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DESIGN 5 Copy.Eps CONTENTS FOREWORD xv EXECUTIVE SUMMARY xvii ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS xl INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER 1: BACKGROUND 3 1.1 The ROPME Sea Area 4 1.1.1 Definition 4 1.1.2 Historical perspective 4 1.1.3 Physical-geographical features of the RSA 6 1.1.3.1 The inner RSA 6 1.1.3.2 The middle RSA 7 1.1.3.3 The outer RSA 8 1.2 Natural Resources 8 1.3 Socio-Economic Aspects 8 CHAPTER 2: ENVIRONMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE 15 ROPME SEA AREA 2.1 Climatic and Meteorological Characteristics 15 2.1.1 Atmospheric temperature 15 2.1.2 Winds 16 2.1.3 Dust and sand storms 16 2.1.4 Water balance 18 2.1.4.1 Precipitation 18 2.1.4.2 Evaporation 18 2.1.4.3 Land run-off 19 2.2 Oceanographic Characteristics 19 2.2.1 Physical oceanographic characteristics 20 2.2.1.1 Sea surface temperature 20 2.2.1.2 Tidal movement 21 2.2.1.3 Water circulation 21 2.2.2 Chemical oceanographic characteristics 23 2.2.2.1 Nutrients 23 2.2.2.2 Salinity 25 (i) 2.2.2.3 Dissolved oxygen 26 2.2.2.4 Hydrogen ion concentration 27 2.3 Geological and Sedimentological Characteristics 27 2.3.1 Geology 27 2.3.2 Sedimentological characteristics 28 2.4 Microbiological and Biological Characteristics 29 2.4.1 Microbiological characteristics 29 2.4.2 Biological characteristics 30 2.4.2.1 Primary productivity 30 2.4.2.2 Phytoplankton species occurrence and 34 abundance 2.4.2.3 Zooplankton 38 2.4.2.4 Ichthyoplankton 41 2.4.2.5 Benthic fauna 43 CHAPTER 3: MARINE RESOURCES OF THE ROPME SEA AREA 47 3.1 Major Marine Habitats 47 3.1.1 Seagrass beds 48 3.1.2 Algal communities 49 3.1.3 Mangroves 52 3.1.4 Coral reefs 54 3.1.4.1 Conditions and changes to coral reefs 57 3.1.4.2 Assessment and management of coral reefs 58 3.1.5 Tidal mudflats 59 3.1.6 Protected areas 60 3.2 Living Marine Resources 62 3.2.1 Crustacea 62 3.2.1.1 Shrimps 62 3.2.1.2 Lobsters 63 3.2.1.3 Crabs 64 3.2.2 Molluscs 65 3.2.2.1 Gastropods and bivalves 65 3.2.2.2 Cephalopods 67 3.2.3 Fishes 68 3.2.4 Marine reptiles 69 3.2.4.1 Turtles 69 3.2.4.2 Sea snakes 71 3.2.5 Birds 72 3.2.6 Marine mammals 74 (ii) 3.2.7 Dangerous marine organisms of the RSA 75 3.2.7.1 Venomous invertebrates 76 3.2.7.2 Dangerous vertebrates 78 3.2.7.2.1 Non-venomous vertebrates 78 3.2.7.2.2 Venomous vertebrates 80 3.2.7.2.3 Poisonous vertebrates 81 3.3 Non-Living Marine Resources 82 CHAPTER 4: SOCIO-ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES AND STRUCTURES 83 AFFECTING THE ROPME SEA AREA 4.1 Land-Based Activities 83 4.1.1 Major industries and industrial production 83 4.1.1.1 Impacts of desalination and power plants 84 4.1.1.2 Estimates of industrial liquid wastes 86 4.1.1.3 Estimates of industrial solid wastes 89 4.1.1.4 Estimates of industrial atmospheric emissions 90 4.1.2 Domestic wastewater discharges 94 4.1.3 Marshlands and river inflow 96 4.1.4 Coastal development and physical alterations 99 4.1.5 Recreation and tourism facilities 104 4.2 Exploration and Exploitation of the Living Marine Resources 104 4.3 Exploitation of Non-Living Marine Resources – Sea Based Activities, 107 and Their Impacts 4.3.1 Dredging 108 4.3.2 Maritime transport 109 4.3.3 Pipeline networks 110 4.4 Tar balls 110 4.5 Litter 111 CHAPTER 5: CONTAMINATION OF THE ROPME SEA AREA 113 5.1 Contamination of Coastal Waters 113 5.1.1 Petroleum hydrocarbons 115 5.1.1.1 Petroleum hydrocarbons in coastal 115 waters 5.1.1.2 Petroleum hydrocarbons in coastal 116 sediments 5.1.1.3 Petroleum hydrocarbons in biota 117 (iii) 5.1.2 Organochlorine compounds 119 5.1.2.1 Organochlorine compounds in sediments 119 5.1.2.2 Organochlorine compounds in biota 124 5.1.3 Trace metals 128 5.1.3.1 Trace metals in sediments 128 5.1.3.2 Trace metals in biota 132 5.1.4 Faecal sterols in sediments 135 5.2 Basin-wide Contamination in the ROPME Sea Area 136 5.2.1 TOC distribution 136 5.2.2 Petroleum hydrocarbons 137 5.2.3 Organochlorinated compounds 140 5.2.4 Trace metals 142 5.2.4.1 Site-specific assessments 143 5.2.4.2 Element-specific observations 144 5.2.4.2.1 Arsenic (As) 144 5.2.4.2.2 Barium (Ba) 144 5.2.4.2.3 Cadmium (Cd) 144 5.2.4.2.4 Chromium (Cr) 146 5.2.4.2.5 Copper (Cu) 147 5.2.4.2.6 Lead (Pb) 147 5.2.4.2.7 Mercury (Hg) 148 5.2.4.2.8 Nickel (Ni) 148 5.2.4.2.9 Silver (Ag) 149 5.2.4.2.10 Vanadium (V) 149 5.2.4.2.11 Zinc (Zn) 150 5.3 Overall Conclusion on the Assessment of Contaminant Levels in the 150 ROPME Sea Area 5.3.1 Coastal waters 150 5.3.2 Open sea 153 CHAPTER 6: MAJOR ACCIDENTS AND EPISODIC EVENTS 155 6.1 War-related Oil Spills 155 6.1.1 The Iraq-Iran War (1980–1988) 155 6.1.2 The 1991 War 155 6.1.3 The 2003 War 157 6.2 Tanker Accidents 160 6.3 Mass Mortality of Marine Organisms 160 6.3.1 Human interference 162 6.3.2 Accidental fish kills 163 (iv) 6.3.3 Rapid changes in physico-chemical characteristics of the 164 seawater column 6.3.4 Eutrophication 165 6.3.5 Harmful algal blooms 167 6.3.6 Outbreak of bacteria, viruses and parasites 171 6.4 Invasive Marine Species 173 6.4.1 Microalgae 174 6.4.2 Jellyfish 175 6.4.3 Crown of Thorns 176 6.4.4 Gilthead seabream 177 6.4.5 Management initiatives 177 CHAPTER 7: MARINE POLLUTION CONTROL, EMERGING 179 ISSUES AND STRATEGIES FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 7.1 Environmental Challenges 179 7.1.1 Conservation and restoration of marshlands of Mesopotamia 179 7.1.2 Pollution from land-based activities 180 7.1.3 Pollution from ships 180 7.1.4 Pollution from offshore operations 181 7.1.5 Conservation of biodiversity 181 7.2 Mechanisms for the Prevention and Control of Marine Pollution 182 7.2.1 Policies for pollution prevention and control 182 7.2.2 Environmental legislation 182 7.2.3 Institutional arrangements 185 7.3 Strategies and Priority Action for Sustainable Development 185 7.3.1 Integrated Coastal Area Management (ICAM) 188 7.3.2 Conservation strategies 189 7.3.3 Strengthening the implementation of ROPME Protocols 189 7.3.4 Capacity building 189 7.3.5 Enhancing of public awareness, information sharing and 190 networking 7.3.6 Cooperation with non-governmental organizations (NGOs) 190 7.3.7 Coordination between regional and international organizations 190 7.3.8 Harmonization of legislation 191 7.3.9 Environmental assessment and monitoring 191 7.3.10 Control and management of oil spills 192 7.3.11 Control of land-based sources of pollution 193 7.3.12 Control of dredging, reclamation activities and modification of 193 coastal morphology (v) 7.3.13 Restoration of mangroves and coral reefs, protection of 194 wetlands 7.3.14 Development of an Environment Information System and 194 reporting programme 7.4 Recommendations 194 REFERENCES 197 (vi) LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1 Phytoplankton species found in samples collected during the 35 Oceanographic Cruise - Summer 2001 from the inner RSA Table 2.2 List of benthic fauna and their occurrence in the inner RSA, 44 recorded from samples collected during the Oceanographic Cruise – Summer 2001 Table 4.1 Concentration of atmospheric emissions from power stations, 92 boiler plants, refineries, and vehicle traffic in the Sultanate of Oman in 2001 Table 4.2 Concentration of contaminants in three major rivers from I.R. 98 Iran that discharge into the RSA Table 4.3 Port development and land reclamation in Oman in 2002 101 Table 5.1 Codes of the Contaminant Screening sampling stations in the 115 RSA Table 5.2 Worldwide concentration of Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) 120 in sediments Table 5.3 Average concentrations and ranges of Total PCBs and Total 121 DDTs in sediment samples collected at several locations in coastal waters (concentrations in pg/g dry wt.) Table 5.4 Worldwide concentration of DDTs in sediments 123 Table 5.5 Average concentrations and ranges (ng/g) of Total PCBs and 126 Total DDTs in rock oysters, Saccostrea cucullata from several locations of Oman and UAE Table 5.6 Concentrations of some trace metals in sediment samples 129 collected at three stations (concentrations in µg/g dry wt.) Table 5.7 Comparison of trace metals concentration ranges (mg/kg dry 130 wt.) in the marine sediments of Bahrain with other countries. For Canadian guidelines, the Interim Marine Sediment Quality Guidelines (ISQGs): dry weight, and numbers in parentheses are probable effect levels, Pels: dry weight Table 5.8 Concentration range of trace metals in the coastal sediments of 131 Oman Table 5.9 Comparison of concentrations in faecal sterols for sediment 136 samples collected in Qatar and UAE (concentrations in ng/g dry wt.) Table 5.10 Sediment Quality Guidelines from NOAA (USA) and 143 Environment Canada Table 6.1 Documented incidents of mass mortality of marine organisms in 161 the ROPME Sea Area (vii) Table 7.1 Status of signature and ratification of the Kuwait Regional 184 Convention and its Protocols by ROPME Member States Table 7.2 Status of participation of ROPME Member States in 186 international environmental agreements Table 7.3 Governmental environmental institutions and agencies in 188 ROPME Member States (viii) LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1 ROPME Headquarters 4 Figure 1.2 Satellite image of the ROPME Sea Area and its surroundings 5 Figure 1.3 Bathymetry of the ROPME Sea Area 7 Figure 1.4 Human population growth rate in ROPME Member States 9 between 1995–2000 Figure 1.5 Coastal human settlement in ROPME Member States within 10 100 km of the coastline during 1995 Figure 2.1 Satellite image of dust storm in the south-eastern part of the 17 RSA, southern coast of I.R.
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