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IDENTITY CONFLICT in BULGARIA: the DYNAMICS of NON-VIOLENCE By IDENTITY CONFLICT IN BULGARIA: THE DYNAMICS OF NON-VIOLENCE by Osman Koray Ertaş A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of George Mason University in Partial Fulfillment of The Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Conflict Analysis and Resolution Committee: Committee Chair Graduate Program Director Dean, School for Conflict Analysis and Resolution Date: Fall Semester 2016 George Mason University Fairfax, VA Identity Conflict in Bulgaria: The Dynamics of Non-Violence A Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at George Mason University by Osman Koray Ertaş Master of Arts University of Sussex, 1997 Director: Karina Korostelina, Professor Department of Conflict Analysis and Resolution Fall Semester 2016 George Mason University Fairfax, VA This work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-noderivs 3.0 unported license. ii DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated to my dear sons Burak, Alp, and Kagan. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank many friends and supporters who have made this happen. The biggest credit should go to my advisor, Prof. Karina Korostelina, who patiently assisted me during this long and difficult period. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page List of Tables ................................................................................................................... vii List of Figures ................................................................................................................. viii List of Abbreviations ....................................................................................................... ix Abstract .............................................................................................................................. x Chapter One: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 1 Overview of Demographics and History ......................................................................... 5 Chapter Two: LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................................................... 13 2.1. Literature on the Causes of Ethnic Conflict ........................................................... 14 2.1.1. Individualist vs. Structural Arguments ............................................................ 17 2.1.2. Political Causes ................................................................................................ 25 2.1.3. Economic Causes ............................................................................................. 27 2.1.4. Cultural Perspective ......................................................................................... 30 2.1.5. Social Identity Related Causes of Conflict and Socio-Psychological Arguments ................................................................................................................. 32 2.2. Literature on the Causes of Non-violence .............................................................. 40 2.3. Conclusion on the Causes of Conflicts .................................................................. 44 Chapter Three: ANALYSIS of the BULGARIAN IDENTITY CONFLICT ........... 48 3.1. Literature on the Bulgarian Identity Conflict ......................................................... 48 3.2. Analyzing the Conflict through Theory ................................................................. 55 3.2.1. Relational Level (Dugan) / Communal Content (Azar) .................................. 59 3.2.2. Issues-Specific Level (Dugan) / BHN and the Role of the State (Azar) ......... 84 3.2.3 Sub-systemic and Systemic Level (Dugan) / International Linkages (Azar) ... 92 3.3. Theoretical Model for Research Question ............................................................. 96 3.3.1. Elite Level ........................................................................................................ 97 3.3.2. Domestic / Societal Level .............................................................................. 103 3.3.3. International / Systemic Level ....................................................................... 109 v 3.3.4. Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 113 Chapter Four: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...................................................... 116 4.1. Research Design ................................................................................................... 116 4.2. Case Study Approach ........................................................................................... 117 4.3. Data Collection ..................................................................................................... 119 4.4. Data Analysis ....................................................................................................... 123 4.5. Ethical Issues ........................................................................................................ 126 Chapter Five: DATA ANALYSIS ............................................................................... 129 5.1. Elite Level Factors of Non-violence .................................................................... 130 5.2. Domestic/Societal Level Factors of Non-violence ............................................... 137 5.2.1. Bulgarian Ethnic Model as a factor of non-violence ..................................... 137 5.2.2. Lack of direct communal violence between groups ...................................... 142 5.2.3. Recognition of Turkish identity through history ........................................... 146 5.2.4. Turkish identity self-esteem as a factor of non-violence ............................... 150 5.2.5. The civic notion of Bulgarian identity as a factor of non-violence ............... 155 5.2.6. An easy escape: Putting the whole blame on Communism ........................... 161 5.2.7. Public apology as a factor of non-violence ................................................... 166 5.3. International/Systemic Level Factors of Non-violence ........................................ 171 5.3.1. EU integration/membership process .............................................................. 171 5.3.2. Kin state as a factor of non-violence ............................................................. 176 Chapter Six: CONCLUSION....................................................................................... 180 6.1. Implications for Theory ........................................................................................ 180 6.2. Implications for Research and Policy ................................................................... 185 6.4. Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 187 References ...................................................................................................................... 189 vi LIST OF TABLES Table Page Table 1 Factors of conflict and non-violence ................................................................... 45 Table 2 Population decline by years ................................................................................. 78 Table 3 Bulgarian population by ethnic identity ............................................................... 79 Table 4 Possible factors of non-violence ........................................................................ 115 Table 5 Ethnic distribution of interview participants ..................................................... 130 vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page Figure 1 Map of Bulgaria .................................................................................................... 8 Figure 2 Bulgaria after the San Stefano and Berlin treaties .............................................. 69 Figure 3 Overall responses regarding elite level factors ................................................. 133 Figure 4 Responses of ethnic Bulgarians regarding the role of elite level factors ......... 134 Figure 5 Responses of ethnic Turks regarding the role of elite level factors ................. 135 Figure 6 Responses regarding Bulgarian ethnic model as a factor of non-violence ....... 138 Figure 7 Responses of ethnic Bulgarians regarding Bulgarian ethnic model ................. 141 Figure 8 Responses of Turkish minority regarding Bulgarian ethnic model .................. 142 Figure 9 Responses regarding lack of direct communal violence .................................. 143 Figure 10 Responses of ethnic Bulgarians regarding lack of communal violence ........ 145 Figure 11 Responses of Turkish minority regarding lack of direct communal violence 146 Figure 12 Responses regarding recognition of Turkish identity through history ........... 148 Figure 13 Responses of ethnic Bulgarians regarding recognition of Turkish identity ... 149 Figure 14 Responses of Turkish minority regarding recognition of Turkish identity .... 150 Figure 15 Responses regarding Turkish identity self-esteem ......................................... 152 Figure 16 Responses of ethnic Bulgarians regarding Turkish identity self-esteem ........ 153 Figure 17 Responses of Turkish minority regarding Turkish identity self-esteem ....... 155 Figure 18 Responses regarding the civic notion of Bulgarian identity ........................... 156 Figure 19 Responses of Bulgarians regarding the civic notion of Bulgarian identity .... 159 Figure 20 Responses of Turks regarding the civic notion of Bulgarian identity ............ 160 Figure 21
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