1774 Mississippi Map

“1774 Map of the Mississippi River, from Manchac to the Yazous River” by Robert Lee Hadden, retired map librarian of the US Army Geospatial Center and Dr. Matthew Pearcy, US Army Corps of Engineers, History Office. Special thanks are also given to Mr. Edward J. Redmond, Reference Librarian, Geography & Map Division of the Library of Congress, for his assistance in this article.

The Map In May 1989, a number of records, files, photographs and other items were transferred from the US Army Museum at Fort Belvoir, Virginia, to the Headquarters, US Army Corps of Engineers Office of History (CEHO). In Army parlance, this was a “lateral transfer” from one Army office to another. One of the items transferred was identified in the paperwork as “Map. ‘Course of the River Mississippi. 1765.’” In late 2010, the USACE Office of History sent this manuscript map to the Northeast Document Conservation Center (NDCC) in Andover, Massachusetts, for preservation and conservation treatment. Through its own investigation, NDCC established that the map more likely dates to 1774, and not 1765, as indicated by Army Museum records. The title of the map is: “Part of the River Mississippi from Manchae1 to the Yazous River.” Its dimensions are approximately 6’ x 2’ (actual measurements are 72” x 27½”), and the map is hand colored using iron gall ink, graphite, water color and crayon on laid paper. The formal report tells the story of a very old and heavily used map that shows its age.

The cloth backed map was received rolled. The paper support consisted of five irregular sheets of paper. The object was very dirty. The edges were tattered with tears and losses. There were larger losses at the upper left corner, lower left corner, and lower middle. There were cracked ridges throughout. The lower left corner had an old paper repair. There was water staining along the left side as well as chemical staining along the lower border that had caused paper deterioration. The inks were abraded and flaky and were illegible in many areas. There was an 11½” x 6½” tracing paper certificate mounted in the upper left corner with old discolored adhesive and numerous pieces of pressure sensitive tape. The certificate had losses and tears. Along the top and bottom edges of the map were pressure sensitive residues.2

The NDCC completed its superb preservation work in spring 2011 and returned the map in substantially improved condition to the Office of History where it currently resides.

Provenance of the Map This map survived for most of its nearly 240 years as an engineering document and saw heavy use in the field. There are several references to this map or copies of it. “By an original English map, made for Goveror Chester, representing the grants of land under the English government, on the east bank of the Mississippi, from the Bayou Manchac up to the River Yazous, it appears that there were upwards of 400 grants made by the government of from 500 to

1 This refers to Manchac Bend, or the Bayou Manchac, located on the east side of the river, and explored by Pierre Le Moyne d’Iberville in March, 1699. 2 Report of the Northeast Document Conservation Center to the US Army Corps of Engineers. 2011. Correspondence. Hadden Pearcy March 6, 2014 Page 1

1774 Mississippi Map

25,000 acres each. Governor Brown’s grant of 17,000,400 acres included a portion of the upper part of this parish, the “Milk Cliffs,” now Port Hudson, and “White Plains,” at present “Buhler’s Plains,” embracing the greater part of Menzie’s concession.”3

While much of the very early provenance is still unknown, one of the map’s 19th century owners took care to capture an important piece of it. Probably for the purpose of securing its provenance and to more firmly establish its value, he affixed a handwritten letter – now badly yellowed – to the upper right hand corner of the map. It identified its author and detailed the history of the map from 1848.

Part of the River Mississippi From Manchac up to the River Yazous This is to certify that about the year 1848 I purchased from Maj. Stephen Roberts, Parish Surveyor of East Baton Rouge, an Old Map, Entitled: “Part of the River Mississippi from Manchac up to the River Yazous,” “for Governor Chester4 by Wm. Wilton” and have owned it ever since -- Roberts died in 1863, aged about 80 years; he had owned it for many years, and considered it an authentic and original map; as I always have; which I think, it appears justified; but at this late date I have no means of verifying its authenticity- It was, no doubt made, for the purpose of establishing the location of various Land Grants, which are shown upon it; as, at that time (1774), the Territory between the Manchac and Yazous, lying East of the Miss. River, was English domain and Gov. Chester represented the British Crown, and Wm. Wilton was an English Engineer or Surveyor-

Wm G. Waller Parish Surveyor

State of Louisiana, Parish of East Baton Rouge, April 4, 1881- personally came and appeared before me Wm. G. Waller, who, being duly sworn, declares the above statements are correct & true, according to the best of his knowledge & belief. H.N. Sherburn Judge of the 17th Dist. Court Parish of East Baton Rouge, La.

Scale of Original map is 2 miles to one inch. Copied from description on Map File MRC/91

3 Carrighan, Judge. “Historical and Statistical Sketches of Louisiana.” In: “De Bow’s Review of the Southern and Western States. A Monthly Industrial and Literary Journal.” New Orleans. Volume XI, New Series, Volume IV. From July, 1851 through January 1852. Pages 252-263. See: http://books.google.com/books?id=3K9IAAAAYAAJ&dq. 4 Peter Chester, provincial British Governor of West Florida in 1773. He particularly wanted land to be given to the British officers and men who served during the French and Indian wars. “Those tracts which have been applied for since my arrival in the Province, have only been Granted to such persons as gave me the strongest assurances, in Council, of their intentions to Cultivate and Improve them, excepting such as have been granted in consequence of His Majesty’s Orders inn [sic] Council, and in consequence of His Proclamation of 1763, to reduced Officers who had served during the late War in North America.” Hadden Pearcy March 6, 2014 Page 2

1774 Mississippi Map

The Wilton map eventually fell into the possession of the Mississippi River Commission (MRC) and was incorporated into its exceptional Mississippi River Valley map collection. The MRC’s interest in the map relates to its founding mission. Established by an Act of Congress on June 28, 1879, the MRC was tasked with developing plans to improve the condition of the Mississippi River, fostering navigation, promoting commerce, and preventing destructive floods. Given the scope of the problem and the limited technology and resources of the period, these constituted perhaps the most difficult and complex engineering problems ever undertaken by the federal government up to that point. The Wilton map remained with the MRC until it was transferred at some point to the Army Museum at Fort Belvoir. From there, it went to the Office of History and its current home. Piecing together the history of the Wilton map before 1848 required some investigative research. After a brief inspection of the original map and careful coordination with the Library of Congress’ Geography & Map Division, Army researcher Lee Hadden determined that there were striking similarities between the Office of History map and the published description of a map in possession of the Library of Congress. This second map was a slightly larger representation of the same part of the Mississippi Valley. Drawn by the British cartographer George Gauld in the spring of 1774, the LOC map had been produced by the government of the colony of West Florida as part of a quasi-military expedition to establish the northern border of that British colony. Other maps by George Gauld, including several of the Manchac Region and made at about the same time, are also held by the Library of Congress. With the two maps placed side-by-side, it became readily apparent that Wilton copied the original map by Gauld in order to establish British land claims along the Mississippi River. Some of the original notations by Gauld concerning the currents, depths, and river navigation were eliminated from Wilton’s version; however, most of the geographical information, including place names and the locations of Native American villages, were transferred. In addition, additional lands east of the river and along the tributaries were added to the Wilton map in order to show areas of land grant development and speculation by British subjects. It is unknown if this map remained in the Wilton’s possession or for how long until it was acquired by Major Stephen Roberts in 1848. However, there are corrections and additions to the map that accumulated over time. In the early period, there are some notations on land squabbles and ownership changes that continue until 1818. Probably many years later when the map was acquired by the MRC in 1881, additional corrections, such as the placement of new towns or changes in place names along the Mississippi River, were added in pencil.

Purpose of the Map The expressed main purpose of the William Wilton map is to identify land holdings of a number of land speculators along the Mississippi River and tributaries. These lands were given as grants by the British Crown to veterans of the French and Indian War (also known as “The Seven Year’s War) that ended in 1763, and as a means of encouraging colonization by British subjects of the new lands. Some lands were granted as awards to military officers who had distinguished themselves during the conflict. Other lands along the riverfront were sold cheaply, sometimes for only the cost of registering the deed. Many other grants of land were given by the Governors of the colony of West Florida to prominent citizens, merchants and others, who promised to clear, develop and cultivate the land within a reasonable period of time. Some were awarded by the king through the “Writ of Mandamus”, or by the king’s command.

Hadden Pearcy March 6, 2014 Page 3

1774 Mississippi Map

This map may have acted as an official listing of the land holdings. Or it may have been used to decide who got what piece of land and to guide new settlers to areas that were particularly desired for development. It is obvious along some of the tributaries, especially the Homochitta, the Big Black and the Amite, that smaller grants of land were given to new settlers who would actually reside there and cultivate the properties. The main purpose of the Gauld map is to show the western boundaries of West Florida between the northern and southern boundaries. The western end of the British territory was the eastern bank of the Mississippi river. The western bank of the Mississippi River belonged to Spain.

Latitude Problem Originally, the rather arbitrary northern boundary selected for the British colony of West Florida was set at latitude 31° North, which was a bit south of the town of Natchez. During the early spring of 1764, Governor Johnstone discussed this problem with his military advisors, political consultants, and most especially, the merchants. As the general knowledge of the colony and the Mississippi river grew, it became apparent that the northern boundary of the colony needed to be pushed up north from 31° to the mouth of the Yazoo river. “…In a communication to the crown on March 23, 1764, the lords of trade proposed that the boundary be moved north to a line running eastwards from the mouth of the Yazoo River. This recommendation was approved by the privy council on March 26 and referred to the law officers, who reported favorably on May 1, and final approval was granted eight days later. The order for the change was sent to Governor Johnstone in a supplementary commission on June 6.”5 “After Florida came into the possession of Great Britain, the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, sent out Mr. George Gauld to make a thorough survey of the whole coast. He was employed in surveying the coasts and harbours of West Florida, and the west coast of East Florida from the summer of 1764, to the year 1781, when he was made prisoner by the Spaniards, in their invasion of Florida. These surveys were not published until the year 1790, after the death of Mr Gauld.6 Much remains to be done by our own government in improving the charts of this dangerous coast. It does not appear precisely at what time."7 “It may be proper to observe that I have had the assistance of the remarks and surveys, so far as relates to the mouths of the Mississippi and the coast and foundings of West Florida, of the late ingenious Mr. George Gauld, a Gentleman who was employed by the Lords of the Admiralty for the express purpose of making an accurate chart of the above mentioned places.”8 The northern boundary was where the Yazoo River flows into the Mississippi River, located where the town of Vicksburg, Mississippi is today. It was important for the exploring

5 Carter, Clarence E. 1917. "The Beginnings of British West Florida." The Mississippi Valley Historical Review. Organization of American Historians: Dec. Volume 4, Issue 3, Pages 325-326. 6 “Mr Ellicott, speaking of the navigation of this coast, says, Mr Gauld's surveys of the Dry Tortugas and the Florida reef and keys, easterly to Key Largo, made by direction of the Board of Admiralty of Great Britain, may justly be considered as one of the most valuable works of the kind extent.” This Mr. Ellicott may be Mr. Andrew Ellicott, a Quaker surveyor of the area. 7 Sketches, Historical and Topographical, of the Floridas; More Particularly of East Florida by James Grant Forbes; Memoir on the Geography, and Natural and Civil History of Florida, Attended by a Map of That Country, &c. by William Darby. 1821. The North American Review. University of Northern Iowa: Jul. Volume 13, Issue 32, Pages pp. 91-92. 8 Hutchins, Thomas.1784. “An Historical Narrative and Topographical Description of Louisiana and West Florida.” Page 3. Hadden Pearcy March 6, 2014 Page 4

1774 Mississippi Map expedition, coming from the south, to determine the exact latitude and longitude of this point. Mr. George Gauld and Dr. John Lorimer were in the expedition, and they used their instruments and mathematical abilities to determine the correct position. “In 1773, Mr. Gauld had not got proper instruments for ascertaining the Longitude with a sufficient degree of precision; but by the next year he had furnished himself with one of Dollard’s9 best Achromatic Telescopes, a Sextant with a Micrometer screw, and a time piece by Cumming10: the Longitudes and Latitudes of the Tortugas and Florida Kays, etc., may therefore be relied upon.”11 This also was a change in the treaty. “Although British West Florida had extended north to 32° 28’, by the second Treaty of Paris in 1783, England recognized United States claims south to the 31st parallel. This Spain refused to do. For a period of years, sovereignty to the land between 31° and 32°28’ was under dispute, Spain claiming it by right of conquest and the United States by right of treaty. To complicate matter further, the State of Georgia also claimed the region by her charter of 1732, even going so far as to organize it into the County of Bourbon in 1785 and to sell it in the notorious “Yazoo Fraud” of 1795. By the Treaty of Madrid in 1795 the dispute between the United States and Spain was theoretically settled in favor of the former. But the Spanish took their time in evacuating Natchez; Andrew Ellicott, a Quaker surveyor appointed to run a line of demarcation, was kept waiting a year on this account.”12 The undisputed southern boundary of the new territory was along the River Iberville where it flowed into the Mississippi at Bayou Manchac or Manchac Bend. This is an area of great interest to the British. Because the Spanish owned New Orleans, the British were looking for a way to avoid going through that town and paying the heavy tolls and taxes on goods traded up and down the Mississippi River, and enforced by the Spanish Navy. “What became as Bayou Manchac was a narrow waterway that offered the first link in a chain of waterways that composed a back route linking the Mississippi River to the Gulf of Mexico. This passage followed Manchac, the Amite River, and Lakes Pontchartrain and Maurepas to the Gulf, significantly shortening the distance, by approximately 125 miles rather than following the meandering Mississippi River down to its mouth. This back route would also have facilitated a part of the upriver journey before steam-powered boats conquered the formidable Mississippi River current.”13 The second reason for this map is to show the landholdings of various planters and speculators. Many were speculators, including George Gauld and Dr. Lorimer. The land they owned on Thompson’s Creek were acquired by Dr. Lorimer and George Gauld in 1772, and then visited by them, perhaps for the first time, during this trip. This cheap land was mostly purchased for speculation, because running the property profitably as a plantation would have been too difficult as absentee landlords from their homes along the Gulf Coast.14 With the new acreage given to them under the treaty, Britain had to fill the colony up with new farmers and colonists. “To protect and defend the colony, the British needed to attract

9 John Dollond (1706-1761), an English spectacle maker, patented a new lens in 1758 that combined two lenses cemented together that reduced chromatic and spherical aberrations from the telescope’s refraction. 10 Alexander Cumming (1733-1814) was an English watchmaker, who patented in 1774 a chronograph with a gravity escapement. 11 Gauld, George. 1795. “An Account of the Surveys of Florida…” Page 9. Since this equipment was acquired in 1773, we can assume they were also used in this map from 1774. 12 Mississippi: A Guide to the Magnolia State. 1938. Page 66. 13 Sternberg, Mary Ann. 2006. Winding Through Time. Page 6. 14 Ware, John. George Gauld. Pages 190-191. Hadden Pearcy March 6, 2014 Page 5

1774 Mississippi Map additional settlers. One strong enticement was the offer of free land grants. In addition to increments of five thousand acres or more that were tendered to veterans of the French and Indian War, one hundred acres could be claimed by the head of a household, with an additional fifty acres for other household members, and a thousand acres could be had by anyone who promised to put the granted land into cultivation, especially in indigo.”15 “In 1763, as a result of the Seven Years War, France ceded all of her holdings east of the Mississippi River and north of the Isle of Orleans to Great Britain and all of the remainder of Louisiana to Spain. Both the British and Spanish built forts on the Mississippi at its junction with Bayou Manchac, the boundary of their territories, and began offering land grants to settlers. British grants were generally given to former military officers and soldiers, but the Spanish followed a more open policy, offering land to a variety of ethnic groups including French, Germans, Acadians, and Canary Islanders. Both governments required that grant recipients develop their property within a certain period of time or forfeit it to the crown. These policies attracted increasing numbers of immigrants to the area, and tobacco and indigo plantations began to spread along the Mississippi.”16 And many of the new settlers were Loyalists and Tories fleeing the Pre-Revolutionary arguments and Revolutionary issues shaking the colonies. The population of West Florida swelled to double its size during the American Revolution. Many of these families included men of property; many were others who fled the rebels with only their loyalty intact. Some fled because they would not fight; others fled because they were defeated. All of them looked for support and protection from the King.17 Consequently, a British military expedition was sent out to map the Mississippi River, from Manchac to the mouth of the Yazoo River. “The Latitudes of the Entrance of the River Yazou, Natchez, Manchac, and some other parts of the River were taken by Doctor Lorimer18, which were a great correction and satisfaction in laying down this plan. Major Dickson Commander of His Majesty’s Troops in West Florida was the principal promoter of this expedition to the Mississippi. He carried with him Captain Davy19 of His Majesty’s Sloop Diligence, Dr. L. and Mr. G.20 They left Pensacola the 16th February in two open boats, which

15 Sternberg, Mary Ann. 2006. Winding Through Time. Page 44. 16 Kelley, David B. 1989. Archaeological and Historical Investigations. Page 30. 17 Ware, John. George Gauld. Pages 202-203. 18 Probably this is John Lorimer, MD (1732-1795), Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians at Edinburgh, who later wrote a pamphlet in 1795, “A concise essay on magnetism; with an account of the declination and inclination of the magnetic needle; and an attempt to ascertain the cause of the variation thereof.” 19 Probably this is Captain Thomas Davey, commander of HMS Sloop Diligence. Captain Thomas Davey of the Sloop Diligence was ordered to sail to Jamaica by the Admiralty on September 14, 1772, and to place himself under the command of Admiral Lord George B. Rodney. See: Syrett, David. 2007. The Rodney papers: selections from the correspondence of Admiral Lord Rodney, Baron George Brydges Rodney. Volume 151 of Navy Records Society Publications. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2007, pages 106-107. This is also mentioned as “armed brig, ten guns, Captain Thomas Davey” in the book, “Captain John Manley: second in rank in the United States navy, 1776-1783” by Isaac J. Greenwood, 1915, page 40. 20 Probably this person is George Gauld, a Scots surveyor of the period. Between 1764 and 1781, he was assigned by the British Admiralty to chart the waters of the Gulf Coast off British West Florida, an area that extended from New Orleans to the modern-day Florida. In 1773, Gauld submitted some of his findings to the American Philosophical Society (APS), probably in hopes of having them published in the Transactions, and although these were not published, they became one of the first manuscripts entered into the Society’s collections. The Gauld manuscript also includes an extract of a letter from John Lorimer (1732-1795) to Gauld, 1772, and a sketch of the Middle and Yellow Rivers of West Florida by Thomas Hutchins (1730-1789). When it was received at the APS, it was endorsed: "This long uninteresting Paper can hardly obtain a Place in the Transactions of a Philosophical Hadden Pearcy March 6, 2014 Page 6

1774 Mississippi Map were hauled over at New Orleans and launched into the Mississippi. They returned by the Iberville through the Lakes and arrived at Pensacola the 18th of April 1774, having been absent only two months.”21 Major Dickson went with them for the first part of the survey, and helped them investigate the Manchac region, but evidently left the group at Natchez. Dr. Lorimer made careful measurements of latitude at Natchez, and then the remainder of the party continued further north to the mouth of the Yazoo River. Major Dickson was back in Pensacola by April 30th, although it is unknown if he returned by going up the Manchac to the Iberville River, or south to New Orleans. Interestingly enough, he appeared back in Pensacola almost two weeks after the return of the main party that went up further north.22 There is a letter dated February 17, 1774 from Pensacola, written by Thomas Hutchins to General Frederick Haldimand. “Has received approval of his expenses to the Mississippi. Sends additional sketches. Will gladly make a survey of the Mississippi, &c. How he proposes going and returning by the Ohio to New York; will build a boat for the purpose. The progress of the works, &c. (Page 54) – SN: 071027.”23 This was an interesting expedition, since it included a Royal Navy captain, Captain Thomas Davey of HMS Diligence; two open boats of sailors; several civilian engineers (Thomas Hutchins), a medical doctor (Dr. John Lorimer) and map makers (George Gauld and probably his assistant, a Mr. Payne); and Major Alexander Dickson, an Army officer and commander of all the armed forces in West Florida. How an 18th century Royal Navy captain could be ordered to leave his ship for two months, even if he had most of his crew along with him in the two boats, is a question. Something like this small expedition, especially during peacetime, would usually call for a junior officer, such as a lieutenant, rather than the commanding officer, who remained absent from his ship for two months. In addition to the Navy Captain, a long trip up the river involving the ranking Army officer of the colony seems suspicious as well. Why were two such high ranking officers absent from their posts and their responsibilities for so long, on such a routine mission? Also, the route they took is intriguing. Coming north from the sea through New Orleans would require them to inform the Spanish authorities of their mission, and to request official permission to pass through their territory. This is probably the usual route up the Mississippi, and under the terms of the treaty which required open access to the Mississippi River, would be granted. However, their return trip was through Manchac, the Ibberville River, Lakes Ponchartrain and Maurepas, and thence to Pensacola, which is something the Spanish would not be favorable to assisting. I suspect they did not inform the Spanish of their intended different return route.

Society. It should however be preserved in the Files for the Use of Historians or map makers." Viewing his work as a benefit for navigators of all nations, not just Britain, Gauld readily shared his work, including with the APS. He was elected to the Society in 1774. His subsequent history, however, was less happy. In 1776, Gauld was forced to suspend his work in the Dry Tortugas and Florida Keys due to the depredations of American privateers, and he was taken prisoner at the Siege of Pensacola in 1781. Carried off first to Havana and then to New York, Gauld was eventually repatriated to England, dying shortly thereafter at age 50. He is buried at the chapel in Tottenham Court Road, London. 21 Gauld, George. Map of the Yazoo. Library of Congress. 22 Ware, John. George Gauld. Pages 161-162. 23 Haldimand Collection. Letters from various persons, 1774-1777. See: http://haldimand-collection.ca/b-071- letters-from-various-persons-1774-to-1777-vol-iv Hadden Pearcy March 6, 2014 Page 7

1774 Mississippi Map

This has less of a flavor of a scientific expedition than it does a military reconnaissance or spy mission. However, it also does have a sense of being an 18th century holiday. Both Gauld and Dr. Lorimer owned property along the route, and may have taken an opportunity to inspect and investigate their land holdings. Afterwards, George Gauld wrote to Admiral Parker: “all above New Orleans was a private party, at a season when I could not go on the general Survey of the Coast, at our own expense and without costing the government anything.”24 This, of course, is at odds with the letter mentioned above that was written by Thomas Hutchins to General Haldimand before leaving, which may indicate that the military engineer and cartographer Thomas Hutchins was paid for the river survey trip, but George Gauld and Dr. John Lorimer were either unknowing participants or super cargoes. Afterwards, Thomas Hutchins would publish several publications about his experiences and observations in West Florida. Regretfully, he used and re-published much of the written materials and charts produced by Dr. Lorimer, George Gauld and Lieutenant Pittman under his own name. So would the colonial naturalist Bertram Romans. Even in those days of loose copyright laws, using other people’s creations was well known. In correspondence with General Gage, General Haldimand sent him some of George Gauld’s maps along with his report, with the proviso that no one else should copy the maps drawn by Gauld.25 This land was developed by giving the land with a short river front, and a much longer depth. The French land measuring term, the “arpent”, was frequently used. An arpent is approximately 192 feet wide and the same in depth. Thus, a land front might be of one or two arpents wide, but the depth of the land grant could be forty or more arpents, or often a double depth of 80 arpents.26

North to South place names on the map: Old Spanish Fort Jean Baptiste LeMoyne established a fort here in the early 1700s., but they were wiped out by the Indians. The Spanish established a fort in the walnut hills, which was named Fort Nogales. Nogales is the Spanish word for “walnuts”. The fort was put up in 1781, in part due to a threat of an American land company that was bringing several thousand armed men to establish a colony in what was claimed to be Spanish lands. After Spain ceded the land in 1798, an American garrison occupied the fort and renamed it Fort McHenry.27 “At the distance of twelve miles from the mouth of the Yazou, and on the South side, are the Yazou hills. There is a cliff of solid rock at the landing place, on which there are a variety of broken pieces of sea shells, and some entire. For miles further up is the place called the Ball Ground, near which a church, Fort St. Pierre, and a French settlement formerly stood. They were destroyed by the Yazou Indians in 1729. That nation is now entirely extinct.”28 Ponds (in pencil) Les Cotes de Yazous [sic] The mouth of the Yazoo River.

24 Ware, John. George Gauld. Pages 162-163. The author is quoting a letter from George Gauld to Admiral Peter Parker, dated January 14, 1779. 25 Ware, John. George Gauld. Pages 193-201. 26 Sternberg, Mary Ann. 2006. Winding Through Time. Page 58. 27 Bragg, Marion. 1977. Historic Names and Places on the Lower Mississippi River. Vicksburg, MS: US Army Corps of Engineers, Mississippi River Commission. Pages 159-160. 28 Hutchins, Thomas.1784. “An Historical Narrative and Topographical Description of Louisiana and West Florida.” Page 55. Hadden Pearcy March 6, 2014 Page 8

1774 Mississippi Map

Vicksburg (pencil). Just south of the penciled name, “Vicksburg,” are a number (1-16) of large rectangles in pen and ink, with the notation “From Number vtors (sic) Reserved for the Military Adventurers” on the eastern side of the Mississippi, and along Big Black Creek (Big Black River) and another unidentified stream, down to Grand Gouffre. New Carthage (in pencil). New Carthage, St. Joseph, Rodney and Hard Times were all notations added in pencil and were localities used during the siege of Vicksburg, and along with the military conflicts at Grand Gulf, are added to the map at some time after it was originally drawn. Perhaps the map was used for military planning purposes during the war, although it remained in southern hands until it was turned over to the Mississippi River Commission in 1881. Big Black. The Big Black River, known as the River Tioux” to the French, is about 270 miles long and drains about 3,000 aquare miles. In 1773 a large group of New Englanders loyal to King George petitioned him for a grant of land on the Big Black. However, only a handful of these military adventurers reached the land, and they were soon chased away by the Indians. There were many lawsuits to disentangle the conflicting Spanish, British and American land claims in this area.29 Big Black is a post-hamlet, about 20 miles southwest of Vicksburg.30 “In November 1776, a fresh contingent of New Englanders, led by Captain Matthew Phelps, settled on the Big Black River.”31 On the Library of Congress map by George Gauld, from 1774, there are the following notations: “Overflowed cypress land”; “Black River”; “Willows”. There is another, longer, notation: “The Latitudes of the Entrance of the River Yazou, Natchez, Manchac, and some other parts of the River were taken by Doctor Lorimer32, which were a great correction and satisfaction in laying down this plan. Major Dickson Commander of His Majesty’s Troops in West Florida was the principal promoter of this expedition to the Mississippi. He carried with him Captain Davy33 of His Majesty’s Sloop Diligence, Dr. L. and Mr. G.34 They left Pensacola

29 Bragg, Marion. 1977. Historic Names and Places on the Lower Mississippi River. Vicksburg, MS: US Army Corps of Engineers, Mississippi River Commission. Pages 171-172. 30 Mississippi: Comprising Sketches of Counties, Towns, Events, Institutions, and Persons, Arranged in Cyclopedic Form. Volume 1 of Mississippi : Comprising Sketches of Counties, Towns, Events, Institutions, and Persons: Arranged in Cyclopedic Form, edited by Dunbar Rowland. Southern Historical Publishing Association, 1907. Page 239. 31 Siebert, Wilbur H. 1916. "The Loyalists in West Florida and the Natchez District." The Mississippi Valley Historical Review. Organization of American Historians: Mar. Volume 2, Issue 4, Page 465. 32 Probably this is John Lorimer, MD (1732-1795), Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians at Edinburgh, who later wrote a pamphlet in 1795, “A concise essay on magnetism; with an account of the declination and inclination of the magnetic needle; and an attempt to ascertain the cause of the variation thereof.” 33 Probably this is Captain Thomas Davey, commander of HMS Sloop Diligence. Captain Thomas Davey of the Sloop Diligence was ordered to sail to Jamaica by the Admiralty on September 14, 1772, and to place himself under the command of Admiral Lord George B. Rodney. See: Syrett, David. 2007. The Rodney papers: selections from the correspondence of Admiral Lord Rodney, Baron George Brydges Rodney. Volume 151 of Navy Records Society Publications. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2007, pages 106-107. This is also mentioned as “armed brig, ten guns, Captain Thomas Davey” in the book, “Captain John Manley: second in rank in the United States navy, 1776-1783” by Isaac J. Greenwood, 1915, page 40. 34 Probably this person is George Gauld, a Scots surveyor of the period. Between 1764 and 1781, he was assigned by the British Admiralty to chart the waters of the Gulf Coast off British West Florida, an area that extended from New Orleans to the modern-day Florida. In 1773, Gauld submitted some of his findings to the American Philosophical Society (APS), probably in hopes of having them published in the Transactions, and although these were not published, they became one of the first manuscripts entered into the Society’s collections. The Gauld manuscript also includes an extract of a letter from John Lorimer (1732-1795) to Gauld, 1772, and a sketch of the Middle and Yellow Rivers of West Florida by Thomas Hutchins (1730-1789). When it was received at the APS, it was endorsed: "This long uninteresting Paper can hardly obtain a Place in the Transactions of a Philosophical Hadden Pearcy March 6, 2014 Page 9

1774 Mississippi Map the 16th February in two open boats, which were hauled over at New Orleans and launched into the Mississippi. They returned by the Iberville through the Lakes and arrived at Pensacola the 18th of April 1774, having been absent only two months.” Grand Gouffre. “Grand Gulf” on the Wilton map. Just south of Grand Gouffre are three rectangles in pen and ink, numbered 1-3, with no other identification. A fourth rectangle is penned in somewhat further south. Rectangles and squares numbered 5-8 are also shown further south and further inland. “From the Bayouk Pierre35 to Loufa Chitto, or the Big Black, at the Grand Goufre, is 10 miles. The Big Black (or Loufa Chitto), is, at its mouth, about 30 yards wide, but within, from 30 to 50 yards, and is said to be navigable by canoes for 39 or 40 leagues.”36 “Grand Gulf was named for the whirlpools and eddies formed in the Mississippi by the current from the Big Black River and by a sandstone cliff jutting into the water. The danger from the Grand Gulf whirlpools was known to all early voyagers on the river, and a British settlement had been made at the mouth of the Big Black River before the American Revolution.”37 Grand Gulf became a Confederate stronghold during the civil War, and is now the site of a National Military Park. Hard Times (added in pencil) Hard Times was a plantation on the Louisiana side of the river that was used by Union troops during the siege of Vicksburg. Bayou Peair (?). This is probably “Bayou Pierre”, with an English phonetic spelling of the French name. The Bayou Pierre was named for the French word for rocks, “pierre,” and was named for a short time “Stony River” by the British before reverting to its earlier name. “From the Petit Goufre to Bayouk Pierre [sic], or Stony River, is four miles and a quarter. From the mouth to what is called the fork of this river, is computed to be 21 miles. In this distance there are several quarries of stone, and the land has a clay soil with gravel on the surface of the ground.”38 St Joseph (pencil). St Joseph, Louisiana, is the parish seat of Tensas Parish and was originally a river port until the Mississippi changed course and left it inland. Petit Gouffre (“now Rodney” in pencil). “From Fort Rosalie to Petite Goufre is thirty one and a half miles. There is a firm rock on the east side of the Mississippi for near a mile, which seems to be of the nature of limestone. The land near the river is much broken and very high,

Society. It should however be preserved in the Files for the Use of Historians or map makers." Viewing his work as a benefit for navigators of all nations, not just Britain, Gauld readily shared his work, including with the APS. He was elected to the Society in 1774. His subsequent history, however, was less happy. In 1776, Gauld was forced to suspend his work in the Dry Tortugas and Florida Keys due to the depredations of American privateers, and he was taken prisoner at the Siege of Pensacola in 1781. Carried off first to Havana and then to New York, Gauld was eventually repatriated to England, dying shortly thereafter at age 50. He is buried at the chapel in Tottenham Court Road, London. 35 “Bayou” or “Bayouk” derive through the French from the Choctaw word “bayuk”, which means creek or slow moving stream. In the first quarter of the 19th century, “bayou” and “bayauk” were frequent spellings. But the term “bayou” is not connected with the French word “bayau.” The plural forms were also created by the French, such as “bayeux “ and “bayoux”. See: “The Etymology of Bayou” in: Read, William A. 1927. Louisiana Place Names of Indian Origin. University Bulletin, Louisiana State University, Volume XIX, New Series, Number 2, February 1927. Page xii. 36 Hutchins, Thomas.1784. “An Historical Narrative and Topographical Description of Louisiana and West Florida.” Page 52. 37 Mississippi: A Guide to the Magnolia State. 1938. Page 326. 38 Hutchins, Thomas. 1784. “An Historical Narrative and Topographical Description of Louisiana and West Florida.” Page 52. Hadden Pearcy March 6, 2014 Page 10

1774 Mississippi Map with good soil, and several plantations on it.”39 On the Library of Congress map of 1774 it says “Little Gulf” along the river bed, and “Alston” or “Alfton” as the village.40 It further indicates “Willows” along the river to the north, “Rich Cane Soil to the tops of the Hills” to the east, and “Campbell” to the south. “Soon after the invention of the cotton gin and the screw press, Dr. Rush Nutt of Natchez developed a new variety of cotton that was suitable for the Natchez climate. Known as the “Petit Gulf” variety, it was developed from Mexican seed, which, according to a local folk tale, was smuggled out of Mexico in 1807 by Walter Buring who hid the seed in several dolls.”41 Rodney was a thriving town in the 19th century that became almost a ghost town when the river changed it’s course.42 Boyd’s Creek (“Coles Creek” in pencil). On the Wilton map is a square drawn in pen and ink, within saying “Reserved 20,000 Acres for the Virginians”. Also there is a notation, “Reserved for Lulone (sic) Hitchins & Others”. On the Library of Congress map by Gauld from 1774, there are these notations around Boyd’s Creek: “Major Collins” to the north; “Large Cypress Swamps”; “Boyd’s Sawmill”, “There are several families settled on Boyd’s Creek” and “Lake” to the east; and “Small canes & low land” and “Thick Canes” to the south. Apple Island. On the Library of Congress map by George Gauld, there is a notation below Apple Island that says “Fairchild’s Creek”. Also on the LC map, on the eastern side of the river are also these notations in pencil: “The Bank here falls in daily when the River rises (rifes)” and “Canes & large timber.” Also further south are these notations: “a small creek said to come out of a Lake about a mile distant from the River.” Then there are some hachures indicating “High Land” and “Low Land”. Then there is a notation on the western side of the river for “Bayou d’Argent” Fort Natchez (in ink “Natches lies in N° Lat 31° 33’.48”). A line is drawn going from the southwest to the north east, with the notation, “Path to the Choctaw Nation,” now known as “The Natchez Trace.” Further inland on the eastern side is the notation “Tho. Hitchins Reserve of 250,000 Acres from 2nd June 17 (illegible) to 2nd June 1774.” There is another dotted line inscribed “Path to Choctow Six Towns” from Ft. Natchez going to the northeast. This path is also known as “Three Chop Path,” because the trail was blazed with three horizontal hacks on the trees. Various other paths are indicated, but unnamed. Spanish Fort Natchez. This fort has an interesting and bloody history. Originally a French fort built in 1716 and named “Fort Rosalie”43, it was constructed by the Natchez Indians with local materials as part of their peace treaty. There it became the primary trading post and government station for the local Indian tribes. In 1729, the Natchez destroyed the fort and killed 229 French settlers: all the males in the French settlement, and 35 women and 56 children. This was the largest death toll by an Indian attack in Mississippi’s history. The French army retaliated

39 Hutchins, Thomas. 1784. “An Historical Narrative and Topographical Description of Louisiana and West Florida.” Page 52. 40 The brothers John and Philip Alston were notorious counterfeiters in North Carolina and Virginia who fled to Natchez in 1772 or 1773. There Philip Alston became a prosperous planter and land speculator. In 1781 they led an insurrection against the Spanish government in Natchez and took Fort Panmure. Two months later the Spanish re- took the fort without firing a shot, and before this Philip, his son Peter and his brother John fled Natchez to the Cumberland Valley in Tennessee, Philip Alston supposedly stole the crucifix from the Catholic church in Natchez. 41 Sansing, David G. et al. 1992. Natchez: An Illustrated History. Page 59. 42 Kempe, Helen Kerr. 1989. The Pelican Guide to Old Homes of Mississippi. Volume 1: Natchez and the South. Pages 78-79. 43 Pittman, Philip. 1770. Present State of European Settlements. Page 81. “The fort received the name of Rosalia in honour to Mad. la duchesse de Ponchartrain, whose husband was minister of France when it was built.” Hadden Pearcy March 6, 2014 Page 11

1774 Mississippi Map the next year, and either killed or captured so many Natchez Indians that the tribe ceased to exist. Those tribal members who did survive were dispersed and sold as slaves to various French plantations in the Caribbean islands, or lived as refugees among the allied tribes of the Creek and the Cherokee. The British renamed the re-built fort as “Fort Panmure” after they acquired it at the end of the French and Indian War in 1763. It was then taken from the British by the Spanish and held by them from 1779 through 1798, when the Americans took control. The fort was finally abandoned by the US Army in 1804, and today the fort site is part of the Natchez National Historical Park. Natches [sic] Island (in pencil) There was a tribe of the Natchez Indians living there.44 “Besides the people from New England and elsewhere who settled in this region before the revolution and in the fall of 1776, numerous Scotch-Irish from Pennsylvania, Virginia and North Carolina also entered the Natchez country in order to escape the divided sentiments of friends and neighbors from whence they came. In 1776 the town of Natchez was already in existence, but only contained twenty log and frame houses, which were all on the river bottom below the bluff. This small village could boast of four merchants, one of the number being James Willing, who had removed hither from Pennsylvania in 1774.” Natchez Island (in pencil) St. Catharine’s Creek. French plantations were established in the early 1700s along St Catherine Creek. The mouth of the creek was originally some distance from Natchez, but in 1871, the residents diverted the course so the mouth lay nearer to the town.45 Now the site of the St. Catherine Creek National Wildlife Refuge. Ecors Blancs (“Eliot Creek” in pencil) Trois Cheneaus (“Three Gutters” or “Three Channels”) Glasscock Island (pencil) Between St. Catherine’s Bend to Dead Mans Bend, the river was in a constant state of change. The US Army corps of Engineers dredged a cut off across Glasscock Point in 1933. Glasscock Island became part of the bank, and was no longer an island.46 Dead Man’s Bend (pencil) Cua Off (1776 in crayon) Possibly this is “Cutt Off, as it is an ox bow that can be crossed easily. On the 1774 map by George Gauld in the Library of Congress, this map has these notations: “When the River is high it runs with great rapidity from the upper reach across (acrofs) only about 140 ft. broad, with a fall upwards of 3 feet. The whole Body of the River will probably soon (foon) force its passage (pafsage) through this way, as the Banks are constantly (conftantly) falling in. There is just such another cut off near the Yazou.” And “Checked up with a raft” “Houmachita”. Along the river are various botanical notations that read: “Willows”, “Canes”, “Cypress” and “Thick Canes”. The area was naturally cut off in 1776, and the old

44 Natchez was a Gulf language spoken in what is now Louisiana. The Natchez tribe was destroyed by the French and the survivors were later forcibly relocated to Oklahoma, where they were absorbed into the Creek and Cherokee tribes. Their descendents remain among those tribes to this day. Like most other Gulf and Tunican languages, the Natchez language has not been spoken since the early 20th century, but some Natchez people today are working to revive the language. See: http://www.native-languages.org/natchez.htm 45 Bragg, Marion. 1977. Historic Names and Places on the Lower Mississippi River. Vicksburg, MS: US Army Corps of Engineers, Mississippi River Commission. Page 189. 46 Bragg, Marion. 1977. Historic Names and Places on the Lower Mississippi River. Vicksburg, MS: US Army Corps of Engineers, Mississippi River Commission. Pages 189- 190. Hadden Pearcy March 6, 2014 Page 12

1774 Mississippi Map channel created Lake Mary, or the Old River Lake. Lake Mary is now over 200 years old, and extends over 5,000 acres with a healthy fish and wildlife population.47 Houmachita. The Homochitto River had entered the Mississippi River until the river made a natural cut off in 1776. Today it enters the river about 22 miles south of Natchez.48 This is the Homochitta River, a Native American name for “The Big Red River.”49 Buffalo Creek. On the Library of Congress map, there is a notation “100 ft.” on the northern side of the creek. Roche de Davion. This area has had several names over the years. Father Antoine Davion traveled with the Tunica Indians when they left the Yazoo River, and the French colonists called this “Davion’s Rock.” In 1763 the British received the French colony, and in 1764 Major Loftus commanded a small detachment of soldiers to take possession of the Illinois settlements, and they were ambushed by Native Americans at this point. The British then began to call this “Loftus Heights.” General James Wilkinson arrived in Natchez in 1798 to participate in the transfer of the Louisiana Territory to the United States, and he established a small fort here, which he named “Fort Adams” in honor of President John Adams.50 “The Rock of Davion” had been a French Jesuit mission that was first settled between 1689-1700. Fort Adams would later be built at this site, and this fort was used as the original point of entry to the United States on the Mississippi River, before the acquisition of New Orleans. “Davion's Rock is just below the present site of Fort Adams Landing. The mission of Father Antoine Davion, abandoned in 1708, 51 was at this point. The modern village of Fort Adams is about a mile from the river.” “This fortification was made after the Spanish withdrawal from Natchez district, as a frontier post near the demarcation of Spanish and American domains on the east side of the great river. The site was recommended by Capt. Guion after his arrival in the latter part of 1797, at the historic high lands known as Davion's Rock during the French period, and Loftus heights after the English took possession. The fort was built after Gen. James Wilkinson arrived in August, 1798. It was completed in 1799, and comprised a strong earthwork, magazine and barracks. The engineering work was under the direction of Maj. Thomas Freeman, who had been acting theretofore as surveyor of the boundary line, under Commissioner Ellicott. It was named in honor of John Adams, then president of the United States.”52 Fort Adams was established in 1682 by Father Davion and is the oldest settlement in Wilkinson County. There was originally a watchtower on the bluff overlooking the Mississippi River, and many buildings on the old fort site.53 R. Rouge. “We arrived about 7 O’clock in the Evening at the River Rouge opposite which we put ashore to cook for tomorrow… About 50 Leagues up this River is what they call the Rapids where an Indian village of the Avoyel Tribe- 50 Leagues still higher is the

47 Bragg, Marion. 1977. Historic Names and Places on the Lower Mississippi River. Vicksburg, MS: US Army Corps of Engineers, Mississippi River Commission. Page 192. 48 Bragg, Marion. 1977. Historic Names and Places on the Lower Mississippi River. Vicksburg, MS: US Army Corps of Engineers, Mississippi River Commission. Page 191. 49 See: http://www.fs.usda.gov/detail/mississippi/about-forest/districts/?cid=stelprdb5209590 accessed December 10, 2011. 50 Bragg, Marion. 1977. Historic Names and Places on the Lower Mississippi River. Vicksburg, MS: US Army Corps of Engineers, Mississippi River Commission. Pages 195-196. 51 Pittman. 1770. Present State of European Settlements. Page 75. 52 Rowland, Dunbar. 1907. Encyclopedia of Mississippi. See the website, accessed February 13, 2012: http://www.mississippigenealogy.com/history/fort_adams.htm 53 Kempe, Helen Kerr. 1989. The Pelican Guide to Old Homes of Mississippi. Volume 1: Natchez and the South. Page 20. Hadden Pearcy March 6, 2014 Page 13

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Natchitoches another Indian village & considerable French settlements is but 7 Leagues…”54 During the 1700s, the Red River and the Atchafalaya River joined the Mississippi in the same bend. The Atchafalaya was a high water outlet, a distributary channel that carried excess water from the Mississippi through the Atchafalaya Basin and into the Gulf of Mexico.55 N° Lat 31_ The latitude of this area, and north to 32° 28’, is perhaps the reason for the Gauld map. It was to establish the exact latitude of the mouth of the Yazoo River by Dr. Lorimer, which would be the northern border of British West Florida. This was not finally established until the signing of the treaty with Spain in 1795. Lac de la Croix (Small boats can pass (pafs) between here when the river is high).This is presently the site of Angola, Louisiana, and this is where Pierre Le Moyne, Sieur d’Iberville, visited the Houma Indians who inhabited the heights behind the Lake of the Cross in 1699. The lake was named when d’Iberville had his men erect a large cross on its banks. In 1700, Father Paul du Rhu, a French Jesuit, built a mission and chapel here for the Houmas. However, they were attacked by the Tunica Indians and driven away from this area only a few years later.56 Indian Village. “About ten miles above the Tonicas village, on the same side of the river, is a village of Pasagoula Indians, of twenty warriors; and a little lower down, on the opposite side, there is a village of Biloxi Indians, containing thirty warriors.”57 Plantation Hutts “On the French side of the river during this days sailing I pass’d seven small new French Huts, where those people are continuing their Settlements along the River Side.”58 Isle Round French Plantations Tonicas Village. George Morgan wrote in 1766: “…This day I met four Indian Cannoes with several Indians in each & on each side of the River were several Hunting Parties Encampments which I took to of the Tonnica Tribe as their Village consisting of about 30 huts on the English side were but a few Leagues lower down…”59 “On the east side of the river, and about two miles above the last plantation of Pointe Coupee, is the village of the Tonicas, formerly a numerous nation of Indians; but their constant intercourse with the French, and immoderate use of spirituous liquors, has reduced them to about thirty warriors. They attacked the 22d regiment, commanded by Major Arthur Loftus, when on their way to take possession of the Illinois, on the 20th of March, 1764, at the Roche de Davion; they killed five men and wounded four, that were in two canoes which went ahead of the convoy: although they fired on the other boats they did no other damage, but prevented the regiment proceeding on its enterprise. The soldiers did not land, as their enemies were concealed in the wood, and their numbers unknown; they occupied both sides of the river, and the current in the middle of the

54 “Voyage Down the Mississippi River, November 21, 1766- December 18, 1766. George Morgan’s Letter Book.” Sunday, December 14th, 1766. Collections of the Illinois State Historical Library, Volume 11. 1916. Page 445. 55 Bragg, Marion. 1977. Historic Names and Places on the Lower Mississippi River. Vicksburg, MS: US Army Corps of Engineers, Mississippi River Commission. Page 193. 56 Bragg, Marion. 1977. Historic Names and Places on the Lower Mississippi River. Vicksburg, MS: US Army Corps of Engineers, Mississippi River Commission. Page 197. 57 Hutchins, Thomas.1784. “An Historical Narrative and Topographical Description of Louisiana and West Florida.” Page 44. 58 “Voyage Down the Mississippi River, November 21, 1766- December 18, 1766. George Morgan’s Letter Book.” Sunday, December 14th, 1766. Collections of the Illinois State Historical Library, Volume 11. 1916. Pages 438- 447. 59 “Voyage Down the Mississippi River, November 21, 1766- December 18, 1766. George Morgan’s Letter Book.” Sunday, December 14th, 1766. Collections of the Illinois State Historical Library, Volume 11. 1916. Page 446. Hadden Pearcy March 6, 2014 Page 14

1774 Mississippi Map stream run at the rate of five miles an hour: we have been very credibly informed that some of the French of Pointe Coupee, and their slaves, assisted the Tonicas in this attack.”60 “On the east side of the river, and opposite to the upper plantations of Point Coupée, is the village of the Tonicas, formerly a numerous nation of Indians, but their constant intercourse with white people and immoderate use of spirituous liquors, have reduced them to about twenty warriors.”61 Church; Fort. Small indications show a location for a church and a fort on the map. The French had established a fort there, but by 1796 all trace of the old fort had disappeared.62 Point Coupée. “Charlevoix relates that in the year 1722, at Point Coupée or “Cut Point”, the river made a big turn, and some Canadians, by deepening the channel of a small brook, diverted the waters of the river into it. The impetuosity of the stream was so violent and the soil so rich and loose a quality that, in a short time, the point was entirely cut through, and the travelers saved 14 leagues of their voyage. The old bed has no water in it, the times of periodical overflowing only excepted. The new channel has since sounded with a line of thirty fathoms, without finding bottom.”63 On the Library of Congress map from 1774, there are the following notations to the north of Point Coupée: “Offagoula64 Villages” west side of the river; “Small Creek” east side; “Racourcie” west side; “Thomas” east side; “The banks here fell in three days about 3 years ago and formed a deep bay” east side; “Tonica65 Village” east side; “Low Land” east side; “There are Lakes all the way behind here, at the distance of a mile or half a mile from the River” east side; “Butler”66 east side; “Small village of Offagoulas” west side; “Mackintosh (Mackintofh) east side; “Hesket (Hefket)” east side; “Gradenigo” east side; “Comyns”67 east side; Fort Church” west side; “Clapboard Creek” east side. Lieutenant Pittman also had some comments about the Point Coupee: “The settlements at Pointe Coupee commence about ten leagues from the river Ibbeville; they extend twenty miles on the west side of the Mississippi; and there are some plantations back on the side of (what is generally called) la fausse riviere, thro' which the Mississippi passed about sixty years ago; making the shape of a crescent, and made a difference to the voyager of near eight leagues. It is

60 Pittman. 1770. Present State of European Settlements. Page 75. 61 Hutchins, Thomas.1784. “An Historical Narrative and Topographical Description of Louisiana and West Florida.” Page 44. 62 Bragg, Marion. 1977. Historic Names and Places on the Lower Mississippi River. Vicksburg, MS: US Army Corps of Engineers, Mississippi River Commission. Page 202. 63 Hutchins, Thomas.1784. “An Historical Narrative and Topographical Description of Louisiana and West Florida.” Page 24. 64 Offagoula, Ofagoola, Ofoe, are various names for the same tribe. Ofo was a Siouan language once spoken in what is now Arkansas and Mississippi. Little is known about the Ofo tribe today. They were allies of the Natchez and Tunicas; but there was a falling-out among the three tribes over fighting with the French, and the Ofos were evidently absorbed into the Tunica tribe in the mid-1700’s. Unusually, the Ofo language survived among the Tunicas till the beginning of the 20th century, but both languages are extinct today. See: http://www.native- languages.org/ofo.htm 65 The Tonicas or Tunicas were an Indian tribe, and Tunica was a Gulf language spoken in what is now Louisiana. The Tunicas have shared a reservation with the Biloxi since the early 1800’s. Although the two tribes were friends and allies, their languages were entirely unrelated, and being unable to communicate effectively in their native languages, both tribes shifted to French. The Tunica language, like other Gulf indigenous languages, has not been spoken for generations. 66 Possibly this is the family of Captain Richard Butler, stationed at Fort Adams, who defied General Wilkinson. General Wilkinson, having lost his own queue, ordered all his officers to cut theirs off. “Butler refused, telling his physician that when he died he desired a hole to be bored into his coffin and his queue be pulled through so that Wilkinson would be defied, even in death.” Mississippi- A Guide to the Magnolia State. Page 360. 67 Valens Stephen Comyn was a merchant in Pensacola. See: Colonial Pensacola. 1974. Page 74. Hadden Pearcy March 6, 2014 Page 15

1774 Mississippi Map said that about that time two Canadians were descending the river, but were stopped at the beginning of this crescent by the roughness of the waves, occasioned by the wind blowing very hard against the current. One of these travelers chose to amuse himself with his gun until the wind should abate: and that he might not lose his way in the woods, he determined to follow a little brook, which had been made by the inundations of the river; he had gone but a small distance, when he again found himself by the side of the river, and saw the white cliffs before him; which he knew by the course of the Mississippi to be eight leagues from the place where he left his companion; to whom he immediately returned, and acquainted him with this discovery. They agreed to endeavour to get their canoe across, as there was about a foot water in the brook, which had a little slope towards the lower part of the river; they got their canoe into the brook, and cut away the roots of trees and bushes that obstructed its passage, and the waters of the Mississippi entering seconded their endeavours, so that in a short time they effected their purpose. It is reported that in less than six years after the Mississippi passed entirely through this channel, leaving its former bed quite dry, and which is now difficult to trace, being mostly filled up, and overgrown with trees. The fort, which is a quadrangle with four bastions, is built with stockades, and contains a very handsome house for the commanding officer, good barracks for the soldiers, store-houses, and a prison. The commanding officer is chosen from one of the eldest captains of the colony; the authority of the governor is delegated to him, and the storekeeper is the representative of the intendant. There are seldom more than twelve soldiers at this place, who are for no other purpose than to preserve good order. The fort is situated on the side of the Mississippi, about six miles above the lowest plantation. The church is very near the fort, and is served by a capuchin; there are three companies of militia in this canton, chosen from the white inhabitants, who amount to about two thousand of all ages and sexes, and about seven thousand slaves. They cultivate tobacco and indigo, raise vast quantities of poultry, which they send to the market of New Orleans, and furnish to the shipping; they square a great deal of timber and make staves, which they send down in rafts to New Orleans. The inhabitants cultivated maize and other provisions on the east side of the river; but after the peace, when that side of the Missisippi was ceded to the English, such as had houses there, who were but few, removed to the west side, which remained to the French.”68 Mill Cliffe. Trois Cheneaux This could be a variation of “chene” (modern day plural “chenaux”, which means “channel”, or “chêne”, which means “oak tree”. Profit Island was formed from two small ones, that caused the three channels, in the river. It is named for an early planter, and was originally spelled “Prophet Island.”69 Baton Rouge. The European-American history of Baton Rouge dates from 1699, when French explorer Sieur Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville, leading an exploration party up the Mississippi River, saw a reddish cypress pole festooned with bloody animals that marked the boundary point between the Houma and Bayou Goula tribal hunting grounds. They called the pole and its location “le bâton rouge”, or “the red stick”. The local Native American name for the site was Istrouma. The settlement of Baton Rouge by Europeans began in 1719 when Baton Rouge was established as a military post by the French.

68 Pittman, Philip. 1770. The Present State of the European Settlements. Pages 72-74. 69 Bragg, Marion. 1977. Historic Names and Places on the Lower Mississippi River. Vicksburg, MS: US Army Corps of Engineers, Mississippi River Commission. Page 205. Hadden Pearcy March 6, 2014 Page 16

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Indian Village “About a mile above the Iberville, on the east side, there is a village of Alibama Indians, consisting of twenty-five warriors.”70 “The Alabama were an Upper Creek tribe who began leaving their homeland in present-day Alabama after the Treaty of Paris in 1763. Some groups moved west and settled for a time on the Lower Mississippi River. One village was located near Union in St. James Parish and a second was located north of Bayou Manchac in East Baton Rouge Parish. William Bartram visited the latter village in August of 1777 and described it as follows: “Two miles above Manchac we put into shore at Alabama: this Indian village is delightfully situated on several swelling green hills, gradually ascending from the verge of the river.” The village was still located there in 1784 when Thomas Hutchins described it as "consisting of twenty-five warriors"; however, it may have been abandoned not long after that, because by the 1790s the Spanish were granting land in this area to European settlers.”71 Fort Bute. Fort Bute was where the River Iberville joins the Mississippi. In January 1764, a British officer visited the Bayou Iberville, and surveyed the site to whether the little outlet could be cleared to provide passage for English shipping. For over six months, fifty or so slaves were put to work to clear the outlet into the Mississippi River of trees, brush and other flotsam. A small fort, “Fort Bute”, was established with a garrison of 40 soldiers to protect the outlet, and to provide a water entrance from West Florida to the Mississippi. Named after the British Prime Minister, John Stuart, Lord Bute.72 “In 1765 a post was established here, and the garrison, which was a detachment of the 34th regiment, withdrawn in the month of July of the same year. In December 1755, this post was re-possessed, and a small stockaded fort built by a party of the 21st regiment, and was demolished and abandoned in 1768. And in the year 1778 it was again possessed by part of the 16th regiment, who were made prisoners by the Spanish in the year following.”73 After the three hour bombardment on September 7, 1779, the British troops surrendered to the Spanish, which moved in to replace them at the outlet. Thomas Hutchins mentions this fort in his account: “He (Don Antonio Ulloa, governor of New Orleans) sent however about sixty of these troops to erect two forts, one opposite the fort named Bute, on the mouth of the Ibberville, and the other on the western side of the Mississippi, a little below Natchez, where a detachment of British troops had taken post; another party was sent in the autumn of 1767 to build a fort at the mouth of the Missouri.”74 In 1810, a pro-American element in the town seized the fort and proclaimed the Republic of West Florida. The US annexed the area three months later.75 River Ibberville (River Iberville). “Tuesday Wednesday & Thursday Decr 16th 17th & 18th [1766]. I tarry’d here to view the Iberville River so much talked of as a Passage of Consequence to the English Nation- It being the boundary between the French & English in America.”76 “The river Ibberville is 99 miles from New Orleans, 204 miles from the Balize, and 270 miles from

70 Hutchins, Thomas.1784. “An Historical Narrative and Topographical Description of Louisiana and West Florida.” Page 44. 71 Kelley, David B. 1989. Archaeological and Historical Investigations. Pages 39, 45. 72 Sternberg. 2006. Winding Through Time. Page 43. 73 Hutchins, Thomas.1784. “An Historical Narrative and Topographical Description of Louisiana and West Florida.” Page 42. 74 Hutchins, Thomas.1784. “An Historical Narrative and Topographical Description of Louisiana and West Florida.” Page 12. 75 Bragg, Marion. 1977. Historic Names and Places on the Lower Mississippi River. Vicksburg, MS: US Army Corps of Engineers, Mississippi River Commission. Page 210. 76 “Voyage Down the Mississippi River, November 21, 1766- December 18, 1766. George Morgan’s Letter Book.” Sunday, December 14th, 1766. Collections of the Illinois State Historical Library, Volume 11. 1916. Page 447. Hadden Pearcy March 6, 2014 Page 17

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Pensacola, by way of the lakes Ponchartrain and Maurepas.”77 Named after Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville (1661-1702), was a noted French explorer. His brother, Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville 1680-1767), was the governor of Louisiana for thirty years and is considered “The Founder of New Orleans”. During the War of 1812, the Americans took possession of the Manchac, and General Andrew Jackson obstructed the outlet in 1814 to prevent the British from using it as a rear entrance to the Lower Mississippi River Valley. Between 1824- 1828, the local plantation owners and settlers erected an earthen dam across the head of the bayou to prevent their plantations below it from being flooded at every high water.78 A proposal was made in 1850 to re-open the Bayou Manchac, so that it could serve as a floodway or spillway in the major flood years. However, the proposal was not accepted. Today there is a large levee across the Bayou Mancha or River Iberville. Captain Pittman wrote about the river in his report from 1770: “We now come to the river Ibbeville, the south boundary of West Florida, and of the English possessions on the river Missisippi. The junction of the Ibbeville with the Mississippi is thirty-two leagues from New Orleans, sixty leagues from the Balize, and ninety leagues from Pensacola, by the way of the lakes. The post at the mouth of the river Ibbeville, on the banks of the Mississippi, has ever struck me, from its situation, as of the greatest consequence to the commerce of West Florida; for it may with reason be supposed, that the inhabitants and traders who reside at Pointe Coupee, at Natchitoches, Attacappa, Arcansas, the Illinois, and the post of St. Vincent's on the Ouabache, would rather trade at this place than at New Orleans, if they could have as good returns for their peltry and the produce of their country; for it makes a difference of ten days in their voyage, which is no inconsiderable saving of labour, money, and time. The goods these people take in return for their peltry, furs, tobacco, tallow, and bear's oil, are, spirituous liquors, grocery, dry goods of all kinds, and all the articles necessary for their commerce with the savages. The only difficulty that opposes itself to this necessary settlement is the want of a navigation through the river Ibbeville; so that vessels might carry on a constant intercourse betwixt this place and Pensacola, without going up the Mississippi, which is a tedious navigation. The better to shew the facility of accomplishing this, I shall here insert a description of the passage from lake Ponchartrain to the Mississippi, and directions necessary to be observed in that navigation. The coast of West Florida, from Pensacola to Lake Ponchartrain, is so well known that it is not necessary to say anything on that head. The description of the River Ibbeville, &c. was a report transmitted with plans and draughts, in the year 1765, to his Excellency General Gage.”79 The map continues up the River Ibberville, showing an intense number of plantations along the northern (the British) side of the river. Many of the owners of these plots are not listed, but have sometimes cryptic notations such as initials, e.g. “D.B.”, or other notations such as “This land belongs to Alexander Mcullaugh but Cash Collins has the patent- it is much effaced.” Spanish Fort. The River Iberville was the southern boundary between British West Florida and the Spanish colonies. Fort Bute was properly positioned on the north bank, and the Spanish fort was placed opposite it on the southern bank. “A Spanish post established in 1767 on the downriver bank of the bayou at its junction with the Mississippi was called San Gabriel de

77 Hutchins, Thomas.1784. “An Historical Narrative and Topographical Description of Louisiana and West Florida.” Page 42. 78 Kniffen, Fred B. 1935. "Bayou Manchac: A Physiographic Interpretation." Geographical Review. American Geographical Society: Jul. Volume 25, Issue 3, Pages page 462. 79 Pittman, Philip. 1770. Present State of European Settlements on the Mississippi River. Pages 62-63. Hadden Pearcy March 6, 2014 Page 18

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Manchac. The Catholic church nearby, completed in 1776, was first known as the Manchac Church or San Gabriel of Manchac, or Manchak, or Manchack.”80 Bayou Manchac (Iberville River) Highway marker: Located in the US Highway 61 median in East Baton Rouge Parish. “It marked the boundaries between Great Britain and Spain, 1763-1779, and Spain and the United States, 1803-1810.”

Bibliography “1785 List of Residents and Occupations, Pensacola, Escambia County, Florida.” Papeles Procedente de Isla Cuba (The Cuban Papers) housed at the Archives of Seville, Spain. Microfilmed copies made by a research team jointly sponsored by the University of Southwest Louisiana and Louisiana State University. Contains documents directly relating to the history of the United States in the Gulf South, East and West Florida, the Province of Louisiana and the Caribbean. “Legajo (Bundle) 200, Folios 916 & 916 verso.” Note: Although this list is not specifically dated, the other dated items in this section were dated in 1785. Verbatim transcription: “List of the Inhabitants of Pensacola who were Householders at the time of Capitulation.” See the website, accessed on October 4, 2012: http://files.usgwarchives.net/fl/escambia/history/1785resi.txt Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 1885. "Volume 1769-1774." American Philosophical Society: July 1885. Volume 22, Issue 119, Part III. Early Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society for the Promotion of Useful Knowledge, Compiled by One of the Secretaries, from the Manuscript Minutes of Its Meetings from 1744-1838, Pages pp. 23- 94. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/982528. “A letter from Dr' Lorrimer [sic] of Florida to Dr. Williamson was read & referred to C. of Nat. Philosophy for answer. Election of New Members :-Revd Dr Jno. Witherspoon, Prest. Coll. N. J.; Revd Dr. Myles Cooper, Prest. Coll. N. Y.; Col. Landon Carter, Va.; Dr. Otto of Bethlehem; Mr' Dan. Clark; Dr' Lorimer [sic], Flla; Dr' Brooke, Md.; Dr. Prime, N.Y.; Dr Jno. Jones, N. Y.; Mr. S. Bowen, S. C.; and Sam. Shoemaker, Esq. of Philadelphia.” Page 35. “A variety of subjects of Nat. Hist. from Geo. Gauld of W. Florida, with letter & list, delivered to the Curators.” “Mr. Williamson acquainted the Society that Mr. Gauld had paid him two half Johannes as a present to the Society." "A draught of Chester & Middle rivers in W. Florida," taken by Lieut. Hutchins, N. S." “A description of the Coast of W. Florida," by Mr' Gauld, No 1. " A measurement of the height of the Blue Mountain & Catharine Hill," No 2. "A Shark's Jaw; a skin of the Shagreen Fish; & a Porcupine fish." All the above presented by Mr' Gauld through Dr' Williamson." "A Chart of the Navigation to, & in, the New Ceeded Countries," was exhibited by him, & Lukens, Rittenhouse, Wells, Clarkson, and T. Fisher were appointed to compare it with Mr' Gauld's account of the same country; also to consider their opinion of the Paper on the Compass.” Pages 80-82. Abstract of British Grants of Land in West Florida 1766-1777. Volume 15. Record Group 49, Bureau of Land Management, Division D, Private Land Claims, Entry #238; National Archives and Records Administration, Washington DC. Alphabetical Abstract of British Grants in West Florida. US National Archives. Record Group 49, entry #237. 2 volumes. Bacon-Foster, Corra. 1912. "Early Chapters in the Development of the Potomac Route to the West." Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. Historical Society of

80 Sternberg, Mary Ann. 2007. Winding Through Time. Page Hadden Pearcy March 6, 2014 Page 19

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Washington, D.C.: Volume 15, Pages pp. 96-322. ISSN: 0897-9049. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40067035. des Barres, Joseph F. W. (Joseph Frederick Wallet), 1722-1824, PALMM Project, and Gauld, George. 1780. “A chart of the bay and harbour of Pensacola in the Province of West Florida [electronic resource]. Surveyed by George Gauld, A.M.” by J. F. W. Des Barres. http://purl.fcla.edu/fcla/ic/UF90000100. Relief shown by hachures and shading. Depths shown by soundings. Includes text. Scale ca. 1:64,000. This map is very similar to the maps at the Library of Congress and the History Office maps, and also has lines showing plantation plats along the river fronts. Bartram, William. 1791. Travels Through North and South Carolina, East and West Florida. Philadelphia: James and Johnson. Bell, John Gray. American Revolutionary War. Catalogue of an Extraordinary Collection of Original Documents Connected with the British Army, Also a Few Autograph Letters, Etc., of the Leaders of the American Army. 1857. John Gray Bell was a document and autograph collector, who offered part of his collection of military and colonial manuscripts for sale to the public. See: http://books.google.com/books?id=jxIvAAAAYAAJ&dq Bosse, David. 1989. "Dartmouth on the Mississippi: Speculators and Surveyors in British North America in the Eighteenth Century." Imago Mundi. Imago Mundi, Ltd.: Volume 41, Pages pp. 2+9-18. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1151126. Brackenridge, H. H. 1818. "On the Population and Tumuli of the Aborigines of North America. in a Letter from H. H. Brackenridge, Esq. to Thomas Jefferson." Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. American Philosophical Society: Volume 1, Pages pp. 151-159. Notes: SE: New Series. ISSN: 0065-9746. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1004901. Campbell, Edna F. 1920. "New Orleans in Early Days." Geogr. Rev. American Geographical Society: Jul. Volume 10, Issue 1, Pages pp. 31-36. ISSN: 0016-7428. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/207276. Carson, W. Wallace. 1920. "Transportation and Traffic on the Ohio and the Mississippi before the Steamboat." The Mississippi Valley Historical Review. Organization of American Historians: Jun. Volume 7, Issue 1, Pages pp. 26-38. ISSN: 0161-391X. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1886569. Carter, Clarence E. 1917. "The Beginnings of British West Florida." The Mississippi Valley Historical Review. Organization of American Historians: Dec. Volume 4, Issue 3, Pages pp. 314-341. ISSN: 0161-391X. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1888595. Caughey, John. 1987. "[Untitled]." Pacific Historical Review. University of California Press: Aug. Volume 56, Issue 3, Pages pp. 448-449. ISSN: 0030-8684. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3638671. Caughey, John. 1932. "Bernardo De Galvez and the English Smugglers on the Mississippi, 1777." The Hispanic American Historical Review. Duke University Press: Feb. Volume 12, Issue 1, Pages pp. 46-58. ISSN: 0018-2168. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2506429. Caughey, John. 1930. "The Panis Mission to Pensacola, 1778." The Hispanic American Historical Review. Duke University Press: Nov. Volume 10, Issue 4, Pages pp. 480-489. ISSN: 0018-2168. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2518451. Christon I. Archer. 1997. "[Untitled]." The Americas. Academy of American Franciscan History: Apr. Volume 53, Issue 4, Pages pp. 589-590. ISSN: 0003-1615. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1008150.

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Coker, William S. 1972. "Research in the Spanish Borderlands: Mississippi, 1779-1798." Latin American Research Review. The Latin American Studies Association: Summer. Volume 7, Issue 2, Pages pp. 40-54. ISSN: 0023-8791. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2502625. Coker, William S. 1972. "Research in the Spanish Borderlands: Mississippi, 1779-1798." Latin American Research Review. The Latin American Studies Association: Summer. Volume 7, Issue 2, Pages pp. 40-54. ISSN: 0023-8791. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2502625. Crane, Verner W. 1919. "The Southern Frontier in Queen Anne's War." The American Historical Review. The University of Chicago Press on behalf of the American Historical Association: Apr. Volume 24, Issue 3, Pages pp. 379-395. ISSN: 0002-8762. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1835775. Cummins, Joseph. 2012. Ten Tea Parties: Patriotic Protests that History Forgot. Philadelphia: Quirk Books. ISBN: 9781594745607. Cunningham, Charles H. 1919. "Financial Reports Relating to Louisiana, 1766-1788." The Mississippi Valley Historical Review. Organization of American Historians: Dec. Volume 6, Issue 3, Pages pp. 381-397. ISSN: 0161-391X. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1886332. Curet, Bernard. 1969. Point Coupée: Her Place in History. Acadiana Profiles. Volume 1(5), pages 1-9. Darby, William. 1821. “Sketches, Historical and Topographical, of the Floridas; More Particularly of East Florida by James Grant Forbes; Memoir on the Geography, and Natural and Civil History of Florida, Attended by a Map of That Country, &c. by William Darby.” 1821. The North American Review. University of Northern Iowa: Jul. Volume 13, Issue 32, Pages pp. 91- 92. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25109073. “After Florida came into the possession of Great Britain, the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, sent out Mr George Gauld to make a thorough survey of the whole coast. He was employed in surveying the coasts and harbours of West Florida, and the west coast of East Florida from the summer of 1764, to the year 1781, when he was made prisoner by the Spaniards, in their invasion of Florida. These surveys were not published until the year 1790, after the death of Mr Gauld. Mr. Ellicott, speaking of the navigation of this coast, says, “Mr Gauld's surveys of the Dry Tortugas and the Florida reef and keys, easterly to Key Largo, made by direction of the Board of Admiralty of Great Britain, may justly be considered as one of the most valuable works of the kind extent. Much remains to be done by our own government in improving the charts of this dangerous coast. It does not appear precisely at what time." Durnford, Elias Walker. [Map of the Mississippi River, from the River Iberville to the North Boundary Line of the Province of West Florida on the River Yazous: With] Reference to the Lands Surveyed and Granted on the River Mississippi and Parts Adjacent : [Showing Also List of Proprietors. Louisiana?: s.n, 1770. Folch, Vincent. 1905. "An Interview of Governor Folch with General Wilkinson." The American Historical Review. The University of Chicago Press on behalf of the American Historical Association: Jul. Volume 10, Issue 4, Pages pp. 832-840. ISSN: 0002-8762. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1834481. Gauld, George. 1767. “British Pensacola.” “Pensacola was becoming something more than a garrison town by the time Gauld made this splendid painting. There were now a number of fine houses and structures and an especially impressive Governor’s Palace while the fort had been strengthened and made more efficient. It seems likely the town had over two hundred houses made of timber. Pensacola was still, however, mainly a military and trading outpost, its principal link to the outside world being primarily by sea.” Colonial Pensacola. 1974. Page 78.

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Gauld, George. Date not given. “A Plan of the Mouths of the Mississippi by George Gauld, MA [For the Right Honourable the Earl of Dartmouth.]” M.P. G530, Public Records Office, Kew, England. Gauld, George. 1778. “A Plan of the Coast of Part of West Florida & Louisiana including the River Mississippi from its Entrances as high as the River Yazous. Surveyed by George Gauld, M.A., for the Right Honourable the Board of Admiralty. [“This survey has been taken at different times, and reduced to one general scale in the year 1778.” Inset: A Plan of Manchac 1774.” Ministry of Defense, Hydrographic Office (MODHD) D958 88, in Tauton, England. Photocopy in Geoscience Map Library, Louisiana State University. See: http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.gmd/g4012c.ct000670 Gauld, George. 1779. “A Plan of Manchac. [Inset “Part of the Mississippi near Manchac 1774.” “For His Excellency Sir Henry Clinton, K.B., Commander-in-Chief, &c. &c. at the request of Brigadier General Campbell 1779.” Clinton Papers, Williams L. Clements Library, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan. Gauld, George. 1790. “An account of the surveys of Florida, &c: with directions for sailing from Jamaica or the West Indies, by the west end of Cuba, and through the Gulph of Florida. To accompany Mr. Gauld's charts.” Published by W. Faden; to be sold by him; and by Messrs. Mount and Page, 1790. 27 pages. See: http://books.google.com/books?id=jq1bAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:%22G eorge+Gauld%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=nfzwTt7RCKfc0QHXidGNAg&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA#v= onepage&q=inauthor%3A%22George%20Gauld%22&f=false Gilbert, Geoffrey. 1979. "[Untitled]." The Business History Review. The President and Fellows of Harvard College: Winter. Volume 53, Issue 4, Pages pp. 553-554. ISSN/ISBN: 00076805. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3114744. Hébert, John R. 1987. "Vicente Sebastián Pintado, Surveyor General of Spanish West Florida, 1805-17. the Man and His Maps." Imago Mundi. Imago Mundi, Ltd.: Volume 39, Pages pp. 50-72. ISSN/ISBN: 03085694. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1150971. Herbert, Francis. 1983. "'Imago Mundi' Bibliography. (of Literature mainly Published in 1980-82)." Imago Mundi. Imago Mundi, Ltd.: Volume 35, Pages pp. 129-135. ISSN/ISBN: 03085694. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1150934. Holmes, Jack D. L. 1980. "[Untitled]." The Hispanic American Historical Review. Duke University Press: Nov. Volume 60, Issue 4, Pages p. 701. ISSN: 0018-2168. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2513688. Hutchins, Thomas.1784. “An Historical Narrative and Topographical Description of Louisiana and West Florida Comprehending the River Mississippi with its Principal Branches and Settlements, and the Rivers Pearl, Pasagoula, Mobille, Perdido, Escambia, Chacta-Hatcha, &: The Climate, Soil and Produce Whether Animal, Vegetable or Mineral; With Directions for Sailing into all the Bays, Lakes, Harbors and Rivers on the North Side of the Gulf of Mexico, and for Navigation Between Islands Situated along that Coast, and Ascending the Mississippi River by Thomas Hutchins, Geographer of the United States.” Philadelphia: Printed for the Author, and sold by Robert Aitken, near the Coffee House, in Market Street. Hutchins, Thomas.1899. The National Cyclopedia of American Biography. New York: James T. White & Co. Volume IX, page 267. Hutchins, Thomas. 1932. Dictionary of American Biography. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. Volume IX, pages 435-436.

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James, Alton. 1917. "Spanish Influence in the West during the American Revolution." The Mississippi Valley Historical Review. Organization of American Historians: Sep. Volume 4, Issue 2, Pages pp. 193-208. ISSN: 0161-391X. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1886986. James, D. Clayton. 1968. Antebellum Natchez. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. Kelley, David B. 1989. Archeological and Historical Investigations of Four Proposed Revetment Areas Located Along the Mississippi River in Southeast Louisiana. Coastal Environments Inc., Baton Rouge, LA. Accession Number: ADA225283. Handle/proxy Url: http://handle.dtic.mil/100.2/ADA225283. Report Date: Oct 1989. 151 Pages. Abstract: This report presents the results of archeological and historical research conducted on four proposed revetment areas located along the Mississippi River in southeast Louisiana. The research was carried out by Coastal Environments, Inc. under contract to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, New Orleans District. The northernmost revetment area, Arrow Bend, consisted of two segments located along the left descending bank of the river in West Feliciana Parish. The second revetment area, Manchac, was located on the left descending bank in East Baton Rouge Parish. The third and fourth areas, Marchand and Aben, were situated on the left descending bank and the right descending bank, respectively, in Ascension Parish. Construction of the revetments will involve clearing and grading the bankline to a stable slope and then laying an articulated concrete mattress from the low water line into the river channel. This may impact an area 200 to 300 ft (61.0 to 91.4 m) back from the water's edge and as much as 10 ft (3.0 m) below the surface. In addition, the ground surface beyond 300 ft from the bank line may be disturbed by movement of heavy equipment. The total area examined by the present surveys was 303.9 ac (123.1 ha). Kempe, Helen Kerr. 1989. The Pelican Guide to Old Homes of Mississippi. Volume 1: Natchez and the South. Pelican Publishing Co: Gretna, LA. Kinnaird, Lawrence. 1976. "The Western Fringe of Revolution." The Western Historical Quarterly. Western Historical Quarterly, Utah State University on behalf of The Western History Association: Jul. Volume 7, Issue 3, Pages pp. 253-270. ISSN: 0043-3810. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/967081. Kniffen, Fred B. 1935. "Bayou Manchac: A Physiographic Interpretation." Geogr. Rev. American Geographical Society: Jul. Volume 25, Issue 3, Pages pp. 462-466. ISSN: 0016-7428. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/209314. Lorimer, John, 1732-1795. 1795. “A concise essay on magnetism; with an account of the declination and inclination of the magnetic needle; and an attempt to ascertain the cause of the variation thereof.” London, Printed for the author, 1795. xv, 34 p. front. (port.) VI fold. pl. 27 x 21 cm. See: http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015030984473. Lorimer, Dr. J. 1775. “Description of a New Dipping Needle. By Mr. J. Lorimer, of Pensacola, in a Letter to Sir John Pringle, Bart., PRS.” The Royal Society: Philosophical Transactions. Volume LXV. Pages 79-84. ISSN: 0260-7085. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/106178. Lorimer, Dr. 1769-1771. “Letter from Dr. Lorimer, of West Florida, to Hugh Williamson, MD, Containing some Remarks on the Climate, Vegetable Productions, etc.” Transactions of the American Philosophical Society held at Philadelphia. Volume I, pages 250254. McBee, May Wilson. 1979. Natchez Court Records, 1767-1805. Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing Co. “In 1781, two years after Spain took the Natchez District from the British, the Spanish commandant commenced to record all matters involving the mainly British inhabitants

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1774 Mississippi Map that would normally come before a tribunal- records of sureties, bills of sale for land and slaves, inventories, appraisals, wills, etc. Records of these matters comprise Part One of this work; the second part of the work, Land Claims, 1767-1805, deals with British land grants in the Natchez District and is based on abstracts of land titles submitted to the United States for confirmation of land ownership.” Mack, Taylor E. 1997. "[Untitled]." J. Coast. Res. Coastal Education & Research Foundation, Inc.: Winter. Volume 13, Issue 1, Pages p. 269. ISSN: 0749-0208. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4298618. “Map of the Mississippi River from the Mouth of the Yazoo River to the southern part of Louisiana.” 1774. Manuscript, pen, ink, pencil and water color. Col. Map 244 X 121 cm. ([Peter Force map collection]). Scale 1:126,720; 2 English miles to an inch. Relief shown by hachures. Shows campsites of the expedition with dates. Includes descriptive text. Library of Congress Map: G4042 1774 .M3 Vault. LC copy imperfect: upper right corner missing. Notes: “The latitudes of the entrance of the river Yazou, Natchez, Manchac and some other parts of the river were taken by Doctor Lorimer, which were a great correction and satisfaction in laying down this plan.” Library of Congress- Geography and Map Division. LCCN: 74-696154/MAPS. McCarthy, Charles H. 1916. "The Attitude of Spain during the American Revolution." The Catholic Historical Review. Catholic University of America Press: Apr. Volume 2, Issue 1, Pages pp. 47-65. ISSN: 0008-8080. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25011387. McDermott, John Francis and Hunter, George. 1963. "The Western Journals of Dr. George Hunter, 1796-1805." Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. American Philosophical Society: Volume 53, Issue 4, Pages pp. 1-133. Notes: SE: New Series. ISSN 0065- 9746. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1005917. Nunemaker, J. Horace. 1945. "The Bouligny Affair in Louisiana." The Hispanic American Historical Review. Duke University Press: Aug. Volume 25, Issue 3, Pages pp. 339- 363. ISSN: 0018-2168. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2507969. Rowland, Dunbar. 1916. “Mississippi’s Colonial Population and Land Grants.” Publications of the Mississippi Historical Society. Centenary Series. Volume 1. Mississippi Historical Society. Pages 405-428. See: http://books.google.com/books?id=NCcWAAAAYAAJ&lpg= Sansing, David G. et al. 1992. Natchez: An Illustrated History. Plantation Publishing Co. Siebert, Wilbur H. 1916. "The Loyalists in West Florida and the Natchez District." The Mississippi Valley Historical Review. Organization of American Historians: Mar. Volume 2, Issue 4, Pages pp. 465-483. ISSN: 0161-391X. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1886907. Steers, J. A. 1940. "The Cays and the Palisadoes, Port Royal, Jamaica." Geogr. Rev. American Geographical Society: Apr. Volume 30, Issue 2, Pages pp. 279-296. ISSN: 0016-7428. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/210146. Sternberg, Mary Ann (2007). Winding Through Time: The Forgotten History and Present-Day Peril of Bayou Manchac. Louisiana State University Press. ISBN: 978-0-8071- 3253-1. True, David O. 1954. "Some Early Maps Relating to Florida." Imago Mundi. Imago Mundi, Ltd.: Volume 11, Pages pp. 73-84. ISSN: 0308-5694. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1150180. Turner, Frederick J. 1905. "Documents on the Blount Conspiracy, 1795-1797." The American Historical Review. The University of Chicago Press on behalf of the American

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Historical Association: Apr. Volume 10, Issue 3, Pages pp. 574-606. ISSN: 0002-8762. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1832281. Turner, Frederick J. 1898. "The Origin of Genet's Projected Attack on Louisiana and the Floridas." The American Historical Review. The University of Chicago Press on behalf of the American Historical Association: Jul. Volume 3, Issue 4, Pages pp. 650-671. ISSN: 0002-8762. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1834142. “Report of the Committee on the Public Lands on the Petition of Sundry Inhabitants of the Mississippi Territory Praying the Interference of Congress in quieting and adjusting claims to lands in said territory.” December 21, 1814. Washington City. Printed by Roger C. Weightman. 10 pages. United States. Congress. House. House Documents, Otherwise Publ. as Executive Documents: 13th Congress, 2d Session- 49th Congress, 1st Session. United States Congressional Serial Set. Ware, John D., and Robert Right Rea. 1982. George Gauld, surveyor and cartographer of the Gulf Coast. Gainesville: University Presses of Florida. ISBN: 0813007089; 9780813007083. Wells, Gordon M. 1966. "British Land Grants: William Wilton Map, 1774." Journal of Mississippi History. Volume 28, pages 152-160. Williams, Glyndwr. 1997. "[Untitled]." Imago Mundi. Imago Mundi, Ltd.: Volume 49, Pages pp. 174-175. ISSN: 0308-5694. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1151361. Wilton, William G. 1774. A Manuscript Map of British Land Grants Along the Mississippi river, 1774. Ms. On file, Mississippi River Commission, Vicksburg, MS. Woodward, David. 1997. "[Untitled]." Imago Mundi. Imago Mundi, Ltd.: Volume 49, Pages pp. 173-174. ISSN: 0308-5694. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1151360. “Voyage Down the Mississippi River, November 21, 1766- December 18, 1766. George Morgan’s Letter Book.” Sunday, December 14th, 1766. Collections of the Illinois State Historical Library. Volume 11. 1916. Pages 438- 447.

Probably this is Captain Thomas Davey, commander of HMS Sloop Diligence. This is also mentioned as “armed brig, ten guns, Captain Thomas Davey” in the book, “Captain John Manley: second in rank in the United States Navy, 1776-1783” by Isaac J. Greenwood, 1915, page 40.

Syrett, David. 2007. The Rodney papers: selections from the correspondence of Admiral Lord Rodney, Baron George Brydges Rodney. Volume 151 of Navy Records Society Publications. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2007. 734 pages.

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