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Soviet Russia in Comparative Perspective IMT Institute for Advanced Studies, Lucca Lucca, Italy Transformations of Political Culture in Post-Totalitarian Societies. Post-World War II West Germany and Post-Soviet Russia in Comparative Perspective PhD Program in Political Systems and Institutional Change XXI Cycle By Jane Lezina 2010 The dissertation of Jane Lezina is approved. Program Coordinator: Prof. Giovanni Orsina, Libera Università Internazionale degli Studi Sociali “Guido Carli” LUISS – Roma Supervisor: Prof. Tatiana Vorozheikina, The Higher School of Economics, Moscow Tutor: Assist. Prof. James Melton, IMT Institute for Advanced Studies, Lucca The dissertation of Jane Lezina has been reviewed by: Prof. Lev Gudkov, The Levada Analytical Center, Moscow IMT Institute for Advanced Studies, Lucca 2010 To my family Contents Acknowledgements x Abstract xi 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Understanding Democratization in West Germany and Russia: 1 the Basis for Historical Comparison 1.2 Theoretical Framework and the Thesis Structure 9 1.2.1 Analyzing Political Context of Transformations 12 (Institutional Dimension of Democratic Consolidation) 1.2.2 Analyzing Political Culture: Focusing on Political 15 Attitudes and Political Behavior 1.2.3 Analyzing Political Culture: Focusing on Symbolic 24 Structures of National Identity and Collective Memory Formation 1.3. The Case-Studies’ Literature Overview and Remarks on 31 Methodology 2 Political Context of Transformations in post-WWII West Germany 34 and post-Soviet Russia 2.1 Comparative Analysis of Political Transformations post-WWII 37 West Germany and post-Soviet Russia 2.2 Characteristics of West German and Russian Economic 52 Reforms 2.3 Conclusions 63 3 Transformations of Political Culture in post-WWII West Germany 66 and Post-Soviet Russia: Attitudinal and Participatory Dimensions 3.1 Theoretical Framework 66 3.2 Political Culture in West Germany 75 vii 3.3 Political Culture in Russia 90 3.4 Comparative Analysis of Citizens’ Attitudes and Participatory 104 Orientations in post-WWII West Germany and post-Soviet Russia 3.4.1 System Performance 108 3.4.2 Transformations of Social Structure 113 3.4.3 Educational Reforms 122 3.3 Conclusions 136 4 Transformations of Collective Memories in Post-WWII West 140 Germany and Post-Soviet Russia 4.1 Theoretical Framework 140 4.2 Collective Memory of the Nazi Past in West Germany 146 4.2.1 1950s 146 4.2.2 1960s 161 4.2.3 1970s 173 4.2.4 1980s 182 4.2.5 1990s and beyond 191 4.3 Collective Memory of the Soviet Past in Russia 202 4.3.1 1980s 202 4.3.2 1990s 206 4.3.3 2000s 217 4.4 Comparative Analysis of Collective Memory Transformations 234 in Postwar West Germany and Post-Soviet Russia 4.4.1 Official Memory Contested: Emergence of the 241 Communities of Memory 4.4.2 Transformation of Values and Identity: Introduction of 245 New Symbols 4.4.3 Institutionalization of Collective Memory Discourses 253 5 Conclusions 260 5.1 Summary and Main Findings 260 5.2 Mutual Effects of Transitions: Interplay between Institutional 265 and Cultural Levels of Post-Totalitarian Transformations viii 5.3 The Sources of Political Culture Change: Expansion of the 267 Public Sphere and Institutionalization of Value Change. Socialization and Generational Change 5.3.1 Expansion of the Public Sphere 268 5.3.2 Institutionalization and Transmission of Values 269 5.3.3 Socialization and Generational Change 270 5.4 Concluding Remarks 276 References 277 ix Acknowledgements In the first instance, I owe my deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Professor Tatiana Evgenievna Vorozheikina, whose expertise, wisdom, knowledge and commitment to the highest standards have been a constant source of inspiration and motivation for me. I am greatly indebted to her for the unfailing friendly support and insightful guidance throughout the years of my studies and research. My profound gratitude also goes to the experts from the Levada Analytical Center in Moscow, especially to the Center’s director Lev Dmitrievich Gudkov and to the head of the social-political research department Boris Vladimirovich Dubin. Their invaluable research and analytical work as well as their unfailing guidance are indispensable to the accomplishment of this dissertation. I am deeply grateful to Lev Dmitrievich Gudkov for his insightful comments on the draft of my thesis. I also acknowledge my debt of gratitude to Professor Victor Zaslavsky, the coordinator of the doctoral program in Political Systems and Institutional Change Program at IMT Institute for Advanced Studies Lucca (until 2009), for his guidance and his interest in my research project. I want to thank posthumously Professor Zaslavsky for his input and his support. I would also like to thank the Sakharov Fellowship Moscow Committee at the Sakharov Museum and Public Center in Moscow (and personally the Sakharov Museum’s Director Yuri Samodurov), the Andrei Sakharov Foundation in the USA, as well as the Advisory Board of the Sakharov Program at the Davis Center for Russian and Eurasian Studies (DCRES) at Harvard University for the opportunity to spend the spring semester 2008 at the DCRES as the Sakharov Fellow. My special gratitude is due to the president of the Andrei Sakharov Foundation (USA) Edward Kline and to his wife Jill Kline for their precious support throughout my research period in the United States. Besides, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my tutor James Melton, Assistant Professor at IMT Institute for Advanced Studies Lucca, for carefully reviewing the draft of my thesis and providing insightful comments and valuable recommendations. His support and responsiveness are greatly appreciated. I am also grateful to IMT Institute for Advanced Studies Lucca for the financial support provided through a comprehensive scholarship and funding - the support that gave me the opportunity to conduct this research. x Abstract This dissertation is a comparative historical analysis of institutional and cultural transformations in post-totalitarian societies of post-World War II West Germany and post-Soviet Russia. It addresses democratization efforts in the two countries trying to discover and understand determinants of political culture transformations as well as the factors affecting democratic consolidation in them. Given the complexity of post-totalitarian contexts, the interplay between different levels of post-totalitarian transformations – political, economic, social, and cultural – is researched. More specifically, this study investigates how institutional transformations in post-totalitarian societies affect political culture. The dissertation is based on critical evaluation and synthesis of the following theoretical fields: democratic transition, political culture, collective memory and national identity. It employs and develops a view of political culture as a system of symbols and meanings that determines both the collective identification and the citizens’ attitudes and orientations towards the political system. This understanding of political culture has defined a twofold analysis of political culture transformations in West Germany and Russia from both attitudinal and symbolic perspectives. The analysis combines, thus, the focus on political attitudes and orientations of citizens with the focus on the history- related symbolic structures in public opinion. The variables under consideration in the comparative study of West German and Russian societies on the individual level are interest in politics, the feeling of political efficacy, political participation, social trust, and support for democratic values. The study investigates how attitudes toward self (civic attitudes, and primarily, the feeling of political efficacy) and toward others in politics (trust, cooperative competence) as well as toward the political system changed in the cause of post-totalitarian transformations in the two analyzed cases. Given the central place of memory in the constitution of identity the development of collective memory discourses of the two totalitarian pasts is also analyzed in detail. More specifically, the dissertation explores the ways in which West Germany and Russia confronted their totalitarian legacies and how they remembered their respective totalitarian regimes - the Third Reich and the Soviet Union. The questions addressed in this regard are: How collective memory discourses influenced the national identity and political processes in postwar West Germany and post-Soviet Russia? And more generally: How the shift in the official memory narratives from a nation-centered positive memory towards a more complex and more critical memory framework may affect democracy and national political development? xi Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Understanding Democratization in West Germany and Russia: the Basis for Historical Comparison This study is a comparative historical analysis of institutional and cultural transformations in post-totalitarian societies. Initially my intention was to improve understanding of political and cultural transformations in post-Soviet Russia. In fact, after the disintegration of the Soviet Union, the new independent Russian state has formally taken a path of democratization. The Constitution adopted in 1993 proclaimed the Russian Federation a “democratic federative constitutional state with republican form of government.”1 Since then, in the language of legal terms as well as in the public rhetoric of Russian officials, the democratic character of the new Russian state has been seldom put under question. In his 2004 Federal Assembly address, then-President Vladimir Putin
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