DOCSLIB.ORG

Militarisation Among Syrian Refugees in Lebanon

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Militarisation Among Syrian Refugees in Lebanon Keep Them Isolated, Keep Them Down! Patterns of (Non-)Militarisation among Syrian Refugees in Lebanon Katharina Elisabeth Vogt Master’s Thesis in Peace and Conflict Studies Department of Political Science UNIVERSITY OF OSLO Autumn 2019 Word Count: 34 956 Keep Them Isolated, Keep Them Down! Patterns of (Non-)Militarisation among Syrian Refugees in Lebanon I © Katharina Elisabeth Vogt 2019 Keep Them Isolated, Keep Them Down! Patterns of (Non-)Militarisation among Syrian Refugees in Lebanon Katharina Elisabeth Vogt http://www.duo.uio.no/ Print: Reprosentralen, University of Oslo Word Count: 34 956 III ABSTRACT Camp-based refugee populations are regularly connected to the phenomenon of refugee militarisation under certain circumstances. Rather surprisingly, Lebanon has not generally been subject to refugee militarisation among Syrians residing in informal tented settlements (ITSs). An exception to this national pattern is found in the area of the border town Arsal. There, some ITSs have been militarised by extremist groups. Following this deviance, the research question is: “Which factors determine militarisation – or a lack thereof – among camp-based Syrian refugees in Lebanon?” I pursue two goals: First, I aim at understanding the case of camp-based Syrian refugees in Lebanon, which I treat as a deviant case, with the help of an implicit within-case comparison with Arsal. Second, I want to bring nuance to the existing body of literature, by examining the dynamics that distinguish militarisation from non-militarisation and formulating new hypotheses that can inform further research on various categories of militarisation. The basis for this study is an eclectic theoretical framework which consists of six groups of militarisation risk factors: origin of the refugee situation, host state response, socioeconomic situation, humanitarian aid, political rights and camp characteristics. The research data was collected through semi-structured interviews with humanitarian workers involved in the refugee response in Lebanon during three weeks of fieldwork. This evidence was combined with a review of documents and other literature. My findings show that five dynamics between the selected risk factors, three multi-causal and two mono-causal, determined the outcome of largely non-militarisation on the national level. Accordingly, the pattern of (non-)militarisation among the studied refugee population is most importantly determined by a low initial militarisation potential and the special role of refugee camp leaders, as well as by keeping the refugee settlements isolated from each other and keeping their political activism and socioeconomic means down. Based on my findings, I generated seven hypotheses for further research. V VI ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First, I want to thank my two supervisors, Kristian Berg Harpviken and Øivind Bratberg who provided me with highly valuable and constructive comments throughout this exciting and at times challenging process. Thank you, for always being supportive and encouraging, and for being available until the end. Next, I am grateful to all my respondents for their insights and time. Without you, this thesis could not exist. Furthermore, I thank Fritt Ord Foundation and DAAD for financial support, facilitating the fieldwork in Lebanon and my master studies in Norway. Big thanks to my fellow PECOS-classmates for being the best company possible. I cannot imagine having lunch break without quizzes anymore. Special thanks to the PECOS- Kosegruppe, you are amazing; and to Stein Arne, Sofia, Fride, Abby, Tanja and Ingeborg for reading through this thesis, providing valuable feedback and comments. I also thank my family for always believing in and never pressuring me. Thank you for being available whenever I need you. Finally, thank you Lukas, for your endless patience, feedback, support, and love. You always made me smile again when I felt like giving up. I cannot describe my gratitude. All remaining mistakes and inaccuracies are my own. VII VIII CONTENTS Abstract ................................................................................................................................. V Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ VII Abbreviations ......................................................................................................................XI 1 Introduction: Refugees - Victims, Perpetrators or Both? .............................................. 1 1.1 Research Question and Delimitation ............................................................................. 3 1.2 Positioning in the Field ................................................................................................. 5 1.3 Key Concepts ................................................................................................................ 6 1.4 Thesis Outline ............................................................................................................... 8 2 Why Do Refugees Militarise? ............................................................................................ 9 2.1 Refugee Militarisation Literature .................................................................................. 9 2.2 Selected Risk Factors .................................................................................................. 10 2.2.1 Origin of the Refugee Situation ........................................................................... 11 2.2.2 Host State Response ............................................................................................. 12 2.2.3 Socioeconomic Situation ...................................................................................... 14 2.2.4 Humanitarian Aid ................................................................................................. 17 2.2.5 Political Rights ..................................................................................................... 18 2.2.6 Camp Characteristics ........................................................................................... 20 2.3 Bringing It Together .................................................................................................... 21 3 Methods: How to Study Militarisation Dynamics ......................................................... 23 3.1 The Case Study Approach ........................................................................................... 23 3.2 Internal and External Validity ..................................................................................... 24 3.3 Reliability .................................................................................................................... 26 3.4 Research Data.............................................................................................................. 27 3.4.1 Semi-Structured Interviews .................................................................................. 28 3.4.2 Document and Literature Review ........................................................................ 30 3.4.3 Additional Fieldwork Material ............................................................................. 31 3.5 Ethical Considerations ................................................................................................ 32 4 Lebanon, Refugees and the Syrian Civil War ............................................................... 35 4.1 Militarised Palestinian Refugees ................................................................................. 35 4.2 The Syrian-Lebanese Relationship ............................................................................. 37 4.3 Syrian War Impacts ..................................................................................................... 38 4.3.1 Social, Economic and Political Effects ................................................................ 38 4.3.2 Syrian Refugee Presence ...................................................................................... 40 4.3.3 War Spill-Overs and Militarisation among Syrian Refugees ............................... 41 5 Analysis of the Militarisation Risk ................................................................................. 47 5.1 Situational and Persecuted Refugees .......................................................................... 47 5.2 Ambiguous Host State Response ................................................................................ 48 5.2.1 Lebanon, a Weak State ......................................................................................... 48 5.2.2 Uncertain Willingness .......................................................................................... 51 5.3 Poverty among Refugees and the Host Population ..................................................... 53 5.3.1 Severe Poverty in ITSs ......................................................................................... 54 5.3.2 A Relatively Deprived Host Population ............................................................... 56 5.3.3 Mixed Impact of Pre-Flight Social Ties ............................................................... 58 5.4 Humanitarian Aid: “Probably Good Enough” ............................................................ 59 5.5 Political vs Humanitarian Activism ............................................................................ 61 5.6 Scattered Non-Camps.................................................................................................
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Lebanon in the Syrian Quagmire
    Lebanon in the Syrian Quagmire: Fault-Lines, Resilience and Possible Futures Ishac Diwan, Paris Sciences et Lettres Youssef Chaitani, UN ESCWA Working Paper for Discussion The purpose of this paper is to examine the weaknesses and strengths of Lebanon amidst the tensions created by the Syrian conflict that started in 2011. Lebanon’s sectarian governance system has been over 150 years in the making. But the Syrian fire next door, which has taken an increasing sectarian nature, is likely to burn for a long time. With such dire prospects, what is the fate of Lebanon’s governance system? Will it lead the country inexorably towards civil strife? The Lebanese governance system could be described as a horizontal deal among communal oligarchs, supported by vertical organizations within each community. While oligarchs have changed over time, the system itself survived devastating civil wars, endured extensive global and regional influences, and was also undeterred by the projection of power by many external forces, including the Palestinian Liberation Organization, Syria, Iran and Israel. What are the forces at work that make the Lebanese governance system both resilient and resistant to change? In the paper, we use as an analytical framework, which is introduced in section one, the model of limited orders developed by Douglas North and his associates. In section two, we argue that the Syrian civil war is likely to be long lasting. Section three examines the weaknesses and fault-lines of the Lebanese system in light of the Syrian war. Section four explores the factors that continue to contribute to the strength and resilience of Lebanon in spite of the rise in extremist Islamic militancy.
    [Show full text]
  • The Spillover Effect of the Syrian War on Lebanon Has Generated the Spread of Suicide Bombings and Political Assassination in All Over the Country
    AMERICAN UNIVERSITY OF BEIRUT THE SPILLOVER EFFECTS OF THE SYRIAN WAR ON LEBANON by LÉA AFEICHE LAYOUN A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts to the Department of Political Studies and Public Administration of the Faculty of Arts and Science at the American University of Beirut Beirut, Lebanon January 2019 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I owe my sincere thanks and gratitude to Dr. Ohannes Geukjian for his encouragement, his feedback, and for being available when I needed his advice. I would also like to acknowledge Dr. Tania Haddad for her unique vision and Dr. Hilal Khashan for his valuable comments, which significantly improved my thesis. Special thanks to: The American University of Beirut for providing me with an exceptional education through my undergraduate and graduate years. My dear friend, Ms. Melissa Ajamian, for providing support and academic advice, which were great models to follow. My beloved husband, Nabil Layoun, for your encouragement and unfailing support, this achievement would not have been attained without you. William and Séréna, my beautiful children, thank you for your patience. You are the reason why I aim high and keep going no matter what. I bow my head before God almighty for his blessing in guiding the achievement of my thesis. LÉA AFEICHE LAYOUN v AN ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS OF Léa Afeiche Layoun for Master of Arts Major: Political Science Title: The Spillover Effects of the Syrian War in Lebanon: Political, Social and Economic Repercussions. This thesis analyses the case of Lebanon, a country that has suffered the most from the spillover effects of the Syrian War.
    [Show full text]
  • 'I Wished I Would Die'
    ‘I WISHED I WOULD DIE’ SYRIAN REFUGEES ARBITRARILY DETAINED ON TERRORISM- RELATED CHARGES AND TORTURED IN LEBANON Amnesty International is a movement of 10 million people which mobilizes the humanity in everyone and campaigns for change so we can all enjoy our human rights. Our vision is of a world where those in power keep their promises, respect international law and are held to account. We are independent of any government, political ideology, economic interest or religion and are funded mainly by our membership and individual donations. We believe that acting in solidarity and compassion with people everywhere can change our societies for the better. © Amnesty International 2021 Except where otherwise noted, content in this document is licensed under a Creative Commons Cover photo: Syrian men, women and children have endured arbitrary detention, torture and unfair trial (attribution, non-commercial, no derivatives, international 4.0) licence. at the hands of the Lebanese security forces. Artist: Jawad Morad https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/legalcode © Amnesty International For more information please visit the permissions page on our website: www.amnesty.org Where material is attributed to a copyright owner other than Amnesty International this material is not subject to the Creative Commons licence. First published in 2021 by Amnesty International Ltd Peter Benenson House, 1 Easton Street London WC1X 0DW, UK Index: MDE 18/3671/2021 Original language: English a mnesty.org CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 4 1. METHODOLOGY 8 2. BACKGROUND 10 2.1 SYRIAN REFUGEES IN LEBANON 10 2.2 THE BATTLES OF QUSAYR AND ARSAL 11 2.3 THE LEBANESE JUSTICE SYSTEM 12 3.
    [Show full text]
  • Commemorating the Dead in Times of Conflict Identity Construction in the Martyrs’ Cemetery of Jabal Mohsen
    Commemorating the Dead in Times of Conflict Identity construction in the Martyrs’ Cemetery of Jabal Mohsen Photo: Amanda Löwenberg Amanda Löwenberg 6556418 Utrecht University 02.08.2019 A Thesis submitted to the Board of Examiners in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Master of Arts in Conflict Studies & Human Rights Jolle Demmers 02.08.2019 Internship Trajectory 15 ECTS and Thesis Writing 15 ECTS Word Count: 14 390 1 To the people of Jabal, and the people of Tripoli, who opened their hearts and their homes, who shared their time and their stories, thank you. And to Bo-Bo for being proud of me, for looking after me, for making me coffee in the morning. But above all to Mouse, for being my biggest fan, my guiding light and my mechanic in case of mental breakdown. 2 CONTENTS 1.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 4 1.1 Empirical context and research question ............................................................................. 5 1.2 Delimitation and Language ................................................................................................. 7 1.3 Theoretical framework ........................................................................................................ 8 1.4 Method and Positionality ................................................................................................... 11 2.0 History of group formation ...............................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Security Council Distr.: General 16 October 2017
    United Nations S/2017/867 Security Council Distr.: General 16 October 2017 Original: English Twenty-sixth semi-annual report of the Secretary-General to the Security Council on the implementation of Security Council resolution 1559 (2004) 1. The present report is the twenty-sixth semi-annual report of the Secretary- General on the implementation of Security Council resolution 1559 (2004). It provides a review and an assessment of the implementation of the resolution since my previous report on the subject, which was issued on 28 April 2017 (S/2017/374), and covers developments up to 27 September. I. Implementation of resolution 1559 (2004) 2. Since the adoption of resolution 1559 (2004) by the Security Council on 2 September 2004, several of its provisions have been implemented, as highlighted in previous reports. However, a number of provisions, including the existence and activities of Lebanese and non-Lebanese militias, remain pending. Progress continues to be affected by the conflict in the Syrian Arab Republic. A. Sovereignty, territorial integrity, unity and political independence of Lebanon 3. With the adoption of resolution 1559 (2004), the Security Council aimed at strengthening the sovereignty, territorial integrity, unity and political independence of Lebanon under the sole and exclusive authority of the Government of Lebanon throughout the country, in accordance with the Taif Accords of 1989, to which all the political parties in Lebanon had committed themselves. That objective has remained the priority of my efforts. 4. After several months of discussions on a new electoral law, an agreement on principles was reached among political leaders. A law was passed by Parliament on 16 June 2017, shortly before the expiration of its term on 20 June.
    [Show full text]
  • Fuses Set but Hezbollah Not Lighting the Match: the Dominant Political Actor in Lebanon Limiting the Risk of Large-Scale Political War
    Fuses Set but Hezbollah Not Lighting the Match: The Dominant Political Actor in Lebanon Limiting the Risk of Large-Scale Political War The Harvard community has made this article openly available. Please share how this access benefits you. Your story matters Citation Aoun, Elias. 2019. Fuses Set but Hezbollah Not Lighting the Match: The Dominant Political Actor in Lebanon Limiting the Risk of Large- Scale Political War. Master's thesis, Harvard Extension School. Citable link http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:42004225 Terms of Use This article was downloaded from Harvard University’s DASH repository, and is made available under the terms and conditions applicable to Other Posted Material, as set forth at http:// nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:dash.current.terms-of- use#LAA Hezbollah: The Dominant Political Actor in Lebanon Limiting the Risk of Large-Scale Conflict Elias Aoun A Thesis in the Field of International Relations for the Degree of Master of Liberal Arts in Extension Studies Harvard University May 2019 Copyright 2019 Elias Aoun Abstract Amidst the Syrian civil war and Arab Spring wave in the Middle East, Lebanon somehow avoided large-scale political conflict. Lebanon’s violent past would have pointed otherwise, considering political conflict is a somewhat of a customary procedure for domestic and regional political actors. However, post-2011, why has Lebanon not erupted in violence and conflict, despite regional instability and enormous socioeconomic and political tensions? Lebanon was a fragile state unable to monopolize the legitimate use of force within their territory. This left a gap for other non-state political actors to step forward as the dominant actor.
    [Show full text]
  • Lebanon: a Remnant of the Carina Perelli Ottoman Empire Trying to Survive in a Region in Turmoil
    Lebanon: A Remnant of the Carina Perelli Ottoman Empire trying to Survive in a Region in Turmoil Courtesy The Daily Star, Lebanon, July 16, 2014 Lebanon is the only multi-confessional country left in a region that is experiencing the collapse of the post-Otto- man order, the failure of the variegated experiments and formulas to create and sustain Arab States in the Middle East, the centrality of non-State actors, the proxy fight for SERIES PEACE& SECURITY supremacy between Saudi Arabia and Iran (with other re- gional players such as Turkey, Egypt and Qatar vying for influence), as well as the periodic escalation of the intrac- table conflict between the Palestinians and the Israelis. SERIES PEACE& SECURITY About the author: CARINA PERELLI (RESDAL’s Member) Director of Silverkrieg Limited, she is a private consultant dedi- cated to confl ict and violence management, particularly in hostile environments. She performs tasks related to training, evaluation, auditing, regulation and facilitation. She is an expert in political negotiation, political analysis and designing institutional mecha- nisms to mitigate violence as well as in questions of political stabil- ity, security and defense in confl ict regions, whose fi eld of action includes Afghanistan, Haiti, Iraq, Mexico, Nigeria, Lebanon, Libya, Palestine and East Timor. Her experience also includes working in Latin American countries such as Argentina, Bolivia, Colom- bia, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru and Uruguay. She has held the position of Director of the Electoral Assistance Division of the Department of Political Affairs in the United Nations and UN International Commissioner ad interim, Indepen- dent Electoral Commissioner in Iraq for the Referendum of 2005.
    [Show full text]
  • Displacement Nexus in Lebanon Working Paper
    Assessing the Development- Displacement Nexus in Lebanon Working Paper Lama Kabbanji Jad Kabbanji November 2018 Assessing the Development- Displacement Nexus in Lebanon Working Paper Acknowledgements This report is an output of the project Study on Refugee Protection and Development: Assessing the Development-Displacement Nexus in Regional Protection Policies, funded by the OPEC Fund for Inter- national Development (OFID) and the International Centre for Migration Policy Development (ICMPD). The authors and ICMPD gratefully acknowledge OFID’s support. International Centre for Migration Policy Development (ICMPD) Gonzagagasse 1 A-1010 Vienna www.icmpd.com International Centre for Migration Policy Development Vienna, Austria All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission of the copyright owners. The content of this study does not reflect the official opinion of OFID or ICMPD. Responsibility for the information and views expressed in the study lies entirely with the authors. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS \ 3 Contents Acknowledgements 3 Acronyms 6 1. Introduction 7 2. Refugee populations in Lebanon 9 2.1 Evolution and dynamics of Syrian forced migration to Lebanon 9 2.2 Characteristics of the Syrian refugee population 10 2.3 Legal status issues 14 3. Impact of refugee arrivals 15 3.1 A tumultuous past 15 3.2 Impact of refugees on the Lebanese economy and labour market 15 3.3 Sectoral impact 18 Education 18 Healthcare 19 The property market and housing 20 Environment and waste 21 3.4 Perceptions, politics and diplomacy 21 Perceptions 21 Political impact 22 4.
    [Show full text]
  • Delegation of Beirut
    Beirut 1 Tufts Seminar 2019 BEIRUT 2019 Briefing Paper — Delegation of Beirut Committee: Maddy Hettler: Head of Delegation Representatives: Ben Togut: Committee on Urban Planning Jack Yuan: Committee on Economic Integration Ameen DaCosta: Committee on Social Cohesion Nikola Popovic: Committee on Health Ava Solo: Committee on Resilience Beirut 2 A. Introduction Representative: Maddy Hettler The Lebanese people have long displayed a proud tradition of hospitality. In Lebanon, it is a true honor to have a guest in your home and if you are ever lucky to be the guest yourself, you can be sure to be treated with the utmost respect and generosity. These values that we the Lebanese people hold dear to ourselves also transcend into our government and political atmosphere. Throughout our history, we have graciously welcomed refugees into our home. We have treated them as brothers, piously accepting thousands each day for we too know what it’s like to live in a country in turmoil. Lebanon is located in the midst of a migration crisis. ​ ​ Bordering Syria and their current civil war has resulted in an influx of Syrian refugees into Lebanon amounting to a staggering 35% of our population, while Palestinian refugees represent an estimated 10% of the population. This combined with our geographical location on the Mediterranean has labeled our nation as a safe middle country in the eyes of migrants on their way to larger European destinations. We currently hold more refugees per capita than any other country in the world making refugees more than ⅓ of our entire population. In addition, Lebanon is not a signatory of the 1951 United Nations Convention on the Status of Refugees meaning there are no laws that require us to take in Syrian refugees, yet being the moral and righteous people we are, we do so anyway.
    [Show full text]
  • Bibliography: Conflict in Syria (Part 4)
    PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 13, Issue 4 Bibliography: Conflict in Syria(Part 4) Compiled and selected by Judith Tinnes [Bibliographic Series of Perspectives on Terrorism – BSPT-JT-2019-6] Abstract This bibliography contains journal articles, book chapters, books, edited volumes, theses, grey literature, bibliographies and other resources on the Syrian conflict. To keep up with the rapid changing political events, more recent publications have been prioritized during the selection process. The literature has been retrieved by manually browsing more than 200 core and periphery sources in the field of Terrorism Studies. Additionally, full- text and reference retrieval systems have been employed to broaden the search. Keywords: bibliography, resources, literature, Syria, conflict, uprising, civil war, Assad regime, rebels, opposition, Hayat Tahrir al-Sham, HTS, Al-Qaeda, Hezbollah, Syrian Democratic Forces, SDF, Russia, Iran, United States NB: All websites were last visited on 20.07.2019. This subject bibliography is conceptualized as a multi-part series (for earlier bibliographies, see: Part 1, Part 2, and Part 3). To avoid duplication, this compilation only includes literature not contained in the previous parts. However, meta-resources, such as bibliographies, were also included in the sequels. Literature focusing specifically on the “Islamic State” (a.k.a. ISIS, ISIL, Daesh) has been excluded as it is covered in a separate multi-part bibliography. - See also Note for the Reader at the end of this literature list. Bibliographies and other Resources Adelson, Samuel (2013, May): Annotated Bibliography for Syria. (Model Arab League Research Resources). URL: https://ncusar.org/modelarableague/resources/Annotated-Bibliography-Syria.pdf Agathocle deSyracuse (2014, May-): @deSyracuse.
    [Show full text]
  • Brush and Bow: Shrinking Spaces
    As the war in Syria continues, a quarter of the country’s population live as refugees, scattered around the world. Syrian President Bashar al-Assad has repeatedly called for refugees to return in a bid to rehabilitate his reputation on the world stage. However, international monitors including the United Nations maintain that conditions are not yet ready for refugees to return, with testimonies of arbitrary arrests, torture and enforced conscription reported almost daily. Under international law, refugees with a well- founded fear of persecution cannot be forcibly repatriated. But as the climate toward migrants and refugees grows increasingly hostile in host countries, Syrians are being forced to go back. In Lebanon, where an estimated 1.5 million Syrians reside, the pressure to return has reached breaking point. A refugee camp in Tel Abbas. Akkar, North Lebanon. Hannah Kirmes-Daly “We are your children, oh Syria, and by God’s word, we miss you!” sing a handful of children whilst excitedly running through a corridor of tents in a small Syrian refugee camp near the Listen to the village of Tel Abbas, Akkar, Lebanon’s children Play northernmost province. It’s the singing morning of Eid, a major Islamic holiday, and the children’s excitement cannot be contained any longer. Listen to the Play children singing More than 50 Syrian families live here, in two rows of plastic tents tucked away amongst tobacco fields, just a few miles from the Syrian border. Concerned parents reluctantly watch over their kids. “It’s better for them not to play on the main roads,” says Rayan.
    [Show full text]
  • Assessing the Development- Displacement Nexus in Lebanon
    Assessing the Development- Displacement Nexus in Lebanon Working Paper Lama Kabbanji Jad Kabbanji November 2018 Assessing the Development- Displacement Nexus in Lebanon Working Paper Acknowledgements This report is an output of the project Study on Refugee Protection and Development: Assessing the Development-Displacement Nexus in Regional Protection Policies, funded by the OPEC Fund for Inter- national Development (OFID) and the International Centre for Migration Policy Development (ICMPD). The authors and ICMPD gratefully acknowledge OFID’s support. International Centre for Migration Policy Development (ICMPD) Gonzagagasse 1 A-1010 Vienna www.icmpd.com International Centre for Migration Policy Development Vienna, Austria All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission of the copyright owners. The content of this study does not reflect the official opinion of OFID or ICMPD. Responsibility for the information and views expressed in the study lies entirely with the authors. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS \ 3 Contents Acknowledgements 3 Acronyms 6 1. Introduction 7 2. Refugee populations in Lebanon 9 2.1 Evolution and dynamics of Syrian forced migration to Lebanon 9 2.2 Characteristics of the Syrian refugee population 10 2.3 Legal status issues 14 3. Impact of refugee arrivals 15 3.1 A tumultuous past 15 3.2 Impact of refugees on the Lebanese economy and labour market 15 3.3 Sectoral impact 18 Education 18 Healthcare 19 The property market and housing 20 Environment and waste 21 3.4 Perceptions, politics and diplomacy 21 Perceptions 21 Political impact 22 4.
    [Show full text]