1. Hans J. Morgenthau, Politics in the Twentieth Century: the Restoration Ofamerican Politics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962) P

Notes

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

1. Newsweek, 2 June 1980, p. 49. 2. Newsweek, 19 May 1980, p. 108.

CHAPTER 2. THE ANCIENT ALLIANCE

1. Hans J. Morgenthau, Politics in the Twentieth Century: The Restoration ofAmerican Politics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962) p. 329, quoted in Kenneth W. Thompson, Cold War Theories, 1: World Polariza• tion, 1943-1953 (Baton Rouge and London: Louisiana State University Press, 1981) p. 114. 2. See the interesting, well-written discussion in Thompson (ibid., pp.123-6). 3. A. W. DePorte, Europe between the Superpowers - the Enduring Balance (New Haven, Conn. and London: Yale University Press, 1979) p. 12. 4. See, for example, Max Beloff, The United States and the Unity of Europe (New York: Vintage Books, 1963) pp. 9-11. 5. Escott Reid, 'The Miraculous Birth ofthe North Atlantic Alliance', Nato Review, no. 6 (Dec 1980) pp. 14, 17. 6. Walter Lippmann, 'Britain and America: The Prospects of Political Cooperation in Light of their Paramount Interests', Foreign Affairs, 13, no. 3 (Apr 1935) p. 371. 7. Paul Seabury, The Rise and Decline of the Cold War (New York and London: Basic Books, 1967) pp. 28-9 8. Ibid., p. 17. 9. David N. Schwartz, Nato's Nuclear Dilemmas (Washington, DC: Brook• ings Institution, 1983) p. 8. 10. Samuel Flagg Bemis, A Diplomatic History of the United States (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1947) pp. 927,929. 11. On Kennan's attitudes and alternative approaches toward Europe, with sensitivity to Eastern Europe, see Beloff, The United States and the Unity of Europe, pp. 73-4. 12. See, for example, Dean Acheson, Present at the Creation- My Years in the State Department (New York: W. W. Norton, 1969) pp. 354-61, 414-25. 13. Ibid., p. 358. 14. Bemis, A Diplomatic History of the United States, pp. 946-7.

144 Notes 145

15. Townsend Hoopes, The Devil and John Foster Dulles (Boston, Mass.: Little, Brown, 1973) cbs 21-3. 16. Ibid., p. 374. 17. Ibid., p. 375. 18. Ibid., p. 385. 19. Catherine McArdle Kelleher, Germany and the Politics of Nuclear Weapons (New York and London: Columbia University Press, 1975) p. 31. 20. Ibid., p. 43. 21. Hoopes, The Devil and Dulles, p. 313. 22. Ibid., p. 460. 23. Theodore H. White, The Making of the President 1960 (New York: Atheneum, 1961) p. 117.

CHAPTER 3. NEW STRATEGIES, NEW STRATEGISTS

1. White, in The Making of the President, is clearly partisan regarding Kennedy and presents a most positive view of his presidential campaign. Concerning the Kennedy Administration, the most interesting and infor• mative of the partisan biographies is probably Arthur Schlesinger, Jr, A Thousand Days- John F. Kennedy in the White House (Boston, Mass.: Houghton Mifflin, 1965). 2. 'As one aide later put it, "For Mac Bundy, the world was Europe, and Europe was the United Kingdom, Germany, France and Russia." So it was in his interest to have congenial associates brief Kennedy on other areas .... When Kennedy kept asking Bundy for briefings about the war in Yemen, the Special Assistant would respond, "Don't ask me, ask Komer"' -I. M. Destler, Leslie H. Gelb and Anthony Lake, Our Own Worst Enemy- The Unmaking of American Foreign Policy (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984) p. 190. 3. David Halberstam's principal book about the Vietnam War is perhaps best and most accurate concerning the tone and atmosphere of those times: 'Yet if there was a problem with the pragmatism of the period, it was that there were simply too many foreign policy problems, too many crises, each crowding the others, demanding to be taken care of in that instant. There was too little time to plan, to think ... '-The Best and the Brightest (New York: Random House, 1969) p. 102. 4. One of the most imaginative treatments, thorough yet comparatively brief, in part because of use of quantitative analysis, is Arnold Kanter, Defense Politics- A Budgetary Perspective (Chicago and London: Uni• versity of Chicago Press, 1975). See also James Fallows, National Defense (New York: Vintage Books, 1981). His book is a harsh critique of US weapons and the system that produces them, but he also states, 'There is much to admire in Robert McNamara's record. For instance, he ran the Pentagon, instead of being run by it. If there is a surprising degree of residual bitterness toward him among professional military men, much of it comes from their frustration that McNamara was so effective in making civilian control work' (p. 20). 146 Notes

5. ' "If we are to assure that the disastrous big war never occurs," as Taylor put it, "we must have the means to deter or to win the small wars" ' - Schlesinger, A Thousand Days, p. 310. The emphasis on conventional• and unconventional - warfare preparation dovetailed with influential approaches in the academic world: 'Nor was the Army the only advocate of conventional defense. As early as 1950, a group of eleven Harvard and M.I.T. faculty members- including McGeorge Bundy, John Kenneth Galbraith, Arthur Schlesinger, Jerome Weisner and Herrold Zacharias• had written a long letter to The New York Times criticizing on moral and strategic grounds the military establishment's predominant reliance on atomic warfare' - Fred Kaplan, The Wizards of Armageddon (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1983) p. 195. 6. Schlesinger, A Thousand Days, pp. 500-1. 7. Richard E. Neustadt, Alliance Politics (New York and London: Columbia University Press, 1970) esp. pp. 47ff. 8. Beloff, The United States and the Unity of Europe, p. 161. 9. Henry A. Kissinger, The Troubled Partnership: A Re-appraisal of the Atlantic Alliance (Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, Doubleday, 1965) p. 160. 10. Ibid., p. 141. 11. See ibid., esp. chs 5 and 6, for one of the earliest and most telling critiques of American efforts at dominance in Alliance nuclear-weapons policies. 12. Richard E. Neustadt, Presidential Power (New York: John Wiley, 1964) pp. 186--7. 13. John Baylis, Anglo-American Defence Relations 1939-1980: The Special Relationship (New York: StMartin's Press, 1981) pp. 68-9. 14. Ibid., p. 71; quote from Kissinger, The Troubled Partnership, p. 80. 15. Baylis, Anglo-American Defence Relations, p. 45. 16. Ibid., pp. 44-5. 17. Desmond Ball, Politics and Force Levels- The Strategic Missile Program of the Kennedy Administration (Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press, 1980) pp. 4-5. 18. Ibid., p. xxi 19. Ball (ibid., pp. 18, 21 and passim) develops this theme, including the ambiguity concerning Kennedy's own belief in his missile gap claims. 20. Schlesinger, A Thousand Days, pp. 375-8, 816. 21. Neustadt, Alliance Politics, pp. 54-5. 22. See, for example, Hans Morgenthau, Politics among Nations (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1948) pp. 187ff. 23. 'There is reason to believe that Khrushchev took Kennedy's measure at their Vienna meeting in June 1961, and decided this was a young man who would shrink from hard decisions'; 'Kennedy said just enough in that room in the embassy to convince me of the following: Khrushchev had studied the events of the Bay of Pigs ... decided he was dealing with an inexperienced young leader who could be intimidated and black• mailed. The Communist decision to put offensive missiles into Cuba was the final gamble of this assumption' - statements respectively by Elie Abel and James Reston, from Abel, The Cuban Missile Crisis Notes 147

(Philadelphia: Walter Lippincott, 1966) pp. 35ff. 24. Schlesinger, A Thousand Days, p. 871.

CHAPTER 4. THE GLOBAL REACH OF GREAT POWER

1. Kelleher, Germany and the Politics of Nuclear Weapons, p. 357. This book provides an unusually clear and thorough analysis of the M.L.F. events. 2. Ibid., pp. 240,245. 3. Ibid., p. 254. 4. Ibid., p. 260. 5. Ibid., p. 263. 6. Alfred Grosser, The Western Alliance- European-American Relations since 1945 (New York: Continuum, 1980) p. 213. 7. Schlesinger, in A Thousand Days, esp. chs 34 and 37, provides an informative discussion of the evolution of US-Soviet security relations in the early 1960s. 8. Seabury, The Rise and Decline of the Cold War, p. 109. 9. Grosser, The Western Alliance, pp. 213-14. 10. Ibid., p. 214. 11. Ibid., p. 217. 12. Ibid., p. 221. 13. One stimulating discussion of the decline of the post-war system of economic relations with special reference to Atlantic-area relations is provided by Benjamin J. Cohen: 'The Revolution in Atlantic Economic Relations: A Bargain Comes Unstuck', in Wolfram F. Hanreider (ed.), The United States and Western Europe (Cambridge, Mass.: Winthrop, 1974) pp. 106--33. 14. Grosser, The Western Alliance, p. 236. 15. One detailed, perceptive discussion of the elements of the crisis is pro• vided by John Newhouse's Collision in Brussels (New York: W. W. Norton, 1967). 16. See, for example, Stanley Hoffmann, Gulliver's Troubles- Or the Setting ofAmerican Foreign Policy (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968) passim, ch. 12. 17. Peter Merkl, German Foreign Policies, West and East (Santa Barbara, Calif., and Oxford: ABC Clio Press, 1974) p. 118. 18. See Grosser, The Western Alliance, p. 232, on the factors in Erhard's fall. 19. Merkl, German Foreign Policies, p. 121. 20. Ibid. 21. Ibid., p. 123. 22. Ibid., p. 124. 23. Ibid., pp. 126--7. 24. Ibid., pp. 134, 150. 25. Baylis, Anglo-American Defence Relations, pp. 79-80. 26. Ibid., pp. 85-91. 27. Ibid., pp. 118ff. 148 Notes

28. Ibid., pp. 91-2. 29. Ibid., p. 95. 30. Grosser, The Western Alliance, p. 239. 31. Perhaps the most perceptive study of efforts to achieve peace, or at least de-escalation, in Vietnam during the Johnson Administration is David Kraslow and Stuart H. Loory, The Secret Search for Peace in Vietnam (New York: Vintage Books, 1968) passim. 32. Arthur Cyr, British Foreign Policy and the Atlantic Area- The Tech• niques of Accommodation (London: Macmillan, 1979) pp. 73-4. 33. Henry A. Kissinger, White House Years (Boston, Mass., and Toronto: Little, Brown, 1979) pp. 412ff. From p. 413: 'In the Harmel Report to Nato of December 1967, named after the Belgian Foreign Minister, therefore, the Alliance put the collective search for "progress towards a more stable relationship" with Eastern Europe high on its list of priori• ties, second only to deterrence of aggression. In June 1968 at the meeting of its Foreign Ministers in Reykjavik, Nato signalled its readiness to discuss mutual and balanced force reductions (M.B.F.R.) -the new technical term for disengagement- with the Warsaw Pact.' 34. See ibid., pp. 126, 552, on Nixon's intense worry about Glassboro. 35. One of the most interesting and thorough treatments of the problems of U.S. government organization for foreign policy is I. M. Destier, Presi• dents, Bureaucrats and Foreign Policy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univer• sity Press, 1974), esp the Epilogue on the Nixon system. 36. Eric F. Goldman, The Tragedy of Lyndon Johnson (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1969) p. 275. 37. Some have also emphasized that the British were actually rather similar to the French in their overt suspicion of independent European supra• national political authority. See, for example, F. Roy Willis, 'Germany, France and Europe', in Wolfram F. Hanrieder (ed.), West German Foreign Policy: 1949-1979 (Boulder, Col.: Westview Press, 1980) pp. 103-4. 38. Cyr, British Foreign Policy, pp. 74--5. 39. Kissinger, White House Years, p. 410. 40. See, for example, Grosser, The Western Alliance, p. 288: 'during the final phase of the conference, the Europeans repeatedly managed to reach genuine unity and to speak with a single voice. Perhaps this was possible because the issue at stake was not very important .... ' 41. See, for example, David A. Walker, 'Some Underlying Problems for International Monetary Reform', and Edward L. Morse, 'European Monetary Union and American Foreign Economic Policy', in Han• rieder, The United States and Western Europe, pp. 164--210.

CHAPTERS. DISCONTINUITY, UNCERTAINTY AND CHANGE: ATLANTICISM IN RETREAT

1. Jimmy Carter, Keeping Faith - Memoirs of a President (New York: Bantam Books, 1982) p. 150. 2. Jimmy Carter, The Blood of Abraham -Insights into the Middle East Notes 149

(Boston, Mass.: Houghton Mifflin, 1985) passim, and esp. pp. 50-1, 169; see also Keeping Faith, pp. 405-6. 3. Carter, Keeping Faith, p. 54. 4. Ibid., p. 52. 5. Ibid., pp. 536--7. 6. John Vinocur, 'The Schmidt Factor', New York Times Magazine, 21 Sept 1980, p. 112. 7. James 0. Goldsborough, 'Europe Cashes in on Carter's Cold War', New York Times Magazine, 27 Apr 1980, p. 42. 8. Wall Street Journal, 2 Jan 1979, p. 6. 9. Atlantic Community News, May 1979, p. 3. Success with Nato on the two• track decision should not overshadow the considerable frustration Wash• ington experienced in trying to persuade European allies to co-operate in the trade boycott of the Soviet Union. Despite Carter's call for a grain and high-technology boycott of the Soviets, West German companies went ahead and tripled their grain sales to them. Major new trading• contracts were signed with the Soviet Union during the period that the Americans were urging boycott. See, for example, Wall Street Journal, 20 May 1981, p. 16. While West Europeans condemned the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, they agreed in specific terms only to refrain from taking advantage of the U.S. boycott by increasing their own exports. They refused to cut back their own trade with that country. New York Times, 4 Feb 1980, p. 19. 10. New York Times. 7 Oct 1979, p. 13. 11. New York Times, 2 Mar 1980, p.36. 12. New York Times, 7 Oct 1979, p. 1; Time, 24 Dec 1979, p. 30. 13. Washington Star, 13 Mar 1979. 14. Quoted in, 'French Embassy, Press and Information Division', PP/79/9. 15. Carter, Keeping Faith, pp. 444,449. 16. Ibid., p. 450. 17. New York Times, 25 May 1980, p. 3. 18. New York Times, 4 Mar 1981, p. 4. 19. Time, 16 Mar 1981, p. 12. 20. Nil Ozergene, Lessons of the Pipeline Negotiations, A.C.I.S. (University of California at Los Angeles, Center for Arms Control and International Security) Working Paper no. 40, p. 28 and passim. 21. Wall Street Journal, 1 Apr 1981, p. 1. 22. Atlantic Community News, Feb 1981, p. 1. 23. Wall Street Journal, 19 Oct 1984, p. 1. 24. Richard Burt, 'The Evolution of the U. S. START Approach', Nato Review, 30, no. 4 (Sep 1982) p. 4. . 25. Jan Lodal, 'Deterrence and Nuclear Strategy', Daedalus, 109, no. 4 (Fall 1980) p. 157. 26. Gil Klinger and Herbert Scoville, Jr, 'The Politics and Strategy of Start', Arms Control Today, 12, no. 7 (July-Aug 1982) p. 4. 27. Atlantic Community News, Feb 1981, p. 4. 28. New York Times, 22 Nov 1981, p. 2E. 29. Quoted in the Wall Street Journal, 8 Jan 1985, p. 39. 30. 'Remarks by Horst Ehmke at the European-American Conference of 150 Notes

the Friedrich Ebert Foundation', Bonn, 23-4 June 1983, pp. 6, 8, 10.

CHAPTER 6. CONCLUSION; PRESENT AND FUTURE NATO RELATIONSHIPS

1. Strategic Survey, published by the International Institute of Strategic Studies, regularly provides the most thorough review of political as well as military developments bearing on the Alliance and regional relations more generally. See, for example, the 1984-5 volume (London: Inter• national Institute for Strategic Studies, 1985) pp. 45-55. 2. Earl C. Ravena!, 'Europe Without America', Foreign Affairs, 63, no. 5 (Summer 1985) pp. 1020-35. The issue has been further complicated by the debate over no first use of nuclear weapons in Europe. See especially McGeorge Bundy, George Kennan, Robert McNamara and Gerard Smith, 'Nuclear Weapons and the Alliance', Foreign Affairs, 60, no. 4 (Spring 1982) pp. 753-68; and Karl Kaiser, Georg Leber, Alois Mertes and Franz-Josef Schulze, 'Nuclear Weapons and the Preservation of Peace', Foreign Affairs, 60, no. 5 (Summer 1982) pp. 1157-70. On the implications of new technologies and related strategies, one good analysis is provided by Andrew J. Pierre, Richard D. DeLaver, Fran<;ois L. Heisbourg, Andreas von Biilow and General Sir Hugh Beach, The Conventional Defense of Europe: New Technologies and New Strategies (New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 1986). Index

Abel, Elie, 146 Bradley, Gen. OmarN., 23 Acchan,22 Brandt, Willy, and Ostpolitik, 84ft:., 98, Acheson,I>ean,15,21,23-4,144 99 Achilles, Theodore, 15 Brazil, 106 Aclant,22 Bretton Woods Agreements, 25, 79, Aden,60 101,107,127 Adenauer, Konrad, 60--2, 82-4, 108 Brezhnev, Leonid, 112, 116 Afghanistan, 111, 113, 149 Britain, 13, 14, 16, 17, 20, 21, 101, 125, Africa, 104 134 Alford,Jonathan,134 and empire, 25, 88 Algerian war' n and Treaty of I>unkirk, 19-20 Allen, Richard, 124 and European Community entry, 33, American Challenge, The, 79 88,94,97 American University, speech by long-term economic decline, 13-14 Kennedy,69 historic relationship with U.S., 16-17 Argentina, 139 Skybolt crisis, 52ft:. Arms Control and I>isarmament Nassau agreement, 53-4, 58 Agency, 111 and M.L.F./Atlantic Nuclear Force, Atlantic Alliance, see Nato 48ft:. ' 88ff. Atlantic Community, concept of, 47, 63, and Commonwealth, 88 66 and military prowess, 60 Atlantic Nuclear Force, 89ff. and Yom Kippur War, 6 Australia, 23 and Falklands, 60, 139 Austria,27 Brown, Harold, 111, 114 Ayatollah Khomeini, 119 Brussels Pact, 20 Brzezinski, Zbigniew, 84,104-7,120-1, B-52 bomber, 132 124 Bahr, Egon, 116 Bulgaria, 12, 83 Baker, James, 124-5 Bundestag, 128 Ball, I>esmond, 55--6, 146 Bundy, McGeorge, 40-1,46,68,132, Ball, George, 8 145, 146, 150 Bay of Pigs, 37, 61, 66 Burt, Richard, 130, 149 Baylis, John, 146, 147 Beach, General Sir Hugh, 150 Callaghan, James, 98 Begin, Menachem, 105 Cambodia, 95 Belgium, 20, 22, 132 Camp I>avid Agreements, 6, 105, 119, Beloff, Max, 144, 146 121 Bemis, Samuel Flagg, 144 Canada, 107 Berlin,2,27,34, 75,86-7 Carter, Jimmy, and his administration, Berlin blockade, 21,23 3,6, 7,103-24,128,134,135,140, Berlin Wall, 61 148,149 Bevin, Ernest, 20 Afghanistan,111,113 Bitburg controversy, 128 and arms policies, 3, lUff. Bohlen, Charles, 15,54 and human rights approach, 106 Bowie, Robert, 49 and Middle East, 6ff.

151 152 Index

Carter, Jimmy--continued and regional alliances, 34 and Iran, 118ff. Dukirk, Treat of, 19 as conservative Southerner, 103-4 energy policies, 109-11 Eastern Establishment, 107 and Vance/Brzezinski conflict, 104, Economic summits, 107 106 Eden, Anthony, 28-9 and Schmidt conflict, 107-9 Egypt, 101, 105, 137 Castro, Fidel, 27, 34,36-7 Ehmke, Horst, 134-5, 149 Catholic Church, and nuclear weapons, Eisenhower, Dwight D., and his 134 administration, 10-11,27-31,34, China, 23, 95, 120 43,46ff.,60,66,83,88,103,108, Christian Democratic Party (Germany), 113,120,122-3,129,137 134 and defence policies, 11, 35-6, 56 Churchill, Winston, 21 and 1954 Indochina decision, 139 Civil War, American, 103 and Suez, 28-9 Clark, William, 124 and 'liberation' of Eastern Europe, Cold War, 1-2, 12, 16, 17, 21,25-6,71, 123 94 and last years in office, 35-41 Cohen, Benjamin]., 147 rapport with other heads of Conference on Security and government,38,60 Cooperation in Europe (CSCE), 2, El Salvador, 123 100 Energy policy, under Carter, 109-10 Congress, U.S., 15, 129 Erhard, Ludwig, 72-4,84 Connally, Tom, 15 Eureka College, speech by Reagan at, Conservative Party (Britain), 89 130 and imperialism, 98 Eurodollars, 79-80 cruise missile, 113--14 European Coal and Steel Community, Cuba,9,23,27,35-8,61 20 Cuban Missile Crisis, 51, 52, 58, 66, 68, European Community, 5, 6, 20, 48, 54, 135 59,77,89 Czechoslovakia, 13, 85, 87,126 Britain and, 33, 94, 98 1965 Crisis, 81 de Gaulle, Charles, 31ff., 54-5, 72, failure of political integration, 138-9 76ff., 97, 108, 138 European Defence Community, 24, and Eisenhower, 38 29--30 and British entry to European Community, 33, 94,98 Falklands War (1982), 60, 139 and 1965 European Community Crisis, Fallows, James, 145 81-2 Federal Reserve Board (US), 79 and Kennedy, 63--5 Finlandization of Europe, 42 and pressure on dollar, 80 First World War, 14, 17 DeLaver, Richard D., 150 Flexible response, US policy, 42ff. Democratic Party (United States), 34, Ford, Gerald, 100, 107, 112 35 Foreign Affairs, 16, 142 DePorte,A. W., 14,144 Foreign Relations Committee, US Destler, I. M., 145, 148 Senate, 15 Detente, 2, 73, 75, 76, 83,87, 94, 96, 100, France, 16ff., 101, 107, 137-9 135 M.L.F. and nuclear force, 50-1 Dewey, Thomas, 21 and Nato headquarters out of Paris, Dien Bien Phu, 27,31 71-4 Dulles, John Foster, 27, 28, 31, 34, 40, and euromissiles, 117 67, 83, 123, 137 French-German treaty (1963), 48, 78, threatens nuclear weapons use, 25, 27 99,108,138 and Adenauer, 31, 83 and Radford Plan, 31 Galbraith, John Kenneth, 146 Index 153 gas pipeline, controversy over, 112, 126 ICBMs (intercontinental ballistic Gates, Thomas, 36, 49 missiles), 66, 112, 131 Gelb, Leslie H., 145 Indochina, French colonial war, 27, 31, General Electric Co., 126 139 Geneva arms negotiations, 134 Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces Geneva Conference (1954), on (INF), 134 Indochina, 92 International Institute for Strategic German-Soviet Renunciation of Force Studies, London, 134, 150 Treaty (1970), 87 International Monetary Fund (IMF), 57 Germany, 107 Iran Crisis, 9, 118-21 Germany, Federal Republic of, 12ff., IRBMs (intermediate range ballistic 21,29-31,57,68,98,134 missiles) and rearmament, 24, 29-30 and France, 32 and Willy Brandt leadership, 84-7 and Nato deployments, 35 and Ostpolitik, 2, 84ff. and USSR,41 and Yom Kippur War, 6 Iron Curtain, 21 Giscard d'Estaing, Valery, 99, 108, 117, Israel, 6, 7, 28,101, 105 128,138 Italy, 16, 49, 107 Glassboro Summit, 148 Goldman, Eric F., 148 Japan,4,16,18,101, 105,107,120, Goldsborough, James, 108,149 139-40 Goodpaster, Andrew, 40 and Nato, 140 'Grant Coalition', Federal Republic of and Nixon shocks, 101 Germany, 84-6 and Pearl Harbor, 13 Gray, Gordon, 40 Johnson, Lyndon B., and his Great Depression, 3 administration, 37-8, 40, 69-95, 98, Greece, civil war, 12 100,119 Greenfield, Meg, 8-9 and de Gaulle, 71-4 Grenada, 123 and Kennedy policies, 71 Grosser, Alfred, 147, 148 and M.L.F., 51, 72-5, 89-91 Guadeloupe Economic Summit, 118 and Germany, 82-7 and Mansfield Amendment, 100 Haig, Alexander, 124-5, 140-2 and policy disorder, 97, 102 Halberstam, David, 145 and Vietnam, 63, 75, 84, 90 Hallstein Doctrine, 83,85 Jupiter missiles, 49, 113 Hamilton, Rep. Lee, 132-3 Hanreider, Wolfram F., 147,148 Kaiser, Karl, 150 Harmel Report, 148 Kanter, Arnold, 145 Harrison, William Henry, 39 Kaplan, Fred, 146 Hartman, Arthur, 109 Kelleher, Catherine McArdle, 72, 145, Heath, Edward, 98 147 Heisbourg, Francois L., 150 Kennan, George, 15,22,42,144,150 Helsinki Accords, see Conference on Kennedy, John F., and his Security and Cooperation in administration, 8-9,23, 29,34-69, Europe 70ff.,88,90,104,108,113,120, Heren, Louis, 92 123,129,131,137-8,146 Hickerson, John D., 15 and Atlantic Community, 47-8 Hitler, Adolf, 91 and 1960 presidential campaign, 34-8 Ho Chi Minh, 27 and Britain, 56-60 Hoffmann, Stanley, 81, 147 and France and de Gaulle, 63-5 Hoopes, Townsend, 145 and West Germany, 60-2 Human Rights, and Carter, 105-6 and Cuba, 9, 66 Humphrey, George, 28,35 Kennedy Round trade negotiations, 57 Hungary, 12,27,83 Khrushchev, Nikita, 28, 35, 3~7, 61, and 1956 revolt, 123 66,67, 75,84,146 154 Index Kiesinger, Kurt, 84--6 Minuteman ICBM, 56 King, Martin Luther, 70 'missile gap', 55 Kissinger, Henry, 2, 5, 8, 50--1,68, Mondale, Walter, 118 95-102,112,120,131,137,146,148 Monnet, Jean, 20 on MLF, 50--1 Morgenthau, Hans J., 12, 144, 146 Klinger, Gil, 149 Morse, Edward L., 148 Kohl, Helmut, and government, 128, Multilateral Force (MLF), 48-55, 72-5, 134 82,88-91 Korea, 106, 119 Mutual Assured Destruction (Mad), Korean war, 23-4, 27 131,133 Kosygin, Alexei, 94 Mutual Balanced Force Reduction Kraslow, David, 148 Talks (MBFR), 87,99-100, 111, 148 Labour Party (Britain), 89, 98; and euromissiles, 115 Nakasone, Yasuhiro, 108 Lake, Anthony, 145 Nassau Conference (1962), 46, 53-4, Laos, 38 58 Leber, George, 150 Nasser, Gamal Abdel, 28 Libya,123 Nato (North Atlantic Treaty Lippmann, Walter, 16, 20, 144 Organization), formation of, 19-23 Lisbon Conference, 10--11; force goals, de Gaulle proposal for three-power 24 directorate, 32 Lodal, Jan, 131, 149 Korean War impact, 24 'London Poles', 12 Suez impact, 28ff. Long-term defence programme, 2, Kennedy doctrinal changes, 39ff. 113ff. flexible response adopted, 94 Loory, Stuart, 148 MLF, 48-52,72-5 Lovett, Robert, 15 Skybolt, 52-4 'Lublin Poles', 12 Nixon priority of great power Luns, Joseph, 114 relations, 95-6 Luxembourg, 20 Nuclear Planning Group, 114 effective strategies, 136ff. McCarthy, Sen. Joseph, 23, 26 Navy, US, under Regan, 130 McElroy, Neil, 35 Netherlands, 20, 132 McFarlane, Robert, 124 Neustadt, Richard, 51, 146 McHenry, Donald, 104 'neutron bomb' (enhanced radiation McKinley, William, 39,70 warhead), 113 McMahon Act, 29 'New Look' defence policy, 30, 129 Macmillan, Harold, 54ff., 61, 76,88 New Zealand, 23 and Suez, 28-9 Newhouse, John, 147 McNamara, Robert, 36, 111, 145, 150 Nixon, Richard M., and his and control of Pentagon, 43-5 administration, 2, 34, 36-8, 40, and broad foreign policy role, 45-7 95-102,112,120,137,148 Ann Arbor speech, 45 and 1960 presidential campaign, 36-8 Malaya, 60, 91 and British rapport, 97-8 Malaysia, 60, 91 and Heath, 98 Mansfield Amendment, 100 priority of great power relations in Marshall, George, 15 foreign policy, 95-6 and Marshall Plan, 20, 101 economic shocks of 1971, 80, 101, Masaryk, Jan, 13 127 'massive retaliation', 42 Non-proliferation Treaty (NPT), 85 Meese, Edwin, 124-5 North Atlantic Treaty, see Nato Merkl, Peter, 147 N.S.C.-68, 10 Mertes, Alois, 150 Nuclear Planning Group, 114 Middle East/Persian Gulf, 5-9, 121 Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty, 69,75 Index 155

Oder-Neisse Line, 87 Rusk, Dean,15, 84,91-2 oil shocks, 5, 101, 140 Russia, see Soviet Union Olympic Games, 111, 113, 116 Opec (Organization of Petroleum Salt I treaties, 2, 100,111-12, 130-1 Exporting Nations), 3-4, 6, 101, Salt II treaty, 105, 111-13, 115, 119, 104--5, 109-11 130-1 Operations Coordinating Board, White Scheel, Walter, 86 House,40 Schlesinger,Jr,Arthur,145,146,147 Ostpolitik, 2, 84, 86--7 Schmidt, Helmut, 99, 107-9, 115, 117, Ozergene, Nil,149 128 and Moscow trip, 118 Pacific Basin, 121ff. and 1981 meeting with Giscard Palestine Liberation Organization, 6--7 d'Estaing, 128 Pearl Harbor, 13, 16--7 Schroder, Gerhard, 83 Perle, Richard, 132-3 Schulze, Franz-Josef, 150 Pershing missiles, 89, 113, 114, 130, 132 Schwartz, DavidN.,19,144 Persian Gulf, 5, 7 Scoville, Jr, Herbert, 149 Philadelphia, Kennedy speech on SDI (Strategic Defence Initiative), 123, Atlantic Community, 47 133-4,140 Pierre, Andrew,150 SDRs (Special Drawing Rights), 80 Planning Board, White House, 40 Seabury,Paul,17-18,144,147 Poindexter, John, 124 Second World War, 8,11,13,17, 27, 46, Poland, 12, 27, 83, 85 59,61, 78,88,96,127,129,136 Polaris submarine force, 54, 56,89-90 Servan-Schreiber, Jean-Jacques, 79 Pompidou, Georges, 80,97 Shape (Supreme Headquarters Allied Portugal, 24 Powers Europe), 22 precision-guided munitions, 141 Shultz, George, 125-6 Protestant churches, and nuclear Sinai Peninsula, 28 weapons, 134 Skybolt Crisis (1962), 9, 29,52-5,59,68 Pueblo Crisis, 119 SLBMs (submarine-launched ballistic missiles), 112 Radford, Adm. Arthur, and Radford Smith, Gerard, 150 Plan, 30-1 Social Democratic Party (Germany), Rapid Deployment Force, 7-8 134 Ravena!, Earl C., 142, 150 and euromissiles, 115--17 Reagan, Ronald, and his Soviet Union administration, 2-3, 39, 44, 100, and threat to West, perception after 103,105,112,108,119,120-3,140 Second World War,11-13, and defence build-up, 128ff. 18--19,24-5 and national security organization, Afghanistan,111 124-5 perception from late 1950s, 34ff. and pipeline controversy, 126 dominance of Eastern Europe, 12-13, Reid, Escott, 144 123,142 Republican Party (United States), 26, and strategic buildup, 75, 136 100 and ostpolitik 82-5 Reston, James, 146 invades Czechoslovakia, 87 Rockefeller Brothers Fund reports, 34 and Nixon d~tente, 2-3, 95ff. Rockefeller, Nelson, 34,47 and Salt II, 111-12 Rogers, Gen. Bemard,140-2 and missiles in Europe, 114ff., 123, and Rogers Plan,140-1 132 Romania, 12, 83, 85 and gas-pipeline controversy, 126 Roosevelt, Franklin D., and his and Reagan defence policies, 3, 128ff. administration, 13, 14, 16, 75 Special Forces, US Army, 43 Roosevelt, Theodore, 39 Sputnik, 35,49 Rube, Volker, 134 SS-20 missiles, 113, 114, 130 156 Index SS-4 and SS-5 missiles, 130 and Soviet assertiveness under Stalin, Joseph, 12 Khrushchev,34ff. State Department, US, 14ff. and Kennedy assertiveness, 38ff., Stirn, Olivier, 117 65-9 Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (Start) and Johnson preoccupations proposals, 130-1 elsewhere, 74ff. Suez Crisis (1956), 6, 7, 9, 28-9, 101, and Nixon/Kissinger departures, 95ff. 123,137 end of economic dominance, 79-81, Sullivan, William, 118-19 101ff. Sweden, 59 contemporary policy options in Nato, Switzerland, 59 136-43 Symington, Stuart, 35 USSR, see Soviet Union

Taft, Robert, 122 V-1 German rocket, 114 Taiwan,23 Vance, Cyrus, 104, 106, 118-19 Taylor, Gen. Maxwell, 44,146 Vandenberg Resolution, 21 Tet Offensive, 94 Vandenberg,Arthur,l5 Thatcher, Margaret, 108, 128 Venice Economic Summit, 6, 107 Thor missiles, 113 Vichy regime in France, 138 Thorneycroft, Peter, 46 Vienna Summit, 61,66 and Thorneycroft Proposals, 89 Vietnam war, 63, 75, 79,91-3, 96ff., Tokai Mura reactor, 106 123, 125 TOW missile, 141 French colonial war, 27 Treasury Department, US, 14 Vinocur,John,149 Truman Doctrine, 13 Vladivostok, 112 Truman, Harry, and his administration, von Bulow, Andreas, 150 10,26,37,66 and formation of Nato, 15, 20ff. Walker, David A., 148 Turkey, 49 Warnke,Paul,l11 'two-track' decision, 113-18, 132-3 Warsaw Pact, 34, 42, 62, 67, 141 Warsaw Uprising (1944), 12 United Nations, 14, 28 Weinberger, Caspar, 129, 140 Article 51 of charter, 19 Weisner, Jerome, 146 Korean War, 23 Western Union, 20 Resolution 242,6-7 Westmoreland, William, 94 United States White, Theodore H., 36, 145 and post-Second World War period, Willis, F. Roy, 148 11ff. Wilson, Harold, 88-94 and Asia, 16-17,121-2 and MLF/ANF, 89ff. replaces Britain economically, 13-17, on 'special relationship', 91 25 and Vietnam, 93 end of isolationism, 12, 16 and European Community, 93-4 ideological clash with Soviet Union, 18 and Nato treaty, 19ff. Yalta Conference, 12 impact of Korean War, 23-4, 27 Yom Kippur War (1973), 6 economic dominance, 25-6 Young, Andrew, 104 and Suez Crisis, 28ff. Middle East, 6ff., 104ff. Zacharias, Herrold, 146 and France, 16, 28, 31-4, 63-5, 76-82 Zaire, French/Belgian paratroopers in, and Germany, 12, 16, 19, 21,29-31, 139 50-1,60-2 'zero-zero' option, 130