The Struggle of Mauritania's Haratine Women

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Still Far From Freedom: The Struggle of Mauritania’s Haratine Women Haratine woman, Nouakchott. Michael Hylton for Anti-Slavery International.

Acknowledgements SOS-Esclaves This report has been produced with the financial assistance SOS-Esclaves (SOS for Slaves) is a human rights association of the European Union. The contents of this report are the that has been active since 1995 and was legally recognized sole responsibility of Minority Rights Group International and in 2005 by authorization receipt No. 0069/Ministry of can under no circumstances be regarded as reflecting the Interior/Department of Public Liberties/Division of Public position of the European Union. MRG wishes to thank Anti- Liberties, dated 17/05/2005. It works primarily for the Slavery International (ASI) for their support eradication of slavery by descent and has an become an authoritative resource in this ﬁeld with the support of Anti- Author Slavery International, which provided institutional support Paige Wilhite Jennings has worked with inter-governmental that helped it achieve its professionalization. organizations and NGOs in Central Africa, Central and South America and the Caribbean on a range of human rights Minority Rights Group International concerns. In recent years her work has focused particularly MRG is an NGO working to secure the rights of ethnic, on minority and children’s rights. religious and linguistic minorities and indigenous peoples worldwide, and to promote cooperation and understanding MRG wishes to gratefully acknowledge Isabelle Younane’s between communities. Our activities are focused on valuable research assistance, and the interviews conducted international advocacy, training, publishing and outreach. We by Aichetou Ahmed and Salimata Lam for the case studies. are guided by the needs expressed by our worldwide partner network of organizations, which represent minority and L’Association des Femmes Chefs de Famille indigenous peoples. The Association of Women Heads of Family (AFCF) is a human rights organization founded in 1999 through MRG works with over 150 organizations in nearly 50 authorization receipt No. 0626 /Ministry of Interior, dated countries. Our governing Council, which meets twice a year, August 17, 1999. AFCF is run by a multidisciplinary team of has members from 10 different countries. MRG has sociologists, nutritionists and development specialists in consultative status with the United Nations Economic and economics and communication. Social Council (ECOSOC), and observer status with the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights (ACHPR). MRG is registered as a charity and a company limited by guarantee under English law. Registered charity no. 282305, limited company no. 1544957).

Material from this publication may be reproduced for teaching or for other non-commercial purposes. No part of it may be reproduced in any form for commercial purposes without the prior express permission of the copyright holders. For further information please contact MRG. A CIP catalogue record of this publication is available from the British Library. ISBN 978-1-907919-60-2. Published April 2015.

Still Far From Freedom: The Struggle of Mauritania’s Haratine Women is published by MRG as a contribution to public understanding of the issue which forms its subject. The text and views of the author do not necessarily represent in every detail and all its aspects, the collective view of MRG. Still Far From Freedom: The Struggle of Mauritania’s Haratine Women

Contents

Key ﬁndings 2 Executive summary 3 Introduction 5 Slavery in Mauritania 5 Discrimination against Haratines as a group 5 The situation of women in Mauritania 5 Methodology 6 Historical overview of Haratine slavery in Mauritania 7 Context 7 Origins of slavery 7 Abolition and beyond: dealing with slavery and its legacy 7 Current situation of Haratine women 10

The situation of Haratine women still in slavery 10 The situation of Haratine women newly emerged from slavery 12 The situation of freeborn Haratine women 15 Drivers and aspects of marginalization 22 Haratine women as individuals 22 Haratine women in the family 22 Haratine women in society 22 Recommendations 24

Notes 26 Key ﬁndings

Key ﬁndings

• Slavery is still widespread in Mauritania, despite • These inequalities are enabled by the indifference and ofﬁcially being criminalized, with tens of thousands of even complicity of authorities and legal institutions. the country’s Haratine population living in total Slavery and other forms of exploitation persist in large servitude. Enslaved Haratines, particularly women, are part because of the impunity of the perpetrators. regularly beaten, intimidated, forcibly separated from Without access to justice, political participation and their families and subjected to a range of other human other rights, Haratine women remain vulnerable to rights violations, including sexual assault. exploitation, sexual assault and other abuses. Despite this, many Haratine women have worked courageously to overcome these barriers to achieve greater autonomy in their own lives.

• The dehumanization of Haratines in Mauritania, • The immediate implementation of the ban on slavery, besides sustaining these abuses, also exposes them undertaken with the full commitment of the state and to stigmatization beyond the slavery system. The law enforcement agencies, is a necessary and urgent situation is especially acute for women, who are ﬁrst step in ensuring the protection of Haratine women discriminated against on account of both their gender from gross human rights abuses. However, a more and their status as Haratine. As a result, even after comprehensive programme of social, legal and escaping servitude, freed Haratines and their institutional reform must also be undertaken to ensure descendants are unable to secure basic services such that free and formerly enslaved Haratine women are as education and struggle to integrate into Mauritanian able to access rights, services and life opportunities society. safely and equitably.

2 STILL FAR FROM FREEDOM: THE STRUGGLE OF MAURITANIA’S HARATINE WOMEN Executive Summary

Mauritania is consistently ranked as the worst place in the place in Mauritania, with the perpetrator subsequently world for slavery, with tens of thousands still trapped in released on bail pending an appeal. Religious teachings total servitude across the country. This practice, despite have also been misused to justify the practice. Further officially being criminalized, continues to be sustained by legal measures against slavery, though important, will the systematic marginalization of Mauritania’s large therefore have limited effectiveness without broader efforts Haratine population. The persistent failure of the to transform institutional attitudes and social prejudice government, security forces and other stakeholders to through training and awareness raising. protect this group has left them exposed to widespread Nevertheless, although these obstacles can be exploitation and dehumanization. The situation is overwhelming, many Haratine women have demonstrated especially precarious for Haratine women, who are great courage and determination in their fight for equality discriminated against on account of both their gender and and greater autonomy in their own lives. Despite the ethnicity. dangers and the deep resistance their activities attract, This report by Minority Rights Group International including from male members of their own community, (MRG), Still Far From Freedom: The Struggle of Haratine women have played a leading role in advocating Mauritania’s Haratine Women, draws on extensive research for their rights and legal redress for the abuses committed and first-hand testimony from Haratine women. Besides against them. It is important that official bodies, civil highlighting the everyday reality of abuse and oppression society and other stakeholders recognize their essential experienced by those in servitude – ranging from contribution and ensure their active involvement in efforts exploitative labour, intimidation and confinement to rape, to end exploitation and discrimination. violence and the enforced separation of families – it also Though the immediate abolition of slavery in explores how formerly enslaved Haratines and their Mauritania is a critical first step in reducing many of the descendants still face widespread stigmatization and lack worst rights abuses against Haratine women, a wider access to necessities such as education, land rights and process of social and institutional reform will also be political participation. As a result, many former slaves required before their rights and security can be ensured. At struggle to integrate into Mauritanian society even once present, as the accounts of those interviewed for this study they have nominally secured their freedom. demonstrate, there is a clear continuum between the The deep discrimination experienced by Haratine oppression of the slavery system and the deep-seated women, even among their own community, is driven by discrimination in Mauritania against Haratine women in the reluctance of authorities to take meaningful action to general. These issues can only be addressed by a curb abuses. In the case of slavery, the indifference and comprehensive and sustained process of social and even complicity of law enforcement agencies has actively institutional reform, with the involvement of the national contributed to the impunity enjoyed by slave masters. To government, Mauritanian civil society, legal institutions date, only one full prosecution of a slave owner has taken and the international community.

STILL FAR FROM FREEDOM: THE STRUGGLE OF MAURITANIA’S HARATINE WOMEN 3 4 STILL FAR FROM FREEDOM: THE STRUGGLE OF MAURITANIA’S HARATINE WOMEN Introduction

Slavery in Mauritania of Mauritania’s population live in slavery.4 In a context of growing international awareness of the persistence of Minority Rights Group International (MRG) has long slavery in Mauritania, in November 2014 the Australian been concerned about the situation of the Haratine non-governmental organization (NGO) Walk Free minority in Mauritania. This group, known colloquially as Foundation, in its second annual global report on slavery, ‘Black Moors’, have historically been enslaved by the again listed Mauritania as the country with the highest dominant Arab Berber population, or ‘White Moors’. percentage of slaves among its population in the world.5 While slavery has been outlawed in Mauritania four times over more than a century, reports indicate that the Discrimination against practice persists. After visiting Mauritania for the first time in 2010, the United Nations (UN) Special Rapporteur on Haratines as a group contemporary forms of slavery, including its causes and The word ‘Haratine’ is reportedly derived from the Arabic consequences (hereafter Special Rapporteur on word for freedom: regardless of their status, enslaved or contemporary forms of slavery), definitively concluded free, the legacy of institutionalized hereditary slavery in that de facto slavery still exists in parts of Mauritania: Mauritania is that all Haratines are regarded by other groups in Mauritania as freed slaves.6 This perception ‘ the victims described situations whereby they were pertains regardless of how many generations of freedom completely controlled by their owner using physical any given family has enjoyed or their socioeconomic level, and/or mental threats; could not independently make with concrete results. They remain the group that is most any decision related to their lives without his or her discriminated against and excluded in a country master’s permission; were treated as commodities – for characterized by deep-seated social and ethnic hierarchies. example, girls being given away as wedding presents; Clearly, then, while anti-slavery efforts are an essential lacked freedom of movement; and were forced to work part of efforts to redress their situation, abolition is only a long hours with very little or no remuneration. In first step to establishing Haratines as full and equal addition, the victims were further denied the right to participants in Mauritanian society. With this in mind, a inherit. These victims had escaped slavery and talked Haratine Manifesto for a broad spectrum of political, about the relatives that they had left behind who still economic and social rights of Haratines was published in lived in slavery.’ 1 Nouakchott in April 2013.7 A year later, a march was held to reiterate the manifesto’s demands.8 The Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of slavery visited Mauritania again in 2014, while her The situation of women counterpart the UN Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and in Mauritania related intolerance (hereafter Special Rapporteur on In Mauritania, women of all racial, ethnic and cultural contemporary forms of racism) visited in 2008 and 2014. groups face a host of challenges to the enjoyment of the Both issued substantive mission reports, despite the full range of their human rights. The country was ranked difficulties in accessing information on this highly 140th out of 149 countries included in the United sensitive issue and the lack of disaggregated data on Nations Development Programme (UNDP) Human population, ethnicity and livelihood available in Development Report’s most recent Gender Inequality Mauritania.2 According to the Special Rapporteur on Index, taking into account three aspects of women’s lives: contemporary forms of racism, an estimated 50 per cent of reproductive health, empowerment and economic Haratines live in ‘conditions of de facto slavery through activity.9 In recent years the Mauritanian government’s domestic servitude and bonded or forced labour’.3 For efforts to redress this situation have included national their part, in 2013 Anti-Slavery International (ASI), MRG strategies to combat the practice of female genital and SOS-Esclaves reported that an estimated 18 per cent mutilation and to promote the welfare of rural women.10

STILL FAR FROM FREEDOM: THE STRUGGLE OF MAURITANIA’S HARATINE WOMEN 5 However, though a draft Act on Violence against Women Methodology is reportedly pending, there is no overarching national gender strategy.11 The research for this report was conducted in two parts. Within this context, Haratine women and girls as a Initially, MRG commissioned a baseline study on the group are particularly vulnerable due to the deeply situation of Haratine women in the capital Nouakchott, entrenched practices of enslavement and discrimination carried out by Mauritanian NGOs the Association of described above. Of all the groups in Mauritania, they are Women Heads of Family (Association des Femmes Chefs perhaps the most disenfranchised: ﬁrst as Haratine, and de Familles [AFCF]) and SOS-Esclaves (SOS-Slaves). The again as women. With this piece of research MRG seeks to second part of the research focused on personal interviews, contribute to the base of available knowledge regarding conducted by female interlocutors, with 20 Haratine the situation of Haratine women, in the hopes that raising women. The interviews included a set questions covering a awareness of the challenges they continue to face will help range of aspects of their daily lives such as livelihood; to inform more eﬀective programming to redress the vast family life; personal experiences as Haratine women; and inequalities they face. views on the future. Excerpts from interviews can be found throughout the text.

6 STILL FAR FROM FREEDOM: THE STRUGGLE OF MAURITANIA’S HARATINE WOMEN Historical overview of Haratine slavery in Mauritania

Context It existed among several different groups in Mauritania but, as described in the introduction, was historically most Mauritania is an ethnically, linguistically and culturally prevalent among the group of concern in this paper, the diverse country of 3.9 million inhabitants. Though many of Haratine – a situation that remains in place to this day. its citizens were traditionally nomadic, as elsewhere in the Among this group, enslavement to White Moor masters Sahel drought and desertification have disrupted livelihoods has been hereditary for many generations, and is deeply and forced increasing numbers of people into the towns, rooted in social traditions and systems. Haratines who are including the principal city Nouakchott. Mauritania ranks still in slavery work long hours for no pay, and are entirely 161st out of 187 countries in the 2014 UN Human dependent on their masters for food, clothing and shelter. Development Index. In the context of climate change and They generally receive no education or training. They live acute water shortages, and following cyclical droughts such at the whim of their owners, and can be subjected to ill- as the one that affected the Sahel region in 2011, 18.5 per treatment, rape and other violence, as well as separated cent of households suffered from food insecurity as of from their families and loved ones. December 2013.12 This has been further exacerbated by the Religious beliefs are manipulated to support this presence of tens of thousands of refugees in Mauritania system, perpetuating misperceptions that link elements of fleeing conflict in neighbouring Mali.13 Islam with the practice of slavery.15 Due to lack of Mauritania is a Muslim country, the population of education and the dominance of their masters, many which can broadly be divided into three groups: Black slaves may themselves believe that their situation is Mauritanians, White Moors (or ‘Beydan’) and Haratines justified in these terms.16 In an attempt to counter the (also known as ‘Black Moors’). Black Mauritanians misperception, the drafters of the eventual 2007 law historically settled around the Senegal River in the south criminalizing slavery grounded it firmly, in its very first and east of the country. The remaining groups, White article, in Islamic values ‘designed to free mankind and Moors and Haratines, speak the Hassaniyya dialect of guarantee its dignity’.17 More recently, in December 2014, Arabic. White Moors and Black Mauritanians comprise the government required all mosques to give an obligatory roughly 30 per cent of the population each, with Haratines unified sermon (khotba) about Islam’s rejection of slavery. making up the remainder14 – though exact figures are However, at least one high-profile imam reportedly did unavailable and estimates of these proportions vary. not comply, instead criticizing human rights organizations White Moors are believed to be descendants of Arab engaged in the struggle against racism and slavery.18 Berbers who migrated to Mauritania in the eleventh century. Their control of much of Mauritania’s economic, Abolition and beyond: dealing political, administrative and military power, and the resulting ‘Arabization’ of Mauritanian policy and political with slavery and its legacy identity since independence in 1960, have contributed to Internationally, a growing legal framework has been built several periods of ethnic unrest and violence. In the late up over past decades to combat slavery, including many 1980s, for instance, tens of thousands of Senegalese and conventions ratified by Mauritania. Furthermore, within Black Mauritanians were expelled from or otherwise the country itself multiple efforts to abolish slavery forced to leave Mauritania. The dominance of the White domestically have been undertaken since the beginning of Moors has continued to the present day. the twentieth century. This section outlines this legislation and discusses its limited effectiveness. Origins of slavery Slavery dates back hundreds of years in Mauritania, from a International legal framework period when Arab Berbers raided and enslaved black Under the 1926 Convention to Suppress the Slave Trade Africans settled along the Senegal River, dominating and and Slavery (Slavery Convention), states parties commit to eventually assimilating them into their own social system. bringing about the complete abolition of slavery, defined

STILL FAR FROM FREEDOM: THE STRUGGLE OF MAURITANIA’S HARATINE WOMEN 7 as ‘the status or condition of a person over whom any or mechanism for civil proceedings for reparation or all of the powers attaching to the right of ownership are compensation of victims. Critics also point to the Act’s exercised’.19 The Slavery Convention was augmented by a failure to provide mechanisms for its application or to 1956 Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of address issues of discrimination. Since the passage of the Slavery, the Slave Trade, and Institutions and Practices Act in 2007, there has only been one full prosecution for Similar to Slavery. The latter incorporates articles on the the crime of slavery. In that case the slave owner received a abolition of debt bondage, child labour and serfdom. lenient sentence and was released on bail a few months Forced marriage is also included, defined as a situation after he was convicted, pending an appeal. He has when ‘a woman, without the right to refuse, is promised remained at liberty since, even though the appeal remains or given in marriage on payment of a consideration in unresolved. Moreover, the mother of the 9- and 11-year- money or in kind to her parents, guardian, family or any old victims, herself a slave, was also convicted in the other person or group’. Under the supplementary proceeding.23 convention, the states parties undertake to set appropriate Furthermore, Act No. 2013-011 of 23 January 2013 minimum ages of marriage and establish mechanisms for designated slavery and torture as crimes against humanity, ensuring that both parties freely consent to marriage and reinforcing their status under international law. In other registration of marriages.20 measures to overcome its slavery reputation, in March Other relevant instruments cited in the text below 2013 the government established the National Agency for include the International Covenant on Civil and Political the Fight against the Consequences of Slavery, for Rights (ICCPR) and the International Covenant on Reintegration and for the Fight against Poverty (Agence Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), both Nationale de Lutte contre les Séquelles de l’Esclavage, de ratified by Mauritania on 17 November 2004; the l’Insertion et de Lutte contre la Pauvreté), known as Convention for the Elimination of Discrimination against Tadamoun. Its mandate includes implementing anti- Women, ratified by Mauritania on 10 May 2001; and the poverty activities, land restitution programmes and Convention on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, carrying out projects to combat the influences of ratified by Mauritania on 13 December 1988. generations of slavery. It is also empowered to lodge complaints against alleged perpetrators of slavery-like practices on behalf of victims, though this capacity does Domestic legal framework not seem to have actually been exercised as of this writing. The international legal conventions against slavery are also UN sources have reported that to date there is little supported by Mauritania’s domestic legislation. Over the information available on the performance of this agency.24 decades, slavery has been legally abolished a number of For their part, NGOs continue to press for the ability to times in the country. The first was in 1905, via a colonial bring complaints themselves on behalf of victims.25 decree implementing an 1848 French law abolishing Following the 2009 visit to Mauritania of the UN slavery in all French colonies. The second followed Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of slavery, the independence in 1960, through the 1961 Constitution. In Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for 1981, slavery was abolished by Order 081-234; it Human Rights (UNHCR) helped the Government of provided for compensation to masters for loss of property. Mauritania draw up a road map for the implementation of However, its impact was hampered by the vagueness of its her recommendations for combating slavery. In February wording and the lack of practical mechanisms for 2014 the Special Rapporteur carried out a follow-up visit. enforcing it. Finally, Slavery Act 2007-048 was passed in She found that the authorities ‘had made good progress in September 2007, criminalizing slavery and slavery-like taking legislative and institutional measures aimed at practices and imposing sentences of 5 to 10 years’ fighting forms of slavery in Mauritania’.26 In March 2014 imprisonment and fines for those found guilty of the government formally adopted the road map; measures perpetrating them. The Act also provides for assistance and adopted included setting up a dedicated tribunal for cases compensation for victims.21 of slavery, a move which was intended to make justice Critics of the Act point out that it focuses on the more accessible and effective for victims.27 It is still too individual criminal responsibility of slave owners and can early to assess the road map’s impact. NGOs involved in therefore only be activated through a formal criminal the fight against slavery and racism point out that the road complaint and prosecution – formidable challenges for map does not recognize the important role of civil society former slaves, many of whom are illiterate. They express organizations in challenging and changing the status quo, concern at an apparent reluctance on the part of police and that it places all elements of the process in the and prosecutors to adequately investigate those complaints government’s control, despite the role of the authorities in that are lodged,22 and note that to date there is no active shoring up and maintaining the practice of slavery over

8 STILL FAR FROM FREEDOM: THE STRUGGLE OF MAURITANIA’S HARATINE WOMEN past decades. These misgivings are particularly pertinent in June with 8.9 per cent of the vote, was arrested in light of reports in December 2014 that the serving November 2014 with at least eight other activists, government Minister for Social Aﬀairs concerning including members of his organization, the Initiative for Children and the Family had been denounced as holding the Resurgence of the Abolitionist Movement.29 The slaves in her own household.28 arrests took place in the context of a peaceful campaign This range of programmes and measures, however, has against slavery and in favour of agrarian reform. Though not eradicated slavery or discrimination against Haratines. others were reportedly released, the Initiative pour la Former slaves and their advocates continue to come under Résurgence du Mouvement Abolitionniste (IRA) members pressure as they try to ensure that the law is enforced. In reportedly remained in detention as of the end of the year, one example, anti-slavery campaigner Biram Dah Abeid, and grave concerns have been expressed about their access who came second in Mauritania’s presidential election in to due process.

STILL FAR FROM FREEDOM: THE STRUGGLE OF MAURITANIA’S HARATINE WOMEN 9 Current situation of Haratine women

What of the particular situation of Haratine women? As gathering and tending livestock, for long hours and described above, some Haratine remain enslaved despite the typically without pay. This life of hard labour denies criminalization of the practice of slavery, though their Haratine slaves any form of education or training, limiting numbers are difficult to establish and they are virtually their ability to survive outside the boundaries of the impossible for outsiders to reach. Other women, newly master–slave relationship and perpetuating their feelings emerged from slavery, are in need of particular and focused of dependency. Haratine women, in particular, are abused support to overcome the harm slavery has caused them and by their masters at multiple levels. As described by the to learn how to manage on their own. Finally, the most Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of slavery, accessible group of Haratine women are those who, though ‘they suffer triple discrimination: firstly as women, descended from slaves, have been born into freedom. Even secondly as mothers and thirdly as slaves.’30 among this group, however, the slavery of their grandparents The interviewees described in stark terms their and earlier ancestors continues to cast a long shadow. situation as slaves. According to one woman: There are many issues which affect all Haratine women, whether they are slaves or free. The information ‘ I lived as a slave for much of my youth. It’s a bad below is presented in the following format: first, issues situation, because the masters use you. You have no affecting Haratine women who are still slaves, of which point of view, so you do everything without thinking, there remain many in Mauritania. The second section as long as it is the will of the master … Also, they told covers matters of concern particularly to newly freed us it was part of the religion … How could you fight Haratine women, that is, those who have obtained their it, where to start? … You feel totally powerless.’ freedom in the last five years or so and are struggling to cope with life challenges for which they were not remotely Several of the women described in depth the prepared or equipped by their former masters. Finally, the discrimination they felt as slaves in Mauritanian society. One report addresses the situation of freeborn Haratine woman, when asked about her experience of discrimination, women, in particular the multiple forms of discrimination answered simply, ‘No, I don’t know, I never learned and marginalization that they continue to face, despite anything.’ When asked whether she felt Haratine women are generations of freedom from enslavement. The report gives treated differently from other women in Mauritania, and if information on Haratine women’s experience of a series of so, how this was felt, she said, ‘just for the colour of the skin. human rights to which they are entitled under Thebidaniyates [White Moorish women] are seated in the international covenants signed and ratified by Mauritania. shade, and the Haratinyates work.’ Other respondents echoed this with accounts of widespread discrimination: The situation of Haratine ‘ For us women, well, we are women and also objects women still in slavery for men. We are discriminated against as slaves, and This section looks first at the situation of the most as women.’ vulnerable of the vulnerable: Haratine women still enslaved by White Moor masters. It draws on a number of materials, including the field interviews and baseline study Rape and sexual servitude described above in the methodology section, as well as Rape and sexual abuse are a core characteristic of slavery, reports from international and domestic sources. As in allowing masters both sexual and reproductive control subsequent sections on newly freed and freeborn Haratine over their slaves. The master controls the woman’s body, women, the focus is on the woman’s position within both for labour and for sexual availability; and he controls society and within the family. her reproductive capacity to produce more labour. This is Within Mauritania’s largely agricultural and pastoral why women’s experience of slavery differs so much from society, Haratine slaves are relied upon to perform a range men’s: because any children that women bear also become of types of work, including childcare, cooking, fuel the property of their masters, women are an important

10 STILL FAR FROM FREEDOM: THE STRUGGLE OF MAURITANIA’S HARATINE WOMEN resource for the production of new slaves. Retaining ‘ Two of my children are not my husband’s, but my old women in the domestic sphere (rather than out working in master’s. We never asked questions.’ ﬁelds or herding animals far away, as men often do) serves a double function. It restricts their movements and social ‘ Yes, it was inevitable, because the master commanded interactions, thus helping prevent escape; and it ensures it. We couldn’t do anything.’ that masters have fuller control over them. The descriptions of rape and sexual abuse were harrowing, with only one of the ﬁve newly emancipated women reporting Threats and abuse: complicity not having been subjected to regular sexual abuse. Three of security forces of them reported bearing the master’s children. Besides carrying out physical abuse and ill-treatment against the slaves themselves, masters further subjugated ‘ Yes, I was always like a goat in his herd. I had a their slaves by threatening to direct state power against child with him but he never recognized it. He always them. Slaves were told that if they tried to escape the told me that I was his sister’s slave.’ masters, the police would arrest and ill-treat or torture

‘Powerless before our master’ – daily life as a slave in Mauritania

One of the interviewees vividly described the reality of ‘During our enslavement, we were mistreated, we girls being a hereditary slave: were raped every day. We had no choice, we were powerless before our master. The slightest resistance ‘We had no choice, as we were born to slave was punished severely, and that traumatized us. You parents, we were slaves through them. For a long start to accept the situation as it is … For women it is time they made us believe that we were created to more complicated [than for Haratine men] because live as slaves. That was the religion.’ naturally women are more weak and vulnerable. Men have more endurance, they take more of the physical According to her testimony, in the household where she strain, but women also undergo psychological strain lived, the master exerted absolute physical control over on top of the physical. Like when they made me have his slaves, backed up with the threat of state power: sexual relations against my will, and I couldn’t say no… I was like his property.’ ‘My family and I lived like animals, because they used us like objects … The members of the master’s family The physical, sexual and psychological abuse had did whatever they wanted with us. They made us tangible results, especially when she fell pregnant: have sexual relations with them however they wanted; when we resisted, we were beaten and tied up.’ ‘You see that little boy there? He is the son of my old master. In fact, most of us women who were slaves, She described how the master threatened them with we have done that, either for the master, or for his arrest by the police if they resisted or tried to ﬂee. brothers, or sometimes for his children, when they Furthermore, to bolster these threats, the master used fancied a bit of fun.’ religion to underpin his authority, making it virtually impossible at ﬁrst for her and her family to offer any As discussed elsewhere, when a slave woman bears moral resistance: children – particularly if they are his children – the master is exerting another form of control. This exploitation of a ‘We truly believed it was the will of Allah and his woman’s reproductive ability to increase his own wealth is prophet Muhammad. You can’t oppose religion. another way of exercising his absolute domination and But, when our parents died, my brother started to power over even the most intimate aspects of her life. The doubt, because the ill-treatment we suffered was master’s control permeates all of her relationships, even the not in the Koran.’ ones she has with her children, as in Mauritania’s system of hereditary slavery they are born her master’s property. This interviewee spoke eloquently about the psychological Bearing children increases the slave woman’s dependence impact of the abuse she suffered. and further ties her to the master’s household, hampering even more her ability to run away or to resist.

STILL FAR FROM FREEDOM: THE STRUGGLE OF MAURITANIA’S HARATINE WOMEN 11 them. The security forces were complicit in this, at times challenges in their lives. In the cases of two of the women apprehending escaped slaves and handing them back to who have been abandoned by their husbands, parents or their masters. Three of the women interviewed reported brothers give them much-needed material support. In instances of ill-treatment or threats of arrest by the police another case, the woman’s parents pay for her children’s or security forces if they tried to run away. education. In some instances, masters break up nuclear families, ‘ The local associations helped me get free from the separating parents from children and siblings from each family that was exploiting me in every way. They used other. This approach is often used as a mechanism of to tell me that if I left, they would hand me over to control over the slave mother and also serves to reinforce the police … I really wanted to run away but I was the dependency of slave children, who grow up with no afraid of my master, who was always threatening me support network beyond their service to their master: in with the police or the guards.’ the words of the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of slavery, ‘their masters, as social relatives, become ‘ I always wanted to leave, up until my husband the closest thing to family’.31 arrived. He helped me to get out and free myself from Slavery also has a corrosive influence on marriages. the family who exploited me in every way … I stood Even when a slave is married, masters continue to exert a it for a long time, even though they would beat me strong degree of control over their personal affairs and and tie me up so that I couldn’t run away … I’d may enforce divorce or separation if the relationship is wanted to escape for a long time, but I was afraid of perceived to undermine their authority. Nor does the my master, who beat me and tied me up like a goat.’ master’s sexual predation necessarily end when a female slave marries. He can continue to subject her to sexual ‘ Life as slaves affected us a lot. We don’t belong to servitude and even to father children on her, regardless of ourselves. We can’t think for ourselves … They used to the pain and harm this may cause within her marriage. tell us that that was Allah’s will for our lives … My husband tried once to run away, but he was caught ‘ Discrimination is part of our lives. In our master’s by the police and punished very severely by the master. house, we were considered objects, to be used as they Our work in the fields and the house was made even wanted. Women are objects of pleasure for the harder. That frightened us, and the master controlled masters. This is traumatizing, above all, for our us through our fear of the guards and the police.’ husbands, who can’t do anything.’

Not surprisingly in this context, interviewees described The situation of Haratine a feeling of betrayal and abandonment by the authorities. One woman said simply of her treatment by authorities, women newly emerged from ‘We are considered sub-human.’ Another reported being slavery disturbed by the fact that ‘There are still a lot of people who are slaves, and this is seen as normal by the decision- Though slavery involves extraordinary levels of control and makers.’ The tradition of oﬃcial complicity in the practice exploitation, the formal release of a victim from servitude of slavery has serious ramiﬁcations. Haratines distrust the may not necessarily represent the end of their abuse by the authorities with good reason. Despite the legislative master and his family. The entrenched power of the framework prohibiting slavery, and the multiplication of relationship and the lack of livelihood opportunities for agencies intended to end slavery and deal with its newly freed Haratine women can result in some former aftermath, the practice continues in Mauritania today, slaves sliding back into slavery-like situations following enabled by widespread impunity. emancipation:

‘ Descendants of slaves are looked down upon. Slave Enforced separation and denial owners are the rich people of this country. We flee of the right to a family life their houses, but when we need work, we go back to Slavery permeates every aspect of its victim’s life, even them under another form. They make us work like with regard to her own roles as wife and mother. Each of slaves again.’ the interviews revealed different ways in which slavery undermines and harms family life. This is immensely Even former slaves who have been nominally freed significant, given the fundamental role families have may continue to serve their old masters, or enter into played in helping some freeborn women cope with the slavery-like servitude with new ones, as they do not see

12 STILL FAR FROM FREEDOM: THE STRUGGLE OF MAURITANIA’S HARATINE WOMEN any viable alternative livelihood.32 The continuum These requirements are often insurmountable for between formal slavery and the continued exploitation illiterate and impoverished hereditary slaves living under of many Haratine women, even after they have been the control of slave masters, many of them in remote freed, means that, in practice, anti-slavery efforts must areas with limited public services. The resulting lack of not only focus on the crucial issue of abolition but also documentation and potentially stateless status makes the address the continued marginalization former slaves face vulnerability of these individuals all the more acute, in Mauritanian society. To secure full emancipation for affecting not just their access to education but also their Mauritania’s Haratine women, it is therefore necessary right to freedom of movement, their ability to vote and to establish a clear and comprehensive system of support their employability in the formal economy. to ensure that former slaves are able to create The interviews revealed that freeborn Haratine women meaningful new lives for themselves. Some of the major generally possessed identity documents, though in one issues confronting this group are discussed in this case, where the couple were divorced, the husband was section. denying the wife access to her papers. Among the five newly emancipated women, however, the situation was very different. Two of them had no identity documents at Identity documents all, though they reported being in the process of obtaining Identity documents are highly important in Mauritania, them with NGO support. The other three women had not least for acquiring nationality under domestic law. obtained their papers, but expressed great concern because Former slaves generally do not have them; for many this is their children did not have them. due at least in part to the circumstances around their birth: marriages between slaves are often unrecognized by their masters and many slaves grow up without knowing Employment and livelihoods their father.33 The lack of birth documentation poses In spite of the drive, autonomy and courage demonstrated serious problems for many people, including a large by many emancipated Haratine women, the barriers they number of Haratines. For example, the census process face even after securing their freedom can be begun in 2011 was particularly problematic for Haratine insurmountable. Excluded from basic services and and Afro-Mauritanian communities, not least because it livelihood opportunities, they often struggle to access required the individual to produce identity documents adequately paid employment due to continued social from the two previous generations. In Mauritania birth stigmatization. In some cases, freed Haratine women have documentation is only issued when parents can supply a reportedly ended up working for relatives of their former valid marriage certificate.34 masters or engaging in prostitution to survive.36

Identity documents and children’s access to education

When available, education and training have been taken many children of former slaves and others whose birth up by emancipated Haratine and their descendants with was not registered are not in school. In Nouakchott, for enthusiasm. Newly emancipated mothers viewed these example, the mayor reportedly informed the Special opportunities as an important bridge for their children to Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism that 80 per improve their post-slavery circumstances. cent of children from Haratine communities were not in school, a situation that clearly hampers the life possibilities ‘Now that I am no longer under a master, I have hope and prospects of the entire ethnic group.35 Given these that my children can study. We need help to ﬁght constraints, the tenuous nature of the lifeline represented against slavery – it kills future generations.’ by education was described clearly by another newly emancipated interviewee: ‘What comforts me is that I am free, and my child is learning to read.’ ‘My children don’t go to school due to lack of resources. How can I get the children into school Nevertheless, many of these children’s access to without money? They have to pay for books … It is education is hampered by the lack of identity documents hard, no one helps us to get out of this situation … and inadequate resources. Although education has been [What gives me] hope for the future? What future? … compulsory for children up to the age of 14 since 2001, The children don’t study. We are poor, without hope.’

STILL FAR FROM FREEDOM: THE STRUGGLE OF MAURITANIA’S HARATINE WOMEN 13 The newly emancipated women interviewed for this Mauritania’s National Human Rights Commission study all described the difficulties they faced as Haratines (Commission Nationale des Droits de l’Homme de la and former slaves in supporting themselves and their République Islamique de Mauritanie) reported in children. They report that there are no governmental September 2014 that at least 26 legal cases of alleged support mechanisms and that, aside from two respondents slavery had been brought before the courts, with others who received small amounts of monetary aid from pending. It has recommended a number of amendments communal authorities, they scrape by with menial work as to the 2007 Act to make it more accessible, such as cleaners or market sellers, and by relying on assistance allowing NGOs to be civil parties to victims’ cases, from NGOs. Though eager to rebuild their lives, their lack helping them to lodge complaints.37 In addition, the of education or training meant that they were only able to Committee for the Elimination of Discrimination against access low-skilled, poorly paid employment. Women has pointed out larger issues around women’s access to justice. It highlighted the absence of meaningful ‘ I have no skills or resources.’ access to justice for female victims of violence and other offences, as well as the inadequate training of legal ‘ We have no way of integrating like other people. I sell practitioners in gender-specific issues.38 pastries to meet my children’s needs. I can’t find paid work because I have neither skills nor money. I tried to sell fabric but it is difficult as I have no capital.’ Separation from family members What keeps you awake and worried at night? ‘ I lived my whole life under slavery, with my brothers ‘ It’s the fact of not knowing my mother, and the fact and sisters … [Now] I work as a cleaner. Life is very of not knowing where my sister is.’ hard. I do laundry for other families to help make ends meet.’ As evidenced by the interviews, the practice of slavery wreaks havoc on the institution of the family. A crucial ‘ I am a Haratine woman who was freed five years and sensitive issue is that many Haratine may hesitate to ago. I spent my whole girlhood as a slave. Life is seek emancipation or are sent elsewhere by their masters, hard, because there is no structure to help former meaning family members are unable to track them slaves integrate into ordinary life. To get by, I started down.39 In the interviews for this report, it was clear that off begging; then, a benefactor gave me a little money this causes considerable damage even to those who are and I started selling fish in the market. I am married newly emancipated. Of the five such women interviewed, to a former slave who does odd jobs, and life four reported having family members who were still continues. At my age, I am still learning how to think enslaved. One reported that her younger brothers had for myself without needing a master to tell me what I been sent away by the master to work at an unknown have to do. I have a hard time finding money to buy location. ‘The slavers’, she said, ‘have begun to carry out my fish, I can’t even meet our basic needs.’ their acts in secret, because of the accusations against them by the associations.’ The three remaining women all reported that their family members were reluctant to leave Access to justice: proceedings their masters, judging that they were better off enslaved against former owners than free. As described above, slavery has been criminalized since 2007 and legal mechanisms do exist for bringing slave owners to ‘ They are all still slaves, no one wants to leave their justice. Nevertheless, there has been only one full master. They hide when you try to go help them.’ prosecution of a slave owner for the crime of slavery. For illiterate, destitute former slaves, the lodging of formal ‘ They refuse to leave, because they think that our criminal charges against their former masters is an enormous situation is no better than theirs.’ challenge; for many, the mere struggle to survive occupies all of their time and energy. This may be one explanation as to This attitude was clearly disturbing to the why the issue of justice was not mentioned once in the five interviewees. On the one hand, it could be interpreted as interviews with former slaves. Another may well be that a result of the closed nature of the relationship between Mauritania’s system of hereditary slavery entails a high masters and slaves, in which the social and human degree of indoctrination of its victims, conditioning them to relationships that develop between the two groups can be accept their lot as ‘possessions’ and making it exceedingly used to perpetuate the system: the baseline study difficult for them to formally accuse their masters. indicated, for example, that some consider slaves and

14 STILL FAR FROM FREEDOM: THE STRUGGLE OF MAURITANIA’S HARATINE WOMEN owners themselves to be ‘frères de lait’, or ‘milk brothers’, savings to set up as a fish vendor. She reported being children breastfed by the same woman. These social unable to sleep at night out of worry over where the next relations with former masters can still exist even among day’s food was coming from. Two years ago she younger Haratines who no longer self-identify as slaves, remarried; her new husband is a day worker and often though the latter have the space to decline to perform cannot find work: services that the Beydan request ‘fraternally’, without fear of consequences. ‘ Sometimes, I feel such weakness and worry that I On the other hand, however, their attitude can be nearly lose the courage to carry on with life as normal seen as an indication of the depth of the system’s roots … what keeps me from sleeping is remembering the and its closed nature, which cuts slaves off from night my youngest daughter kept me up from hunger, education, denies them the opportunity to develop the because I had nothing to give her to eat. All I want is full range of life skills and isolates them from other ways to see my children grow up and live without having of life. The decision of family members to remain to go through the bitterness that I did.’ enslaved has ramifications for the freed slaves as well, cutting them off from contact with their loved ones and The women’s accounts made it clear that poverty was depriving them of the social, financial and emotional closely linked to women’s experience of discrimination, support that extended family has offered some of the which all of the interviewees reported suffering. One other interviewees at times of need. interviewee reported that:

The situation of freeborn ‘ In the NGOs we talk about the rights of women. But Haratine women are very much discriminated Haratine women against – they are considered worthless. They have no schooling, they live in poverty. This situation is so Poverty and discrimination hard, and we can do nothing about it. With the Though poverty cuts across all ethnicities in Mauritania, NGOs, we think that people will change their Haratines are overall the most economically marginalized mentality … But for me, my family has been free for group. Poverty, the struggle to feed their children and, if a long time, yet our circumstances haven’t really at all possible, to pay for their schooling were themes that changed, even though we now have our liberty.’ ran through nearly all of the women’s interviews. Despite the clear need for targeted assistance to Haratines, The account above was typical, and demonstrated concern has been expressed about the apparent absence of how, for freeborn women, the discrimination they felt anti-poverty projects specifically targeting Haratines. was not diminished by freedom or the passage of Instead, they have reportedly been only indirect generations since the end of their families’ enslavement; beneficiaries of projects addressing generalized poverty.40 they felt they were still perceived as slaves. Though many Haratine women invest remarkable effort and determination to improve their situation, ‘ Haratine women are despised. Coming from slavery, overcoming Mauritania’s entrenched discrimination is the White Moors consider us objects without any difficult. One reported: value. When you go to them looking for work, they make you work like a slave because that’s how they ‘ I think it [discrimination] is getting worse, because see you. Then they pay you very little, and as you we are getting poorer and poorer, and no one bothers have no choice you don’t know what to do about it. to try to help us solve our problem. I am a woman Just for the colour of our skin, we are identified as living alone in a small room, I have nothing. They slaves.’ ask me for collateral for a loan for my small business: where am I going to find that? I think that the state However, the women were aware of discrimination should be our guarantor with the banks … if I don’t not only by other communities, but also within their own find any money to support my small business, my community and families: children can’t go to school, they’ll end up as poor as I am, and so it will continue.’ ‘ I feel that women don’t have the right to speak to express their feelings. As a Haratine woman, I suffer a Another woman, the mother of six girls and one boy, double discrimination. As descendants of slaves, our supported her children and her ailing mother after the neighbours despise us … My husband (my ex- death of her first husband by using her small amount of husband, I mean) doesn’t recognize my right to speak.’

STILL FAR FROM FREEDOM: THE STRUGGLE OF MAURITANIA’S HARATINE WOMEN 15 Some of those interviewed spoke as well of the ‘Haratines live in such poverty … girls are not meant to dangers, particularly for young people, of internalizing go to school for long, as they are supposed to be getting discrimination in feelings of low self-worth: married anyway.’ Another went further:

‘ I am a hartanyate born into a family of former slaves. ‘ For us, discrimination begins in the family. Custom, I go to university. My dad is a driver in Nouakchott, and a poor interpretation of Islam, makes the lives of which allows us to get by, albeit with difficulty. I Haratine women miserable. Boys are treated work part-time in a restaurant to help out. Starting differently from girls – girls are raised to serve their normal life again after decades of slavery is not easy. husbands, and nothing more. Parents will work really The consequences of slavery – ignorance, poverty, hard to send boys to school, but when a girl drops out social and economic marginalization, the lack of a of school no one cares.’ future – weigh tremendously on us … the stigma is so great that some of my younger friends are ashamed to This valuable input from the women interviewed be part of this community.’ highlights again that efforts to address issues such as girls’ access to education cannot focus solely on a top-down In this way, discrimination directed against Haratine approach around identity documentation and women by members of other ethnic groups in Mauritania infrastructure, as important as these areas are. They also due to their ethnicity, and by members of their own need to incorporate work at a grassroots level to promote families due to their gender, has the pernicious effect of attitudinal shifts within Haratine families and undermining their own feelings of self-worth and communities, stressing the value of girls’ education for belonging. their own and their families’ futures.

Haratine girls and access to education Access to land The report earlier included a discussion of the links Land emerged as an important issue in both the baseline between identity documents and education among newly study and the in-depth interviews. While slaves own freed slaves (p. 13). Issues around education, however, are nothing, even freeborn Haratines are often excluded from extremely significant among the freeborn Haratine land ownership. During her 2010 visit to Mauritania the population as well. The Haratine Manifesto published in Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of slavery April 2013 indicated that Haratines represent 85 per cent reported finding that some former slaves in rural areas are of the total illiterate population in Mauritania; that more unable to gain land titles, and are forced to give a than 80 per cent of Haratine have not completed primary percentage of what they produce to their former owners – education; and that Haratine students constitute only 5 per meaning their dependency on their master may continue, cent of the students who are enrolled in higher education.41 sometimes in conditions in serfdom.43 While the Similarly, the baseline study indicated that education government has implemented a limited programme of among the Haratine population is minimal; for most assistance in the form of land, these are not accessible to Haratines, the lack of any formal education presented the many former slaves or descendants of slaves.44 As the greatest obstacle to their main wish for the future – to interviews demonstrate, in many areas and for many have formal employment allowing them to live with families the problem persists. One woman highlighted dignity and meet their needs and those of their children. how the requirement for ancestral identity documents Desired professions that were considered beyond them obstructs Haratines from gaining ownership of land: due to their lack of qualifications included nursing, the army, engine mechanics and trade. ‘ We all have our identity documents [in the family], Although primary education is compulsory by law for but sometimes we are asked for our grandparents’ all children under the age of 15, the Committee for the documents in order to access certain rights. Without Elimination of Discrimination against Women reported in those, we get nothing. For example, a while ago they July 2014 that women in Mauritania were much more were distributing plots of land to destitute families, likely than men to be illiterate (53 per cent and 33 per but we did not get one because we did not have our cent, respectively), with non-Arab and rural girls at grandparents’ papers.’ particular risk of being excluded from the education system.42 The women interviewed described in particular Women face particular obstacles to land ownership: the how discriminatory attitudes within the family made Committee for the Elimination of Discrimination against access to schooling more difficult for girls. One said, Women has noted with concern that women in Mauritania

16 STILL FAR FROM FREEDOM: THE STRUGGLE OF MAURITANIA’S HARATINE WOMEN cannot legally buy or transfer land without authorization the greater part of the lower levels of the country’s military by a third party, such as a guardian or male family and police, Haratines are largely excluded from middle- member.45 Discriminatory treatment also plays a role. One and higher-level positions within these institutions. The woman described how she migrated to the capital 2013 Haratine Manifesto indicated that fewer than 10 of Nouakchott, moving to a neighbourhood of unallocated the over 200 magistrates practising in Mauritania were land. The census-taking committee registered her on a plot, Haratine.46 but her ownership was later contested by another woman. The interviews with Haratine women revealed how closely discrimination is tied to issues around work, and ‘ I have all the documents proving that it is my land the degree to which it is perceived to have affected their but the other woman had more influence than I and community’s work opportunities. the authorities found in her favour. I am still seeking justice as I feel marginalized, like they are taking ‘ There are types of field work that are only done by something away that is mine by right … I pray to Haratines … like at harvest time.’ Allah that this social vision, where some are deprived of their rights, will change.’ ‘ Domestic servants … these types of jobs are only done by Haratines. It’s as though it’s linked to our social The significance of the issue of land access is status. It’s very frustrating.’ highlighted by a recent NGO campaign by anti-slavery activists around agrarian reform, during which members With regard to gender differences, in the interviews of the IRA were arrested. As of January 2015, they remain three freeborn Haratine women drew attention to in detention. particular constraints they felt due to their gender, reporting that Haratine men are free to migrate in search of work but women cannot. Women are more tied to the Livelihoods and employment home by tradition and by domestic and childcare In Mauritania, most low-skilled and poorly paid responsibilities, limiting their employment options. It is employment is undertaken by Haratines, who at the same more socially acceptable, however, for men to leave the time are largely sidelined from professional positions in home in search of work, widening their choices and government or business. NGOs report that more than 90 possibly allowing for greater income. There is a flip side, per cent of the dockers, domestic workers and labourers however: the potentially detrimental effect of men’s performing unskilled and low-paid jobs in the country are migration on Haratine families is discussed more fully in Haratines, as compared to only 2 per cent of high-ranking the section on marriage. civil servants and senior executives in the public and A number of women reported working as domestic private sectors. Meanwhile, although Haratines make up servants. The Committee on the Elimination of

Discrimination in employment Despite their disproportionate concentration in low-status that she has witnessed and experienced as a woman in or poorly paid employment, the respondents for this her workplace: report included several professional Haratine women. Their descriptions of discrimination were illuminating, and ‘In the workplace, women are not considered equals. illustrated that professional status is no protection against Even some professional women are treated like ﬂowers, it. One woman, a civil servant, described how for girls the there to make the ofﬁce look nice, with none of the experience of discrimination begins within their own decision-making ability that their male colleagues have.’ families, as parents, following tradition and a mistaken interpretation of Islam, prioritize the education of their The fact of being Haratine resulted in additional sons while teaching their daughters nothing more than discrimination, she reported: how to be good wives to their husbands. Though at the time of the interview she had been a ‘In so many years, I have not had a single promotion. civil servant for 18 years, she described the glass ceiling My colleagues come and are promoted above me, year after year. I think this is due to my belonging to a supposed slave caste. It’s a social injustice.’

STILL FAR FROM FREEDOM: THE STRUGGLE OF MAURITANIA’S HARATINE WOMEN 17 Discrimination against Women has expressed concern at Haratines are largely excluded from the political the ‘precarious labour conditions’ of rural women, process and mainstream political parties. In January 2014, especially Haratines and Afro-Mauritanians, who ‘lack any anti-slavery campaigner Biram Dah Abeid, president of type of social protection for themselves and their the aforementioned IRA and representative to the families’.47 Indeed, some forms of domestic servitude are Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization, considered under international norms to be a announced that he would run as an independent contemporary form of slavery. Despite the passage in candidate in the June presidential elections in order to August 2011 of a law regarding domestic workers in highlight ongoing social injustices. He came second in the private households which outlined the rights and duties of race, which was boycotted by the main opposition parties. both employer and employee, Haratine women in As of January 2015, he remains in detention since his domestic service are at risk of de facto enslavement. arrest in November 2014. Micro-credit was also mentioned in the study and interviews, as this is one of the programmatic areas by which the state is attempting to address poverty, giving Vulnerability to sexual and other violence particular priority to women.48 The baseline study Although sexual and other forms of violence seem largely indicated that Haratines are largely excluded from access taboo subjects, several freeborn Haratine women to credit, a point echoed by one interviewee: interviewed discussed their experiences of violence. One woman’s account demonstrated how the prejudice of ‘ [I could improve my situation] if I can find funding those around her compounded the harm she had suffered: to improve my small business. It’s really for my children that I would like to do this, because my ‘ I was a victim at a young age … This has had a chances at a good job are minimal due to my lack of negative impact on my self-esteem, because [in our schooling … Sometimes as fabric vendors in the culture] the girl is seen as bearing the sole market, we need a bit of credit to expand our stock. responsibility. People told me I had shamed the But that is impossible, because they need a guarantee, family. I grew up like that – but as the years have like a plot of land or other valuable property that we gone by, I’ve gotten over it. I’m doing well.’ just don’t have. Groups of Haratine women rarely get credit, because lenders don’t trust us.’ The context in which Haratine women live is not propitious to either protecting women or prosecuting Again, this seems to be an area where top-down offenders. According to the Committee on the programming is insufficient on its own to deliver real and Elimination of Discrimination against Women, while substantive change to Haratine women. What is required, Mauritania’s Criminal Code criminalizes rape, it does not for it to actually make a difference, is work at the define the offence or describe the behaviour to be grassroots level to address issues around discrimination prohibited, seriously hampering the effectiveness of the and trust, so that funds are actually allocated equitably provision against rape. As in the quote above, women or and where they can have the greatest effect. girls who are victims of rape are often stigmatized; in cases of pregnancy following rape, victims have even been prosecuted for adultery or sexual immorality (zina) due to The right to political participation a mistaken assertion that women cannot fall pregnant Political exclusion remains a major issue for Haratines. In without their consent.50 In other cases, however, families 2013, for example, it was estimated that they held only 5 are supportive of victims. out of 95 seats in the National Assembly, while only 1 of the 56 senators was a Haratine. This lack of representation was evident at a regional level as well, with only 2 out of The situation of Haratine women 13 governors and 3 of 53 prefects identified as Haratine.49 in marriage With regard to the political process, the baseline study Mauritania’s Personal Status Code officially gives the indicated that Haratines, as a block, tend to support husband exclusive authority in family-related matters candidates who are sensitive to their condition as a under article 56.51 This lack of equality between men and vulnerable minority. Some of the women interviewed women in marriage was evidenced in the interviews. spoke about lack of trust in the authorities on the one When asked whether Haratine men have a different hand, and the need for awareness raising around rights on experience in Mauritania than Haratine women, the the other; however none of them articulated support for a responses raised a whole host of issues. Some women particular political project. observed that men who have been oppressed can tend to

18 STILL FAR FROM FREEDOM: THE STRUGGLE OF MAURITANIA’S HARATINE WOMEN Case study: the threat of sexual violence

Discrimination, the effects of a history of sexual violence taking her on to the hospital he drove her to a deserted against Haratine women within the institution of slavery beach where he and the other man assaulted and left her. and the persistence of slavery and slavery-like practices A passer-by took her to the police station, and from there make Haratine women particularly vulnerable to sexual she was taken to hospital. Both men were eventually violence within Mauritanian society. This can manifest itself arrested by police. in the home, as described elsewhere, but it also leaves The interviewee described the support she received them at greater risk in public. from a local NGO in dealing with the trauma caused by In one such instance, an unmarried university the incident, and says that she prays for the strength to graduate, also a freeborn Haratine, was attacked and overcome it. She lives at home, and reports that her raped by strangers while trying to visit a relative in family are fearful every time she is late getting home. hospital. She had caught a taxi early in the morning, with About her family’s reaction to the incident, she explained, a man and a woman inside in addition to the taxi driver. ‘Some of them found it very difﬁcult in the beginning, but The driver dropped off the ﬁrst woman, but instead of [since then] they have all been with me, to support me.’

act out that oppression on those in their power – namely While most of the women were not forthcoming about women. Others articulated the multiple forms of domestic violence and abuse, it was implicit in many of discrimination they feel in Mauritanian society, as their accounts of controlling, restrictive behaviour by their Haratine and as women married to authoritarian husbands within the context of unequal power husbands. They also refer to the impact of parenthood, relationships. One woman reported: and the ways in which, in their experience, it seems more binding on women than on men. ‘ I am married to my cousin, who doesn’t want to see There is a series of other issues of concern around the me. He gives me nothing to eat or to wear. He always institution and practice of marriage. The first of these says he doesn’t have any money, and he can’t leave his includes forced or early marriages. The second, parents. I’ve withstood a long time, living with my abandonment and divorce, demonstrates the impact of in-laws – the family of my uncle – who is very several factors, including men’s migration in search of authoritarian towards women.’ work; husbands’ ability to unilaterally reject their first wives when contracting polygamous marriages; and When asked directly whether she had experienced restrictive traditional views of a woman’s role in domestic or sexual violence, this interviewee denied it, marriage. telling the interviewer, ‘I am not a slave.’ But at the end of the interview, in response to the final question, she answered, ‘I was the object of violence.’ Domestic violence and abuse In Mauritania, many women live with the husband’s family following marriage. This situation can leave them Forced or early marriage extremely isolated and vulnerable within the marital As mentioned earlier in the report, forced early marriages relationship. One interviewee describes effectively being are considered under international norms to be a deprived of any voice or protection within the family: contemporary form of slavery. The 2001 Personal Status Code calls for the free consent of both parties to a ‘ I live with all sorts of violence from my husband and marriage; however, while an adult woman must give her his family … Women have no say in household consent, for a young girl silence can be taken as consent affairs. My father-in-law is very authoritarian (‘le silence de la jeune fille vaut consentement’).52 towards women. I can do nothing. This is the According to the Committee for the Elimination of traditional way … I am married to a man I did not Discrimination against Women, Mauritania’s Personal choose; no one asked my opinion. This is violence, Status Code allows guardians to authorize the marriage of even if it’s not like what is done to the slaves … I am girls under the age of 18.53 not at ease in my marriage, it feels like I am the The baseline study indicated that early marriage is a object of an ongoing act of violence, and I can’t do significant issue among Haratines: poverty is cited as a anything about it.’ primary reason that parents choose to arrange marriages for

STILL FAR FROM FREEDOM: THE STRUGGLE OF MAURITANIA’S HARATINE WOMEN 19 their very young daughters. Another contributing factor In the case of prolonged absence, Mauritania’s noted in the study is the cultural reaction to rape, with Personal Status Code does allow the bride to stipulate that some Haratine parents anxious to minimize the perceived her husband may not take another wife, or else she can stain of rape on their family’s honour by quickly offering have the marriage dissolved by a judge and apply for the victim in marriage. In the interviews, several of the compensation.55 In practice, however, it is not clear that women reported having been forced into early marriages by this happens. In many cases, the husband has no further their parents. In most cases they cited tradition as the real contact with the family, and provides little or no reason for their forced or early marriage and their inability support. The interviews bear witness to the harm and to refuse it. Their accounts of their experiences indicated suffering this has caused some women and their children. that forced or early marriage poses obstacles to a couple One interviewee reported: that are not easily overcome. One woman reported, ‘ I am divorced from my husband, who rejected me. He ‘ I work as a domestic servant to support my four fights a lot, and gets home very late, he has a lot of children. I am married but I am the sole provider, as other women. He left me because I dared to express my husband has no work. Our situation is really dire, my unhappiness with his behaviour. This is not and our marriage has difficulties because my husband acceptable … women must be totally submissive. His is too close to his parents. We were married without parents and our imam backed him, and I returned to our consent – our parents chose for us, and custom has my parents. He used to contribute a little bit to it that we marry the person our parents pick out for us.’ support the children, but he doesn’t do that any more. I’ve decided to live alone and face the reality of life with my children.’ Abandonment and divorce The research indicated that there are a number of factors Another women shared a similar story: that appear to contribute to abandonment and divorce among the Haratine community in Mauritania. One is the ‘ I sell fabric at the market. It’s all I can do, since I impact of migration of men in search of work. As didn’t study much. I left school at 15 for an early mentioned above, Haratine families live in a context of marriage, but it didn’t work. My husband divorced increasing urban migration, where the effects of climate me, and my parents didn’t want to take me back change and depletion of natural resources force former because of the shame to my family. Now I live alone pastoralists or farmers off the land to try to find work in with two children.’ towns and cities in construction, trade or other areas. A degree of such migration has reportedly been common for A third respondent had had seven children with her decades, with men returning home periodically from jobs husband when he began a second family. She took her in the regional towns or cities in order to plant or harvest, case to the courts. She reported that, after many economic but it is believed to be becoming increasingly pronounced. and moral difficulties, and with the help of a local NGO, This phenomenon has serious ramifications, as husbands two years ago she and her husband reached an alimony and fathers spend increasing amounts of time away from agreement whereby he supports her and the children their families – in some cases abandoning them altogether. according to his means. Sources indicate that divorce and abandonment rates have Mauritania’s Personal Status Code also permits a man spiked in some communities.54 to engage in polygamy in certain conditions, including One respondent’s husband left her for a period of that the wives agree, and allows for wives to be repudiated seven years, with only phone contact between them. She and marriages to be dissolved at the will of the husband was pregnant when he left, and she reported that the only.56 A number of activist women were divorced by their uncertainty of her situation affected the development of husbands because they refused to conform to the the pregnancy. Upon his return they got back together, submissive role consigned to them by tradition. One but he left again and she has had no news of him since. woman, who has worked for years in a pro-Haratine She does not even know if he is still alive. She was in great NGO, was abandoned by her husband because he psychological distress and material difficulties, supporting considered her work to be against his religious belief. She herself and her daughter by working as a domestic servant. described the situation in Mauritania in stark terms: She has since taken another husband and is pregnant, but her brothers and community have rejected her, calling her ‘ Ignorance and economic marginalization are a ‘prostitute’. She is seeking support from an NGO to systematically encouraged by our political and religious help stabilize her situation. authorities, with grave consequences: the bulk of

20 STILL FAR FROM FREEDOM: THE STRUGGLE OF MAURITANIA’S HARATINE WOMEN Haratine women are reduced to carrying out all the do not know how to demand their rights. I do this to most menial work themselves. That’s how I decided to serve my country … More than once, I have been join the eﬀorts of some others, to help raise women’s divorced because of my work. We are a society in awareness … Some people are not thrilled by this.’ which customs and traditions place limits on a woman’s freedom.’ A second woman echoed this experience: These cases highlight the vulnerability of courageous ‘ I work within civil society, for an NGO that raises women who are working to improve their own situations awareness and tries to change people’s mindsets about and those of their wider community in the face of vulnerable groups such as the illiterate, and those who repressive societal values.

Case study: the experience of abandonment

One pregnant woman reported that she and her two sons domestic servant for some White Moors, whom she have been abandoned by her husband. He was her describes as being kind to her; her brothers also help her cousin and was chosen for her by her parents: as she put when they can. She reports that Haratine men have a better it, ‘I couldn’t refuse their choice.’ She said, ‘I withstood time of things because at least they can leave home to look the conditions I was living in for a long time, but when it for work, an option that is not available to her. She struggles came to him [her husband] taking a second wife, and to make ends meet, not least because her pregnancy has giving nothing to support our children, well …’ made her feel ill and hindered her ability to work, and Since taking a second wife, her husband gives her because, although she has identity documents, they are in nothing to eat or to wear, and contributes nothing for the her husband’s possession and he has refused to give them maintenance of their children. To survive she works as a to her. She has sought help from a supportive NGO.

STILL FAR FROM FREEDOM: THE STRUGGLE OF MAURITANIA’S HARATINE WOMEN 21 Drivers and aspects of marginalization

While the life stories of many Haratine women in The oppression suffered by Haratine men, slave or free, is Mauritania, including respondents for this report, reflect often passed on in their relationships with Haratine extraordinary courage and determination, the obstacles to women. In this way, Haratine women face double their full enjoyment of a range of human rights are discrimination; they are mistreated on the basis of being nevertheless considerable. A number of key issues are Haratine, and again on the basis of being female. Some evident in the perpetuation of abuses and discrimination, observers have indicated that women’s concerns are reflected in the testimonies gathered here. While the marginalized within the larger anti-racism movement in dynamics of this marginalization are complex and multi- Mauritania; for example, the April 2013 Haratine layered, some of the main drivers are summarized here. Manifesto mentioned elsewhere in this report, while mentioning gender issues generally, makes no reference to Haratine women as individuals the specific experiences of Haratine women. The lack of education and opportunities is self- When husbands have the ability to unilaterally repudiate perpetuating and crippling. Under the institution of their wives and dissolve their marriages, including in slavery, masters deny their slaves any kind of education, order to take second wives, the first wives and their training in life skills or preparation for survival in the children frequently suffer. According to the women wider world. Despite this being the direct result of their interviewed, in these circumstances the man spends more abuse and exploitation by their former owners, this can be of his time and more of his income on his second family, a source of shame for newly emancipated slaves. As to the detriment of the welfare of the first. Haratines are subjected to prejudice and discriminated against by other groups in Mauritania, this feeling of Haratine families are particularly vulnerable to wider shame seems to persist even generations after a Haratine societal pressures, such as increased urban migration, family has escaped slavery. Freeborn Haratines are denied which destabilize their already weak family bonds. When equal access to education and livelihoods; their resulting husbands and fathers travel to urban centres to find work, poverty feeds the prejudice that they are intrinsically the possible monetary gain to the family is outweighed by inferior and unable to change. the risks to its stability. Many heads of household who leave in search of work never again take up their position Haratine women, particularly those who are newly in the same way. emancipated, are objectified by their masters and others in authority. They described being viewed or treated as Haratine women in society ‘property’, ‘objects of no value’, ‘worthless’, ‘animals’, ‘objects of pleasure’ , ‘sub-human’. This is linked to the Prejudice against Haratines is so deep that the fact of common practice of slave-owning elites of depriving women being freeborn, or of being newly emancipated, makes of control over their own lives and their lack of choice. little or no difference to the perception of Haratines as slaves. Others identify Haratines by their skin colour and Haratine women in the family peg them all as slaves to be distrusted and discounted, regardless of their actual status, past or abilities. Newly Within the institution of slavery, masters deliberately emancipated and freeborn market women are denied take steps to weaken the institution of the family. They micro-credit for their small businesses; professional break up nuclear families, separating parents from women are passed over for promotion in the civil service. children and siblings from each other, and devastate The education and income differences between them are Haratine marriages by perpetrating rape and sexual irrelevant – the discrimination they face is the same. servitude against Haratine wives. This denies them the protection and support that a strong family bond can give Haratine women are vulnerable to sexual violence and freeborn Haratines in the face of difficulties. abuse. The impact of generations of slavery, in which

22 STILL FAR FROM FREEDOM: THE STRUGGLE OF MAURITANIA’S HARATINE WOMEN Haratine women were treated as objects and were victims education; extremely limited livelihood prospects; lack of of ongoing sexual predation by slave owners, not to trust in the authorities; and experience of discrimination. mention the persistence of this practice today, means that, Freedom matters, but cannot on its own rectify the impact on some levels, there is an increased tolerance generally for of centuries of domination. sexual abuse against Haratines. The inadequate provisions of the Mauritanian Penal Code and, in particular, its Lack of trust in the authorities is pervasive among failure to define the crime of rape, as well as the practice of Haratines. Among former slaves, police and other officials accusing the victim of adultery in cases of rape-induced were used as threats or punishments, and they were feared pregnancy, deepen this vulnerability. accordingly. Even most of the freeborn women had never had any contact with government officials. One woman Misperceptions around religion have played an said that the authorities see Haratines as sub-human, while important role in enabling slavery and oppression of other interviewees doubted whether people in power even women in the home. Slaves have been told that their knew that they existed. situation was Allah’s will for their lives; women have been abandoned because their work or their insistence on Land is a particularly problematic issue. Issues around having a voice in their marriage were considered by their land ownership must be addressed, particularly where they husbands not to be in accordance with their religious concern former masters and slaves. Recent arrests of anti- principles. slavery activists in the context of a campaign for agrarian reform are just one indication of the sensitivity of this Abolition of slavery is crucial; however it is only a first issue. Given the pressures around the issue of land due to step to creating equality. The issues confronting freeborn climate change and changes in resources, this is an area of Haratine womenoverlap to a striking degree with those potentially ever-increasing conflict if no mechanism is facing still-enslaved women: vulnerability to early established for dealing with land disputes and ensuring marriage, abandonment and domestic abuse; lack of more equitable distribution.

STILL FAR FROM FREEDOM: THE STRUGGLE OF MAURITANIA’S HARATINE WOMEN 23 Recommendations

To the Government of • Address the root causes of discrimination against Haratines. While the effective abolition of slavery is Mauritania essential to end the exploitation of Haratine women, authorities also need to resolve the wider inequalities Regarding existing legislation: that affect former slaves and their descendants to prevent the continuation of slavery-like conditions. • Enhance implementation and compliance of anti- This includes ensuring adequate enjoyment of basic slavery legislation. In particular, the 2007 anti-slavery services such as education, enforcing equal access to law continues to be flouted today, despite its clear justice and legal support, and providing training and criminalization of slavery. The government has the other livelihood opportunities. The issue of agrarian duty to ensure that this legislation is implemented and reform, including land issues between Haratines and to support advocacy efforts to this effect. This should White Moors, should also be addressed in a include supporting and funding independent lawyers transparent and equitable manner. and civil society organizations to file suits on behalf of victims to facilitate their access to the justice system. Regarding existing measures and initiatives: This should also be accompanied by training at all levels of law enforcement, including police, • Support civil society and oversight bodies in the prosecutors and judges, on key issues such as anti- implementation of anti-slavery programmes. Though slavery legislation, human rights, women’s rights and the road map against slavery represents an important other anti-discriminatory provisions. step forward, progress in realizing its provisions has so • Amend existing codes and laws which perpetuate far been limited. Practical mechanisms such as joint gender discrimination and violence. An immediate consultative bodies and complaints procedures, with priority should be the annulment of provisions adequate budgets for funding and staffing, should be allowing for early marriage and the designation of all put in place to ensure that civil society and Haratine control within a marriage to the husband. Legal communities representatives can meaningfully inform provisions of rape and sexual assault should also be the design and development of these measures. strengthened, supported by sensitization and • Establish and provide resources for programmes awareness raising about criminal responsibility. aimed at strengthening families by combating the need for urban migration. These could include land Social prejudice and discrimination: distribution, income support, vocational training and other mechanisms to help heads of household provide • Challenge popular prejudices and stereotypes of for their families without having to leave them behind. Haratines to address the social attitudes underlying • Enhance the design of outreach and assistance their discrimination. In partnership with civil programmes to actively target vulnerable and associations, community leaders and other disenfranchised Haratines. As an important first step, stakeholders, the government should carry out a authorities should undertake a nation-wide survey and nation-wide awareness campaign on the forms of assessment of the Haratine community to identify modern slavery that persist in Mauritania today. needs and priorities. In particular, support systems Dialogue between ethnic groups is essential. such as counselling, job advice centres and vocational Furthermore, building on the affirmation of Islamic training should be set in place for newly-freed slaves, values in the 2007 law criminalising slavery, the with the involvement of recognized representatives of government should commit to regular consultations the Haratine community, including women. These and roundtables with religious leaders to discuss how mechanisms should also be gender sensitive, through both parties can combat slavery by sending a positive staff training and other measures, to ensure they meet message based in Islamic values against the practice. the particular needs of newly freed women and girls.

24 STILL FAR FROM FREEDOM: THE STRUGGLE OF MAURITANIA’S HARATINE WOMEN STILL FAR FROM FREEDOM: THE STRUGGLE OF MAURITANIA’S HARATINE WOMEN 25 Notes

1 UN Human Rights Council (UNHRC), Report of the Special 2014, retrieved 6 January 2015, http://www.lauthentic.info/ Rapporteur on contemporary forms of slavery, including its spip.php?article9402. causes and consequences, Gulnara Shahinian, Addendum: 19 League of Nations, Convention to Suppress the Slave Trade Mission to Mauritania, 24 August 2010, A/HRC/15/20/ and Slavery, 1926, Art. 1. Add.2, para. 34. 20 UN, Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, 2 See inter alia UNHRC, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Slave Trade, and Institutions and Practices Similar to contemporary forms of slavery, including its causes and Slavery, 1956, Arts 1(c)(i) and 2. consequences, Gulnara Shahinian: Follow-up on mission to 21 UNHRC, Report of the Special Rapporteur on contemporary Mauritania, 26 August 2014, A/HRC/27/53/Add.1; UNHRC, forms of slavery, 2010, op. cit., paras 22–7. Report of the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of 22 ASI, MRG and SOS-Esclaves, op. cit., para. 31. racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related 23 Ibid., paras 10–11. intolerance, Mutuma Ruteere, Addendum: Mission to 24 UNHRC, Report of the Special Rapporteur on contemporary Mauritania, 3 June 2014, A/HRC/26/49/Add.1, para. 34. forms of racism, op. cit., para. 20. 3 UNHRC, Report of the Special Rapporteur on contemporary 25 ASI, MRG and SOS-Esclaves, op. cit., para. 31. forms of racism, op. cit., para. 7. 26 UNHRC, Report of the Special Rapporteur on contemporary 4 ASI, MRG and SOS-Esclaves, ‘Submission to the UN Human forms of slavery, 2014, op. cit., Summary. Rights Committee 109th session (14 October–1 November 27 Ibid. 2013)’, 9 September 2013, para. 6, retrieved 19 January 28 Philips, M., ‘Mauritania: the thorn in the side of President 2015. Aziz digs deeper’, Middle East Eye, 23 December 2014, 5 Walk Free Foundation, 2014 Global Slavery Index, retrieved retrieved 6 January 2015,http://www.middleeasteye.net/ 6 January 2015, http://www.globalslaveryindex.org. in-depth/features/Mauritania-thorn-side-president-aziz 6 UNHRC, Report of the Special Rapporteur on contemporary -digs-deeper-1896188481. forms of racism, op. cit., para. 6. 29 Amnesty International, ‘Mauritania must end clampdown on 7 ‘Manifeste pour les droits politiques, économiques et sociaux anti-slavery activists’, 12 November 2014, retrieved 6 des Haratines au sein d’une Mauritanie unie, égalitaire et January 2015, http://www.amnesty.org/en/news/mauritania réconciliée avec elle-même’, April 2013. -must-end-clamp-down-anti-slavery-activists-2014-11-12. 8 RFI, ‘Les descendants des esclaves manifestent en 30 UNHRC, Report of the Special Rapporteur on contemporary Mauritanie’, 30 April 2014, retrieved 19 January 2015, forms of slavery, 2010, op. cit., para. 38. http://www.rfi.fr/afrique/20140430-descendants-esclaves 31 Ibid., para. 43. -manifestent-mauritanie 32 Ibid., para. 40. 9 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Human 33 Ibid., para. 39. Development Report 2014: Sustaining Human Progress: 34 UNHRC, Report of the Special Rapporteur on contemporary Reducing Vulnerabilities and Building Resilience, New York, forms of racism, op. cit., para. 40. UNDP. 35 Ibid., para. 57. 10 Committee for the Elimination of Discrimination against 36 UNHRC, Report of the Special Rapporteur on contemporary Women (CEDAW), Concluding Observations on the forms of slavery, 2010, op. cit., para. 13. Combined Second and Third Periodic Reports of Mauritania, 37 Information presented to the UNHRC by the National Human CEDAW/C/MRT/CO/2-3, 18 July 2014, para. 5. Rights Commission of Mauritania A/HRC/27/NI/1, 4 11 Ibid., paras 12 and 18. September 2014, p. 3. 12 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and World Food 38 CEDAW, op. cit., para. 16. Programme (WFP), ‘Food security and humanitarian 39 UNHRC, Report of the Special Rapporteur on contemporary implications in West Africa and the Sahel ‘, information note forms of slavery, 2010, op. cit., para. 41. no. 53, February 2014. 40 UNHRC, Report of the Special Rapporteur on contemporary 13 UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), ‘2015 forms of racism, op. cit., para. 50. In its written reply to his UNHCR country operations profile – Mauritania’, retrieved report, the government of Mauritania disagreed and referred 6 January 2015, http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/ him back to the poverty reduction programme of the page?page=49e486026&submit=GO. Tadamoun agency. See: Réponse du Gouvernement de la 14 Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), The World Factbook, République Islamique de Mauritanie au Rapport préliminaire retrieved 6 January 2015, https://www.cia.gov/library/ du Rapporteur Spécial des Nations Unies sur les formes publications/the-world-factbook/geos/mr.html. contemporaines de Racisme, de Discrimination Raciale, de 15 UNHRC, Report of the Special Rapporteur on contemporary Xénophobie et de l’intolérance qui y est associé, 5 June forms of slavery, 2014, op. cit., para. 39. 2014, A/HRC/26/49/Add.2, point 46h. Nevertheless, some 16 ASI, ‘Forced labour in Mauritania’, submission in compliance critics have questioned the Tadamoun’s effectiveness. with ILO Convention No. 29 on Forced Labour, July 2008, p. 2. 41 ASI, MRG and SOS-Esclaves, op. cit., para. 12. 17 Government of Mauritania, Loi No. 2007-048 du 3 42 CEDAW, op. cit., para. 34. Septembre 2007 Portant Incrimination de l’Esclavage et 43 UNHRC, Report of the Special Rapporteur on contemporary Réprimant les Pratiques Esclavagistes, approved 13 forms of slavery, 2010, op. cit., para. 35. December 2007. 44 UNHRC, Report of the Special Rapporteur on contemporary 18 L’Authentique Quotidien Mauritanie, ‘Khotba unifiée sur forms of racism, op. cit., para. 50. l’esclavage: Le faux bond du Grand Imam’, 15 December 45 CEDAW, op. cit., para. 42.

26 STILL FAR FROM FREEDOM: THE STRUGGLE OF MAURITANIA’S HARATINE WOMEN 46 ASI, MRG and SOS-Esclaves, op. cit., paras 12 and 43. 47 CEDAW, op. cit., para. 42. 48 Ibid., para. 40. 49 UNHRC, Report of the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism, op. cit., para. 7. 50 Ibid., paras 26–7. 51 Government of Mauritania, Loi No. 2001-052 du 19 Juillet 2001 Portant Code du Statut Personnel, 19 July 2001. 52 Ibid., Arts 5 and 9. 53 CEDAW, op. cit., para. 46. 54 IRIN, ‘Rural exodus disrupts social order in Mauritania’, 16 January 2014. 55 Government of Mauritania, 2001, op. cit., Arts 28–9. 56 Ibid., Arts 45 and 83.

STILL FAR FROM FREEDOM: THE STRUGGLE OF MAURITANIA’S HARATINE WOMEN 27 Getting involved

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28 STILL FAR FROM FREEDOM: THE STRUGGLE OF MAURITANIA’S HARATINE WOMEN working to secure the rights of minorities and indigenous peoples

Still Far From Freedom: The Struggle of Mauritania’s Haratine Women

Mauritania is consistently ranked as the worst place in the Nevertheless, although these obstacles can be world for slavery, with tens of thousands still trapped in overwhelming, many Haratine women have demonstrated total servitude across the country. This practice, despite great courage and determination in their fight for equality officially being criminalized, continues to be sustained by and greater autonomy in their own lives. Despite the the systematic marginalization of Mauritania’s large dangers and the deep resistance their activities attract, Haratine population. The situation is especially precarious including from male members of their own community, for Haratine women, who are discriminated against on Haratine women have played a leading role in advocating account of both their gender and ethnicity. for their rights and legal redress for the abuses committed against them. Nevertheless, though the immediate abolition This report, Still Far From Freedom: The Struggle of of slavery in Mauritania is a critical first step in reducing Mauritania’s Haratine Women, draws on extensive research many of the worst rights abuses against Haratine women, a and first-hand testimony from Haratine women. Besides wider process of social and institutional reform will also be highlighting the everyday reality of abuse and oppression required before their rights and security can be ensured. experienced by those in servitude – ranging from exploitative labour, intimidation and confinement to rape, These issues can only be addressed by a comprehensive violence and the enforced separation of families – it also and sustained process of social and institutional reform, explores how formerly enslaved Haratines and their with the involvement of the national government, descendants still face widespread stigmatization. The deep Mauritanian civil society, law enforcement agencies and discrimination experienced by Haratine women, even the international community. among their own community, is driven by the reluctance of authorities to take meaningful action to curb abuses.

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