitution, 320, 322 Republika Srpska Krajina, 333 in Colombia, and support for constitutional research guide for authors, concept paper as, xv reform, 471 research papers, for Reeves Commission (Fiji), 293 on constitutional amendments, 50n109 resources, factors to consider for future, 653 on constitutional texts, 35–36 Revision Amendment 1 (Brazil), 453 in democracy, 521 “revived” classical Western constitutionalism, 485 on draft constitutions, 32 Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia in East Timor, on autonomy, 249 (FARC), 469 in Eritrea, 58, 60 campaign of terror after 1991 constitution, 480 in Fiji, absence, 279 military attack on headquarters, 475 700 Index

revolutionary legitimacy, 381 Russell, Matthew, 326 Reyes, Rafael, 468 Russell, Peter H., 47n46 Rhodes, Cecil, 196n3 Russia, 11 Rhodesia, Constitution, 197n24 Ruzindana, Augustine, 170 on discrimination, 197n26 Rwanda, 14 Rhodesian Front, 180 constitutional commission, 18n45 Rice, Condoleezza, 573 elites, 662n83 Right Democratic Party (Albania), 328n27 model of validating referendum, 35 right to free choice of employment, omission in participation modes, 32 Zimbabwe declaration of rights, 178 right to freedom of movement, omission in S. v. Chileya (Zimbabwe), 184 Zimbabwe declaration of rights, 178 S. v. Juvenile (Zimbabwe), 184 right to participate in public life. See International Sachs, Albie, 123, 141, 293 Covenant on Civil and Political Rights on challenge of South Africa constitution- (ICCPR) making, 111 rights al-Safi, Safa, 596n117 as aspirations or entitlements, 22 Saint Lague method of allocating seats, 412n10 basis for possessing, 52n128 Salahiddeen, 570 Franck on “emergence” of, 26–27 Salem v. Chief Immigration Officer and Others, 185 Rights and Obligations of Khmer Citizens, Sam Rainsy Party (SRP), 221, 223, 236 228–29 and 2007 & 2008 elections, 237 Robelo, Alfonso, 501n29 Samarra, demolition of Golden Mosque in, 588 Robinson, Mary, 268 Al-Samarraie, Ayad, 596n121 Rojas Pinilla, Gustavo, 469 sanctions, 46n33 Roman Catholic Church. See Catholic Church Sandinistas, 486, 493 Romania, 12, 354 Sarnecki, Pawel, 397 constituent assembly, 11 Sarney, José, 440, 443 Rome Group (Afghanistan), 541 concealment of economic stabilization plan Rooker, Marcia, 29 ineffectiveness, 441 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 113 opposition to Draft B, 451 Ross, Alf, 376 warning on constitution impact on finances, Rotuma Act, 305n12 454 Rotuma Land Act, 305n12 Sartori, Giovanni, 44n5, 49n93 Round Table agreement in 1989 (Poland), 392–93 Saunders, Cheryl, 293 Round Table negotiations (Poland), 402, 407 Savimbi, Jonas, 105n5 ©Round Copyright Table of the Opposition (EKA; byHungary), the Sayyaf, Endowment Abdul Rasool, 549 of 353, 357–61, 375–76, 379, 387n41 Schmitt, Carl, 376 constitution of 1989, 370 Schumpeter, Joseph, 25, 59 the interimUnited character of, 377 StatesSchwartz, Institute Herman, xviin3 of Peace formation, 359 scientific approach, to public information legitimacy carried over from, 381 gathering, 187 roundtable negotiations, 620–22 scorched-earth campaign in East Timor, 249, 251, Royal Cambodian Armed Forces (RCAF), 223 265 Royal Charter of Incorporation of the British SDS (Serb Democratic Party), 333 South Africa Company, 196n3 Second Institutional Act (Brazil), 438 Royal Council of the Throne (Cambodia), 232 Second National Forum for Human Rights, 470 Ruanda-Urundi, 5, 6 secretariat, 615 Al-Rubaie, Mowaffak, 567 in Iraq, 585–86 Rumsfeld, Donald, 548, 573, 592n57 secular government, in Eritrea constitution, 69 ruptura, 430 security commission, in Namibia, 91 Rural Democratic Union (UDR; Brazil), 447 Seidman, Ann, xviin3 rural folk in South Africa, limited participation, Sejm (Polish lower house), 391, 394 10 committees, 13 rural landowners, in Brazil, 447 constitutional debates, 397 Framing the State in Times of Transition 701

Sejm Electoral Act, 412n10, 415n44 Singh, Kirpal, 293 Sejm Standing Order, amendment, 415n40 Sisk, Timothy, xviin3 Selassie, Bereket Habte, xiv, xviin3, 631 Al-Sistani, Grand Ayatollah Ali, 565, 567 Selassie, Haile, 60 Slatter, Claire, 291 self-determination slavery, abolition in Brazil, and military coup, 436 vs. autonomy, in Nicaragua, 493, 494 SLD (Alliance of Democratic Left; Poland), 394, for dependent territories, 5 396, 399, 402, 412n4 East Timor people’s right to, 248 Slovakia, 12 right to, 5, 6 Slovenia, 333 self-rule, of South West Africa, 91 Small Constitution (Poland; 1992), 394–96, 402, Selfo, Hysen, 328n27 406, 412n11 Senate, in South Africa, 126 Small Holders party (Hungary), 371 separation of powers Smith, Ian, 179, 180 in Afghanistan constitution, 555 SNC (Supreme National Council; Cambodia), in Latin America, 509–10 210, 212, 222–23 low regard for U.S. version, 372 SNI (National Information Service; Brazil), 447 September 11, 2001 attack in U.S. Soares, Aderito, 253 and Afghanistan, 535–36 SOC (State of Cambodia), 222 and Eritrea arrest of leaders, 76 social compact, longing for permanent in Iraq, 566 séptima papeleta (“seventh ballot”), 470 Social Conservative Party (Colombia), 471 Serb Democratic Party (SDS), 333 social democracy, in Brazil, 437 Serbia, 333, 349n19 Social Democratic Party (Albania), 328n26 Shahrani, Niamatullah, 543 Social Democratic Party (Partido Democrático Shahristani, Hussain, 566–67, 592n49, 592n53 Social; PDS), 440 sharia, 552 social groups, participation in consultations, 37 sharia courts, in Afghanistan, 540 socialism Sharpeville massacre, 144 abandonment of fundamentals in Hungary, SHC (systemization and harmonization 358 committee; East Timor), 254, 264 in Venezuela, 522 Shehi, Dashimir, 328n27 Socialist Party (Albania), 313, 314, 318, 328n26 Shepherd, Lord, 279 Socialist Workers’ Party (Hungary), 13 Sherifo, Mahmud, 76, 78n27 society Shia Arabs, 567, 575, 587 stability of, xiii negotiating position of, 578 understanding of goal, 192 Shia United Iraqi Alliance, 570 Society for Democratic Culture (Albania), 318, © CopyrightShinwari, Fazl Hady, 552, 555 by the Endowment329n37 of Shona-speaking state, 177 Socua Mu Leiper, 219 Shura (Afghan parliament), 537 Solarz, Stephen, 210 the inUnited 1964 constitution, 539 States InstituteSolidarity (Poland), 13, 391,of 407, Peace 409, 410, 412n4 Shura-i-Nizar, 542 draft constitution submission by, 396 shuttle diplomacy, for Bosnia, 335–36 elections, 361 Sieyes, Abbe, 72 Solidarnosc, 413n20 Sihamoni, Norodom, 232, 237 Solomon, Richard H., 242n87 Sihanouk, Prince Norodom, 208, 223 Sólyom, László, 382, 388n60 and constitution, 212–13, 215 Somoza Debayle, Anastasio, 484 draft constitution ratification, 224 overthrow, 486 expectation of returning as king, 215, 226 Son Sann, 214 Leifer on, 243n101 Soqosoqo ni Vakavulewa ni Taukei (SVT; Fiji), 283 and “liberal democracy,” 211 and human rights, 299 order to exclude foreign experts, 641 Sotelo, Leopoldo Calvo, 424 vision of constitution, 230 South Africa, 7, 111–57 Silva, Arturo da Costa e, 438 administration of South West Africa territory, Silva, Golbery de Couto e, 439 81 Sindicato Vertical, 419 authoritarian rule transition, 350 702 Index

background and early stages of negotiation, elite participation, 629 historical context, 113–16 impact of Namibian constitution-making conflict resolution, 644 success, 104 constituent assembly, 65 interim constitution, 38, 120–21, 124, 127, 650 constitution leadership quality, 650 in 1910, 113 legal tradition in, 146 adoption, 133 legislature combined with constituent deadline for adoption, 131 assembly, 613 distribution of final, 138 legitimacy, 623 procedural issues debated, 116 liberation election, 134 translations, 132 mass protests in 1992, 119 Web site on, 135 minority protection, 628 working draft, 130 Multi-Party Negotiating Process (MPNP), and constitution for Namibian territory, 91 119, 122–24, 621–22 constitution makers, 378 national unity vs. provincial power, 124 constitution-making process, 120–26, 614, 622 negotiated transition, 114–20 drafting process, 9 CODESA I and II, 117–18 impact, 144–45 multiparty negotiating process, 118–20 structure, 120–21 search for constitutional solutions, two-phase approach and interim 114–16 constitution role, 121–25, 146 talks about talks, 116–17 constitution of 1983, parliament change to participants’ recognition of process three houses, 114 importance, 112 constitution of 1996, 25 participation modes, 32 adoption, 8 public participation, 10, 634 bill of rights, 25 change due to, 633 constitutional assembly, 126–43, 611 education and consultation, 630–31 final compromises, 133 reactions to process, 39 final debate of amended bill, 133 reconciliation of ethnic groups, 144 international dimension, 143 referendums, 622 management committee, 128 representative participation, 34 negotiating and drafting final review by Fiji, 294 constitution, 129–33 role in Namibia transition to independence, 93 public participation, 133–39 staged agenda, 38 structural framework for negotiations, success ingredients, 145–48 © Copyright126–29 by the termEndowment limits, 182 of tabling of draft constitution, 132 text drafting, 616–17 theme committees, 128–29 timeline for negotiations, 639 theconstitutional United committee, 128 States Institutetiming for expert assistance, of 617 Peace proposed amendments considered, 132 transitional arrangement, 625 constitutional court, 30–31, 139–43, 147, women’s participation, 41–42 155n127, 194, 626–27 South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC), appointment of judges, 124 135 proceedings and judgment, 141 South America, political rights in new cultural change, 134 constitutions, 26 deadlock-breaking measures for constitution South West Africa, 81 approval, 127, 152n78 name change to Namibia, 106n9 debating society type, 192 white legislative assembly, draft constitution, Department of Constitutional Development 94 and Planning, 114, 115, 125 South West Africa/Namibia cases, in World elections Court, 82 1994 results, 126 South West African People’s Organization first democratic, 125–26 (SWAPO), 83, 87, 96, 105n5, 619, 639, 658n39 first nonracial, 123 active resistance by, 92 Framing the State in Times of Transition 703

in constitutional discussions, 90 Spitz, Richard, 121 constitutional proposals, 87–88 SRB (Brazilian Rural Society), 447 founding, 108n38 Srebrenica, 334 network of radio services, 98 Sri Lanka, public participation, change due to, 633 refusal to participate in internal constitutional SRP (Sam Rainsy Party), 221 processes, 100 Ssali, Jaberi Bidandi, 170 Southern Rhodesia, 177. See also Zimbabwe Ssemogerere and Others v. Attorney-General human rights violations, 179 Constitutional Appeal No. 1 (Uganda), 171 sovereignty Ssemogerere and Others v. Attorney-General in 21st century, 3 Constitutional Petition No. 5 (Uganda), 171 transfer to Namibia, 106n14 stability of society, xiii Soviet Union stakeholder conflicts, over group drafting and Hungary political reform, 355 document, 64 invasion of Afghanistan, 537 Standing Committee on Civic Education and Sóyom, László, 368–70 Public Debates (Eritrea), 68 Spain, xviiin4, 78n30, 417–32, 612 state-building process, in Bonn Agreement, 542 acronyms list for, 432 state centralism, in Venezuela, 509 conflict resolution in, 421 State of Cambodia (SOC), 222, 239n4 congressional constitutional committee in, state of emergency, 503n102 425 in Nicaragua, 487 constitution-making process, 421–30 state policy, principles in Namibia, 96 in late 1970s, 431–32 state powers consensual agenda setting phase, concentration in Venezuela, 519 426–27 defining allocation, xiii consensual approval phase, 428–29 state religion, Islam as, in Afghanistan, 552 consensual parliamentary phase, 428 Statute of Rights and Guarantees of the constrained parliamentary phase, 428 Nicaraguan People (Estatuto sobre Derechos y and democratization, 430–31 Garantías de los Nicaragüenses), 486 dissensual precongressional phase, Steiner, Henry J, 23, 28, 43 427–28 Stepan, Alfred, 439, 447, 483 formal phases, 424–25 stillborn constitution-making, 422 participants, 422–24 Street, Harry, 279 preconditions, 418–21 strike in South Africa, 120 public participation, 429 Suarez, Adolfo, 418, 419, 420, 650 publicizing and mobilizing phase, 427 subcommittees, 615 © Copyrightsecret negotiations, 429 by the EndowmentSubedi, Surya, 236 of theory, 421–22 substance, process relationship to, 58–59 Eighth Fundamental Law, 420 sufficient consensus principle, 117 the elections,United in 1977, 420 States Institutein South Africa, 124 of Peace international background, 421 suffrage, universal, 6 national elections in 1977, 423 sugar industry, in Fiji, 276 ratification of constitution, 35 Suharto, President, 272n2 referendums, 622 fall of, 248 regionalism in, 428 Sundaram, Jomo K., 293 transition to democracy, 645, 660n67 Sunni Arabs, 587 transitional arrangement, 625, 659n51 boycott of national assembly elections, 568, voting percentages, 51n116 569–71, 645–46 Spanish Socialist Workers Party (PSOE; Partido elimination of representation from national Socialista Obrero Espanol), tensions with assembly, 570 UCD, 428 insurgency, 564, 568 special representative of secretary-general (SRSG), moderating position on federalism, 577–78 212 opposition to constitution, 570–71 Speight, George, 301, 305n1 opposition to referendum, 588 Spender, Percy, on words used in treaty, 4 Superior Electoral Tribunal, 462n17 704 Index

Supreme Council of National Defense tax power, in Venezuela constitution, 520 (Cambodia), 232 technical advisers, 641 Supreme Council of the Magistracy (Cambodia), in East Timor, 266–67 212, 233 objectives of assistance, 267–68 Supreme Court (Afghanistan), 540, 552, 555–56 technical committees in South Africa, 128, 129 Supreme Court (Brazil), 438, 456 importance, 150n31 binding precedents, 460 television provisional measure, 465n72, 465n74 in Namibia, 99 Supreme Court (Colombia), 627 in South Africa, 18n40, 135 Supreme Court (Nicaragua), 497 Thaqalayn Research Institute, 583 Supreme Court of Canada, on legitimacy of Thatcher, Margaret, 143 hypothetical unilateral secession by Quebec, 30 theatre groups in Eritrea, constitutional themes Supreme Court (Venezuela) for, 67 Chavez decree challenged before, 512 theme committees, 615 on constitutional reform process, 511 in Brazil, 443–45 recognition of assembly as supraconstitutional in East Timor, 254–55 power, 514 in South Africa, 128–29, 136, 153n82 Supreme Electoral Council (CSE; Nicaragua), 487, reports from, 129 497 in Zimbabwe, 186 Supreme National Council (SNC; Cambodia), Third World, challenge of democratization, 235 210, 222–23 Thiruvengadam, Arun, xvi, 21, 42, 635, 647 Paris Agreements creation of, 212 on General Comment 25, 29 supreme tribunal of justice (Venezuela), Thousand Days’ War (Colombia), 468 appointment, 517–18 Three Powers Symposium, 315 SVT (Soqosoqo ni Vakavulewa ni Taukei; Fiji), 283 Tigre, as potential official language of Eritrea, 71 and human rights, 299 Tigrinya, as potential official language of Eritrea, Swaelen, Frank, 330n64 71 SWAPO. See South West African People’s timing Organization (SWAPO) of Colombia reforms, 475–76 symbolism, of South Africa constitution signing for constitution-making power, 638–40 ceremony, 144 for constitution-making process, 100–01 system of checks and balances, 510 in Poland, 408–10 systemization and harmonization committee of Nicaraguan constitution-making, 491 (SHC; East Timor), 254, 264 for Zimbabwe draft constitution, 192–93 Szabad Demokraták Szövetsége (SZDSZ; Alliance Tinyefuza, Major-General, 168 ©of CopyrightFree Democrats), 353, 358, 362, 367,by 383 theTito, EndowmentJosip Broz, 333 of division with MDF, 363 Togo, 8 expectations vs. results, 375 term limits, 171 thesupport Unitedfor new constitution, 371StatesToivo Institute ya Toivo, Herman, 108 n38of Peace SZDSZ (Szabad Demokraták Szövetsége; Alliance Tora, Apisai, 281 of Free Democrats), 353, 358, 362, 367, 383 Toro, 160, 169 division with MDF, 363 Torres, Camilo, 469 expectations vs. results, 375 Toul Sleng, 230 support for new constitution, 371 town hall meetings (cabildos abiertos; Nicaragua), 488 Tablada, Gustravo, 495 town meetings in Eritrea, public seminars, 67 “take part” concept, 25, 42 Traditional Rulers Statute in 1993 (Uganda), 169 development of, 31, 36 transition need for definition, 31–32 defined, 417 Talabani, Jalal, 574, 593n72 to democracy, institutional compromise and, Taliban regime, 535, 538, 541, 556 484 Tambo, Oliver, 115 Hungary model of, 379 Tanzania, 7 recognition of need for system overhaul, 358 Taukei Movement (Fiji), 280 in South Africa, 112 Framing the State in Times of Transition 705

Transitional Administration of East Timor UBE (Union of Brazilian Businessmen), 447 (ETTA), 259 UCC (Uganda Constitutional Commission), Transitional Administrative Law for Iraq (2004), 38–39 21, 565, 590n15, 590n17 UCD (Union of the Democratic Center; Union central functioning feature, 571 del Centro Democratico), tensions with PSOE, Transitional Constitutional Provisions Act (Brazil), 428 453–54 UD (Democratic Union; Poland), 394, 396 transitional provisions, absence from Eritrea UDR (Rural Democratic Union; Brazil), 447 constitution, 74 UDT (Uniao Democrática Timorense), 247 Transitory Constitutional Provisions Act (Brazil), Uganda, 7, 612, 656n28 450 adoption of constitution, 8, 194 transparency appointment process for inclusiveness, 628–29 for Albania draft constitution process, consitutional crisis of 1966, 160 326–27 constituent assembly, 65, 74 constitution-making process to promote, 245 deliberations, 167–69 in Hungary, 381 Election act of 1993, 165–66 need for, in Cambodia, 221 election process and results, 166–67 public participation in Poland and, 405 political system future, 167–68 in South Africa constitution-making process, voter turnout, 167 127 women’s role, 173 treaties, provisions applied to constitution constitution drafting, 4 first after independence, 159 treaty of almost-universal ratification, impact on key changes, 158 new states, 4 constitution-making process, 47n46 Treaty of Vereeniging, 144 context, 606 Tri-Parliamentary Delegation (Albania), 323 lessons learned, 172–73 Trinidad, 276 motivation, 651–52 trust, 34 outcomes, 169–72 in electoral process, 551 political context, 161–62 in government, 75 constitutional amendment to create regional Trusteeship Council of United Nations, 82 tiers, 169 Tsvangirai, Morgan Richard, 187 constitutional commission, 8, 162–65 Tswana group in Namibia, 92, 93, 108n39 activities, 163 constitutional proposals, 94 key issues, 164–65 education on constitutional issues, 95 nongovernmental civic education, © CopyrightTudjman, Franjo, 333 by the Endowment163–64 of Tuivaga, Timoci, 306n45 selection of members, 162–63 Tully, James, 21, 29, 32, 61 constitutional court, challenge to, 171 theTunidau, United V.S., 289 States Instituteconsultation process, of 16n31 Peace Tunisia, term limits, 171 continuities from past constitution-making Tura, Jordi Sole, 330n64 efforts, 159–61 Turnhalle building, 105n7 elected bodies, 657n28 Turnhalle Constitutional conference, 83–84, federalism, and Buganda status, 168–69 105n8, 108n42 foreign experts, 642 ethnic delegates to, 93 gender-equity issues, 39 Kapuuo and, 108n37 Moehler on public view, 39, 41 Tushnet, Mark, xviin3 parliament, 194–95 Tusk, Donald, 411 constitutional expansion of powers, tutela (writ of protection; Colombia), 478 173 Tutu, Desmond, 293 NRM members, 165 Twining, Charles, 215 pigeonhole constitution, 160 two-thirds majority, 195 political prisoners in, 172 for 1949 Hungary constitution change, 364 preserving regime powers, 650 Hungary laws requiring for modification, 366 presidency, term limits, 171 706 Index

public participation, 10, 26, 632 involvement in Afghanistan, 641–42 appearance, 645 and Iraq constitution development, 584 impact, 633 and Namibia, 81–82 repression of opposition, 172 Office for Program Services, 596n122 rights restrictions, 158 peacekeeping powers, 102, 234 undemocratic outcomes, 158 pressure to rush East Timor process, 638 Uganda Constitutional Commission (UCC), 38–39 resources to aid Cambodia constitution Uganda Constitutional Commission Act of 1988, development, 233 162 role in East Timor, 265–66 Uganda Federation of Business and Professional secretary-general report to Security Council Women, 164 on Cambodia, 217 Uganda Joint Christian Council, 163 Vienna Declaration of 1993, 24 Uganda Patriotic Movement (UPM), 165 United Nations Assistance Mission for Uganda People’s Congress (UPC), 159, 162, 166 Afghanistan (UNAMA), 543 boycott of referendum, 171 United Nations Assistance Mission in Iraq support for federalism, 169 (UNAMI), 579 Youth Wingers, 164 United Nations Committee on dependent Uganda Women’s Network (UWONET), 173 territories, 5 UGT (Union General del Trabajo; General United Nations Declaration of Human Rights, 43, Workers Union), 419 88 Ukraine, 11 United Nations Development Programme UNAMI (United Nations Assistance Mission in (UNDP), xiv, 266 Iraq), 579 United Nations Education, Scientific, and Cultural Uniao Democrática Timorense (UDT), 247 Organization (UNESCO), 220 Uniform Draft (Poland), 398 United Nations General Assembly, 6, 82 committee adoption, 399 declaration on Timorese territories, 247 Union del Centro Democratico (Union of the Third World members, 102 Democratic Center; UCD), 423 United Nations Human Rights Committee tensions with PSOE, 428 (UNCHR), 3, 5, 6–7, 27, 189–90 Union for Democracy (Albania), 318, 319, 323–24, General Comment on Article 25, 14, 28 325, 328n26 United Nations Mission in East Timor objections of, 320 (UNAMET), 249 Union General del Trabajo (General Workers United Nations Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK), Union; UGT), 419 663n97 Unión Nacional Opositora (UNO) coalition, 495, United Nations Secretariat, Department of ©498 Copyright by the PoliticalEndowment Affairs, Electoral Assistance Division, of Union of Brazilian Businessmen (UBE), 447 569–70 Union of Freedom (UW; Unia Wolnosci), 412n4 United Nations Security Council Unionthe of Labour United (UP; Poland), 399, States 412n4 InstituteResolution 383 (1975), 248 of Peace Union of Liberty (UW; Poland), 397, 399 Resolution 435 (1978), 84, 85, 93, 99, 101, Union of the Democratic Center (UCD; Union 106n14, 152n80 del Centro Democratico), tensions with PSOE, Resolution 1246 (1999), 249 428 Resolution 1378 on Afghanistan, 541 Union of the Revolutionary Left, 468 Resolution 1546 on recognition of coalition Unión Republicana Democrática (URD), 508 occupation of Iraq, 565–66, 579 United African National Congress, 180 United Nations Transition Assistance Group United Democratic Front (Namibia), (UNTAG), 85–86 constitutional proposals, 87 information services, 99 United Kingdom, pressure on Fiji, 292 United Nations Transitional Authority in United Nations Cambodia (UNTAC), 207–08, 212 and Cambodia, 216, 217, 225–26, 642 Cambodia expectations, 226 and CLJ (Afghanistan), 551 and citizen involvement, 221 Declaration on the Elmination of All Forms and constitution, 215 of Intolerance and Discrimination Based DK criticism of, 222–23 on Religion and Belief, 299 education and information efforts, 217–18 Framing the State in Times of Transition 707

human rights component, 225 universal suffrage, UN Trusteeship Council call for and human rights NGOs, 219 in Ruanda-Urundi, 6 priority for convening constituent assembly, universal treaty law, 4 224 University of Cape Town, 135 responsibility to draft electoral law, 216 UNTAC. See United Nations Transitional United Nations Trusteeship Council, 5, 6 Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) United Nicaraguan Opposition Principles and UNTAET, 250, 265 Objectives for Provisional Government of critics of consultative process, 262 National Reconciliation, 491 Directive 2001/13, 261 United Right (Albania), 328n27 need to justify costs, 259 United Self-Defense Force of Colombia (AUC), Political, Constitutional and Electoral Affairs 469 Department, 251 United States public consultation managed by, 269 Agency for International Development Regulation 2001/2, 256, 258 (USAID), 315, 544 UNTAG (United Nations Transition Assistance and Cambodia, 227 Group), 85–86 encouragement of Nicaragua 1984 election information services, 99 boycott, 492, 499 UP (Union of Labour; Poland), 399, 412n4 help for Albania, 323 UPC. See also Uganda People’s Congress (UPC) increased visibility in Iraq, 580–81 UPM (Uganda Patriotic Movement), 165 involvement in Afghanistan, 641–42 urban areas, vs. metropolitan areas, 154n106 and Iraq constitution development, 564–65, URD (Unión Republicana Democrática), 508 569, 584 Uribe, Alvaro, 480 policy of haste for Iraq, 574 Uribe, Horacio Serpa, 473 push for fast compromises, 581 Uruguay, 483 and Iraq election, 570 Usher, Len, 307n72 Nicaraguan constitutional commission refusal UW (Union of Freedom; Unia Wolnosci), of visit by, 492 412n4 policy plans, and Iraq constitution, 641 UW (Union of Liberty; Poland), 397, 399 pressure in Afghanistan from, 558 UWONET (Uganda Women’s Network), 173 pressure on Iraq, 573 pressure on Nicaragua from, 485, 488 Vakatora, Tomasi, 281, 284, 286 responsibility for Iraq, 588 on Fiji bill of rights, 299 State Department’s demands on South Africa, Valenta, Jiri, 492 143 van der Linden, Rene, 330n64 © CopyrightUnited States Commission for Internationalby the EndowmentVance-Owen plan (1993), 344 of Religious Freedom, 584 Vargas, Getúlio, 435, 436–37 United States Constitution, 6 veil of ignorance, in Hungary, 375–78 the BriceUnited on, 72 States InstituteVelvet Revolution, 12 of Peace criticism of system, 49n94 Vendrell, Francesc, 552 United States Institute of Peace (USIP), 572, Venezuela, 78n30, 505–23, 656n28 592n59 constituent assembly, 617 Project on Constitution-Making, calling, 510 Peace-Building and National elections, 512–13 Reconciliation, xiv granting authority to change power of United States of Brazil, 436 organs of state, 514 United States of Venezuela, 509 opposition group, 513 United States Pacific Islands Trust, 5 constitution-making process, 510–18 United Worker’s Congress (Brazil), 461n12 constituent assembly, 510–11 Unity Government Agreement (Zimbabwe), 181, context, 606 187–88 drafting phase, 515–16 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 183 electoral rule, 512–13 and Cambodia, 232 failure to achieve mission, 522–23 and Nicaragua constitution, 493 legitimacy and rule of law, 511–12 translation for Eritrean citizens, 67 motivation, 651 708 Index

process and substance, 518–22 in Cambodia, 214 seizure of constituted powers, 513–15 in East Timor, 257 constitution of 1961, procedures for revising, voting. See elections 511 Vranitzky, Franz, 314 constitution of 1999, 505–06 absence of public participation, 507 Walesa, Lech, 391, 407 system established by, 518 conflict with Mazowiecki, 415n38 constitutional referenda in 1999, 36 conflict with parliamentary majority, 398 costs of breaching existing legal rules, 648 Waliggo, John, 163 declaration of independence, 506 Walvis Bay, 110n55 elected bodies, 657n28 Wapakhabulo, James, 165, 174n24 local government (municipalities) in, 521 Wardak, Farooq, 548 military in, increasing power of, 520 Warsaw Pact, 409 municipalities disconnection from citizens, 508 Washington Agreement (Bosnia), 337, 344 national assembly Weber, Max, 385n4 Chavez proposal for, 505–06 Wessels, Leon, 128 election, and appointment powers, 517 Western contact group, 102 plebescite democracy in, 521 Western Samoa, 5, 279 political rights, 26 Westminster form of government, in Uganda, political system and crisis of 1999, 507–10 159 party domination and demand for White ethnic group in Namibia, 108n39 participation, 508 Widner, Jennifer, xviin3, 44n5, 603, 622, 654n1, reform demands, 509–10 657n27, 658n35 state centralism, 509 will of the masses, 312 preserving regime powers, 650 Wilson, John, 293 public participation, 645 Wilson, Richard J., 485 referendums, 622, 623 Winczorek, Piotr, 397 state centralism and decentralization crisis, Wiranto, General (Indonesia), 249 509 Wisniewski, Leszek, 397 timeline constraints, 638–39 Witbooi, Hendrik, 110n54 Venice Commission of the Council of Europe, 312, Wolesi Jirga (House of the People; Afghanistan), 313, 317, 326 539, 555 and Constitutional Court of Albania, 319 Wolf, Antonio Navarro, 473 Vereeniging, 144 Wolfowitz, Paul, 548 Verwoerd, Hendrik, 114 women ©Vienna Copyright Convention on the Law of Treaties, by 3 the inEndowment Afghanistan of Vienna Declaration of 1993 (UN), 24 as commissiion delegates, 539 village democracy, in Eritrea, 66 in parliament, 557 villagethe meetings United in Eritrea, public seminars,States 67 Institutein Cambodia, 218, 219 of Peace violence, 605 in Constitutional Loya Jirga, 550 against Afghan leaders, 550 East Timor constituent assembly seats in Cambodia, 207 reserved for, 256 in Colombia, 468, 469 in East Timor consultative process, 264 in East Timor, 249 failure to speak, 38 in Iraq, 589n2 inequality in Zimbabwe, 182 and election platforms, 570 marginalization in Iraq, 583 before South African elections, 125 in MPNP (South Africa), 120 in Zimbabwe, 180, 187 in Nicaragua, 489 state-sponsored intimidation, 189 in constituent assembly, 490–91 Viva la ciudadania program, 476 participation in consultations, 37 Voice of Namibia, 98 position in Namibia, 96 Vojvodina, 333 rights to participate in government policy volkstaat council (South Africa), 129 formation, 23 voter registration in Uganda in Albania, 320 in constituent assembly, 9, 173 Framing the State in Times of Transition 709

constitution-making process, 163 1990 efforts for new, 185–86 views considered, 17n31 Amendment no. 4, 198n35 underrepresentation in Colombian on discrimination, 203n138 constitution-making, 41 draft constitution, 187, 188 in Zimbabwe, 194 on freedom of expression, 184 marriage to alien, 185 on House of Assembly, 198n36 Women’s Caucus (Uganda), 167 international experts’ participation, 191 Women’s Councils (Uganda), 165 parliament rubber-stamp of Women’s Network (East Timor). See Feto amendments, 185 Timor Loro Sac Timorese Women’s Network problems, 182 (Women’s Network) constitution-making process Workers Commissions (Comisiones Obreras; challenges, 181–83 CCOO), 419 context, 606 Workers’ Guard (Hungary), 361 dangers of flawed process, 646 Workers’ Party (PT; Brazil), 446, 461n12 failure in 1999, 188–90 working groups (mesas de trabajo; Colombia), 470, and international community, 190–95 471–72 and international human rights norms, World Bank, pressure on Fiji constitution-making 183 process, 292 and peace program, 643–44 World Council of Indigenous Peoples, 295 postindependence process, 183–88 World Court constitution of 1999, 193 jurisprudence in Namibia disputes, 103 constitutional commission, 186 South West Africa/Namibia cases, 82 limitations, 193 World Trade Center attack on September 11, constitutional conference in 1979, 180 2001, and Afghanistan, 535–36 deadline pressure, 638 writ of protection (tutela; Colombia), 478 economic collapse, 181 writ of security (mandado de segurança; Brazil), 456 elections, in 2008, 187 foreign involvement issues, 651 Xhuveli, Lefter, 328n26 government-demolished homes, 189 independence, 180 Yayasan Hak, 253 judiciary, control in Zimbabwe, 184 You and the Constitution, 38 Lancaster House model, amendments, 183–84 You and the New Constitution, 137 land ownership in, 178 Yugoslav People’s Army ( JNA), 333 lessons learned from failure of constitutional Yugoslavia, constitution of 1974, 333 process, 191–95 © Copyright by the Endowmentparliament of Zagreb, 336 as center of power, 193 Zahir Shah (king of Afghanistan), 537, 538, 543, and constitution writing, 188 the547 United States Institutepolitical order for future,of 196 Peace Zambia, 178 presidency, shielded from accountability to term limits, 171, 182 parliament, 184 ZANU (Zimbabwe African National Union), 179, prime minister for, 180 180 public participation, 632 ZAPU, 180 referendums, 195, 623 Zartman, William, xviin3 rejection of constitution, 36 Zasloff, Joseph J., 226–27 state of emergency, 180 Zatz, Marjorie S., 492 Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), 179, ZCC (Zimbabwe Council of Churches), 185 180 zero option, of declaring invalidity of communist Zimbabwe Council of Churches (ZCC), 185, 196 laws, 403 Zimmermann, Augusto, 459 Zimbabwe, 7, 35, 78n30, 176–96, 620 Zoellick, Robert, 573 colonial period, 177–81 Zog (King of Albania), 312 constitution Zulu king, guarantee of position, 125 in 1961, 178