Village Thapli (Tahsil Pauri, District Garhwal)

Home , Arain (Delhi), Caste panchayat, Dabral (surname), Garhwali language, Gulal, Shilpkar

CENSUS OF INDIA, 1961

VOLUME XV

UTTAR PRADESH

PART VI

VILLAGE SURVEY MONOGRAPH No.5

General Editor P. P. BHATNAGAR of the Indian Administrative Service Superintendent of Census Operaticm.r, Uttar Pradesh

VILLAGE THAPLI (TAHSIL PAURI, DISTRICT GARHWAL)

BY R. C. SHARMA, M. A. of the Uttar Pradesh Civil ServiCe Deputy Superintendent of Census Operations .,., 0 78" f>.OE.S H sf st as ~'" ~'v ~ o ~ Jl (J I '!" ~ ", UTTAR PRADESH :J: -f

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Central Government Publications

Census Report, Volume XV-Uttar Pradesh is published in the following parts .- [-A (i-ij) General Report I-B Report on V:tal Statistics I-C(i-vi) Subsidiary Tables (in 6 books) II-A .• General Population Tables [[-B (i-vii) General Economic Tables (in 7 books) H-C (i-vi) Cultural and Migration Tables (in 6 books) I1I-A Household Economic Tables III-B Household Economic Tables (concluded) IV-A Report on Housing and Establishments and Housing and Estab- lishment Tables (E-Series Tables-except E-IJI)

IV-B Housing and Establishment Tables (E-III) V-A Special Tables for Scheduled Castes V-B Reprints from old Census Reports and Ethnographic Notes VI Village Survey Monographs (Monographs on selected Villages) VII-A Handicraft Survey Reports VU-B Fairs and Festivals in Uttar Pradesh

VIII-A Administration Re~ort-Enumeration (for official use only) VIII-B Administration Report-Tabulation (for official use only)· IX Census Atlas of Uttar Pradesh X Special Report on Kanpur

State Government publications

54 Volumes of District Census Handbooks CONTENTS

Page

FOREWORD

PREFACE IV

CHAPTBR. I The Village 1

CHAPTER II The People and their Material Equipments 4

CHAPTER III Economy .. 14

CHAPTER IV Social and Cultural Life 31 CHAPTER V Conclusion ..- 50 TABLES •• 53

GLOSSARY 58

BmLIOGRAPHY 60

LIST OF VILLAGES SELECTED FOR STUDY 61

SCHEDULES 63 LIS T o F TABLE,S

TABLE I Area, Houses and Population

TABLE II Population by Age Groups

TABLE III Size and Composition of Households

TABLE IV Caste and Nature of the Family

TABLE V Households classified by Religions, Castes and Sub-castes

TABLE VI Age and Marital Status

TABLE VII Education

TABLE VIII Workers and Non-workers by Sex and broad Age Groups

TABLE IX Workers classified by Sex. broad Age Groups and Occupation

TABLE X Households by Number of Rooms and by Number of Persons occupying

TABLE XI Livestock

TABLE XII Agricultural Produce of Cultivation run by the Households and its Disposal

TABLB XIII Indebtedness by Income-groups

TABLE XIV Indebtedness by Causes MAPS, PHOTOGRAPHS AND SKETCHES

I. Maps-

1. Map of Uttar Pradesh showing location of villages selected for survey Frontispiece 2. Notional map showing location of Thapli •• .. Facing page 1 II. Photographs and Sketches- 1. A distant view of village Thapli 2 2. A view of the village and its fields } 3. A view of the locality of Shilpkars I i'- 3 4. A typical house in Thapli J 5. Nath,jltumka and hansli 6 6. Bulak and guluband ., I I 7: Laung and hundey I 8 Phooli and jhumka I >- between pp. 6-7 9. Necklace I I 10. Karey .. I 11. Pajeb .. J 12. Paunta 7 13. Jhanwar and bichhwa .. } 14. Some utensils of daily use •• 8 15. Set of bigger utensils } 16. Two women on way to water source I 9 17. Woman taking water at nauli J 18. Some agricultural implements 18 19. A Shilpkar engaged in tailoring •. 19 20. A Shilpkar engaged in wall construction } 21. Boy offering prayers before Gram Devta 37 22. The Primary School at Thapli . . } 23. The Junior High School at Thapli 38 24. The Junior High School at Jakheti }

FOREWORD Apart from laying the foundations of build up a picture for the whole State in demography in this subcontinent, a quantitative terms on the basis of villages hundred years of the Indian Census has selected statistically at random. The also produced 'elaborate and scholarly selection was avowedly purposive: the accounts of the variegated phenomena of object being as much to find out what was Indian life - sometimes with no statistics happening and how fast to those villages attached, but usually with just enough which had fewer reasons to choose change statistics to give empirical underpinning to and more to remain lodged in the past as their conclusions'. In a country, largely to discover how the more 'normal' types illiterate, where statistical or numerical of villages were changing. They were comprehension of even such a simple to be primarily type studies which, by thing as age was liable to be inaccurate, an virtue of their number and distribution, understanding of the social structure was would also give the reader a 'feel' of what essential. It was more necessary to attain a was going on and some kind of a map of the broad understanding of what was happen country. ing around oneself than to wrap oneself up in 'statistical ingenuity' or 'mathe A brief account of the tests of selection matical manipulation'. This explains why will help to explain. A minimum of the Indian Census came to be interested thirty-five villages was to be chosen with in 'many by-paths' and 'nearly every branch great care to represent adequately geogra of scholarship, from anthropology and phical, occupational and even ethnic di sociology to geography and religion'. versity. Of this minimum of thirty-five, the distribution was to be as follows: In the last few decades the Census has increasingly turned its efforts to the pre-. (a) At least eight villages were to sentation of village statistics. This suits be so selected that each of them would the temper of the times as well as our poli contain one dominant commu~ity tical and economic structure. For even with one predominating occupatIOn, as we have a great deal of centralization on e.g. fishermen, forest workers, jhum the one hand and decentralisation on the cultivators, potters, weavers, salt other, my colleagues thought it would be makers, quarry workers etc. A village a welcome continuation of the Census should have a minimum population tradition to try to invest the dry bones of of 400, the optimum being between village statistics with flesh-and-blood 500 and 700. accounts of social structure and social (b) At least seven villages were change. It was accordingly decided to to be of numerically prominent select a few villages in' every State for Scheduled Tribes of the State. Each special study, where personal observation village could represent a particular would be brought to bear on the inter tribe." The minimum population pretation of statistics to find out how much should be 400, the optimum being of a village was static and yet changing and between, 500 and 700. how fast the winds of change were blow (c) The third group of villages ing and from where. should each be of fair size, of an old Randomness of selection was, therefore, and settled character and contain eschewed. There was no intention to variegated occupations and be, if possible, multi-ethnic in composition. situ of material traits, like settlement By fair size was meant a population patterns of the village ; house types ; diet ; of 500-700 persons or more. The dress; ornaments and footwear; furniture village should mainly depend on agri and storing vessels; common means of trans: culture and be sufficiently away from port of goods and passengers; domestica the major sources of modern commu tion of animals and· birds ; markets attend nication such as the district adminis ed ; worship of deities, festivals and fairs. trative headquarters and business There were to be recordings, of course, of centres. It should be roughly a day's cultural and social traits and occupa journey from the above places. The tional mobility. This was followed up villages were to be selected with an in March 1960, by two specimen schedules, eye to variation in terms of size, pro one for each household, the other for the ximity to city and other means of village as a whole, which, apart from modern communication, n,earness to spelling out the mode of inquiry suggested hills, jungles and major rivers. Thus in the September 1959 conference, intro there was to be a regional distribution duced groups of questions aimed at sens throughout the State of this category ing changes in attitude and beha of villages. If, however, a particular viour in such fields as marriage, inheri district contained significant ecological tance, moveable and immoveable pro variations within its area, more than perty, industry, indebtedness, education, one village in the district might be community life and collective activity, selected to study the special adjust social disabilities forums of appeal over ments to them. disputes, village leadership, and organisa It is a unique feature of these village tion of cultural life. It was now plainly surveys that they rapidly outgrew their the intention to provide adequate statis original terms of reference, as my tical support to empirical 'feel', to colleagues warmed up to their work. approach qualitative change through sta This proved for them an absorbing voyage tistical quantities. It had been difficult of discovery and their infectious enthusiasm to give thought to the importance of 'just enough statistics to give empirical under compelled me to enlarge the inquiry' ~ scope again and again. It was just as pinning to conclusions', at a time when my well cautiously to feel one's way about at colleagues were straining themselves to first and then venture further afield, and the utmost for the success of the main although it accounts to some extent for a Census operations, but once the census certain unevenness in the quality and count itself was left behind in March, coverage of the monographs, it served to 1961, a series of three regional seminars in compensate the purely honorary and extra Trivandrum (May 1961), Darjeeling and mural rigours of the task. For, the Srinagar (June 1961), restored their atten Survey, along with its many ancillaries tion to this field and the importance of like the survey of fairs and festivals, of tracing social change through a number of small and rural industry and others, was well-devised statistical tables was once an extra, over and above the crushing load again. recognised. This itself presupposed of the 1961 Census. a fresh survey of villages already done; but it was worth the trouble in view of the It might be of interest to recnunt briefly possibilities that a close analysis of statistics the stages by which the Survey enlarged its offered, and also because the 'consan scope. At the first Census Conference in guinity' schedule remained to be can September 1959, the Survey set itself the va8Sed. By November 1961, however, task of what might be called a record in more was expected of these surveys than iii

~ver before. There was dissatisfaction This gradual unfolding of the aims of on the one hand with too many general the Survey prevented my colleagues from statements and a growing desire on the adopting as many villages as they had ori other to draw conclusions from statistics, ginally intended to. But I believe that to regard social and economic data as inter what may have been lost in quantity has related processes, and finally to examine been more than made up for in quality. the social and economic processes set in This is, perhaps, for the first time that such motion through land reforms and other a Survey has been conducted in any laws, legislative and administrative country, and that purely as a labour of measures, technological and cultural love. It has succeeded in attaining what change. Finally, a study camp was orga it set out to achieve: to construct a map nised in the last week of December 1961 of village India's social structure. One when the whole field was carefully gone hopes that the volumes of this Survey will help to retain for the Indian Census its through over again and a programme title to 'the most fruitful single source of worked out closely knitting the various information about the country'. Apart aims of the Survey toget4er. The Social from other features, it will perhaps be Studies Section of the Census Commission conceded that the Survey has set up a new rendered assistance to State Superinten Census standard in pictorial and graphic dents by way of scrutiny and technical documentation. The schedules finally comment on the frame of Survey and adopted for this monograph have been presentation of results. printed in an appendix.

NEW DELHI: A. MITRA July 30, 1964. Registrar General) India.

PREFACE In Uttar Pradesh the Census Organisa 3. Thapli, a hill village situated.on ti.on selected a number .of villages f.or the Kotdwar-Pauri r.oad in district special study .of the dynamics .of change Garhwal, was selected because it has an in the s.ocial, cultural and ec.on.omic life old and settled character with a multi .of the rural c.ommunity. - An analysis .of ethnic c.omposition .of p.opulati.on having the structure and functi.oning .of the village various occupati.ons. It is an advanced ec.on.omy is expected t.o reveal the f.orces type .of hill village with a populati.on of which pr.om.ote .or retard the processes .of more than 500 persons consisting of change c.oming int.o play, either in the Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Shilpkars. natural c.ourse .or as a result .of vari.ous legislative measures such as the establish 4. The research methods employed in ment.of Panchayats, the ab.oliti.on .of this study have c.onsisted of the use .of Zamindari, the extensi.on .of Planning and schedules and questionnaires, case studies. Devel.opment activities, and the enf.orce village records, census data, interviews ment .of vari.ous s.ocial laws. The kn.ow and group discussions. The local inves ledge thus gained can be utilised f.or the tigati.on was carried out by the field staff re.orientati.on .of p.olicies .of rural devel.op of this Organisation, having a well-trained ment and village uplift. pair of eyes. There was some difficulty in the initial stages because the investi 2. The selecti.on .of villages f.or study gator was viewed with suspici.on, but after was made in acc.ordance with certain prin he gained the c.onfidence .of villagers and ciples and criteria laid d.own by the established rapp.ort with them, the w.ork Registrar General. Out.of the selected of investigation became easy and simple. villages, s.ome c.ontain .one d.ominant The data were collected in the month of c.on;munity with .one pred.ominating .occu October 1961. The study was .of course patIOn, some are p.opulated by backward subject to time pressure. ab.original pe.ople, and .others have an old settled character with a 5. Field investigation in the village multi-ethnic composItIOn and diverse was carried out by Sri R. S. Dikshit, S.ocio Ec.on.omic Inspect.or, who had been borr.ow .occupati.ons. Min.or deviati.ons fr.om the standards prescribed for selection were in ed fr.om the Nati.onal Sample Survey Organization. Sri R. C. Sharma, Deputy evitable because of the non-availability of the requisite number of villages having Census Superintendent. .of the Uttar Pradesh Civil Service, is resp.onsible f.or all the prescribed variables. This pur supervising the study, marshalling the posive selecti.on has made it possible t.o statistical evidence, analysing the data and study the impact .of vari.ous fact.ors .of drafting the rep.ort. change up.on the culture and e~onomy .of villages situated in the interior where out 6. Opinions expressed and conclusi.ons side influences are slow t.o penetrate and reached by the writer .of this m.onograph sl.ower t.o act as also the n.ormal types are based on the results .of the investiga which are exppsed to the winds .of change tion. They are his .own and d.o n.ot reflect from vari.ous directi.ons t.o a greater degr~e. the views .of the Government in any way.

P. P. BHATNAGAR LUCKN.oW: Superintendent of Census Operations~ December 5, 1962. Uttar Pradesh.

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THE VILLAGE

Village Thapli is situated on the eastern on the spiralling or meandering road. The slope of Dadawari hill, at a height of about maximum speed limit is 15 miles per hour. 5,000 feet above the sea~level, in patti Kapolsyun In spite of all the precautions taken, fatal of tahsil Pauri of district Garhwal, at a distance accidents do take place sometimes. A mile of of 14 miles from the district headquarters Pauri. hill climbing by a bridle path from the bus halt It lies in latitude 30° I' 52" north and longi at village Jakheti leads one to the village site tude 78° 47' 52" east. It is bounded on the which commands a beautiful view of the north by villages N auli, Ghiri and J akh (lagga perennially snow-covered peaks of the magni of village Thapli), on the east by village Toli ficent Himalaya& in front. The picturesque and the stream Idgadd, on the south by villages landscape of high hills interspersed with deep Dolinda, Khuwir and Timari whereas villages valleys IS characteristic of the Himalayan Gauntpani and Kewara form the western mountains. boundary of the village. On account of its Thapli is a roadside hill village with a size and situation, social, cultural and material variegated character of population, mainly advancement, it is the most important village depending on agriculture but having service as of Patti Kapolsyun and one of the prominent an equally important occupation. The village villages of the district. With an area of about has 120 households in all. Out of these, 7~ .582 square miles, it is situated in the heart o households are of Brahmins, 7 of Rajputs and of the patti, just at a distance of one mile up 40 of Shilpkars, the artisans classified as Scheduled the hill from village akheti on the Kotdwar J Castes. The total population of 552 persons Pauri road. A five-hour tiresome hill journey 'lives in 109 houses. The Brahmins constitute by a bus of the U. P. Government Roadways the dominant community while the Shilpkars or of the Garhwal Motor Owners' Union are the most backward, in spite of their large Limited from Kotdwar, the railway terminus of number. The Brahmins and Rajputs are district Garhwal, over a distance of 54 miles advanced socially and economically but the leaves one at Jakheti. The hill road from Shilpkars are backward to the same extent. Dogadda (10 miles from Kotdwar) onwards is The percentage of education, especially among narrow and risky and hence only one way traffic the Brahmins is very high. The higher castes is allowed. Vehicles going from Kotdwar to are engaged in cultivation and service while Pauri and from Pauri to Kotdwar cross each other the Shilpkars work as masons, tailors, braziers, only at gates at Dogadda, Gumkhal, Satpuli, blacksmiths, carpenters, agricultural labourers Pattisain and Paidul. The gate timings are fixed and cultivators. There are no sweepers, barbers, and notified by the Regional Transport Officer. shopkeepers, washermen and shoemakers in this Night travel is not permissible. Travelling village. Even then from standards of hill area, against gate timings or by night without permis this is a big village with a population of more sion in writing from the District Magistrate than 500 persons of various ethnic groups, or the Superintendent of Police or the Regional having a number of varied occupations. Transport Officer is an offence punishable under law. Cautions for drivers such as "Drive fast The stony hill slopes have been turned into and see the cemetry, drive slow and enjoy the terraced fields of small size, just like a big scenery" or "It is better to reach 10 minutes staircase, by constant labour and heavy late in this world rather than 10 years earlier in expenditure. The land is suitable for growing the other world" are displayed at various places millets such as mandua and jhangora, but paddy, 2 THAPLI wheat and pubes are also grown. There are Brahmins and Rajputs live in one cluster of almost no sources of irrigation and hence crops houses whereas the Shilpkars live in a clutter have to depend on the vagaries of weather. at a distance of about two furlongs. Since Cultivation is done as a mode of living and not traditionally the Shilpkars have been treated as as a source of profit. untouchables, not to mix socially or at any level with the twice-born high castes, they have a The climat~ of the village is pleasant. During separate residential area. The houses generally the peak winter months of December, January face east, so that sun-rays might reach every and February it is very cold. For the last three house. Another consideration is the slope of years there has been a snowfall also in winter. the ridge. Doors of houses generally face the The winter wind blowing from the snowy peaks slope side of the ridge. A few houses no doubt of Himalayas is piercingly cold. In the summer face other directions too. They have been season it is slightly hot at noon but the mornings, constructed not on a planned pattern but on evenings and nights are cool and pleasant. It patches of land cleared up from time to time and starts raining in the early part of June and are perforce irregular and unplanned. All the continues till October. Very often, the rain is houses are double-storeyed. The floor storey torrential, thereby causing soil erosion and land is invariably occupied by cattle and goats and slides or slips. the upper storey by the human population. The ridge on which the village is situated In the middle of the village is the mandir of and the other hills in the vicinity are devoid of the Gram Devata (village deity) on a well trees and thick vegetation. Only wild bushes built and well-constructed stone chabutra under of karonda, tunga, dhaula and ber are to be the shade of a sacred peepal tree. Another found. A few trees can be spotted here and place of worship is the temple of Nag Devata there at distances only. On the slope below (Snake god) which is situated in a huddled and the motor road up to the stream Idgadd there is congested locality. Other temples of worship a small forest of the village, having kharik, chir, are situated in the neighbouring villages. Since' tun and bhimal trees. It is managed by the Lath there is no Mohammedan or Christian Panchayat of the village - a body not population, no mosque or church exists in the recognised by law - for the common welfare of village or even in the neighbouring villages. the village community as a whole. Some fruit The dead are cremated generally on the bank trees such as apple, orange, peach, almond, pear or river Nayar at a distance of about 3 i:niles and apricot have been planted here and there and sometimes on the bank of the stream Idgadd in the village abadi. at a distance of about It miles from the village. As regards animals, jackals, fox and kursela There are no monuments in the village. A are found in the fields and forest of this village. place in a road-side field is popularly known as Sometimes a leopard does make an appearance. Ghamand Singh - after the name of a Nepalese Sentula, ghenduri and jet black crow are birds commander who is said to have been killed generally found in the abadi area, whereas there in a battle between the Britishers and the titar, bater and killjhent constitute the feathered Gorkhas. At a distance of about one mile to game available in the vicinity of the village. the east of the village is Ranigarh - a small Cows, bullocks and buffaloes and a couple of garh or fortress in a ruined condition. An goats are domestic animals. Bee-keeping is also underground passage leads from the garh to the quite common in the village. A hole has been s,tream Idgadd. The passage is blocked after made in the side wall of a room in a number of some stairs. houses in the village, for the bees to come and Drinking water is available at a distance of settle down. about one mile in a gadhera or stream. The The village has 120 households with 109 houses. nauli or source of water for ,the, Shilpkars . is at The abadi area is divided into two clear groups. a dhtance of about 21 miles from their abadi. PI.Aj"E No. 1

. \ l l i ~ Llllt nc\\" of yilLtge Tlupli

PLATE No.2

A view ot the village and its fields

- Facing page 2. PLATE No.3

A view of lhe locality of Shilpkars

PJxni No. 4

.'\ typical house -in -Thapli

- Facing page 3. THE VILLAGE 3

Both the sources of potable water are situated District Board. Even now, the means of travel at a depth of about 1,000 feet from the village to the interior remain the same - trudging on abadi. Shilpkars are not allowed to take water foot on bridle paths ar d even wild tracks hardly from the source reserved for th.e higher castes. deserving the name of paths or mounting a Consequently fetching water is a very tiresome short stocky and shaggy 'pony which always walks daily,job of women and children, especially the slowly and cautiously exactly on the ,edge of Shilpkars. A rather costly scheme of water the path, totally unmindful of the depth of the supply is under investigation by the Local Self chasm underneath. The animal keeps away Government Engineering Department of Uttar from the rock side of the path instinctively, lest Pradesh. it might strike against an outjutting rock and lose its footing. The village falls within the jurisdiction of Development Block, Barahsyun (East) with No authentic account of the history of headquarters at Kalzikhal at a distance of about settlement of this village is available. -Apparently six miles from the village. The Village Level the village is quite ancient. Out of the 120 Worker has his headquarters at village Agrora households, 118 had settled more than five at a distance of 3 miles on the road to Pauri. generations ago. It is, however, commonly The chauki of the patti Patwari, who is a believed that some Thapliyal Brahmins, who revenue as well as a police officer enjoying the were originally residents of village Thapli near powers of a sub-inspector incharge of a police Chandpur (now in district Chamoli) the capital station, is located at Agrora, ~hich is also the of Garhwal in the regime of Raja Kanakpal . headquarters of the Nyaya Panchayat. The shifted to this village, when Raja Ajaypal nearest post office is situated at village Toli, at shifted the capital from Chandpur to Srinagar a distance of about It miles on the road to in 1512, and named it as Thapli. Pauri. For social and cultural advancement The language commonly used by residents of there is a Mahila Mangal Dal, a Bal Mangal Dal this village is Garhwali which is a dialect of and a Nav Yuvak Mangal Dal working actively Hindi language. GarhwaH is only a spoken in the village. There is a Junior ,High School language without a separate alphabet of its own. for girls in the village and a Junior High School The Hindi alphabet is used for writing down for boys in the nearing village Jakheti. Thus Garhwali language. The more educated people adequate educational facilities exist in the village. speak English and Hindi as well at times. But Thapli has a letter-box, the dak from which is as a rule, when two Garhwalis talk, they must cleared on every Monday, Wednesday and talk in Garhwali language, even though it Friday. The nearest telegraph office is at Pauri. might be quite irritating to a third person, not The motor road from Dogadda to Pauri was familiar with Garhwali, who happens to form completed in 1945. Before that most people part of the company. The average GarhwaH is travelled on foot and some on ponies or in a dogmatically attached to Garhwal, its language, dandi by a bridle path, maintained by the its culture and its traditions. CHAPTER. II

THE PEOPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL EQUIPMENTS

Ethnic Composition only by Sarola Brahmins and no one else and that no one will have any objection to taking The village is inhabited by Hindus only. In food cooked by them. Thus the caste superiority the ?istrict as a whole the number of non of Sarolas over other Brahmins was established, Hindus is almost negligible. The following so to say, by a royal command, to be obeyed, not table shows the respective strength of each to be questioned. The main sub-castes of this caste :- group are Kotyal, Gairola, Khanduri, N autiyal,

TABLE No. 2.1

Distribution of Population by Cast~

Number Number Caste Sub-Caste of House- of Males Females Percentage holds Persons 1. Brahmin 1. Thapliyal 24 2. Chandola 24 3. Musara 9 4. Sundriyal 2 5. Naithani 5 6. Bahuguna 3 7. Jugaran 2 8. Panthri '] 9. Malasi 10. Juyal Total 73 338 126 212 61.23 2. Kshatriya Rawat 7 16 6 10 2.91 3. Shilpkar 40 198 87 ] 11 35.86 Total 120 552 219 333 100

The Brahmins, Shilpkars and Kshatriyas Maithani, Thapliyal, Raturi, Chamola, Hatwal, constitute 61.23 per cent, 35.86 per cent and 2.91 Diundi, Nawni, Semalti, Dimri and Lakhera. per cent respectively of the total population of They are almost parallel to the Gaur Brahmins the village. Thapli is thus mainly a village of of the plains. The Nautiyals derive their Brahmins and Shilpkars. The Brahmins of surname from village N auti, Raturis from Garhwal are all immigrants from Gaur, Maha·· village Ratura, Khanduris from village rashtra, Dravida or Kanya-Kubja and other parts Khandura, Thapliyals from village Thapli, of the country during or after the Brahmanical Chamolas from village Chamoli, Gairolas from period. They are mainly Sarolas or Gangaris. village Gairoli in Pargana ,Chat.dpur and The Sarola group consists of Brahmins originally Maithanis from village Maithana. residents of villages Nauti, Gairoli, Thapli and Ratura who came to the royal household of The principal sub-divisions of the Gangaris, Raja Kanakpal at Chandpur as cooks and priests. so called from their living originally in the Ganga It is said that in about 1400 A.D. Raja Ajaipal, Valley or other low-lying warmer places, are the who shifted the capital of Garhwal to Srinagar Ghildyal, Dangwal, Malasi, Bahuguna, Uniyal, ordered that food for his army will be cooked Dobhal, Chandola, Dhoundiyal, Dabral. THE PEOPLE AND THEIR. MATEllIAL EQUIPMENTS 5

Barthwai, Kukreti, Joshi, Mamgain, Tiwari, or sometimes even Domera out of sheer Kala, Budola, Dhasmana, Juyal, Bhatts, etc. conlempt. How they came to be called as Dom Most of the Brahmins in Garhwal pertain to this is not known. They were kept in strict group. Subsequently, some Brahmins of this subjection, doing all the hard work of a labourer group formed a sub-group called Nirolas, and an artisan in the hills. They worked as comprising Kimothis, Semwals, K'and yals and virtual slaves of the Khasiyas and the Brahmins. others. In caste, hierarchy, the Sarola is The village community allotted a particular considered superior to the Gangari. Every one job to each man and kept him to that profession. takes food prepared by a Sarola, but a Sarola In course of time, the sub-divisions hardened would not have kachcha food, i.e. boiled rice into occupational sub-castes such as Agari (Iron and pulse, prepared by a Gangari nor would he smiths), Lohar (Ironsmiths), Tamta (Copper have any matrimonial alliance with a Gangari. smiths), Tirwa (Sword and knife sharpeners), At the lowest rung of the ladder among the Barhai (Carpenters), Orh (Mason), Raj Brahmins are the Nirolas. (Masons), Auji (Tailors and Drummers), Hurkiya (Drummers), Badi (Dancer&), etc. It is said that the Rawats once belonged to Thus these sub-castes have an essentially the ruler family and that they were granted a functional origin totally unconnected with race. good holding of land by the Raja but now they They are generally based on hereditary are ordinary cultivators or service men in the occupations. Originally "each sub-caste inter army, without any of the prerogatives that dined and inter-marri.ed only among its own might have been enjoyed by them in the past. members and would not take food or water that They mix freely with the Brahmins and eat all had been touched by anyone belonging to a sub ~ort of food prepared by them but the Brahmins caste lower in the social scale than their own. do not eat kachcha food prepared by them. Roughly, the order of social precedence of the The Shilpkars have a dark complexion and lower sub-castes is Koli, Orh, Lohar, Tamta, unimpressive features. They are the "remnants Pahri, Ruriya. Athpahariya, Chunera, Auji, Badi, of an original race who inhabited the Himalayas Hurkiya, Dhaki, Dhunar and Chamar." Now before the advent of the later conquerors and the spheres of social interpenetration have immigrants." They are treated as Scheduled widened. Orhs, Lohars and Tamtas inter-dine Castes and consist mainly of Lohars, Darzis and and inter-marry, so generally do Badis, Hurkiyas Tamtas. They work as blacksmiths, tailors, and Dhakis. There is also a "general tendency braziers, masons and carpenters in addition to towards amalgamation of the sub-castes and a cultivation or as casual labourers in Public growing inter-mixture of occupations". Works Department or as agricultural labourers. In the 1920's the Arya Samaj started working They suffer from all social handicaps and are for the social uplift of the Doms. Most of them treated in society as down·trodden persons. The were converted to the Arya Dharma and they caste Hindus do not accept water or food from came to be known as Aryas. The artisans were their hand. They live separately from the collectively given the name 'Shilpkars'. In Brahmins and Rajputs in a clutter of dirty the 1931 Census, the word Dom was replaced by houses situated in comparatively insanitary Shilpkar. There is no organisation of Arya surroundings. Samaj in the village. The Shilpkars are said to be the descendants Housing of the Dasyus of Vedic times - the people whom the Aryan invaders found in occupation of Construction of houses in the village is not Northern India and either drove out or subdued. according to any plan. They have been Originally they were known as Dom. In the constructed in clusters on patches of cleared and Census of 1921, they were treated as Dom and levelled slopy grounds. Almost every house is even now the local population ca'UI them Dom double..storeyed and more often than not the 6 THAPLI lower storey is meant for stalling the family answering the call of nature. The womenfQlk cattle and the upper storey is invariably meant take their casual baths inside the room and the for the human population. The height of the males in the open. Bathing is not a daily feature floor room is quite low, generally six feet, and the of the residents of this village because of its cold doors too are small and narrow, with no proper climate. Amongst the Shilpkars it is even more windows on sides. A mud-stone staircase or a uncommon. wooden ladder leads to the upper storey which Stones and Quartzite slabs for construction of is used for sitting, sleeping and cooking in a houses are available free of cost at a short corner of the room. The roof of the ground distance from the village site. The only expense Ilqor is wooden and is used for sleeping as Roor is the cost of quarrying and transport to be paid of the second storey. The height of the upper to the labourers. The village households storey is generally seven feet and the roof consists extend token help by transporting patalas and of a sloping structure of timber covered with timber from the source to the site on a day quartzite slabs locally called patalas, with heavy when the construction is going on. Timber i. terraces of mud to keep these in position. The also available free of cost from the Civil Forest roofs of a couple of houses belonging to the area at a short distance as part of the customary well-to-do are covered with corrugated galva rights of the villagers. The village folk nised iron sheets instead of slate pieces. Quartzite gather together and willingly bring all the slabs arc considered superior to iron-sheets timber required as part of the traditional as roofing material because they are locally mutual help scheme of the v.mage communities. available, last longer and cannot be blown off The cost of transporting the building material by a strong wind. Besides this, a slab on the is quite heavy and hence in spite of the roof can easily be shifted aside whenever the availability of the building material free of cost, need of a ventilator is felt. The walls of all the cost of constnlction is not low. houses are built of stone joined with mud and plastered with mud and cow dung. Before starting the construction of a house the village pandit is invariably consulted for finding The ground storey has usually a verandah in out the auspicious time and date of laying the front of a dark and dingy small room having foundation stone of the building, with reference a small window at the back. The upper storey to the rashi of the head of the household who may have a veran'dah, locally called dandyala lays the foundation stone after performance of or tibari. The ground floor is reserved for pujn. Sweets are distributed thereafter. The animals. In the courtyard, heaps of dung and main door of a house is usually kept facing east grass saturated with animal urine are stored, so that sun rays might reach inside the house emitting foul smell. Cowsheds are not construct adequately. Only in exceptional circumstances ed separately at a distance on the fields, as the main door is found facing snuth or west. is done in some other pattis of the tahsil_ The slope of the ridge is another factor deter Most of the houses have no ventilators. The mining the direction of the main door. When rooms are stuffy and dark. There is no separate comtruction of the house is completed havan kitchen and food is cooked at a fireplace situated anll puja are performed and a feast known as in one corner of the living room. The kitchen grah bhoj is given to friends, relatives and smoke spreads freely through every nook and Brahmins before actual occupation of the house. corner of the house, leaving its black traces on The poor are content only with performance of everything in the house. There is a general puja and havan and distribution of gur and belief that kitchen smoke and dung both work pakoras. as deterrent against the setting in of borer or Size and Composition of Households white ants on the timber used in the building. No bath-rooms or latrines are constructed. The Most of the population is living in congested neadng fields and gadheras serve as a place for houses. The following table shows the number PLATY. No.5

SCHlie ()rnall1en(~ lI~ed by womenfolk o[ village Thapli- (I) nath (2) jhurnka and (3) hansli PLATE No.6

Some ornaments-bulak and guluband-wom by women of village Thapli

- Between p'lges 6-7. 00 zo

I 0 -'"'"'-' t: :>--. (l) "-' S "'::S 0 s::: ;:: ...c- i:- "...... 0 .--' ~ 0 t: Z .... '"0 0 t:: ~ ;:: 0:::

Necklace used by some women in village Thapli

...... Between pages 6-7. PLATlc No. 10

The hm f')' worn round the wrist

PLATE No. 11

The pai}cb worn round the ankles

- Bctwecll pages 6-7. PLATE No. 12

The 1)(/llIlt(l-a silvCJ ornament worn round the ankles

PU\TE No. 13

The ]hallwal W(JIU roulld the ankles and (2) the bichhwa worn round the toes

-Facing page 7. THE PEOPLE AND THEIR. MATERIAL EQUIPMENT! 7 of households by the number of rooms is used for covering the upper part of the body, occupied ;- but no banian or undervest is· used. Dhoti is not popular with the males as it does not suit TABLE No. 2.2 their climatic and working conditions. Tight Households and Population by cotton or woollen pyjamas are in general vogue. Number of Rooms Some persons have taken to pants. Pullovers Number and woollen coats are also worn. The females Number of Rooms of House- Population wear a cotton sari over a petticoat and cover holds the head with one end. Instead of a blouse they 1 48 178 wear a full sleeve shirt, a slight modification of 2 43 198 the shirt worn by the males. During the winter 3 11 54 some of them wear a woollen jacket as well. Angra, a sort of double-breast jacket, is also 65 4 11 worn in place of the shirt. A bodice or under S 3 22 garment is not used by them. The females and 6 4 35 children do not ordinarily use shoes whereas some males do. They are gaily and colourfuIIy Total 120 552 dressed when they go to melas. As is evident from the above table, 76 per cent of the households with 68 per cent of the total Till some years ago, the males used to wear population reside in houses having one or two the bali or murki on the ear lobe but the rooms, whereas only 7 households with a popu practice seems to have been given up now. The lation of 57 persons reside in houses having 5 males do not practically wear any ornaments or 6 rooms. In 48 households one room is now, except for a gold ring by the rich few. shared by 3.7 persons whereas in 43 households The following ornaments are commonly used one room is shared by 2.3 persons. On an by the females ;- average for the whole village, one room is occupied by 2 persons. Looking to the general Name of Ornament Details hou~ing conditions in Garhwal, the people of 1. Nath A big nose ring of gold hanging this village are better housed. :Lt is also notice from the cartilage of the nose on able that households having a greater number the left side of rooms have a comparatively large number of 2. Bulak and Aarh Gold ornaments hanging on the septum of the nose members. Some houses are well built and pro 3. Phooli and laung Small gold ornaments worn on perly maintained. The houses of the Shilpkars cartilage of the nose are not generally neat and clean nor is their 4. Murkhala Ear-rings of silver or gold worn on dwelling standard as high as that of the Rajputs the cartilage of each ear and Brahmins who are economically better off. 5. Jhumka Ear-rings of silver or gold worn on the lobes of each ear Dress and Ornaments 6. Guluband, Locket Necklaces made of gold The dress of the villagers is simple, economical 7. Hansli A round and heavy ornament of and well-suited for the various seasons of the silver worn round the neck year. They use woollen clothes of dark-brown, 8. Choor; Gold bangles worn on the wrist grey and black colour all the year round, as 9. Karey Silver bracelets worn on the wrist a safeguard against the cold climate of the village. Mundr; Ring worn on fingers They have the additional virtue of not smelling 10. 11. Paunta, Jhanwar Silver ornaments worn round the foul or looking dirty even when unwashed. and Paijeb ankles The males wear a coloured cotton or woollen 12. Bichhwa Small silver ornament worn round cap on the head. A shirt and a collon or the toes woollen jacket, locally known as sadri or vasket, 13. Mala Necklace of rnpee coini 8 THAPLI

The above ornaments are worn by females Persons without bedsteads and charpoys sleep of all castes, of course according to their means. on the floor on mats or blankets. Small woollen The poor cannot afford gold ornaments and . mattresses are prepared by some people in a have to remain satisfied only with silver. The neighbouring village. Skins of hill goats are use of ornaments in daily life is on the decrease. also used for sitting purposes. A couple of well The womenfolk are, however, fully loaded to-do households have maintained well-furnished with ornaments at the time of fairs and festivals drawing rooms even, decorated with cheap pic or religious and social functions. tures of gods and goddesses and sceneries.

Household Goods The following utensils are generally used by Village Thapli is an advanced village, situated the residents of this village quite near the district headquarters. A Local names of Utensils Details number of persons are serving either in the army 1. Pali/i Brass vessel used for boiling rice and or other government departments. The percen pulse or cooking vegetables tage of educated persons is also quite high. 2. Karahi Iron frying pan for preparing vege- Hence the standard of living of the average table etc. resident is higher than that prevailing in a 3. Tasla An iron utensil used for heating milk typical Garhwal village. The following table 4. Tauli A big brass vessel used for boilin, gives an idea of household goods indicative of rice for a big family material culture :- S. Thali A big plate made of brass or bell- metal used for taking food TABLE No. 2.3 6. Karchhi A big spoon made of brass or iron used for serving pulse or Vege- Household Goods tables 7. Tawa A round piece of iron used for baking Number of Households possessing chapaties Name of Article r- _.__., Brahmin Kshatriya Shilpkar Total 8. Kettle An aluminium utensil used for pre. paring tea Chair 21 2 4 27 9. Bamha A big copper or brass vessel used for Table 14 2 4 20 carrying and storing water Bedstead 24 1 7 32 10. Tokana A big utensil made of brass used for storing water at a marriage Charpoy 69 6 38 113 15 1 2 18 11. Bhoddu A small utensil made of brass used Mirror for cooking pulse • 3 3 Bench 12. Lota A small utensil made of brass used Stool 3 3 for taking water etc. Jalchauki 1 1 13. Gi/as A tumbler made of brass or bell· metal Wall shelf 2 2 14. Parat A big plate of brass meant for Radio-sets 8 8 preparing dough Gramophone 5 5 15. Tea set Used for taking tea Kerosene Stove 8 8 16. Gagar A big copper vessel used for bringing Torch 8 8 water Petromax 4 1 5 Some households use enamel utensils such as Hurricane Lantern 68 5 32 105 jugs and plates which are generally used in The possession of radio-sets, gramophones, Army and have been left behind by persons who k.erosene stoves, petroma.xes, tables, chairs and are serving in Army. Tea drinking is a universal bedsteads in a village of Garhwal is a sure index habit born out of the necessity of keeping warm of good economic condition of the population. in a cold climate. Some persons use cups for Evidently, the Blahmins are CUlturally and taking tea but the general practice is to have it materially more advanced than other commu in a tumbler. 1£ milk is not available tea is nities in the village. taken even wi thout milk. Corn bins made of PLATE No. 14

A set of bigger utensils-a lw ,?'a hi and two to/wnas-llsed on cerernonial occasions

PLATE No. 15

Some o( the utensils ordinarily used III the village

o - Facin'b ' paob 'e 8. PLATE. No. IG

Two women of Thapli on way to the water source

PLATE 1\"0. 17

.r\ WOJiIeHI t~lkillg water at the lIflllli-the village water source - Facing jJagc 9. THE PEOPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL EQUIPMENTS 9 bamboo and plastered with clay and dung are of halwa and purie etc. is generally prepared. used for storing corn. In spite of this poor nutrition, the viliagers are quite healthy and sturdy. The fresh air of the Food and Drink Himalayas and their care-free life are apparently A vast majority of Garhwalis aTe non responsible for it. vegetarians by tradition and necessity. The MANNERS AND CUSTOMS following figures indicate the number of vege tarians caste-wise in this village Birth Customs

TABLE No. 2.4 Every married couple is keen to have a child soon after the marriage. A male child is essen Dietary Trends tial for preservation of the progeny and attain Total Number Number Percen ment of salvation besides being the staff of life number of of Non tage of in old age. Hence there is lot of rejoicing on Caste of vegeta vegeta- Non house rian rian vegetarian the occasion of birth of a male child. There is holds house house house no maternity centre in the village and hence holds holds holds delivery takes place within the residential Brahmin 73 16 57 78 room. The village dai, a Shilpkar by caste, Kshatriya 7 7 100 cOlnducts the case. An elderly woman of the Shilpkar 40 39 97.5 household looks after the mother and infant but for purifying herself she takes a bath every Total 120 17 103 86 time she enters the confinement room. When a Thus 86 per cent of the total households are child is born, the mother and other members of non-vegetarians. The Kshatriya households are the household are rendered ritually impure. No all non-vegetarian whereas amongst the Brahmins outsider would accept any edible articles cooked and Shilpkars the percentage of non-vegetarians in this house. There is, however, no objection is 78 and 97.5 respectively, which is quite high. to sweets. On the sixth day the Chhati In actual practice the frequency of taking meat or the sixth-day-after-the-birth ceremony is per has to be limited because of the high price of formed. Women of the households and those in meat and fish. vited from the village go on rejoicing by singing and dancing throughout the night. Since they The breakfast consists of a glass of tea and a keep awake the whole night, the function is couple of chapaties of mandua or a mixture of known as Jagran locally. mandua and barley flour. The lunch comprises of boiled rice or jhangoora and lentil pulse or On the 11 th day after the birth, a bath is tore or jholi (curry). At dinner time chapaties given t(1 the mother and child and the room and dal or locally grown vegetables of the season of confinement is thoroughly cleaned. Puja like potatoes, beans, pumpkins etc. are consum of the family gods and goddesses is performed ed. An edible root locally known as tairu is also and a suitable name is given to the child on the taken just like potato. U,.d dal is also consumed, advice of the family priest who consults the though not so often. Tea is very popular and almanac for fiJJ.ding out the rashi of the infant. is taken quite frequently. Liquor is not taken Traditionally five names are given to a child in this village by anyone. Milk and ghee are even though in due course he retains only one available only to the rich few. Goat milk is . or at the most two names-one being a pet house not used for human consumption in the district. hold name. Parents whose offsprings do not Even though the population is essentially non survive give dirty names like Hagaru, Mataru. vegetarian, meat apd fish are in actual practice or Kutti Devi to their children ill the belief a luxury to be taken seldom when one can afford. that children having such names are not It is only on festivals that pukka food consisting claimed early by Vama, the god of Death. Th~ 10 THAPLJ ritual impurity of the family is removed after to orthodox religious tenets. But with the Arya this ceremony but the mother becomes ritually Samaj movement for their social emancipation pure after about 21-28 days when the Pani per about a decade ago, some of them have also Lagna ceremony is performed. Everyone then started wearing it as a step towards social begins accepting water from her hands. Friends equality with the twice-born castes. and relatives are invited to a feast. The ceremony is known as Namakaran Sanskar Marriage Customs or christening ceremony. Marriage is arranged generally by the parents Panchgauya or a mixture of urine, dung, curd, of the bridegroom and bride, who whether milk and ghee of cow is administered to the grown-up or young have to !>ubmit to their mother on the 3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th and 11th day parents' choice without any murmur or of the birth as it is said to be having religious complaint. "In Garhwal only two forms of sanction and traditional force in addition to its marriage are observed at the present day, viz., the medicinal values. H a child is born at an Brahma and the Asura forms. The Brahma inauspicious conjunction of stars, known as moo I form of marriage is that in which the bride is nakshatra, a puja is performed and charity is bestowed on the bridegroom with presents in given to ward off the evil effect of the stars. consecration of the gift and a dowry according The Annaprasan Sanskar or the ceremony to the means of the bride's father. This form for initiating the child to the consumption of of marriage is commonly known as the Kanya foodgrains is performed when the child attains dan. It is confined to a few higher classes of the age of six months. Cooked rice and dal are Brahmins, Rajputs and Vaishyas. The very given to the child for the first time. After common form of marriage that is in vogue performance of puja and havan sweets are distri amongst all classes of the Garhwalis is the buted amongst friends and relatives. The mutual sale and purchase, that is to say, the well-to-do invite them to a feast. parents of a bride demand a certain amount of money ranging from two hundred and upwards The .M undan ceremony is performed as soon to two thousand rupees. The more the wedding as the child attains the age of one year. On this parties are well-to-do and grown up, the higher day the head of the child is shaved. The priest is the price of bride. With the money thus recites Sanskrit verses from the holy scriptures obtained, the father of the bride provides her praying for blessings and a happy life for the with ornaments, dress and dowry and meets child. Sweets are distributed and a feast is other sundry expenses which are incurred on the given on this occasion also. performance of the marriage ceremony. The Yagopavit or sacred thread ceremony is Religious people spend all that is charged from performed amongst the Brahmins only when the the bridegroom but the majority make a profit child attains the age of 12 years. One becomes out of the price that they obtain for their a dwij or twice-born on wearing the sacred thread. daughters. In this form of marriage, the bride From this day. the boy is expected to observe groom does not go himself to fetch the bride strict adherence to the principles of his religion. but the bride is conveyed to the bridegroom's The ceremony is not observed ~mongst -all the house where the whole marriage ceremony is Brahmin households. Instead, the boy begins gone through in a cursory way and is termed wearing the sacred thread without any formal the marriage by Ganesh Puja. In some of the religious ceremony, which takes place at a parganas in lower Garhwal, the debasing practice subsequent date at the time of marriage. of selling their grown-up daughters to the highest bidder is still prevalent."· The sacred thread is used by the Rajputs as well. The Shilpkars, being Scheduled Castes, Similar observations have been made in the are not entitled to wear the thread arcor

-qtIrhwql by P. RaIl1. pp. 132-3~. THE PEoPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL EQUIPMENTS 11

remarks: "Wives are always bought, except the father of the bride. On the next day the among a, few of the very highest caste, at a marriage party returns with the bride in a palk; price which v'IIies between two hundred rupees with a party of Bajgis playing music on drums. and one thousand. The money is paid to the The bride might be required to walk some dis bride's father or nearest male relative by the tance on foot. Till about a decade ago, accord bridegroom. Formerly the transaction was held ing to local sodal customs, the Shilpkars were to create a transferable right in the person of not allowed to use dala for the bride or palM the woman acquired and she could be freely for the groom but in course of time the taboo sold. Usually the marriage by sale is between has been removed mostly due to the agitation castes who are able according to Hindu Law organised by the Arya Samaj. to intermarry, but cert~in pattis have earned a The marriage by purchase of bride is more very evil reputation for. want of care in ascertain prevalent amongst. the Shilpkars and to some ing the status and caste of the bridegroom who extent within the upper castes also. This is is usually a plainsman. The result is that for locally known as Taka ka Byao or marriage for all practical purposes the girls are sold into money. However, some of them are adopting prostitution or concubinage. This practice the custom of performing the marriage by sapta obtains chiefly in the Udepur Patti. The nego padi, even when some bride money has been tiations and ceremonies are na~urally not pro charged. Early marriage is customary in the tracted and a hedge priest who will gabble the whole district but the practice has diminished rites is always at hand. With this exception, the in this village. A girl is married usually after marriage by .sale is considered respectable. she has attained the age of 14 years and a boy Circumambulation is omitted from the ceremony, is married aftt!r he has completed 18 years. which consists almost entirely of the Ganesh Puja."· Polygamy is common in the whole district. The villagers depend on agriculture mainly, The Kanyadan type of marriage is prevalent which requires lot of manual labour. The young in this village only among some of the upper and able-bodied seek employment ~utside the caste households. If the two families agree to village and the womenfolk are left in the village the proposal of the marriage of a boy and a girl, to carry out the ordeal of cultivation. Thus a date of marriage is fixed by mutual consent polygamy seems to have originated mainly out of the parties. Three days before the date of of the necessity of labour force for cultivation. marriage a document, locally known as syah But under similat" economic conditions, the patta, is sent by the bridegroom's party to the residents of Jaunsar-Bawar in tahsil Chakrata bride's house. On the date fixed for marriage of district Dehra Dun, continue practising ceremony, the barat or marriage party starts polyandry. The Jaunsaris are stay-at-home usually on foot for the bride's house with the whereas the Garhwalis migrate to other districts groom in a dandi or palki, since the villages are in search of fresh fields and pastures new. The not generally connected by a motorable road. attitude of Jaunsaris and Garhwalis has been The party is received on the outskirts of the narrated in an interesting manner by village. The actual marriage ceremon)1 takes Dr. Majumdar who writes: "When L asked a place in the night in the presence of friends group of Jaunsaris why they still preferred to and relatives and it consists of saptpadi or the live under polyandrous conditions while their circumambulation of the holy fire seven times neighbours, the Garhwalis, hate this institution, by the couple jointly and the recitation of I was told that they did not envy the latter. marriage vows by both of them, after the recita The Garhwalis. they said, left their homes due tion of holy verses or mantras and performance to the disintegration of joint family. Previously of havan. The Kanyadan Sanskar or the giving land in Garhwal was measured in acres, then by away of the bride to the groom is performed by rods, then by poles, then by yards and feet. till *Walton's Gazetteer of British Garhwal, 1910. TIlAPU

they all left their home and are today distributed Even though in Garhwal women are held in all over the country as menials, domestic servants rather low esteem they occupy a very important or army recruits. The Jaunsaris and their position in the Garhwali house. They play a neighbours in Bawar love their home and do not pivotal role in shaping the economy and the want to emulate the Garhwalis."· destiny of the household because they work harder than their husbands or other male The system of widow remarriage is not members. Besides performing all the domestic prevalent even though there prevails the custom chores, they look after the cattle, the granary of a man taking into his house as his wife a and the fields. Except for actual ploughing in deceased elder brother's wife (bhauJ). No for the fields, almost all the agricultural operations mal ceremonies are performed, when a brother's are conducted by them irrespective of the hard widow is taken as wife. This custom is followed labour involved. It includes even the transport in even the very highest castes. In such cases on their heads of manure from the refuse dumps the woman is regarded as equal to a lawful to the fields and the fodder and fuel from the married wife. The children of such a union hills or forests to the cowshed or the hearth. have by usage all the rights and privileges of They have a very hard lot indeed more so legitimacy. when their husbands are not equal participants in the drudgery of life. Amongst the men of the lowest condition, It is not uncommon in Garhwal for a man i.e., the Doms, a widow is at liberty to take to take another man's wife or widow to live residence with any man she chooses in her own with him. Sometimes a maiden is bought for caste, without any loss of rights to her offsprings. money and is kept as a wife without any cere A widow in Garhwal is not subjected to any mony. Such a wife is known as dhanti and l1er sort of hardships, as her sisters suffer in some husband is known as dhant. The connexion is parts of the country. She is treated with of almost permanent character. The children sympathy and all help is rendered to her in the of a dhanti woman are admittedly illegitimate family. Walton observes "As women are parti but they are included in the biradari. cularly valuable, wives are not allowed to go out of the family on the death of the husband Death Customs but are made over to his younger brother. The dead are cremated on the bank of river There is no ceremony; the wife is merely taken Nayar at a distance of about three miles and in a into the brother's possession. The children are few cases on the bank of the nearby stream considered legitimate unless the couple live Idagadd, except in cases of deaths from infectious apart. If there is no surviving b:r;other a cousin diseases. Persons so dying are buried and their or other near relative will take over the widow bones are taken out and burnt after six months and rarely, when there is no relative at all, the to three years according to the convenience of property of the deceased husband is transferred successors. Other death customs are also to an outsider on condition that he maintains performed thereafter. Those who die young the widow. The practice is regarded as rather (up to the age of 10 years generally) are immoral. The transferee is called the tekua invariably buried. or Lover·'t The corpse is bathed, clothed and then tied Panna Lall, however, observes that there is no on to a bier which is carried to the cremation distinction for purpose of inheritance whether ground on shoulders' of four persons at a time. the bhauj goes to live in the home of her Friends and relatives accompany the bier and husband's brother or cohabits with him in her carry it on their shoulders for some time tum own home. by turn. On this journey, people go on reciting ·Dr. Majumdar's Races and Cultures of India, Page 193. tWalton's Gazetteer of British Garhwal, 1910. THE PEOPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL EQUIPMENTS

'Ram Nam Satya Hai'-the name of God alope is non-observance is believed to turn the deceased True. The eldest son, or the next of kin in his into a ghost or haunting . spirit. Persons dying absence,. sets fire to the pyre. His head and without gratification of their desires and cravings face are shaved' dean at the spot. All persons or meeting an unnatural death, as by accident take a purifying bath ill the river before or suicide, are known to have a tendency to turn returning to the village. The bones are collected into ghosts, creating trouble not only for the and immersed in the river on the 3rd day when family but also for the whole village. Shradh some purificatory rites including washing and ceremony is performed every year during the cleaning of the house and household clothes are Pitra faksha for not only showing reverence observed; On the 7th day of death, Moondan to the deceased but also for keeping the departed Sanskar or clean-shaving of the head and face of souls pleased, so as to safeguard against the wrath all relatives within shaving degrees takes place. of ancestor spirits. No shradh ceremony is Shaving by the deceased's son (s) , father, performed in the case of children. brother (s) and nephew (s) is customary and for others of the same caste it depends on mutual With the spread of education and enlighten relations. No. one from mother's side falls ment, however, some of the superstitions and within the shaving degrees. On the twelfth customs are gradually on the decline. All the day, the Terhavin ceremony takes place. Puri ceremonies are not strictly performed by every ficatory rites are performed under the direction one, especially the educated persons who have of the priest a~cord'ing to the caste customs; lived outside the village for long. For example, food is offered to the soul of the dead, a feast the following changes were noticeable in the is given to friends and relatives who gather for younger and educated generation :- offering condolences and edibles cooked in oil are taken as part of the tel chakhai or tasting of (1) The belief in the existence and powers oil ceremony which is an essential part of ritual of the supernatural, the spirits and' goblins purification. On this occasion a small stone is is on the decline. . brought by the priest from river Ganga at Srinagar. He approaches the river with his (2) Panchgauya is not taken in some of back towards it and picks up the first stone, the educated families. without seeing it, with his hands turne4 on the back. It is then placed in an earthen pot with (3) Sanctity of the sacred thread is on the sand and water of the sacred river. After being decline. The Yagopavit ceremony of every brought to the village, the pot is hung on a BrahminjRajput boy no longer takes place tree for the night. at the traditional age of 12 years. Instead, the thread il> ceremonially given at the time The next morning this stone, locally called of marriage. Its wearing is sometimes dis pitri rora or lingwas is placed in the name of continued by the reluctant. the deceased in the pitrigrah (place of ancestors) , a small cell about two feet long and two feet (4) Some people perform the marriage broad set apart for this purpose in a field by saptapadi even when some bride money beneath a tree outside the abadi area. It is is charged, because it is considered more respectable. closed with a slab of stone. Various communities have their separate pitrigrah, containing these (5) A smaller number of persons are token memorials of the deceased. invited to the feasts on the occasion of marriage, death or child-birth, due to the In case of the death of an adult who is high cost of living. cremated, the family does not observe any festivals for one year. The death ceremonies are (6) Religion is not followed so strictly as rigidly observed as part of the religion. Their in days of yore. CHAPTER III

ECONOMY

Occupatwnal Pattern The 40 Shilpkar households consist of 198 persons, 87 males and III females, out of them India is mainly a land of villages and 74 per 42 males and 36 females being non-workers. cent of its population gets its livelihood from Amongst the 45 male and 75 female workers, 21 agriculture as against 6 per cent in Great Britain males and 75 females were engaged in culti. and 19 per cent in the U. S. A. The rural vation directly or indirectly, 5 males were economy hinges largely around agriculture and found working as tailors, 2 as blacksmiths and crafts and cottage industries. Thapli too is 2 as braziers, 10 as masons, 2 as carpenters, 2 as predominantly an agricultural village. The labourers in the P. W. D. and one as chowkidar. following table gives the number of workers clas The biggest holding with a Shilpkar household sified by. ~ex and occupation :- is 1.5 acres in size and the smallest holding has TABLE No. 3.1 an area of 0.13 acres. The average holding per household comes to 0.187 acres which is too Number of Workers by Sex and Occupation low to support anyone. The income has, therefore, to be supplemented by working as an Number OCcupation r- agricultural labourer, an artisan or, an ordinary P M F labourer. Womenfolk of Shilpkar households Cultivator 262 64 198 even consider it customarily below their dignity Mason .. 13 13 to work on the roads as labourers even though Tailor 5 5 they do not mind working as agricultural Blacksmith 2 2 labourers. Motor Driver 1 1 Brazier - 2 2 The biggest number of cultivators - 41 maies Carpenter 2 2 and 116 females - is from the Brahmin Teacher •. 7 5 2 community. Like Rajputs they too work on their Other Services 8 8 --- own fields and not as agricultural labourers Total 302 102 200 like the ShiIpkars. The average area under the cultivation of a Brahmin household is 2.6 acres. Evidently. out of 302 persons in the labour Out of this community 5 males and 2 females force of the village, as many as 262 persons or are teachers and 8 males are in service - as 86.7 per cent are engaged in cultivation directly clerk, driver, peons, forest munshi, munims, or or indirectly. Out of them 64 or 24.4 per in the P. W. D. The number of residents of cent are males and 198 or 75.6 per cent are this village who are in service is actually much females. Every household has some land under more because at the time of survey, only those cultivation. One family of Shilpkars did not persons were counted who were present in the cultivate the land in its possession but worked village, omitting a large number of persons in only as agricultural labourers. service who have naturally to live away outside All the seven households of Rajputs, the village. Out of them, eleven persons, consisting of 6 males and 10 females are including one Captain and two Lieutenants are dependent on cultivation as a means of liveli employed in the military force of the country hood. Only two males and 8 females are and one of them Shri Narendra Datt Sundriyal cultivators, the remaining persons being non has won the Vir Chakra for bravery on the workers. Kashmir front; twenty persons are employed in ECONOMY 15

the education department as teachers, Deputy Primary Census Abstract of the village at the Inspector of Schools or as Sub-Deputy Inspector time of 1951 Census enumeration, out of a of Schools and twenty-two persons are employed total population of 477 persons, 474 persons in other government departments, some of them (99.37 per cent) consisting of 188 males and _ as gazetted officers. In all, thirty Brahmins and 286 females depended on agriculture as the main one Shilpkar have shifted with their families source of their livelihood. At the 1961 Census, from the village in connection with service. the number of dependants on various occupa Naturally they were not counted within th_e tions was not calculated nor was this village at the time of survey. In this village, information collected during the Survey. The 60 households are in receipt of remittances from fact that out of 302 workers, the main occupation outside the village, to the extent of Rs.2,697 of 262 workers (or 86. 75 per cent of total per mensem on an average. Out of these, 40 workers) was cultivation shows that the number Brahmin households receive Rs.2,195 per mensem, of persons dependant on cultivation has gone 16 Shilpkar households receive Rs.347 per mensem down. The fact that a large number of Rajputs and 4 Kshatriya households receive Rs.155 per and Brahmins are out in services indicates a mensem on an average. The sources of earning trend towards services in preference to in the village are poor and hence the remittances agriculture which is not profitable at all. There are a great source of relief. has been almost no change among the Shilpkars who are by force of circumstances sticking to Some retired government servants are residing their traditional occupations of an artisan or in the village - the more important of them cultivator or agricultural labour. They work as being Shri Jayanand Thapliyal who retired in tailors for the residents of this or nearby villages; 1940, as headmaster of a District Board School they prepare sickles and spades and other and Shri Kunwar Singh Rawat, Pradhan of the agricultural implements for the cultivators; they Gaon Sabha who retired as Company Commander also carry out casual repairs to these implements; P. A. C. The village people treat Shri Thapliyal they work as masons on the P. W. D. road or for as their friend, philosopher and guide at every villagers for constructing their houses or repairing step, in matters of interest and welfare for the the terraces of their fields every year; some village community as a whole and in their of them work as ordinary labourers too or as individual affairs of a personal nature too. The agricultural labourers, according to their frequent visits of residents of this village who convenience and livelihood requirements during are out in service serve as a medium of inter various periods of the year in addition to the penetration of the urban culture with the little cultivation done by them. They are too traditional rural culture of the village, thereby poor to improve upon themselves without any giving a rurarbanised outlook to the village substantial economic help by the government. Secondly, those in service attract the younger They are quite conscious of their abject poverty generation for proper education and service and low status in life and have their aspirations outside, thereby relieving extra pressure on land. too to ameliorate their lot but they feel helpless. Changes in Traditional Occupations As regards Brahmins and Rajputs they have Within the village community . there is not the will and the means to impart proper much scope for changes in traditional occupa education and training to their children who tions. Every one works within the traditional naturally move out of the village in search of occupational groove. fresh fields and pastures new. Out of the 53 The opportunity of occupational mobility is persons of this v.illage who are engaged in service further restricted in a small hill village like outside the village, only one belongs to the Thapli where cultivation is the main occupa Shilpkar community whereas the remaining 52 tion and service and household industry are persons are either nrahmins or Rajputs. Almost pursued on a limited scale. According to the every hou~hold ha$ .ts aspiration to see at le~t 16 THAPU one of its male members in service because culti This land is known as ukhar or upraon land vation is not profitable or even adequate for (dry upland). Ordinarily it gives three crops subsistence and the pressure on land is already in two years - two kharit and one rabi. It is too heavy. Out of the 120 heads of households all under cultivation every year in the kharit interrogated, 85 heads wanted their sons season but during the rabi season half of it to be in service. Only one person wanted him remains fallow, the other half bearing wheat or to be a mason. The remaining 34 persons did barley. not express any opinion, partly because some of them had no sons. Thus the aspiration of The low-lying plots of land situated in the everyone is to see the future generation in beds of a river or stream, which are irrigated the service. How far they will be able to fulfil whole year are called talaon or shera. Such the desire depends upon the opportunities and land is regularly double-cropped and is quite the push and pull of the individual. The trend fertile due to its alluvial soil. If the stream of occupational mobility from agriculture to has a wide bed, the fields on its bank are full service outside the village is evident. of sand, gravel and bould~rs but even then they are capable of producing more than the upraon Agriculture land can produce. Such fields have a tendency to be washed away at times due to high lloods or Agriculture is the most important occupation change in the course of the stream. This is of the residents of this village. Nature has not known as bagar land and forms the bone of con provided any level ground. The slope of the tention and litigation when it reappears and is hills is too steep for cultivation without terracing brought under cultivation by someone other which is done by building up a stone wall at than its previous tiller. the base of the slope and excavating some of Irrigation is carried out through canals and the upper part and spreading the dug-out soil gravitational channels (gul) by diverting water within the walled surface until the whole therein by throwing a. band across the stream becomes a small patch of flat land fit for culti at its upper course; The gul is generally vation. The stones of which the soil is cleared constructed along the contour line of the hill. are used in the retaining wall. Similar terraces There is acute scarcity of water in the hill constructed after allowing adequate time are villages and hence disputes about water are fol' a terrace to become settled, strong and fertile common and keenly contested. Priority is till the entire slope is turned into small terraced naturally given to the claim of a village that has fields having the virtual appearance of a big been using a particular amount of water (the staircase. The width of a terraced field is exact quantity being difficult to measure in correlated to the gentleness of the slope - the actual practice) from before. A dispute crops fields carved out of steeper slopes being quite up when a village wants to share the water, even narrow. Turning a slope into a terraced field for drinking purposes, or when the water-supply involves years of patient and hard work and diminishes due to natural causes and the village quite a heavy investment. After every plough at the higher level insists on having its old ing stones and boulders are removed from the share, thereby leaving an inadequate and soil and manure is added to it to increase its depleted supply for the village at the lower fertility. The slope of the fields is adjusted level ?r when a fresh channel is diverted through properly for minimising the chances of soil land belonging to a person other than the owner erosion. Annual repairs to terraces are carried of the channel. The disputes are settled by the out with a view to ensuring their long life. Sub-Divisional Officer or the Munsif as the case Torrential rains might cause a big damage or may be. an occasional landslide might turn the terraced fields back into a slope, thereby bringing lot Unterraced inferior land cultivated inter of misery to the poor cultivator. mittently is locally known as· katil or ·khil ECONOMY 17 whereas inferior terraced land cultivated, inter ~~ under.proprietor whose rights as the mittently is called ijran. ongmal occupant cultivator have been usurped by or granted to some other person at some Land in Garhwal is divided into measured and former period is called a pakka khaikar whereas unmeasured land (nap and benap). Wasteland an occupant tenant who or whose predecessors is known as benap because only cultivated, had never any higher right is called a kachcha or culturable and terraced land has been khaikar. Thus a khaikar "is a permanent tenant measured at the time of settlement. Nap land is W_ith a ~eritable, but non-transferable right in settled land and is private property whereas Ius holdmg and paying a rent fixed at settle benap land is the property of the State. Land ment, which cannot be altered during the that has relapsed into jungle or permanent waste curr~ncy. of a settlement". The rent to be paid or has never been cultivated is recorded in the by hIm IS the proportionate amount of revenue name of the State and is known as Kaisar-i-Hind assessed on his holdings plus a malikana of about land. The villagers have no proprietary rights 20 per cent. over such land and subject to certain laid-down restrictions, cultivation can legitimately be ex The sirtans or tenants-at-will form the third tended on them. All the land in a village is by type of agriculturist in the district. Their tradition divided into blocks or thoks, with number is insignificant. They are equivalent separate names. When unmeasured land is to asamis in the plains. They cultivate land brought under cultivation in a separate block which the proprietors cannot, either because of not in continuity of the old cultivation, such absence or non-availability of adequate labour cultivation is known as nayabad (equivalent of or other causes. They have no right of occu nau.tor of the plains) and requires sanction of pancy. The tenants pay their rent either in the Commissioner on the recommendation of cash or in kind. The rent or mim so paid is the Sub-Divisional Officer. Hamlet of a village termed as sirti. is known as lagga. The U. P. Zamindari Abolition and Land A bill village has a number of proprietors or Reforms Act, 1950, has not been extended to the hissedars. "The hissedari body often consists of district as yet. }:Ience the old system of land a number of families all of one caste and all more tenure is still in force. The village land records or less inter-related, descended from one or two consist of phant or an abstract village record original founders of the village; sometimes it of rights and revenue roll; the muntakhib which consists of two sets of families or clans of diffe· gives each separate share in detail of fields with rent castes". The hissedari right is an introduc their area, classification of soil and the thok they tion of the British rule. It was conferred on are situated in as also the hissedars of each khata the occupant cultivators. A hissedar has full and the khaikar or sirtan of each number; the rights of tranfer in the cultivated land of the khasra which is the original measurement record village. All the hissedars are jointly and of fields giving their area, thok, hissedar and severally liable for the land revenue assessed on tenant classification and crop and area of crop the whole village. Out of the proprietary body, at the time of settlement. locally called panch hissedaran, one person The total area of the village is 8,502 naZis the is appointed as pradhan or malguzar. He has to area of one nali being 240 square yards. Out collect the land revenue from the co-sharers. of this only 4,089 nalis, i.e., 48 per cent only In every village there is usually some measured is cultivated and the remaining land is being land held in common by the whole village utilised as pasture land. The village has no community. It is known as gaon sanjait. When source of irrigation and hence out of an area of one hissedar gets his proportionate share of the 4,089 nalis an area of 9 nalis only lying in the gaon sanjait separated by imperfect partition, vicinity of river is irrigated or talaon. The the remaining land is sanjait of certain specific remaining land has to depend on the vagilries of hissedars only. tbe rain iod. THAPLI

The following table gives the area of land Crops under various tenures:-

TABLE NO. 3.2 In this village there are only two crops seasons, viz., the kharif and the rabi. The crops sown Area ullder Various Tenures at the commencement of rainy season i:::, June Area in Percen- and reaped towards the end of October are Tenure Nalis tage known as khmif crops. Much water is required 1. Khudkasht 2,185 53 for the growth of such crops. The principal 2. Khaikar Pakka 1,752 43 kharif crops are paddy, mandZla (eleusine cora 3. Sir/an 152 4 (ana) . jhangom (panicum crusgalli roxb) and Evidently, the number of sirtol1s is very few as maize. The pulses like urd (phaseolus mungo) , in any other village of Garhwal. The reason gahat (dolichos bifloru~) or lwtat} bhatt, soontha, is that a hiss(;dIIT cultivates his land himself or or labia, and rain)'as are also grown in this through hired labourers belonging to the season. Mandua is the staple diet of the Shilpkar community. Only when he cannot get villagers. It is slow to digest and is preferred by any labourer to cultivate it, he lets out land to the hillman because it enables him to work long a sirtan. without feeling the pangs of hunger. It is also nutritious and wholesome and has a good keep As a result of the settlement going on at ing quality. Being hardy, it grows well in the present, the number of fields has increased from poor dry and stony soil of the hills without much 2,603 to 4,481. The average area of a field botheration for the cultivator. It is sown in comes to about 218 square yards. In the hills, June with the first shower of monsoon in fields the fields are terraced out of a slope, just like from which wheat and barley have been harvested. a hig staircase ;-mel hence the small size of the It does not need careful cultivation. A

Sorne .of the agricultural implements use~l In the village

- Facing page 18. PLATE No. 19

A Shilpkar of the village, engageu III tailoring

PLATE No. 20

A Shilpkar mason engaged Hl constructing a wall o[ stones

- Facing page 19. ECONOMY 1'9

and the seed is sown broadcast. It is again soil. Manure is applied to the levelled field levelled and left to grow, to be harvested in and the seed is sown broadcast. The jol is April. again applied and the surface is levelled; when the kharif crop is a few inches high, the toothed Vegetables such as potato, radish, bottle harrow is applied. Regular weeding has to be gourd, luffa (tumi), bitter gourd (karcla). carried out till the crop begins to come into car. lady's finger, brinjal, pea, ginger, chilly, pumpkin, dhania, beans, onion, spinach, broad beans, Sickle is used for harvesting the crop. Paddy plants lYe cut off close at the root. In the case French beans, asparagus beans, etc. are also of jllluzp;ora or ulandl/{/, the ears only are first grown on a very small scale in the fields near the, abadi site. They are used' for domestic cut. After being dried, the stalks are cut and stored as fodder. Wheat and barley are cut consumption only. Fruit trees such as orange, about the middle. The ear> are chopped off for peaches, bananas are also planted in the court threshing and the stalk is served to the cattle. yards of residential houses. They are fruit yield What remains on the field is grazed by cattle ing. Some apple and almond trees and grape or even burnt. Straw meant to be stored for vines too were found planted, but they have not cattle is stocked on trees near the homestead, started bearing fruit as yet. On the hill slopes paddy is generally sown Implements and MPlhods of Cultivation broadcast in April, the .... ultivation depending No improved implements of cultivation have entirely on rain. Th" terraced fields are been introduced into this village. The plough heavily manured with compost and the seed is in use is quite crude and primitive and cer broadcast dry. In the irrigated valley area culti tainly much smaller than the plough used in vation, both by transplantation and broadcasting, plains. It is made of wood except the phal or is practised. Germinated, and not dry seed, iron point which penetrates the soil and opens is broadcast because of the surety of water avail a V-shaped furrow in the process of ti1Iage. ability from the river. 1£ transplantation is The wooden portion is locally prepared by the done, a nursery is laid down in May. The carpenter and the blacksmith supplies the iron average yield per acre is larger in case of trans point. With his left hann the ploughman holds planted cultivation. Hand sickles are used for and pre&ses the hanrlle of the plough and with his harvesting. Sheaves are exposed to sun on the right hand he drives the puny bullocks. The field a couple of days after which they are trodden soil is quite soft and hence the strain on bullocks with feet and paddy is separated from the straw. and the ploughman is not heavy. The ground Medium earlv varieties of l'ice are grown in is ploughed once in the case of co:use kharif the village. The usual duration of a crop is crop5 such as ihangora and mnndua and twice 3-4 months. The rice is of ordinary quality. in the case of all others. Just after the ground Improved varieties of seed suited for the hill<; has been broken by the plough, breaking of are not available in the seed stores. Seed is no clods is done by the women or younger people doubt supplied by the Agriculture Department by a wooden mallet wi th a long handle, locally but looking to the performance of the seed in called dilnra. Roots of the old crop are freed the fields it appears that proper improved from the soil clods and stones or boulders in varieties have not been evolved as yet. the soil are separated from the soil and removed from the field. The 'surface is levelled by an The grain is stored in the upper storey of implement known as jol. It is iust like a harrow the house in big bins called dabra or kunna, without teeth. Sometimes the part of the made of bambon or rill#:al awl covered with a plough to which the iron-shear is nailed by a thick layer of dung and clay. They are quite rough wedge is used as a leveller. ·In the case heavy and are not ordinarilv moved from one of rice and wheat, the ground is plnughed twice place to another. Thev are propedy covered. or thrice, since these crops require a well-tilled The average life of such a bin is 30 years. Paddy and not rice is stored. Small quantities urine, domestic and faml refuse and general are hulled by hand according to individual waste materials of phnts has been used from requirements. Thus the nutrients of ric~ the earliest times. In this village, as in most remain intact and insect and weevil too do not of the villages of Garhwal, the slow-acting farm attack it. yard manure consisting of cattle dung and urine Rotation of Crops absorbed in the straw bedding or litter and According to the basic principles of cultiva domestic refuse is used. Urine contains nitrogen, tion the same crop should not be raised succes potash and phosphoric acid and is, therefore, manure but a large sively every season in a field. Instead, it should considered more valuable as be grown only once in two or three crop seasons portion, rich as plant food is wasted in the in rotation with other crops. In this manner process of collection. Due to absence o.f trees on a mass scale in the village tree leaves are not the soil recuperates its lost fertility easily, pests and dIseases and weeds particular to a particular available for being used as manure, as in other crop are not perpetuated, short season crops can villages. No manure pits are used for dumping be raised and, above all, the yield per acre the daily droppings which are heaped up in a corneY of the courtyard. During the summer, increases. the cattle are sometimes penned in the fields and Irrigated or talaon land gives two crops the animal waste is collected there to be used a year but unirrigated or uproan land yields as manure. three crops in two years. AClOrding to the prevailing system of rotation of crops, paddy Manure is usually applied in the fields im. mediately before the seed is sown. It is then CTOP is sown in May-June and harvested in Sep tember-October, to be followed by wheat crop ploughed in with the seed. With the inclusion sown in October and reaped in April. Then of this village within the N. E. S. Block, people mandua is sown in June and harvested in have started using chemical fertilizers, albeit October and the field is left fallow (or the next in an insignificant quantity. rabi season. Thus the course of rotation gene Crop Diseases and Pests rally followed is paddy - wheat - mandua The crops are not free from the attacks of fallow - paddy. Consequentiy upraon land is all insect, pests and fungus and other diseases. under cultivation during the B.:harif seasons and Paddy crop is generally attacked by khundalya half of it is fallow for the Rabi, the other half en account of which the plants do not bear any having wheat or barley crop. For the purpose of fruit at all or haldya, as a result of which the rotation of crops the village is divided into two plants turn yellow and develop ea'rs without sars or divisions. Rice is grov.n in one division corn or jhola, which turns both the ears and known as Satyara and man dUG is sl)wn in the corn black. The rice stem borer, locally known other division known as Kodara (from kodon as lwrungula, cuts and bores through the roots for mandua). During Rabi, Kodara is left of the paddy plants whereas another insect, the fallow and wheat is sown in Scltyara and it comes gundhi bug (Leptocorhiza vericornis) , so named to be known as Gyunwaw (gyun=gehun, because of its bad smell, is the most destructive wheat). Subsequently, when mandua follows pest. It sucks away the milky juice from the whfat, it becomes Kodara while the Kodara of developi.ng grains ; consequently, the grains do last year becomes Satyara. Thus nearly half of not fully develop or shrhel up completely. the cultivated land in the village remains fallow The millets are attacked by a few fungal during the winter.) distases or insect pests. The inse..::ts which attack Manure young crops are Amascata albistringa and the Manures are added to the soil for maintaining black headed Diacrisia oblique. Amongst the the fertility of soil during the course of years fungi, there is the mandua smut and leaf blight and for -increasing the yield of crops. Farm of jhangora coupled occasionally with stunted yard manure consisting of animal excreta and growth. !l

Wheat crop is effected by rusts and smuts. A number of factors are responsible for low Brown, aud yellow rusts appear from January yield. The soil is very poor; means of irriga vnward, whereas black rust appears in the end tion are non-existent; artificial fertilisers have of February. An attack by rust results in not been used as manure; local organic manure partial sterility, poorly filled heads and shrivel is not prepared properly; green manuring is not led grains. Black rust is also called stem rust popular; quality of seeds is poor, there being no because it attacks the stem most severely. It surety of good yield even when seed supplied by causes brown pustules on stem, leaves, ears and the Agricultural Department is used; the ctwns. technique of agriculture in primitive; imple The cultivators are not aware of modern ments used are not of the improved type; culti· methods of pest and insect control. Some agri vation is carried out mostly by women and culturists have been using gammexane in their children who cannot possibly be good culti fields but that is not generally effective. vators despite all the hard work put in by them. Crop Yield Organization of Man-power in Cultivation In spite of hard labour, the inho!>pitable soil Men, women and children are all engaged in of the h ills does not yield produce sufficient for the various processes of cultivation in accordance subsistence. The average yield of the im with their capacities. Menfolk generally perform portant crops is given below :- the task of ploughing the fields. The remain ing operations such as sowing, weeding, manur TABLE NO. 3.4 ing, watering, harvesting and thrashing are Average Yield carried out by the females and children. House Seed Yield holds, where menfolk are not available for Crop Sown per Acre per Acre ploughing, get the ploughing done either rods. through some willing Shilpkar on payment or 1. Paddy . . 30-40 seers 15-18 through menfolk of friendly households on a 2. Wheat . . one rod. 8 mutual help basis. without any payment. 3. Mandua (Eleusine coracana) 6 seers 12 Co-operation and mutual help in the various 4. Jhangoro (panicum crusgalli 6 seers 12 aspects of life is a marked feature of the village. Roxb.) 5. Barley .. one md. 8 The following table indicates the workers in The above figures of average yield per acre cultivation classified by sex and broad age were collected from the cultivators of the groups :- village. In spite of hard work on the fields, TABLE NO. 3.5 nature is not bountiful. The yield is pretty low as compared to the yield in the plains. Workers in Cultivation Classified by Sex and The following figures indicate the total Age-Groups annual produce of various crops in the village Age Group Persons Males Females as returned by the residents of the village at 0-14 7 6 the time of Survey:- 15-34 118 22 96 maunds L Paddy 645.4 35-59 .. 99 21 78 2. Wheat 341.1 60 and over 38 20 18 3. Jhangora and Mandua 634.5 4. Pulse 84.4 Total 262 64 198 5. Barley 29.1 Thus 75 per cent of the workers engaged in The above produce is utilised for local con· cultivation are females, who continue working sumption only. There is no surplus left fOf even after the age of 60 years. In the age marketing. group H)-59 years, out of 217 persons engaged 22 THAl'LI . in cultivation as many as 174 or 81 per cent elect a Director who is responsible for the proper are females. The predominance of women in working of the society, with the help of a Co the field of agriculture is evident. As culti operative Supervisor' and under the general vators they have their own limitations. guidance of the Co-operative Inspector Kalzikhal who inspects the working of the society. Annual Source of Finance audit is done by the auditors of the Co-operative Credit is obtained partly from the well-to-do Department. residents of the village at !Iigh rates of interest From this village only Brahmins and Rajputs and partly from the Kapolsyun Co-operative are members of the society. Not a single Society which has its he3.dquarters at Agrora at member of the Shilpkar community is a share a distance of about It miles. The society was holder. In the village itself there is no co established in July. 1947. Its membership of operative society. It is proposed by the Block 410 persons is spread to 39 villages - village

TABLE NO. 3.6 Distribution of Land

,-____Number.A. ____ of , Area Average.A.___ per , Caste in ,- Hous('holds Persons Acres Household Person

Rajnut 7 26 651 0.93 0.25

5hilpkar 40 198 7.47 0.187 0.037

Brahmin 73 328 194.77 2.66 0.69

Tot") 120 552 208.75 1.74 0.37 Evidently, the average land per household and lation has to migrate in search of employment of per person is the highest among the Brahmins and various types, mostly leaving behind the women the lowest among the Shilpkars - the land per folk to look after the cultivation. Out of 7 capita with a Brahmin being roughly 18 times households of Rajputs, the heads of 5 households the land per capita with a Shilpkar and 2.8 are females, whereas among the Shilpkars out of times the land per capita with a Rajput. Most 40 households, 10 females are heads of house of the land is concentrated in the hands of holds and among the 73 Brahmin households Brahmins who constitute the dominant commu· heads of 31 households are females. Thus a nity of the village. The plight of the Shilpkars large number of males among the Brahmins and is simply pitiable. On an average, every house Rajputs are living outside the yillage as em hold has 1.47 acres of land under cultivation. ployees, sending monthly remittances for supple The average per capita of land is as low as 0.37 menting the income from cultivation and visiting acres. This clearly indicates the heavy pressure the family in the village casually during holidays. of population on land, thereby making the Cultivation cannot possibly be carried out by holdings uneconomic to the e,_meme, not sufficing females and children so well as by grown-up even for a bare livelihood. Hence a large popu- males. ECONOMY

The following table shows the extent of land Appearance of double ears on the same wheat in possessIon of various households in the plant is deemed to be inauspicious. The entire -rillage :- produce of the field is given away as charity to a Brahmin from another villns Shoes are not worn by most of the people who are past sixty years keep themselves engaged especially the womenfolk. Shoe-repairing has got in various processes of cultivation. to be done at Pauri 'whenever anyone happens to go there. Indebtedness

Non-workers Poveity invariably leads to indebtedness which simply saps out the vitality of the man Out of the total population of 552 persons, in debt. In spite of the caution 'Neither a the number of workers not gainfully employed borrower nor a lender be', people have to is 250, or 45 per cent. The following table borrow and they do borrow. The following gives the distribution of non-workers according table shows the extent of indebtedness in this to ag~ and sex:- village

TABLE NO. 8.9

Indebtedness by Income Groups

Total Number Percentage Average number of of indebtedness Amount Income Group of households col. 3 to per of househOlds in debt col. 2 household Debt in debt Rs. nP. Rs. nP Rs.25 and below 19 9 47.4 306.70 2,760.00 Rs.Z6-50 .. 40 23 57.5 465.20 10,700.00 Rs.51-75 .. 22 6 27.3 241.70 1,450.00 Rs.76-1oo 20 4 20.0 525.00 2,100.00 Rs.101 and above 19 2 10.5 850.00 1,700.00 Total 120 44 36.7 425.20 18,710.00 Out of the 120 households in the village 44 to Brahmin community and the remaining 75 households, i.e.. 36.7 per cent are in debt. The per cent are Shilpkar by caste. The total debt is Rs.18,710 and the average debt per Kshatriya household were not found under household in debt is Rs.425.20 only_ Out of debt. Out of 73 Brahmin households, 11 house these 44 households, II or 25 per cent belong holds, i.e., 15 per cent are in debt whereas out 26 THAPLI of 40 Shilpkar households, 3! households, i.e., Debt was incurred mainly for meeting day-to 82.5 per cent are in debt. About 21.3 per cent day domestic expenditure. Out of 44 families of the total debt has been incurred by the in debt, as many as 39, i.e., 84.6 per cent Brahmins and the remaining 78.7 per cent by the families had incurred a debt of Rs.15,810. This Shilpkars. The high extent of indebtedness is an indication of the straitened circumstances among the Shilpkars clearly indicates their state of the Shilpkar families in debt. Since the debt of abject poverty. is not for a productive purpose, it is very In the income group of Rs.25 and below difficult to pay it off. In fact the debtor cannot 47.4 per cent households are in debt, each house pay even the interest, not to say of the prin hold having an average debt of Rs.306. 70. cIpa1. Once debt is incurred, it goes on piling Out of nine indebted households in this up, justifying the truth of the oft-quoted saying group, only one household is of Brahmins. In that an "Indian peasant is born in debt, lives the income group of Rs.26 to Rs.50, 57.5 per in debt, dies in debt and bequeaths debt." cent households are in debt, each household The Brahmins generally borrow money from having an average debt of Rs.465. 20 only. Out the Co-operative Credit Society at Agrora at of ·23 indebted households in this group, only about 8.75 per cent as rate of interest but the 3 households are of Brahmin community. This Shilpkars are not members of this society and income group has the highest extent of in hence they have to borrow from the well-to-do debtedness. With the increase in income, the Brahmin families in the village at a high rate extent of indebtedness declines. In the income of interest. It is no doubt easier to borrow group of Rs.76 to Rs.IOO only 27.3 per cent from an individual, but the loan is invariably households are in debt, each household having usurious and the debtor has to pay it off an average debt of Rs.241. 70. Out of 6 in by rendering personal services for a very long debted households in this income group, 4 are time. of Brahmins. In the income group of Rs.76 to Rs.loo, 20 per cent households are in debt, Income and Expenditure Pattern each household having an average debt of Thapli has 120 households, with a vast Rs.525. The number of indebted Brahmin and majority of Brahmins, followed by Shilpkars Shilpkar households in this group is equal just and Kshartriyas. Brahmins and Kshatriyas are as in the next income group of Rs.IOI and above, mainly engaged in cultivation, their income where the average debt incurred by each of being further supplemented by income from the two households is Rs.850. casual remittances from members of the family Causes of Indebtedness working outside. Members of the Shilpkar com The causes of indebtedness are varied. The munity are not generally in service outside the following table gives the causes of indebtedness :- village. They are engaged in cultivation or as agricultural labourers or in construction and TABLE NO. !.lO industry as masons and mason assistants, tailors, Indebtedness by Causes braziers, carpenters and blacksmiths. Percentag'l t\mount Number of debt Out of 73 Brahmin households, .; households Cause of of families due to are engaged principally,in teaching work, one Debt in debt Ifauseto total debt as driver, .; households as forest munshis, munim, Rs. clerk and peon and 62 households are engaged 1. Purchase of LanG) 1,000 1 5.3 principally in agriculture. The households 2. House Construction 900 1 4.8 mainly engaged in ocCupations other than cul 3. Marriages 300 1 1.6 4. Sickness 100 1 0.7 tivation follow cultivation as a subsidi~ry 5. Ordinary Wants 15,810 39 84.6 occupation. 6. Household Cultiva- 600 1 3.2 vation All the seven Kshatriya families are engaged in Total 18,710 44 tOO mltivation as the principal occupation. ECONOMY 27 ,out of 40 households belonging to Shilpkar occupations suc;h as by working as mason, community, 21 households are engaged in cul tailor, brazier, carpenter and blacksmith. tivation as the principal occupation even though every household cultivates some land. They All the 120 households of this village are possess insufficient land for cultivation. Hence distributed below according to various income they derive some income from their subsidiary ranges:· ,

TABLE NO. 3.11 Occupational Distribution by Income Groups Number Number of Households with Monthly Income of Occupation of house- _ A ______-----"\ holds 0-25 26-50 51-75 76-100 101 and above Teacher 5 1 4 Forest munshi, mulllm, clerk and peons 5 2 3 Cultivators .. 90 19 29 17 11 14 Driver 1 1 Masons, Tailors, Braziers, Carpenters and Blacksmiths 18 10 3 4 1 Chowkidar .. 1 1 Out of the five households whose main occu· tion have an income of less than Rs.25 pation is teaching, one falls in the income range per month. The income from cultivation is of Rs. 75-100 whereas the remaining four have Rs.14 per month, four households have an average an income of Rs.lO 1 and over. The income of income of Rs.ll per month each from wages Rs.55 per mensem from teaching of the former and 8 households receive Rs.lO per month as household is supplemented by Rs.15.00 per remittances. Out of 29 households of this month from cultivation and Rs.30 per month as occupation group which lie within the income pension. In the remaining 4 households on an group of Rs.26-50 each household gets Rs.31.l0 average the income from teaching of every per month from cultivation, 4 households get household is Rs.88. 60 nP per month, supple Rs.12 per month each as wages by working as mented by an income of RsAO. 00 per month labourers in agriculture, one household gets per household from cultivation and in case of Rs.15.00 per month as pension, and 20 house one household by Rs.80. 00 per month as holds get Rs.28. 00 per month each as remit- remittance. , tances .. Thus many households have more than one source of income. The 17 households of Out of the 1) households faIling within the this occupation group which fall in the income next occupational group, i.e., forest munshi l range of Rs.51-75 derive an income of Rs.40.40 munim, clerk and peon, 2 fall within the in per month each from cultivation, 3 households come group of Rs.51-75 ,and 3 within the in get pension of R:s.35 per month each and come range of Rs.76-1oo. In the former 2 ten households get Rs.35 per month ea.ch as houses, on an average Rs.40 per month are remittances. The 11 households in the income derived from pay and Rs.20 per month are group.of Rs.76-1oo get an average income of derived from cultivation. In the latter 3 house Rs.70 per month each from (:ultivation,' 2 holds the average income per family is Rs.65 households gets Rs.40 per' month each as per month from pay and ~.21L60 nP per month pension, 8 households get remittances of Rs.~O from cultivation. per month each. The 14 households within the The most important occupation of this village income range of Rs.lOI and over derive an is agriculture in which 90 households are income of Rs.85. 20 per month each from culti engage(t Nineteen households in this occupa- vation, 12 households have an income of Rs.45 28 per month each from remittancc=s. The house the population is of non-vegetarians but due holds within this income range belong to to its high price meat is consumed only casually Brahmin community only. in the village. Liquor is generally consumed in most of the hill villages but in this village no The head of one Brahmin household works one admitted to be a consumer of liquor. It as a casual driver in Garhwal Motor Owners' is just possible, the information has been held Union, Limited and gets an average amount of back for obvious reasons. Tea is taken fre R,s.57 per month from this profession. He quently in every house. It may be sweetened supplements his pay with the income from with sugar or gUT. Milk is no doubt added but cultivation which is about Rs.30 per month. if it is not available, tea is taken without -milk There are 18 households in this village work even. Milk is consumed mostly by children ing mainly as masons, tailors, braziers, carpenters in households having animals in milk. -and blac.ksmiths all belonging to Shilpkar com munity. All the 10 households within the in There is no expenditure on barber and come trange of Rs.26-50 earn Rs.30 per washerman. Since there are no barbers in the month each as wages or salary, 6 households earn village, hair cutting and shaving are done on a Rs.12 per month each from industry, 10 mutual help basis. within each community. The households earn Rs.IO per month each from consumption of soap among the Shilpkar fami cultivation, whereas one household gets Rs.20 lies is very small. Ghee and oil are used in per month as remittance. One person in this limited quantities. The Shilpkars cannot afford group belonging to the Shilpkar community is to use ghee and hence they use oil only for employed outside and remits money (0 his family frying purposes. members residing in this village. One household The expenditure on purchase of shoes is small of mason gets Rs.92 per month as salary and as compared to the expenditure in plains, because Rs.12 per month as income from cultivation. in the hills shoe is not used so frequently. One household of Shilpkar . community is Women and . children do not generally use any deriving the major income from watchmanship shoes. Smoking biris or the bamboo hookah is and 2 members of this caste work as chowkidar a common habit. Females among Brahmins and in forest, getting an average amount of Rs.45 Rajputs do not smoke but some of those belong per month. The income from service as ing to Shilpkar community do smoke. chowkidar is supplemented to the extent of Rs.5 The expenditure on education up to VI class per month as income from cultivation. is little, since no fees are to be paid. Money is Expenditure Pattern spent over the purchase of books and stationery only. Some of the well-to-do BrahmiIJ families The consumption pattern of the viHage has do impart higher education to their children its own peculiarities. The staple diet of the and hence the percentage of their expenditure villagers consists of urd or lentil pulses and on education is higher. chapa ties of mandua or jhangora which are The percentage of expenditure on food items more easily grown in the hill soil and which is high within the lower income groups whereas have the additional virtue of staying long in it is comparatively low in the higher income the stomach. Some of the well-to-do families groups. There is no shop in the village. Hence consume wheat also in addition to mandua and purchases have to be made from Paidul or Pauri. jhangora. Chapaties of mandua with a cover Extravagant expenditure in day-to-day life is ing of wheat dough are also prepared. Vege thu~ held in check. tables grown loca~ly in the kitchen gardens are generally consumed in Brahmin and Rajput The standard of living of Brahmins and families. The Shilpkars too casually grow some Kshatriyas is high but that of the PhiIpkars vegetables for their consumption. Majority of is comparatively low. ' ECONOMY 29

The budgets of a number of families belong Thus expenditure on food items ,is' about ing to all the three castes viz., Brahmin, 83.58 per cent of the total expenditure. Smok Kshatriya, and Shilpkar were studied for deter ing and tea are quite a big item of expenditure. mmmg the general expenditure pattern. The budget is surplus by RsA.84. No expendi Budgets of the following five households which ture is incurred on education. The standard of are of a representative character are discussed living of this household is easily the best in the here :- village. (1) A cultivator named Shri Jayanand son Smt. Mangli Devi is a widow engaged as a of Sri Ganga Ram Thapliyal, Brahmin by teacher in the village Primary School for girls. caste, in the income group of Rs.lOl and The average income is Rs.8l per month, i.e., over ;' Rs.5l as pay and Rs.30 from cultivation. She is alone. Her monthly expenditure was as (2) A Primary School teacher named follows Smt. Mangli Devi widow of Shri N arain Items Expenditure Datta, Brahmin by caste, in the income Rs. group of Rs.76-l00 ; 1. Cereals and pulses 12.50 (3) A cultivator named Shri Gaur Singh, 2. Vegetable 2.00 Kshatriya by caste, with an average income 3. Milk 2.50 of Rs.67. 50 ; 4. Ghee 12.00 5. Other items of food 5.84 (4) A mason named Shri Brindaban son 6. Fuel and lighting 2.87 of Sheo Kanthu, Shilpkar by caste, with an 7. Clothing 8.29 average income of Rs.105 ; and 8. Soap 2.00 (5) A mason named Shri Bharose Lal son 9. Medical expenses 5.00 10. Religious items 10.00 of Subaki, Shilpkar by caste,,'with an average income of Rs.55. Total 63.00 There is a saving of Rs.18 in the budget. The household of Shri Jaya Nand consists She incurs 55.55 per cent of the total expen of 9 members including one domestic servant diture on food items. Some amount has been aged 14 years, five of them being above 12 years spent on medicine and religious activities. of age and 4 below 8 years. Two of his sons Gaur Singh is a Kshatriya by caste with an who are employed outside send a remittance of average income of Rs.67. 50 nP. per month Rs.lOO per month. The average income of this i.e., Rs.40.50 nP. from cultivation and Rs.27 as household is Rs.200 per month, .i.e., Rs.lOO from pension. He is a retired military man. His family cultivation .and Rs.lOO from remittances. has 6 members consisting of three daughters aged Details of his expenditure are as follows:- 10, 7 and 5 years and an infant son besides him Items Expenditure self and his wife. The husband and wife culti vate 1.01 acres of land. Their expenditure Rs. pattern is as follows :- 1. Cereals and pulses 85.00 Items Expenditure 2. Vegetables 12.00 Rs. 3. Milk 30.00 1. Cereals 42.50 4. Oil 8.00 2. Vegetables 2.00 5. Ghee 12.00 3. Milk 4.50 6. Other food items (including tea, smoking, sugar and spices) 16.16 4. Oil 2.00 7. Fuel and lighting 7.00 5. Other items of food 7.63 8. Clothing .. 13.00 6. Fuel and lighting 3.87 9. Other items 2.00 7. Clothing 4.00 10. Pay of the servant 10.00 8. Soap 1.00 Total 195.16 Total 67.50 THAPU

Out of the total expenditure about 88.05 per hold seems to have under-stated the family cent is incurred on food items. income.

Brindaban sqn of Sheo Kanthu is a Shilpkar Bharose Lal son of Subaki is a Shilpkar by by caste with an average income of Rs.I05 per caste with an average income of Rs.55 per month, i.e., Rs.SO from wages and Rs.25 from month consisting of Rs.50 from wages and cultivation. The family consists of 8 members, Rs.5 from cultivation. This household consists 5 of them being earners and 3 being non-earning of 5 members out of which 4 are earners. The dependants. Brindaban is aged 60 years and earners consist of the head aged 27 years, his works as mason while his wife aged 55 years, his wife aged 19 years, his brother aged 30 years son aged 30 yea,rs, wives of his two sons aged 24 and his mother aged 61 years. The head is and 26 years work as agricultural labourers. engaged as a mason and the others as agricul The area under cultivation of this household is tural labourers. 0.51 acres only. The expenditure pattern was The family budget was of the following reported as follows:- pattern :-

Items Expenditure Items Expenditure Rs. Rs. 1. Cereals and pulses 64.00 1. Cereals and pulses 42.50 2. Vegetables 4.00 2. Vegetables 1.50 3. Milk 15.00 3. Mustard oil 1.00 4. Mustard oil 2.00 4. Other items of food 3.81 S. Other items of food 8.62 5. FueJ and lighting 2.94 6. Fuel and lighting 3.87 6. Clothing 8.00 7. Clothing 16.00 7. Soap 1.00 Soap 8. 2.00 Total 60.75 Total 115.49 The expenditure on food items is 80.33 per About 81.73 per cent of the total expenditure cent of the total expenditure. There was a deficit was incurred on food items alone. There is a of Rs.5.75. An under-estimated income seems to deficit of Rs.I0,49 nP. in the budget. The house- have been returned by the household. CHAPTER IV

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE Brief Review of Population During the Survey, the population of this According to the 1961 population figures, village was 552 persons, consisting of 219 males the increase in population of district Garhwal and 333 females. At the time of the 1951 during the period 1951-61 was 13.38 per cent. Census the population was 477 persons consisting The percentage of increase of population in the village was thus higher than that in the district of 190 males and 287 females. Thus there has as a whole. Many husbands are out of the been an increase of 15.7 per cent in the popu village for long periods in connection with lation during a period of 10 years, which is employment. The spells of prolonged abstinence quite near the 16.54 per cent increase of popu are broken by casual visits of the tnlenfolk lation over the whole of Uttar Pradesh. The during holidays or long leave. increase in the male and female population is The distribution of population by age groups 15.3 per cent and 16.02 per cent respectively. is as follows :-

TABLE No. 4.1 Population by Age Groups Excess of .o\geGroup Total Percentage Males Females Females over Males 0-4 89 16.1 43 46 3 5-9 83 15.0 38 45 7 10-14 73 13.2 32 41 9 15.. ':.-19 .. 46 8.3 15 31 16 20-24 40 7.2 . 10 30 20 25-29 32 5.8 10 22 12 30-34 28 5.0 8 20 12 35-44 44 7.9 12 32 20 45-59 75 . 13.5 27 48 21 60 and over 42 7.6 24 18 -6 Total 552 100.0 219 333 114 Evidently, the population of the village is mile. The density of population of this village progressive. About 44.3 per cent of the popu in 1951 was 818 persons only. Thus with the lation consists of persons in the age-group 0-14 increase in population the pressure on land has years and only 7.6 per cent of the population naturally increased because of the limited extent consists of persons of 60 years of age and above. of emigration. The remaining 48.1 per cent pertains to the working age-group (15-59 years) . Sex Ratio

Density Out of the total population 60.33 per cent According to revenue records the area of this are females and 39.67 per cent are males. village was 372.75 acres and hence the density of There are 152 females for every 100 males. population comes to 947 persons per square mile. In 1951 there were 151 females for every 100 This ·is very high for a hill village, especially as males. The sex ratio has remained practically compared with the density of population for the unchanged during the last 10 years. In the district which is only 227 persons per square district as a whole there are 117.07 females for 32 THAPU

100 males. The uneven sex ratio is "no doubt average vitality of males is less. Walton has partly due to the habit of emigration acquired correctly observed, "And as the emigrants are by the superfluous male population in excess for the most part young men in the vigour of of that which can find occupation on the land.". life their removal reduces the average vitality The excess of females over males in the age of their sex, which may to some extent account group 15-59 years is marked. It indicates that for the excessive male mortality."· a number of persons of the working age-group emigrate to other places for service leaving behind Births and Deaths the females to look after the cultivation and The record of births and deaths used to be hearth and home. Among the 7 Rajput maintained by the village chowkidar up to 1947 families in the village, 5 heads of households but thereafter this duty is being performed by are females, one being a widow. This indicates the Gaon Sabha, as prescribed in the U. P. that kartas of 4 families are working out of the Panchayat Raj Act. Since the village people village. Similarly, out of 73 Brahmin families, do not realise the value of the entries in the 31 heads of households are females, 19 being register of births and deaths, some of the births widows. This indicates that kartas of 12 and deaths are liable to escape registration out families of Brahmins are earning their livelihood of sheer negligence. Such omissions were liable outside the village. Among the Shilpkars, emi to take place previously also when the figures gration is not so marked. Out of 40 families, 10 were registered by the village chowkidar. During females are heads of households, one being a the year ending June 30, 1961, 29 births, 15 males widow. Thus kartas of 9 families are residing and 14 females, took place in the village. The outside the village. On the whole it was pointed number of deaths was 9, all males and no females, out that about 3 scores of persons are earning thereby indicating excessive male mortality. their livelihood at various places outside the village. Some of them have their families also M(l1 itai Status with them. Their VISIts to the village are Out of 219 males and 333 females in the casual, during holidays or long leave. village, 80 males and 149 females are married Another reason of the uneven sex ratio is and 132 males and 146 females are unmarried. the comparatively high death rate among the Reckoning males and females together, the males. For example, during the year ending unmarried persons are 50.36 per cent of the June 30, 1961, 15 males and 14 females were born total population. The following table shows in this village. Nine persons, all males, died the marital status of the population in the during this period, which indicates that the various age groups :-

TABLE No. 4.2

Showing Marital Status according to Age Groups

Age Group r Total Population Never Married Married Widowed r--.-.--~ . ,--.-_ _..A.-_-_, r--_-.A.--, r----A--_--. Years P M F M F M F M F

All Ages 552 219 333 132 146 80 149 7 37 0-14 245 123 132 113 131 15-29 118 35 93 19 15 16 67 30-44 72 20 52 20 47 5 45-59 75 27 48 37 25 22 60 and over 42 24 18 17 9 7 9 ·Walton's Gazetteer of District Garhwal. 1910; Page 55. SOCIAL AND CULTURAL UFE 33

There are only 80 married males as against a single male was found married. Similarly only 149 married females living in the village. Many one female was found married in the age group married males are living outside the village at of 10-14 years. different places. earning their livelihood. Out of the males 36.53 per cent are married, The following table shows the age of males 60.28 per cent are unmarried and 3. 19 per cent and females at marriages performed before 1950 are widowed. Up to the age of 19 years not and in 1950 or after;-

TABLE No. 4.3 Age at Marrillge

Marriages performed before 1950 Marriages performed in or after 1950 r------__.A.------. r- Ao ______.... Caste Males Females Males Females ..-_____.A- ___...... r--~----.. r-___...A...--..--.. r-~----""", Number Number Number Number Total Number Number Number of of of of .number of of of marriages marriages marriages marriages of marriages marriages marriages at the at the marriages at the at the age of age of age of less age of less less than less than than than 18 years 14 years 18 years 14 years Brahmin 35 10 81 20 10 29 2 Kshatriya 2 1 6 2 1 Shilpkar 29 9 45 25 11 2 24 4 Total 66 20 132 47 21 2 54 6 Out of 66 marriages of males performed before 'Almost every Garhwali would rather run the 1950 in 30.3 per cent cases the age of the bride risk of a lifelong misery of debt in marriage, groom at the time of marriage was less than 18 than to remain a bachelor, on the pretext of years, whereas for marriages performed in 1950 getting a male offspring, which the Garhwalis or after. the number of such cases is only 9.52 believe to be one of the choicest gifts of God'. per cent. In the case of females, the number In the age group 15-60 years there are 80 of marriages at 14 years or less came down from married males and 148 married females. This 35.6 per cent to 11. 11 per cent. indicates that not only some .of the husbands are Among the Brahmins and Shilpkars out of living outside but also that the practice of poly the marriages performed before 1950. the gamy is prevalent in this village as in the district number of bridegrooms whose age at the time itself. Among the Shilpkars three persons were of marriage was less than 18 years was 20.57 found having two wives each, whereas among per cent and 31.03 per cent respectively but the Brahmins two persons had two wives each. for marriages in 1950 or after the number came No polygamous marriage was found among the down to nil among Brahmins and 18.18 per cent Rajputs. No community has, however, any among Shilpkars. Similarly. the number of objection to polygamy. brides whose age was less than 14 years at the There are only 7 widowers, all pertaining to time of marriage came down from 24.69 per the age group 60 years and uver but there are cent to 6.89 per cent among the Brahmins and as many as 37 widows of various age groups. from 55.55 per cent to 16.67 per cent among The largest number of widows is in the age the Shilpkars. This clearly indicates that the group 55-59 years. The existence of a large custom of early marriages is on the decline. number of widows, even of young and marriage especially among the higher castes. able ages, is due to non-existence of the practice There is not a single person in the age group of widow remarriages in this village. Also a 25-60 years and above who was never married. widow is not allowed to go outside' the fold of This indicates the truth of the observation; the husband's family and is generally absorbed THAPLI

in the same family as the wife of her husband's and faithful to his trust. Theft is practically brother or even as a widow. As a whole·time unknown. He is sober, frugal and as a rule worker in the fields and the household, she is good-tempered : childishly suspicious, he is very treated as a precious possession, not easily to be impatient of restraint or compulsion. He has parted with. independence and a certain amount of self respect. He is, however, litigious, envious of his Health, Sanitation and Medical Facilities neighbour's good fortune and objects to all Village Thapli is situated at a height of about innovations on principle. He is always ready to 5,000 feet above the sea-level. The residents of keep another and his charity is reflected in the the village, except for the Shilpkars, are econo· rarity of beggars. He has courage and, if not mically well-off. Hence their general health is a natural soldier, has many dormant m.artial quite good. The females are healthier and qualities . . . . The Garhwali of the outer stouter than the males, who are lean and thin ranges is often a miserable creature, abject in in appearance. Both the males and females are poverty, truculent and offensive in prosperity sure-footed as a goat while climbing the hill or in enjoyment of a little brief authority. In tops or collecting grass or fuel from high slopes. the north he is a simple, engaging creature. They can easily walk about long distances on Dirt is the characteristic of all. And all smoke high hills and deep valleys with heavy bundles and gamble to excess, though gambling is not of luggage without showing any sign of such a common vice in Garh""'ai as in Almora". exhaustion. The females are actually more hard On account of their bad economic conditions working. They nearly do all the field work the Shilpkars are under-fed and under-nourished except the actual ploughing, which is usually with the resultant poor health. Their abject done by the males. They carry the manure in poverty is writ large on their faces. huge baskets on their heads into the fields, There is paucity of water and plenty of cold. break the clods, sow the fields, take out the weeds Hence the residents of the village, like the re and reap the harvest and carry it on their maining population of Garhwal, do not take heads to their houses. Collecting fuel and frequent baths. The well-to-do clean their fodder from the neighbouring hills and plots is clothes and bodies with soap, but the poorer part of their daily household routine. The section can afford wap only rarely. Naturally, better health and vitality of the womenfolk is, therefore, they continue putting on dirty clothes therefore, natural. The Garhwali male is repu and some of them, especially among the Shilp ted to be indolent and lazy by nature, whiling kars, are quite foul smelling. away his time in gossips, smoking and tea-drink ing. In Garhwal's Gazetteer, Walton observes: The dwellings too are not neat and clean. Cow "The indolence of the Garhwali and his dung and litter are stored in the courtyard of proneness to falsehood have been insisted upon houses. Almost every house has got some by all writers. These charges must be admitted animals, which are tethered on the ground floor with certain palliations. The relations between of the house, the fj.rst storey being reserved for the writers of these remarks and the Garhwali human beings. Existence of foul smell and have usually been that of employer and workman insanitary conditions is the natural result. The and the connecting link has not been labour smell of the rotting cow-dung and urine just simply but labour plus a certain amount of within the inhabite.d area is simply intolerable compulsion . . .. The lies of the Garhwali on at times. Luckily the village is situated on the the other hand are not usu:illy lies absolute so slope of hill, which provides natural drainage much as additions to or deviations from simple system. There is no accumulation of water truth. A very short acquaintance with him is anywhere. Also there is no dust or mud as ;< sufficient to teach one whel e to look for the found in the villages of the plains. kernel of actuality in the shell of hyperbole. A number of persons are found huddled :

Still though a liar he is honest above the average together in the same room without a ventilator, I J' }. SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE 35 in an unhygienic and unhealthy m:;mner. The side. Some persons mainly belonging to the beddings too are quite dirty. There are no cots Shilpkar community believe in quacks and in most 'of the houses. People sleep on the offer sacrifices to gods to ward off an epidemic or wooden floor, infested with bed bugs, which disease. Labour cases in the village are almost cannot be destroyed by the use of gammexane invariably conducted by a dai, belonging to the or boiling water even because they readily Scheduled Caste. Only a very complicated case retreat back iuto the slits of the wuoden floor. is referred to the Hospital at Pauri. The dai has no scientific and technical training in con The most common diseases are fever, ducting such cases. Her knowledge is empirical, dysentery and goitre. Potable water is available at picked up by trial and error. She is unclean a distance of about four furlongs. It is not fil and dirty and uses indigenous medicines. tered or cleaned scientifically with chemicals and Even then her services have to be utilized because is, therefore, prone to create water-borne diseases. no trained nurses are available. Unfortunately, There is no incidence of small-pox. In minor the occupation of a nurse is not looked upon as ailments the local vaid or physician is consulted. quite a respectable profession and hence girls in There is a Government dispensary at Paidul at a adequate numbers are not forthcoming for being distance of four miles from the village and the trained for the job by the Medical Department. medicines are obtained from there. When required people get medicines from the District Literary and Education Hospital at P.auri, which is not far off. Medical aid is thus conveniently available to the residents The following table indicates the position of of this village because of its situation by the road- literacy and education in the village:- TABLE No. 4.4 Literacy according to Age Groups Total Population Illiterate_.._ Literate Age Group ,-__.A- r----"- P M F P M F P M F All Ages 552 219 333 352 101 251 200 118 82 0-14 245 113 132 152 65 87 93 48 39 15-34 146 43 103 84 5 79 62 38 24 35-59 119 39 80 88 19 69 31 20 11 60 and over 42 24 18 28 12 16 14 12 2 Thus· out of the total population, 36.23 per is receiving proper education. Out of the total cent are literate, which is creditable in view of educated persons living in the village at the the literacy of 22.69 per cent for the whole of time of Survey, two were graduates, one had Uttar Pradesh. Out of 219 males, 118, i.e., 53.9 passed the Intermediate examination whereas per cent are literate and out of 333 females II had passed the High School examination. 82, i.e., 24.6 per cent are literate. The percen All of them are males. Thus higher education tage of literacy among the males is higher but is generally. imparted to the males, whereas the percentage of literacy amongst the females females are educated up to Primary or Junior too is not low-looking to the 5.89 per cent High School level only. literacy amongst females in the district and At the time of 1951 Census only 127 persons, 6.82 per cent literacy for the whole of Uttar i.e., 26.2 per cent were literate out of a total Pradesh. The literacy in the age group 5-14 population of 477 persons. Also, 80 males out years is 59.61 per cent as out of 156 persons of 190, i.e., 42.1 per cent were literate, whereas within this age gr~up 93 persons are literate. 47 females out of 287, i.e., 16.3 per cent were In the age group 10-14 years, the percentage literate. During the period of the last 10 years, of literacy is 84.93, the highest in any age group. literacy in the village has gone up from 26.2 This figure indicates that the younger generation per cent to 36.2 per cent. 36 THAPLI

Castewise Literacy and Education The following table indicates the position of literacy and education in the village

TABLE No. 4.5 Standard of Education by Castes Total No. Literate Primary Middle or High Inter- Graduate! Caste of without or Junior, School mediate or Post- Literates Standard Basic High School Graduate r-__,.A.----., r---"----. r-_.A---. ,---"----. r---"----. ,-_..A.._"","\ ,-_..A..-""'"\ P M F M F M F M F M F M F M F Brahmin 157 86 71 16 31 36 29 ' 21 11 10 2 Kshatriya 14 6 8 2 3 3 4 1 1 Shilpkar 29 26 3 12 3 11 .. 2 1 11 Total , , 200118 82 30 37 50 33 24 12 1 2 Out of the literates in the village, 78.5 per a lagga of this village. The school was started cent are Brahmins', 14.5 per cent are Shilpkars in 1948 in this unpopulated village with the and 7.00 per cent are Kshatrips. Thus literacy co-operation and contribution of the residents of percentage is the highest among the Brahmins. Patti Kapolsyun, the major share having been Out of the tofal population of Brahmins, 46.45 contributed by the inhabitants of this village. per cent in all (68.25 per cent males and 33.49 In 1957, Government contributed a sewing' per cent females) were' found literate and edu machine and also appointed a tailoring teacher cated. Both the graduates living in the village in the school. In July 1961 the institution are Brahmins. Among the Kshatriyas 87.5 per was taken over by the Zila Parishad. The cent in all (100 per cent males and 80 per cent building of this school is one of the best in females) were found literate and educated. the district. Among the ShiIpkars 14.64 per cent in all (29.88 per cent males and 27 per cent females) All the schools are running, smoothly. The were found literate and educated. public has been taking a keen interest in the provision of proper educational facilities for the Adequate educational facilities are available children_ The situation, of the village on' the ia this village. About 25 years ago, a basic main road quite' near Pauri, the district head school for girls was started in the village. The quarters,. has added to the enlightenment of the District Board (now the Zila Parishad) residents. Everyone tries to impart education has bem giving grants-in-aid to the school for to ' his . children .up, to the, standards, facilities the last 20 years. It is functioning with 2 for which are available in the village. The well teachers and 58 students. In July 1961 the to-do send their' sons out for higher education school was raised to the status of Junior. High but those who cannot afford have to remain School for girls. It has 10 students in VI class content with ordiria-ry education. Boys and and 2 students in VII class. ,A grant-in-aid of girls both' begin rendering active help in the Rs.7,500 has been given out of the N. E. S. field or at 'home at quite an early age. The Block funds for meeting part of the cost, of general opinion about female education is that construction of a building for this school, which they should learn only how to read and writl! is iil progress. so 'that they may write out a letter whenever For the education of boys, a Primary School required to do so; Higher educatio~ is thought was opened in dle village about 90 years ago. to. be a waste, since it is not expected to be a It has been running as a Basic Primary Sch~ol source of livelihood to them. They marry,' settle for the last 40 years or so, imparting education down and perform the usual dome~tic chores. up to IV class. It has 'two teachers and 100 In 1910 it was observed, "Female educ;tion can students. There is a Junior High School in the hardly be said to be popular: as the hillman says, neighbouring village. Jakheti which if> in fact girls are too valuable to waste their time over PLATE No. 21

A young boy offering prayers at the shrine of Gm1l7 D e-il ta at 1 hapli

PLATE No. 22

The Primary School at Thapli -Facing page 36 PLATE No. 23

The Junior High School for girls located at Thapli

T he Junior High School at J akheti ..-=. Facing jJage 37. SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE 37 book-learning : they have plenty of work in' the Among the Brahmins there is not a single family way of carrying in grass and wood.'~· Fortu~. where father an,d son are 'living' separately. In nately this observation does not apply with equal seven cases, real brothers have separated after the force to this village today, as there is a tendency death of the father - thereby splitting up into to get girls educated up to the primary standards 16 households. Among. the Kshatriyas there and even above. The view that "Agriculture was no such case but among the Shilpkars, in alone can no longer support the Garhwali and one case the son has separated from his father he has recourse to service and, therefore, to whereas in seven cases real brothers have education" is applicable to' Brahmins and separated after the death of the father, thereby Kshatriyas of this village. splitting up into 19 ,households. Most of those Better education turns out better citizens, who who have t\)taUy shifted froll). the village along can better understand their rights and duties with their families have automatically separated and can also face boldly the complexities and from their joint families,· if ,any, in the village. problems of modern life. They are a source Thus the ancient i:ostitution· of joint family in of regular contact between the New and the Old, the village is slowly on 'the way to disintegra thereby bringing modern culture to the orthodox tion. homes. The resultant interpenetration of cultures leads to progressive and dynamic Some of the male earning members who are standards of life. employed outside the village have left behind Family Structure their families in the village. If one had separated from the joint family, in his absence Family plays an important role in the socio from the village also, the wife and children economic life of the Indian village community. continue to live separately from other members It is a dominant force of social control, economic of the once-joint family but they receive all progress and ritual performance. Marriage and help and guidan,cc, whenever required, from family life form an , imp,ortant part of. the life the male members living in the village unless cycle. A male heir is essential for continuation the relations, are strained. In that case, male of the family line. A childless couple is extremely member.s of another frien~l)' .family help. If unhappy, more so' the chiidless woman who is no separation has taken place the wife and looked upon by other women more with feeUngs children continue living with the joint family, of despise and less with sentim~nts of pity and just like, other. memQers of the household. The sympathy. Further remorse is ,added by, the prolonged .period of absence of the husband religious belief that souls of the departed can has its own. repercussi<;>ns on the psychological, have peace only when a male offspring is th!':re physiological and sexual lif~ of the wife, especi to perform the ritual ceremonies after death. ally when she belonged to the younger age The consequent desire to have a male child group. The casual visits of the husband after sometimes leads to polygamy even, when a wife prolonged absence are naturaiIya source of great is not able to give birth to a :son. satisfaction and relief.' By' tradition the In village Thapli, ,out o~ 120 household!!, 37 Garhwali females are used to such a way of life. (i.e., 31 per cent) were simple, consisting of a husband, wife and unmarried children, 9 ho~se ., In a joint faIl1ily, th~ presen,ce of parents is a holds (i.e., 7.5 per cent) were intermediate, con great uniting facto~ among th~i:r children in spite sisting of a married couple, unmarried brothers of their indiv'idual idiQsyncrasi~s. The parents and sisters and one of the parents, whereas 21 in their youth and early middle age have a say households (i.e., 17.5 per cent) were joint, consist in every house]:lOld affair and their behests ing of a married couple with married sons/ are respected and carried out by the younger daughters or with married brothers/sisters. generation. With the growing age of the parents.

·Walton's Gazet~eer ofBritish Garhwal, 1910; page 106. 38 THAPU on attainment of majority the males are generally their uncles and elder brothers to toil in the left free to conduct the management of the family fi~Ids, have to share the hardships of their as they like. fathers. But even the hard work does not The death of the parents, however, sets in the always ensure a square meal since the land per capita is too little and Nature is not bountiful. process of disintegration in the family. It would Hence. the usual practice for many a Garhwali not be exaggerating the fact if the main cause child, to which Thapli is no exception, above of the splitting of family is attributed to the the age of nine or ten is to escape to the plains womenfolk. In a family consisting of parents, and seek his livelihood by working as a unmarried sons and married/unmarried domestic servant, to begin with. daughters there is little friction. There may be occasional tiffs but no serious tension is there In some families where the chains of love are in the emotional attachment of the brothers, stronger and where out of economic necessity brothers and sisters, and parents and children. some of the males 'lhave to come down to the But the marriage of the sons in a family changes plains the family remains united even though the hue of cordiality in the home. There is separated by distance. The folks in the village an inevitable conflict between the mother-in-law would till the land while their brothers or sons and the daughter-in-law, and later among the would work in the plains in order to collect daughters-in-law themselves. The point of money either for a new house or a marriage in abrasion can be anything on earth; it may be the family. If the people serving in the plains the idleness of one brother or the dispropor get good jobs sometimes they would try to settle tionate multiplication of another couple. The then and there for the rest of their lives. new couples usually feel that their independence The disintegration of the family, however, is marred by the joint family system or that they does not leave the hearts of the separated people work harder in the fields, but get no extra cold for a long time. The bonds of blood are reward for that. The first few discords may pretty difficult to dissolve, however heavy the result in the setting up of separate cooking dose of bitterness may be. In times of emer arrangements but the repeated clashes see the gency and crisis the feeling of being blood rela family definitely disintegrated. The friction, tions overwhelms the rest of the emotions. In great or small, is aggravated by the fact that the course of time the memory of past fads weakens Garhwali male would rather take the side of and the family wounds are healed up. Deaths, his wife than apply his impartial discretion ta births and marriage functions are periods of the cause of conflict. This lack of accommoda crises in the family and serve as centripetal forces ting nature and foresight apparently breaks the bringing about cordial reunions of separated bonds of affection among the erstwhile joint families. family. Intra-Family Relationship The division or" the land does not lead to In a Garhwali village the relations of a couple any happy results; instead, it paralyses the are directly governed by the circumstances in family security that is provided by the joint which they have to live. The marriage for a set-up. The unmarried brother suffers the most. male is not only a biological and social necessity He does not have any particular household to but economic as well. The yields of the land turn to and thus is usually at the goodwill of on which they have to depend is a hard-earned any of the married brothers. The share of the one. No one from the family is spared from land that a couple gets is usually very small. work. Womenfolk are in fact the main culti With the addition of children a condition of vators. Hence, marriage for the man does not economic unstability prevails. The land is not only provide him with a life companion, but also sufficient for the subsistence of the whole family. the main hand for the field work. A woman has The children who could have had leisure day to do more work than the man. Right from after day in a john family where they have early morning she is busy in preparing meals fm SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE 39

the family, bringing water from a distant stream, her lertility by producing children. Children casually washing clothes, getting fuel from the fill the home with harmony because the husband forest on a distant hill top and looking after is no more worried about the line of the family the children and the cattle. Besides this she being kept alive for times to come. has to work for a considerable period of the day In a place where struggle for existence is in the fields. Walton has also observed in his most clearly marked by the hard labour that the Gazetteer: "In Garhwal women, except in people have to do to stay alive the parents can respect of their possibilities as agricultural be anything towards their children but doting labourers, are held in rather low esteem and parents. They know that only till the age of they themselves are apt to live up to their repu eight or nine the children are to be treated tation. ' They do nearly all the field work except tenderly and' after that they have to assign them the actual ploughing. They sow, weed and some work in the field. Even the daughters, till reap and between harvests are fully employed in they are married, have to work alongwith their carrying in fuel and fodder from the neighbour brothers or parents in the field. There are also ing hills. The men will not, however, permit moments when the parents feel that the yield from their women to work on a public road, the idea agriculture is not sufficient for the upkeep of being that women must not appear too openly the whole family and they have to send their before men of another village." sons even at a tender age to work in the plains. She has her distinct place in a family whether The children maintain their ties' with the family joint or independent. Since she bas an equally even when they are separated by distance. The important role to play in the smooth running daughters occasionally visit their parents after of the family economy, a woman is not regarded marriage. The sons as' a rule are obedient to anything ornamental for the Garhwali male. their parents and share the work in the fields Only by virtue of being a man the husband ungrudgingly. maintains his superiority over his wife. It is The new bride in the family does not take always his will that prevails. A woman cannot much time to adjust herself in the new surround do anything independently without prior consent ings. In fact she finds everything going on the of the husband. A husband on the other hand same pattern as in her father's house, and picking is not ~hat predominating type who would take up of the threads of daily routine is only a sadistic pleasure in suppressing the will of his matter of days. The attitude of the father-in wife. In fact a ~Garhwali couple is more accom law toward$ the bride is that of disinterested modating to each other than a couple of a affection. He rarely meddles in her ways of village in the plains. A couple as it grows in life. But when the proverbial mother-in-law age becomes more and more self-contented and comes in the picture the situation is considerably starts flowing in the conventional stream -:- marry changed. In very rare cases the mother-in-law ing the sons and daughters and leading a quiet and' the daughter-in-law have absolutely har life. monious relations. The mother-in-law pro bably feels that her control over her son has The mode of marriage also moulds the diminished due to the pre~ence of the daughter subsequent behaviour of the couple for the rest in-law. The youngish pranks that might be of the life. The marriage system in the village of fun for the new couple are points of irritation Garhwal has a peculiarity of its own. The for the mother-in-law. The low percentage of family of the bridegroom has usually to pay some education among women (excluding the new money to parents or guardians of the bride. generation) is perhaps one of the causes of this This system saturates the girl with a feeling irrational attitude towards each other. that she is like an object bought for the hard cash and presupposes her to be faithful to her The relations outside the family are usually master and husband. She makes her position formal. 'The relatives who are scattered in the in a family secure and honourable by proving villages considerably away from each other 40 THAPU meet only at ceremonial occasions like birth, fethon. But the custom depends upon the marriage, death, social functions, fairs etc. consent of the younger brothers :md is not Otherwise they remain busy with their own enforceable at law. routine work. There was a custom called Sautia bant, Inheritance of Property whereby sons of a father by different mothers As laid down in Panna Lall's Hindu eus did not inherit equally per 'capita, but took. t~mary Law in Kumaun, the rules of inheritance their mothers' share per stirpes. The customs was are followed in Garhwal :- found obsolete in 1920 - all sons getting an equal share. Sons by a woman kept as wife (whe-ther with or without a marriage ceremony) inherit fully Brahmcharis, lepers, blind persons, and deaf like legitimate sons. Sons by dhanti or other and dumb, lame and impotent are not dis wives with whom no marriage ceremony has qualified from succeeding. But a leper who has been gone through get no share in the inheritance left home permanently to go to an asylum or amongst some castes and Banias by birth. elsewhere is excluded. The special mode of devolution prescribed A widow inherits her deceased husband's by the Mitakshara is not followed. It devolves estate even in a joint family. All women whose like other property. sons would be thus entitled to a full share are themselves entitled to inherit in the absence of A son, legitimate or illegitimate, is entitled tq SOIlS. A widow represents her deceased maintenance until his attaining majority. A husband in inheriting to collaterals. daughter, legitimate or illegitimate, though not an heir, is entitled to maintenance until her A daughter and a daughter'S son are nQ heirs marriage, and to her marriage expenses, if any, at all. There is no difference between brothers being defrayed out of her father's assets. All of the whole blood and consanguine brothers. women kept as wives whether married or not, Uterine brothers, however, are not entitled to are entitled to maintenance, like lawfully succeed as brothers. There is no difference married wives or widows from their last husband between divided and undivided or reunited or his estate. The right of women to mainte brothers. They share the inheritance together nance exists only as long as they live in the in equal shares. On the inheritance devolving family home and are chaste. But a woman com upon brothers, a predeceased brother is repre pelled to leave the home by ill-treatment, or sented by his sons, SOIl'S issues, or by his widow; other sufficient cause, does not forfeit her main and his share is taken. by them. tenance as long as she remains chaste. When a On the inheritance devolving upon the man takes to wife the wife or widow of another, nephews or grand-nephews alone they do not and she is accompanied by a child of the first take per capita. They represent their deceased husband, such child called fhantela is entitled fathers and take the inheritance per stirpes. to adequate maintenance from his foster father Sons, legitimate and illegitimate, who are or his assets until attaining majority if a boy, entitled to succeed to their father's property, are and until marriage if a girl. entitled to succeed as heirs to collateral tela A co-parcener can transfer his share or'a tions also. part of his share of the family property without In the absence of heirs the inheritance the consent of his other co-parceners. But he devolves upon the village community, i.e., the cannot transfer any specific property unless the panch hissedars or the panch khaikars, accord same has been in his possession by a Ghar ing as the village is a kachcha or pakha hhaikari batwara or family partition. During the life village. time of a man his descendants have no share On a division the eldest brother usually gets in or claim to the property, ancestral or self something more than his share, a field, a piece acquired. Hence they cannot ask for a parti of jewellery, a cow, or the like. It is called tion in his lifetime, and the property in the SOCIAL AND CULTURAL UFE 41 hands of the father is not liable for the debts of for a job. Both men and women participate his sons or sons issues. The father can transfer in his dance. his property (ancestral or self-acquired) inter A marked characteristic of these dances of vivos in any way he likes. The widow of a the hills is the absence of vigour in the move co-parcener succeeds to the share of her dead ment of steps and rhythm. There is nothing husband if he dies without issue, after the vesting like the drum beats or blaring of trumpets of a of the property in him. modern jazz. A peculiar sort of drowsiness A widow succeeding to her husband's inheri prevails over the moving bodies. tance is disinherited if she leaves her home Besides dances, festivals and fairs have a voluntarily and becomes the wife or concubine special diversional value for the village folk. of another or leads an unchaste life generally. They would walk a considerable distance to par A widow leaving her home to live with her ticipate in the festivities of a fair. Both men and husband's brother as pis wife is disinherited. women feel entertained at the fairs. A widow who does not leave her family home Locally, men and women both indulge in is not disinherited, even if she brings a man to gossiping about in small groups whenever they live with her as her husband. find time to do so. All sorts of topics are dis A man can dispose of by will only his self cussed and dissected and commented upon for acquired property, not his ancestral property. sheer amusement. Sometimes, when there is With the enforcement of Hindu Succession nothing new to talk about, they would indulge Act, 1956, the above customs legally ceased to in story telling. The males are used to smoking have effect with respect to matters for which a on a large scale. Even children of over ten provision has been made in the Act. It applies years of age are given to smoking. Women, in cases of succession to property and proprietary with the exception of those belonging to the rights in land and not to the devolution of Shilpkars, do not usually smoke. At the gossip tenancy rights, which continue to be governed session or social get-togethers the hookah keeps by the above customs of inheritance which have the men-folk busy who have a pull at it turn the force of law. by turn. It is largely responsible for main tenance of affinity and brotherhood among the Leisure and Recreation various caste groups. Casually, the educated Dances in Garhwali villages provide a rich persons go to Jakheti and listen to the com pastime to the village folks and also reflect the munity radio. If there is any sensational news cultural heritage of the whole race. There are it is discussed and talked over. variations in rhythms and movements from one Religious Institutions place to another because there an: no specific The hills are the birth place of Hinduism rules and regulations regarding the execution which is a montheistic religion believing in the of the movements. One of such dances, popu- - Supreme Being, the vari9us manifestations of larly known as Pandava Nritya, is prac.tised' in which are worshipped in visible forms because winter. The dance is more or less like an not everyone is capable of concentration on the opera with the difference that it is not accom abstract. The Hindu trinity is represented by panied by any musical instruments. This dance Brahma the Creator, Vishnu the Preserver and is confined only to the males. The steps are Shiva the Destroyer and Reproducer of lif~. guided by the singing of the participants. Shiva is represented as an ascetic living at the Another dance Chhanchhari is also accom peaks of Kailasa with poisonous snakes coiled panied by singing and is performed in the round his blue body. He has a third eye in the spring season. The words in the singing centre of his august forehead and a crescent usually are in a story form telling sometimes the moon over his head. He mounts the sacred woes of a bride in a new home or the senti bull Nandi. He is generally worshipped, in the ments of a wife whose husband has gone out form of a Linga, as an indication of the 42 THAPU

power behind creation. He is believed to be and worship Bhagwan during Nauratra and an incarnation of the forces of Nature in their especially on Dasehra. most terrible form and is, therefore, _propitiated With the enforcement of the law against with awe and reverence in almost every hill untouchability and the spread of education, village. the Shilpkars too have access' to the places of The most important deity in this village is worship, even though this liberty is resented, the idol of Bhaironji whiCh is installed on a sometimes actively, by the higher castes. , Thus well-built stone chabutra under the shade of a the access to temples is not quite free and huge peepal (Ficus religiosa) tree in the centre unrestricted. Social customs and religious of the village. lit is also known as Gram Devata dogmas die hard in a caste-ridden society that (village deity) or Bhoomia. The idol is as old Hindu religion has established. In spite of sodal as the village itself. It is maintained and Iegisl~tion for removal of untouchability, the repaired properly. The daily routine puja is Shilpkars still suffer from the slings and arrows performed by a village pandit. The deity is of social disabilities and religious handicaps. specially worshipped during Nauratra. Rote is With the passage of time, adherence of reli offered by the villagers on every other festival gious practices and observance thereOf is on the also. The Shilpkars are also allowed to offer decline. The uneducated and womenfolk are puja~ though with some reservation. no doubt blind followers of religious tenets. The average educated person of the village is Another place of worship is the temple of more orthodox in the matter of religion as com Nagraj or the Snake god. This temple is pared to his counterpart in the plains, because situated at a very congested place and is not modern culture with its scientific and rational maintained and looked after properly, . even approach even to religion has been slow in pene though puja is performed daily and rote is trating the hilly area. offered by the villagers on the occasion of festivals. Festivals In spite of prevailing poverty, India is a land Mahadeoji is worshipped by the villagers in of feasts, fasts and festivals. Fairs and festivals village Jakh at a distance of one mile, especially provide a natural opportunity for strengthening on Shivaratri. Another temple of Mahadeoji and re-affirmation of the family ties and the is situated in village Dharkot at a distance of clan and village solidarity. They provide a 1t miles to the west of this village. A mahant relief from the common place and monotonous looks after its management. Residents of this life' of the village and serve as interludes full village visit the temple generally on Shivaratri. of joy and mirth. A temple of Mahadeoji is in village Nauli at a distance of about one mile to the north of this The Hindu festivals are spread almost evenly village. over the whole year. According to the Western calendar, the Hindu months which determine Yet another temple, quite well-known in the the date of the festivals would be as follows :- district, is the Jwalpa Devi temple situated at Hindu Months Corres ponding English Month, a distance of about three miles from this village Magha January/February on the road to Kotdwara on the right side of Phalguna February/March river N ayar. This goddess is worshipped by the Chaitra March/April Thapliyal Brahmins as their [sht Devi. Vaisakha April/May Jyeshtha May/June Anthwal Brahmins work as pujari$ of this Ashadha June/July temple. Some landed property has been donated Sravana July/August for meeting the every-day expenses of the temple. Bhadrapada.. August/September The land is in the possession and management Asvin September/October of the pujaris. Residents of this village and Kartika October/November Margasirsha NovemberfDecember other neighbouring villages go to this temple Paushya December/January SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE

The festivals generally observed in the village higher strata of the social set-up by keeping are described in order of their occurrence. aloof from the Shilpkars who enjoy among them Basant Panchmi falls on the fifth day of selves within their limited means. The pivot shukla paksha of Magh when the fields are full of activity is the house of an elderly retired of yellow flowe~s and the spring season i~ at its headmaster of District Board school, who is a height. On this day everyone looks gay and Brahmin by caste. jubilant. Yellow-coloured clothes are donned The festival of Sravani, known as Raksha by some people especially the womenfolk and Bandhan (Bond of Protection) in the plains, is children who go to melas also, held on the observed on the Poornima of Sravana. lit is occasion of Basant Panchmi. Shiva is said that Indra, the Pauranic king of heavens, worshipped. lost heavily in the war with demons. On the In the plains a pole with a yellow banner is suggestion of Brahaspati, Indrani, the consort fixed up at' a place where Holi bonfire is to be of Indra tied a rakhi (wrist-band) around his lighted and some firewood is also collected round wrist, as a result of which he got victory over the pole, thereby giving an indication of the the demons. Now-a-days this is observed impending arrival of Holi. But no such pole is essentially as a festival for annually renewing fixed in this village or in Garhwal district as the pledge of the brother to protect his sister. a whole. On this day a rakhi is tied by the sister around the wrist of her brother, the latter giving her Shivaratri falls on the fourteenth day of some money or gifts in return. The Brahmin krishna paksha (dark .[ortnight) of Magh. A fast priests also earn s.ome money by presenting is observed on this day and Shiva is worshipped rakhies to their patrons. in the evening. Offerings are made at the Gram Devata. Krishna Janamashtmi is observed on the eighth day of the krishna paksha (dark fortnight) of Holi, the major festival of Hindus having a Bhadrapada, to celebrate the birth anniversary wide appeal, is observed on the full moon day of Lord Krishna. Worship takes place at mid in the month of Phalgun. A Holi bonfire with night when Lord Krishna is said to have been lot of firewood is not burnt as in the plains. born. Devotional songs are recited and sweets Instead, only a jhanda (banner). which is fixed are distributed. on Ekadashi day on a thin pole of Mehlu wood is burnt on the Poornamashi night, locally known The Dasehra festival of Navratra is observed in as Chharoli. The ashes are smeared by the the month of Asvin from the first to the tenth villagers on each 8ther's faces. Gulal (coloured day of the shukla paksha. Durga Saptshati is powder) is also freely smeared and coloured recited by the village pandits. Goats are sacri water is sprinkled on the next day. In fact, ficed at the altar of goddess Durga, the dreaded womenfolk start getting together and singing incarnation of Parvati on the tenth day, Dasehra songs at night from Ekadashi and continue which marks the culmination of the festival. enjoying themselves ,in this manner up to It symbolises the triumph of Good over Evil and Pooranamashi and the day after. Gulal and reminds us of the epic times when Lord Rama coloured water continue to be used during this invoked the help of Durga, the war-goddess to period of one week. It is essentially a festival defeat the demon king Ravana. of colour in which everyone, from the highest to Diwali (or Deepawali), the festival of lights, the lowe'st and from the oldest to the youngest, is another major festival of the Hindus. It actively participates with full gusto and vigour. is attributed to the gay celebrations on Lord People forget their old rivalries, if any, and hug Rama's return to his capital after exile. All the each other warmly as a token of their hearts houses are cleaned and washed. Diwali heralds getting emotionally united. The Brahmins and the approach of winter and marks the end of Thakurs flock with each other only and continue rainy season. Every house is lighted with earthen to maintain their distiIJ.guished identity of a lamps and there is rejoicing all round. In the 44 THAPU night, Lakshmi the goddess of wealth and pros The most important fair of the locality is the perity is worshipped. No fasts are observed on one held at Srinagar on Baikunth Chaturdashi this day as this is a festival of feasts only. and the following day, at a distance of about 32 On the following day Goverdhan Puja is per miles from the village. Throughout the night formed. A big heap of cow-dung is worshipped, of Baikunth Chaturdashi women desirous of an apparently because cow-dung (go bar) is wealth offspring (usually a son) stand around the idol (dhan) - since it is used as fuel in the fields. of Kamleshwar Mahadeo within the precincts of Cows are also worshipped at night. the temple with lamps, burning with ghee, in their hands. Women who are unable to stand Other festivals observed by the villagers are for the whole night are replaced by their Hartalika Teej, Baikunth Chaturdashi and husbands for a few hours. Those who can stand Makar Sankranti, but they are only minor and till dawn with their lamps alight worship the insignificant festivals. idol and get blessings. There is likelihood of Fairs their desire being fulfilled in due course. Fairs play an important part in the social, On the occasion of this fair, the annual religious and economic life of the village com Planning and Development Exhibition of district munity. No fair is held in this village but the Garhwal is also held. village folk visit a number of fairs in the neighbourhood. Inter-Caste Relationship A fair is held at the temple of Sapta Mukhesh The village is inhabited by Brahmins, Rajputs war Mahadeo near village Aligaon at a distance and Shilpkars. Brahmins are further divided of about 4 miles to the north of this vi-llage on into Sarolas and Gangaris. The former are the occasion of Shivaratri and Makar Sankranti. regarded as superior to the latter in the socio Shops from Kotdwara and Najibabad and other religious hierarchy. Everyone accepts food places come to the mela. Games and sports are cooked by them but they would accept only also organised by the village folk. One who pukka food from Gangaris and Rajputs. Cooked craves to have a son lets go a young bull sacred rice and dal alone constitute kachcha food unlike to the name of Mahadeoji. the plains where chapaties too are considered Another fair is held at the temple of kachcha food. Sarolas avoid having matrimonial Mundeshwar Mahadeo in the month of Jyeshtha alliances with Gangaris, so far as possible. If in at a distance of 5 miles to the west of the village. some unavoidable circumstances such a matrimo The temple stands on a hillock. Young male nial tie has to be entered into, the couple is al buffaloes are also sacrificed at the temple. Various most socially cut off from the Sarolas. The small shops come to the fair. offsprings of such a union would belong to the At a distance of 9 miles to the south of this Gangaris whether the father is a Gangari or the village is the temple of Ekeshwar Mahadeo where mother is so. If a Sarola girl is married to a a fair is held on Bikhpati Sankranti. It is a Gangari husband, after marriage food cooked fairly well-attended fair. New grains of rabi by h$" would not be accepted in her parents' crop are offered at the idol of Shivaji before house. Spread of education and contact with starting to consume any grain from the new crop. outside world has not been able to bring about any decipherable change in the orthodox adher Some villagers also visit the temple of Kyon ence to these religious tenets and diehard dogmas. Kaleshwar, situated at a height of about 5,000 feet above sea-level at a distance of I! miles The Rajputs mix freely with the Brahmins. from Pauri and about 14t miles from the village. They accept food and water from them but the The temple holds a commanding view of Brahmins would not accept c.ooked dal and Kyonkala peak. It is managed by a Jogi mahant. boiled rice (rom a Rajput. In the socio-religious The fair is held on the occasion of Shivratri hier~Ichy the Rajputs come next to the Brahmins. on a large scale. There is however a very rigid line between the SOCIAL AND CULTURAL UFE 45

Brahmins and Rajputs as high caste Hindus and has abolished untouchability and has forbidden the Shilpkars-the down-trodden Doms, who hold its practice in any form, afforded a legislative very little land and generally form a class of check on untouchability. The U. P. Social Dis menial servants and workers in metal, leather abilities Act, 1947 was another corrective step and wood. They are of aboriginal non-Aryan in this direction. .En June, 1955 ,it was repealed blood and continue to live in utter backwardness. by the Untouchability (Offences) Act according They are looked down upon by the higher to which practice of untouchability is a cogni castes. sable offence. The U. P. Temple Entry (Declaration of Rights) Act was enforced in Till about a decade back their plight was 1956. Side by side with the legislation, public simply pitiable. They were kept away from the opinion too became a bit more vigilant with the doors of the twice-born ; they could not take tea political awakening after the attainment of at any stall nor could they have water from independence. The untouchables too have been the source used by others or enter into a temple asserting their rights of equality with others. for worship. 'They were literally treated as As a result of alround awakening and social untouchables. They could not use dola for the legislation in the wake of independence, the bride or palki for the groom. They were down status of Shilpkars in society has slightly im trodden and depressed. In the 1920's the Arya proved. Now children of ShiIpkars can study Pratinidhi Sahha, Punjab began working in with others in the same school; a ShiIpkar Garhwal for their cultural uplift and social eman· can have tea in any restaurant and food in any cipation. Later on the Arya Pratinidhi Sabha, hotel. Whereas formerly a Shilpkar - working U. P. joined the movement. Most of them were as an agricultural servant at the house of a high converted to the Arya Dharma. They were given caste Hindu - was served food in the courtyard the sacred thread (janeo) to wear, which used to just near the cow-shed, now he insists and success be worn only by the twice-born till then. It was fully too, on being served in the verandah on impressed on them that they were in no way the upper storey of the house used for human inferior to the so-called higher castes. Under habitation. Brahmins who go to attend the influence of Arya Samaj, they began calling ceremonies or functions in Shilpkar households themselves as Aryas. The artisan class among are treated as outcast by others. With a view to them came to be known collectively as Shilpkar minimising the inconvenience on such occasions, (Hindi for one engaged as an artisan or worker some Shilpkars themselves have started perform. in craft). Unfortunately, the Brahmins and ing all the duties of a priest at such functions. Kshatriyas were not tackled to join the Arya The Shilpkar can offer puja from a distance Dharma, as was done in the plains, and only; he cannot have water from a place used hence they assumed a hostile attitude towards by the higher castes. the Shilpkars. There was no mental change in their contemptuous attitude towards this com· Thus even though the condition of the munity: The tempo of Arya Samaj activity, Shilpkars has improved, a change of heart is therefore, dwindled down faster than was hardly visible. Unfortunately, the crux of the expected. The organisation is not very effective problem is that untouchability is practised by in the district. This village too was effected by the untouchables even among themselves. Un· the movement just like other villages. The touchability, being an old institution, has taken Arya Samaj has no organisational framework in very deep roots in the social pattern of Indian the village. The Arya Samaj movement society. Effective persuasion through the process succeeded in making the seriousness of the situa· of social education might create in the hearts tion felt by the social reformers and government. of the higher castes a softer corner for the After some struggle, they obtained the privilege Shilpkars. Economic emancipation through of using dola and palki at the lime of marriage. government help might also solve the problem The Constitution of India, Article 17 of which to some extent. 46 THAPLI

On the whole, the relations between the various The Panchayats have the power to levy certain castes are quite cordial. There is scarcely any taxes, manage their funds, control sanitation, chance of inter-caste dissension or tension, establish and maintain primary schools, dispen in spite of the fact that the Shilpkars are treated saries, grazing grounds and other institutions for with contempt. the common benefit of the people, assist the deve Inter-Hamlet Relationship lopment of agriculture, commerce and industry, construct, repair and maintain water supply, Thapli is one of the most important villages plant and maintain trees, etc. Registration of of Kapolsyun patti. It contains a number of births and deaths too is done by the Panchayats. educated persons, working in civil and military Civil, Revenue and Criminal justice is admi departments_ The residents of the patti have nistered to some extent through Panchayati formed an organisation for promoting brotherly Adalats. Thus the main object of the Act is feelings, social welfare and economic advance to revitalise village corporate life and instil in ment for all the villages in its jurisdiction. It the people the spirit of self.reliance and common is known as Kapolsyun Bhratra Sammelan and endeavour to ameliorate their condition without has its headquarters in this village, with depending too much on Government agenCIes. Shri J ayanand Thapliyal, a retired headmaster of a District Board School as its president. A Since the enforcement of the U. P. Panchayat Junior High School for girls has been started Raj Act, there have been three elections in the in this village and another such school for boys State in 1949, 1956 and 1961. The last election was started in the adjoining hamlet Jakheti, was held in January, 1961. Previously, the with the active co-operation and financial voting was done by show of hands but now this assistance of residents of this patti. There is practice has been discontinued in the case of a Co-operative Union with its headquatters at election of Pradhan and voting for his post is Agrora at a distance of 3 miles. Its Sarpanch done by secret ballot papers. During the and a number of its members are from this elections, there has never been any contest. All village. the 14 members and the Pradhan of the Gaon Panchayat were elected unopposed. Shri Kedar It is only occasionally that people living in Datt Thapliyal worked as Pradhan for two terms different villages meet each other. A caste cere mony, a market, a fair, a meeting of the whereas Shri Kunwar Singh Rawat was elected Sammelan or the Co-operative Society and a unopposed as Pradhan for the third term. Out Nyaya Panchayat provide an opportunity for of the 15 members of Gaon Panchayat, 4 belong to the Scheduled Caste. such casual meetings. There is close co:; operation among the residents of the various The sources of income of the Gaon Panchayat hamlets and villages. are limited and the income is very poor. The Organs of Democratic Decentralization following table shows the income and expen diture for the year ending June 30, 1961 :- The U. P. Panchayat Raj Act, 1947, seeks to establish self-government through Panchayats in Source of Amount Item of Expen- Amount all villages on a popular basis. A village or a Income diture group of villages has a Gaon Sabha with all Rs. nP. Rs. nP. adults permanently residing in the village or Balance 66.38 Repayment of 150.00 group thereof, barring those who are disqualified. Debt. The Sabha has an executive committee known Taxes 185.58 Stationery 5.87 as Panchayat whose members are elected by the Govt. Con- 89.71 Wages 20.15 tribution. members of the Sabha. Ordinarily three to five FineS 4.00 Pipe construction 61.71 ,~ Gaon Sabhas are grouped together for the pur 52.00 P.L.A_ 93.00 Stone ~ pose of establishing a Panchayati Adalat. A Pass book 6.00 f '~ panel of five panches is appointed from each 438.67 295.73 ------constituent Gaon Sabha. Balance : Rs. 142.94 nP. l,~ SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE 47

Evidently, house tax and building tax are the ShiIpkar. Similarly, only one person knew main sources of whatever meagre income the about the Hindu Succession Act, 1956, Hindu Pan~hayat has. Most of the expenditure has Marriage Act, 1955 and the Hindu Adoptions and been incurred on pipe for drinking water and Maintenance Act, 1956. In a general manner purchase of stones for school building. people are no doubt aware that observance of untouchability is an offence but there have been The village falls within the jurisdiction of no complaints of this type either because of fear Nyaya Panchayat, Agrora, at a distance of two or because the Shilpkars have got used to such miles only. Two members of this Gaon Sabha treatment. are members of the Nyaya Panchayat. What ever minor cases were instituted in the Nyaya People on the whole do not react favourably Panchayat from this village were compromised to the idea of a daughter inheriting equally with through the good offices of the village elders. the sons, obviously because after marriage her The caste Panchayats are not quite active in the affection and interest are transferred to the hus band's house. Even persons supporting the village. equality of rights of men and women feel a bit There is a Mahila Mangal Dal, a Nav Yuvak uneasy at the idea of their daughters having Mangal Dal and a Bal Mangal Dal in the equal rights of inheritance ,with their sons I village, all functioning in a co-ordinated manner Somehow the daughters, too, are not quite keen to as agencies of social education and cultural have equal rights of inheritance for fear of their uplift. The Mahila Mangal Dal WM established good relations with their parental household in the year 1958, the Nav Yuvak Mangal Dal in being spoilt. They would gladly forego their 1956, and the Bal Mangal Dal in the year, 1959. share in the property rather than lose the love From time to time drama, bhajan, kirtan, and affection of the brothers, who welcome shramdan and other programmes for the general them to the maika, gladly share in their joys welfare of the village communi ty are or.ganised and sorrows and render them all help and by these organisations. A spirit of mutual help support in an hour of crisis in their married and co-operation is thereby aroused and main lives. tained. Due to the underlying spirit of apathy Superstitions and Beliefs towards the Shilpkars, lhe latter cannot parti cipate freely in the fUllctions of these organisa Superstitions and blind faith are interwoven tions. They are also not encouraged to be in the warp and woof of the village life, more members thereof. so in the villages of Garhwal, which is a back ward hill district. The aged people and women There is a library of the Bal Mangal Dal and folk are firm believers but the educated persons another library in the Basic Primary School, have a lukewarm attitude towards these tradi which was opened with the grant of the Educa tional superstitions passed on to them from tion Extension Department. Students and generation to generations. educated persons living in the village are bene It is a common belief that a journey in the fited by these books. eastern direction should commence on Tues There is a community radio-set in the Junior day whereas Tuesday and Thursday are auspi High School at Jakheti a hamlet of this village cious days for going west, that one should not go at a distance of about ! miles from the village. south except on Monday and Saturday and It is utilised by the school teachers and casually north except on Friday. If a journey is per by other people of the neighbouring villages. formed on the prohibited days, an accident or There is little awareness 01 the reiorm something more inauspicious might happen. measures introduced by Government. Out of The educated persons might follow the above in 120 heads of household who were interviewed practice not because they actually believe in it only 4 knew of the existence of the Untouch but because they would not like to harm the ability (Offences) Act and none of them was a sentiments of their elders for nothing or because 48 THAPU

there is no possibility of any loss by doing so ~ "" ~ mqf ~ .m IIillf whereas there can be chances of a mishap by not 9"~:;:n~~~m following the traditional practice. Another ~ cmtlir ~ ~, argument of the believers is that since the practice has been in vogue since times immemorial, there ~ ~ C{~ ~ ~1fiR\" ~ cOz should have been some logic behind it. ~~oq~Mqvft~~~~ ~ 'U1{ 'U1{ ~ ~ itl While starting on a journey it is inauspicious if anyone asks the destination or sneezes all of ~¢ mtft~~~~m a ~udden or if a cat or a snake crosses the path ,""q'T~~~~oqmm from right to left or call of a jackal or owl is ~~ ...... heard or anyone with empty vessels comes across. Putting a curd and vermilion mark on the forehead or consumption of curd with gUT or blowing the conch shell before starting on a ~~ ...... journey or meeting anyone with filled up vessels « ~ ~ ~ fuqvft « q.u ~ ~ or the appearance of a black bird called shyama 'im~~~~~) ~, are believed to lead to a comfortable and fruitful mqvn 'U1{ mr ~ ~ ill journey. Some people still believe that disease and epi The soldier takes leave of his wife while going demics are an indication of the wrath of gods to the war front. She has her own apprehensions and goddesses and hence they offer puja and for future because her eyes are fluttering which is sacrifice goats for propitiating the gods, goddesses an indication of ill-omen and hence she would and spirits as a mode of warding off epidemic not let him go. But he reassures her of his and disease. Such beliefs and practices are, profound love for her and asks her not to hold however, disappearing gradually because injec him bl the coat any longer since the bugle of tions and allopathic drugs have definitely proved war has been blowing and he must go without to be more efficacious. When drugs fail to any delay. He also tells her to get the children cure a disease the last resort is naturally puja educated properly in his absence. and sacrifice. Another popular song recited at the time of Folk Songs folk dancing, depicting the pangs of separation Folk songs depict the various facets of culture of a husband from his wife is reproduced below :- of a people, shorn of external influences. Garhwal is a land of high hills and deep valleys. « ~ ~, ~~ ~ Giro, qfd410' IIiT ~ '" • The God-fearing Garhwalis remained in isola ~ ~ rn"~ ~ ,"" ~ ~1 q-mr qtll tion for centuries, leading a simple and conser vative life. With the dawn of British rule, Garh m-~T ~, 'I'R~, ~ m: fcfi",.n~ q'r • wal supplied a number of soldiers 10 the armed ~ ~ ~ 'mft',.~ ~ ~II forces. '\lith the increased pressure of population m:-m: ~ mvft ~, ~ IIiT mt It\i I on land, some people migrated to other places in ~ qf ~ ~~~, ~~ Of i'Rr Ifilll search of livelihood, leaving behind their families in the village. The resultant impact q'{ '"' ~ ~ oq, 'JR ~;pf q ~ 'Ii I of such a life is reflected in their folk songs.

, The husband is far away from the village A romantic song popular with the youth runs earning his livelihood but the wife is left behind as ;- in the village. He visualises her as roaming on hill tops collecting grass and his friends in the [~ ~ ~ ~ ~ q;f ~ iit village picking ripe fruit from hinsar and €I1JfT mIlIl1 ~ Of' ~ 1lTtff ;ffl-

CONCLUSION Traditionally, the Indian village enjoys the of officials vistting the village has also multiplied. reputation of being static, dogmatically clinging Representatives of planning and development to the oJd order which might change and yield departments such as Village Level Worker, Agri- place to a new order anywhere but not in the culture Inspector, Stockman, Panchayat Seere- rural area of India. This applies with greater tary, Sanitary Inspector, Co-operative Supervisor force to a village in Garhwal where outside and Inspector, Sub-Deputy Inspector of Schools influences have been very slow to penetrate and and Assistant Development Officers visit the act. The foregoing study of ThapIi, however, village to enIorce their schemes in the village. exposes. to a great extent the fallacy of this view. The)" disseminate new ideas and techniquES of The wind of change has been blowing from socio-economic development of the villaget~, various directions, thereby replacing the old who listen to them with attention. A large concepts and standards on the social, economic number of persons are employed in service out- and p01itical scene. side the village. Wlynever they pay even casual visits, they leave their own stamp on the " The major factors influencing the village in way of thought and action of the villagers. general consist of contacts with government They too visit the urban areas in connection officials, education, planning and development with official work or a periodical sodal contact activities, agitation for social reform by the Arya with their friends and relatives. During lIuch Samaj, administrative reforms and elections at contacts the way of life of the urban people is the Panchayat, Assembly and Parliament level. closely observed by them with a view to emu Formerly, the Patwari was the most important lating what can easily be emulated. "The official with whom the villagers came in contact. Tural communities dearly take the lead from the He was a powerful officer having revenue and urban area&, although not without hesitation, police powers both. He was held in awe and misgivings, doubts and initial resistence . . . • respect. Now and then the Deputy Commis. petty government servants and town-returned sioner, Sub-Divisional Magistrate and Tahsildar village-folk are not expressly recognised as leaders would happen to visit the village in connection of the community, but all the same, they set with winter tours or the Naib-Tahsildar or the wheels of the community in motion in the Kanungo would appear for making a spot inspec. direction of social change. It is through this tion or holding a local inquiry. The \·jsits of class of people that urban items of regional cul high officers were associated with incurring expen ture and several items of the national and western diture in making their camp arrangements or free cultures are brought into the community an~ labour for carrying tents and other equipments. hesitatingly absorbed into its life. Their They were hardly accessible. With the change selection or rejection naturally depends upon in administration aftCl" attainment of freedom their need, utility, prestige value and conformity the frequency of visits of officers has increased bu; 'With or opposition to the prevailing set of the botheration to the villagers has disappeared values in the community."· for they are bardly required to make any arrange ments for them now. A patient hearing :is Construction of roads and introrluction of bus given to everyone who has any complaint, may service has greatly facilitated the contacts with be against the subordinates, and prompt action the outside world. The community listening is taken to redress the grievance. The number set in the schoQI at Jakheti and 8. ragjQ-se:ts ilJ. "!fJ(;/jan Villl1¥e, 1955 by s. c. Dube. CONCLUSION 51 the households of Brahmins keep the villagers in reason, though gradually. Instead of magic touch with important events in India and thus and chants, people increasingly use modern brqaden their outlook on life. As a result of medicine and ipjections which give a quicker such contacts, the way of life of the residents of and surer relief from disease. Thapli has greatly changed. The style of dress, Having seen three Panchayat and Assembly both of males and females, is being gradually elections, the population has grown politically replaced by more modern dress such as kurta, conscious. They no longer cast their vote shirt, bush-

Area in lJ~nsity per No. of No. of Population t- .A. ---'""\ Squar;: Mile Houses Households Acres Hectares Persons Males Females 372.75 150.85 947 109 120 '552 219 333 persons

TABLE II Population by!Age Groups Total of all Ages 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-44 45-59 60 and abave ,.. _____.Io...... r-""-...... ,..-A-; r-"---. r-"---. ~ ,...-"--,. ,--A--, ,--A--, ,--A--, ~ Persons Males Females M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F 5S2 219 333 4346 38 45 3241 15 31 10 30 10 22 8 20 12 32 27 48 24 1&

TABLE III , Size and Composition of Households Single member 2.3 members- 4-6 members 7-9 members 10 members and .--.____..A. __...... over rotal Number or Households ~---. ,--...A.____...... ~-...... ~ , House· M F House· M F House- M F House· M F House· .M F holds holds holds holds holds 120 14 14 2S 19 39 SS 109 160 22 7S 9S 4 16 25

TABLE IV Caste and Nature of the Family Total Types of Families living in the Household Number of Caste Households Simple Intermediate Joint Others- Brahmin .. 73 20 5 10 311 Kshatriya .. •• 7 2 5 Shilpkar 40 15 4 11 10 Total 120 37 9 21 53 N. B.-Simple familY consists of married couple and unmarried children. Intermediate family consists of married couple and unmarried brothers Or sisters or one of the parents. Joint family consists of married couple living with married children Or married brothers. ;Others' refers to single members or unmarried broiliers and sisters or one parent liVi~g with unmarried:lons or daU'alitCIL 54 THAPU TABLE V Households classified by Religion, Castes and Sub-castes Number .R.eli &!!,n Caste Sub-caste Persons Males Females of households

Hinduism Brahmin 1. Thapliyal 338 126 212 73

2. Chandola 24

3. Musora 9

4. Sundriyal 2

5. Naithani 5

6. Bahuguna 3

7. Jugran 2

8. Malasi 2

9. Panthri

10. Juyal

Kshatriya Rawat 16 6 10 7

Shilpkar(Arya) Shilpkar 198 87 111 40 .------Total 552 219 333 -----120 TABLE VI Age and Marital Status Total Population Never married Married Widowed Divorced or Separated Age Group r---,.A..,____,.._, ,-__,.A-----, ,-~ _ __..., ,-_ __,A.----, ,-~__,A.__...... Persons Males Females Males Females Males Females Males Females Males Females All Ages S52 219 333 132 146 80 149 7 37 0-4 89 43 46 43 46 5-9 83 38 45 38 4S 10-14 73 32 41 32 40 1 IS-19 46 15 31 15 15 16 20-24 40 10 30 4 6 29 1 25-29 32 10 22 10 22

30-34 28 8 20 8 18 " 2 'f

35-39 29 6 23 6 22 1 n

40 •. 44 15 6 9 6 7 2 1r 45-49 21 11 16 11 12 4 50-54 20 8 12 8 6 5 1 5S-59 28 8 20 8 7 13 60 and OVer. 42 , 24 18 17 9 7 9 TABLE va Education Literate Total without Primary A.y Age Group Population miterate educa or High Intermediate Graduate other QuaJj. tional Basic School fication standard

All Ages 552 219 333 352 101 251 67 30 37 83 50 33 11 11 1 2 2 " 36 24 11 0-4 89 43 46 89 43 46 .. 5-9 83 38 45 52 21 31 31 17 14 " 10-14 73 32 41 11 1 10 34 12 22 23 16 7 .. ••• 0 ...... 0 S 3 2 15-19 46 15 31 22 2 20 2 10 3 7 5 5 7 4 3 20-24 40 10 30 25 24 .. S 2 3 2 2 .. 1 1 633 25-29 32 10 22 18 1 17 .. 10 7 3 1 1 1 1 .. 2 1 30-34 28 8 20 19 1 18 .. 8 6 2 " ...... 0 •••••• 1 1 .. 35-39 2962324 420 .. 4 1 3 1 1 .. 40-44 15 6 9 11 3 8 .• 2 2 .. ••• 0 ••• 0 •••••• 211 45-49 27 11 16 20 6 14 .. s 3 2 " 2 2 50-54 20 8 12 14 2 12 ...... 3 3 .. 2 2 .. 1 1 .. 55-59 28 8 20 19 4 15 .. 5 4 '" 3 1 60 and over 42 24 18 28 12 16 .. . . 8 6 2 .. 6 , ..

TABLE VIII Workers and Non-workers by Sex and bro/Jd Age Groups Total Population Workers r,-~ ______~A, ______, ~______Non-workers~ ______~ Age Group ~ ~------~ Persons Males Females Persons Males Females Persons Males Females All Ages SS2 219 333 302 102 200 117 133 0-14 24S 113 132 7 1 6 112 126 15-34 146 43 103 134 38 96 S 35-59 119 39 80 119 39 80 60 and over 42 24 18 42 24 18 , .56 THArLl

t'l

...... t'l

t'l

00 ..,....

....

.... - "" M <>0-

N

-. (>J-

N

$il- TABLES 57

TABLE XI Livestock Milch Cattle Draught Bull Ooats and Sheep Dry Cow Dry Buffalo She·Calf Callt. ~ No. of Total No. of Total No. of Total No. of Total No. of Total No. of Total House- No. House· No. House· No. House- No. House- No. House- No. holds holds holds holds holds holds owning owning owning owning owning owning Shilpkar (Arya) 11 12 21 44 1 9 11 7 10 17 20 Brahmin 43 56 47 ~ 31 45 4 5 50 8' Kshatriya 3 3 4 9 1 2 1 1 2 3 Total 57 71 72 146 2 2 41 58 12 16 69 112 TABLE XlI .Agricultural Produce of Cultivation run by the Households and its Disposal Jhingora and Name of Products Paddy Wheat Pulse Mandua Barley Annual quantity produced (in rods.) 645.4 341.1 84.4 634,5 29.1 Annual quantity consumed by the producing households 645.4 341.1 84.4 634.5 29.1 Annual quantity available for sale TABLE XIII Indebtedness by Income Groups Total No. No. of Percentage Average Total Incom. Group of Households of Col. 3 Indebtedness Debt Householus in Debt to Col. 2 per House- hold in Debt Rs. Rs. 25 and below·( •. 19 9 47.4 306.7 2,760 Rs. 26 to 50 40 23 57.5 565.2 10,700 Rs. 51 to 75 22 6 27.3 241.7 1,450 Rs. 76 to 100 20 4 20.0 525.0 2,100 Rs. 101 and above 19 2 10.5 850.0 1,700 Total 120 44 36.7 425.2 18,710 TABLE XIV Indebtedness by Causes Proportion of Cause Amount Number of Debt due to of Families Cause to the Total Debt in Debt Amount of Debt (a) Purchase ofland 1,000 5.3 (b) House construction or repairs to eXIsting buildirg 900 1 4.8 (c) Marriages 300 1 1.6 (d) Sickness 100 O.S (e) Ordinary wants 15,810 39 84.6 (/) Household cultivation 600 1 3.1 Total 18,710 44 100 GLOSSARY Terms connected with Cultivation Nali 1. A measure of capacity equal to two seers of grain 2. A measure of land equal to 240 square yards; twenty nalis are equivalent to an acre approximately. Hissa or banI Coparcenary share of a proprietor Hissedar Coparcenary proprietor Bhai bant Division per capita Sautia banI Division half and half between the sons of two wives Zamindar An agriculturist; the term has none of the connotation that it has in plains. Sonjail zamin Undivided measured common land, either common to the whole community (gaon sanjait) or common to certain families or co-sharers only Muwasa A family Malguzar or padhan The headman of a village from whom the revenue engagement is taken and who is responsible for collecting and paying in the revenue of the village Khaikar 1. An under-proprietor whose rights as the original occupant cultivator have been usurped by or granted to some other person at some former period; this is the pakka khaikar. 2. An occupancy tenant who or whose predecessors never had any higher right; this is the kachcha khaikar. Sirtan A tenant-at-will ; sirti is his rent. Talaon shera Permanently irrigated land Upraon Dry terraced land ("upland"), first class (awwal) and second class (doyum) ljran Inferior terraced land cultivated intermittently Katil, khil Unterraced inferior land cultivated intermittently Nayabad Kaisar-i-Hind land freshly brought under cultivation Lagga A subsidiary village attached to the chief or parent village; it is sometimes merely an outlying portion and offshoot of the chief village and sometimes a small separate village which has been attached to the parent village. Malikana Cess Other Terms Abadi Residential area Chowki Post Dai Midwife Dandi, dola, palki Palanquins for carrying bride and bridegroom Devata A god Dhoti An Indian dress consisting of a five-yard cloth to be wrapped rather loosely round the waist Gadhera Stream Garh Fortress Grah bhoj Feast given prior to occupation of a newly constructed house Gur Jaggeq GLOSSARY 59

Havan Hindu way of making purificatory offerings to fire to the chanting of verses from Vedas Kachcha food Boiled rice and pulse Lath Panchayat An unofficial body of village people for management of communal forests Pakora Edible cooked in oil Patti Jurisdiction of a Patwari extending over a dozen villages or so Shradha Hindu ceremony of making offerings in the name of the dead BIBLIOGRAPHY Dube, S. C. Indian Village, 1955. Majumdar, D.N. Races and Culture of India, 1961. Panna W Customary Law of Kumaun Division, 1942. Patiram Garhwal. Stowell, V.A. A Manual of the lAnd Tenures of the Kumaun Division, 1937. Walton Gazetteer of District Garhwal, 1910. LIST OF VILLAGES SELECTED FOR STUDY IN UTTAR PRADESH

Serial Name of District Name of Tahsil Name of Village Revenue no. Number

1. Uttarkashi Dunda Birpur 44 2. Pithoragarh Munsiari Ghorpatta MalIa 45 Darkot 25 3· Garhwal Pauri Thapli 55 4. Almora Ranikhet Bijepur 51 5. Bijnor Bijnor Rafiulnagar urf Raoli 161 Mughalpura 115 6. Budaun Bisauli Mirzapur Behta 110 Budaun Kachla Pukhta 21 7. Bareilly Nawabganj Adhkata Rabbani Begum 8 Barkhan 198 8. Pilibhit Bisalpur Daulatpur Hira 174 g, Dehra. Dun Chakrata Dhaura 118 Chapnu 332 Sarari 224 10. Saharanpur Deoband Sadharansar 98 Bilaspur 22 11. Aligarh Atrauli Barauli 71 12. Mathura Sadabad Nagla Beru 122 13. Agra Kheragarh Bed Chahar 104 Etmadpur Chawli 47 Bah Pidhaura 109 14. Etah Jalesar Baghai 91 15. Etawah Etawah Udi 34 Auraiya Ayana 14 16. Kanpur Kanpur Ishuriganj 17 17. Allahabad Soraon Sarai Kesho urfBagi 216 Kalyanpur 24 Phulpur Bhadkar Uparhar 151 18. Hamirpur Rath Qasba Khera 4 19. Banda Naraini Akbarpur 2 ~ .. - 62 THAPLI

Serial Name of District Name of Tahsil Name of Village Revenue no. Number

20. Khed Nishasan Belapersua 122 Bankati Lodhauri 492 Rakehti 301 21. Sitapur Biswan Kanduni 354 22. Gonda Balrampur Suganagar Domri 383 Rajderwa Tharu 312 l~. Bartl Banki Nawabganj Gadia 124 Dadra 20 24. Sultanpur Sultanpur Barasin 42 25. Azamgarh Phulpur Sumbha Dih 364 Surhan 87 Ghosi Pakri Buzurg 444 26. Ghazipur Ohazipur Para 64

27. Varanasi V~t.ranasi Lohta 123 Mehndiganj 248 28. Mirzapvr Robertsganj Mitapur 104 Gidhia 36 Parsoi 70 SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY 1960.. 61 UTTAR PRADESH Namf of DistrtCI-___---, CENSUS 1961 PART 1 HOUSEHOLD SCHEDULE Name of Police Station Name of Village Number of Village on the List I. Serial Number of Household 2. (a) Name of Head of Household (b) Sex (c) Age (d) Caste or Tribe 3. Composition of Household. including Head: Serial Relation- Age Occupation

no. Name Educa- Sex ship to Age Marital at ~----~-- tion Head Status Mar- Main Subsi- riage diary 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 A. Duration of Residence 4. (a) For how many generations, counting from head of the household backwards, has the household been residing in this village '1 (b) Ifhead of household has migrated to this village, together with the household, where was his ancestral home '1 B. Religion 5. (a) Religion (b) Sect (c) Tribe or Caste (d) Sub-tribe or Sub-caste 6. (a) Is there a deity or object of worship or a sacred plant in the house? (Answer Yes/No). (b) If'Yes', where is the deity or object of worship located in the house ? (c) What is the name of the deity or object of worship or sacred plant and what is the form of worship? 7. Do you know that untouchability in any form has been prohibited under law? (Answer Yes/No). C. Marriage 8. (a) Hasany marriage in contravention ofcaste or tribal law taken place in this household? (Answer Yes/No). (b) If such a marriage has taken place, give details about the marriage. (c) With what castes or tribes other than the caste or tribe of the household is marriage permissible '1 (d) With which of such castes or tribes would marriage be desirable ? (e) Was dowry given on the occasion of the marriage of the son 'I (Answer Yes/No. If 'Yes', mention amount). THAl'LI

if) Was dowry given on the occasion of the marriage of the daughter '1 (Answer Yes/No. If 'Yes', mention amount). 9. (a) Do you know that there have been changes in recent years in Hindu Marnage Act '1 (Answer Yes/No. If 'Yes', what do you think of the salient features of the Hindu Marriage Act 1) 10. Have you any objection to contract marriages for persons of your household with persons of same social and economic status as yours but belonging to the following communities '1 (Mark with a (v') the names of the communities against which you have no objection). (1) Baidya (11) Chamar (2) Mahisya (12) European (3) Dom (13) Karmakar (4) Brahman (14) Kayastha (5) Dhobi (15) Pod (6) Bauri (16) Rajbanshi (7) Bhotia (17) Namasudra (8) Napit (18) Bagdi (9) Santal (19) Chinese (10) Muslim D. Inheritance 11. (a) Do you know that there have been changes in recent years in Hindu Adoption Act '1 (Answer Yes/No). (b) If yes, what do you think are the salient features on recent changes '1 12. (a) Do you think that there have been changes in recent years in Hindu Succession Act (Answer Yes/No). (b) If yes, what do you think are the sailent features of such changes '1 13. (a) Which relatives, including male members and widows and daughters, married and unmarried, inherit property on the death of a married male person belonging to the same caste as your household ? (b) What is the share of each such member? 14. Are you in favour of inheritance of property by daughters equally with sons 1 E. Property Land 15. If the household possesses land, give (a) Total area in acres (b) Total area under cultivation (c) Area comprising homestead Quantity Quan (d) Name of Crop obtained tity (i) Paddy .. last year seld (ii) Wheat " (iii) Maize, Jawar or baJra (iv) Pulses, "including gram (v) Sugarcane (vi) Barley (vii) Vegetables (viii) Jute (ix) Chillies .. (x) Tobacco (xi) OiIseeds (xii) Cotton .. (xiii) Ginger " (xiv) Fodder or bamboo or cane (xv) Fruits " (xvi) Other agricultural crops SCHEDULES 65

(e) What is the organic manure used '1 (f) Do you use chemical fertilizers '1 (g) Do you use any new agricultural implement which has been taught to you for the first time in the last five years '1 (h) Do you borrow agricultural implements from others at the time of cultivation '1 (i) Do you take help of neighbours at the time of sowing or harvesting '1 (j) DQ you assist your neighbours and receive help at the time of cultivation in the shape of manual labour '1 (k) Adoption of land improvement measures like reclamation, soil conservation, consolidation, etc. (/) Increase in irrigated area (m) Use of improved seeds crop-wise (n) ,Use of pesticides (0) Use of improved methods of cultivation, like Japanese method of paddy cultivation 16. How much did your father own at the time of his death: (a) Land in acres (b) Houses and other property 17. (d) Do you own any cattle or poultry '1 Give numbers of: (i) Milch cattle (ii) Draught bullocks (iii) Cows, goats, sheep, pigs, and fowl (b) How much milk or milk-products do you sell '1 18. Fishery (a) Does the household own any tank '1 (b) If fish is reared, was any quantity sold last year '1 (Answer Yes/No. If'Yes', mention quantity). F. Industry 19. Do you conduct any industry '1 (a) What are the products '1 (b) Which of them do you sell to neighbours or in the market '1 (c) Have you taken up this industry for the first time in the course of last five years '1 (d) Have you adopted any new tools or instruments for running this industry '1 If so, name the details of the tools and instrum~nts. 20. Name the art or craft in which you have earned proficiency. 21. When and how did you learn the art or craft concerned '1 (a) Do you consider further training necessary '1 (Answer Yes/No). (b) If yes, describe the type of training you desire. 22. (a) What was your father's occupation '1 (b) If you have changed your father's occupation, why have you done so '1 (c) Were you forced for lack of choice into this occupation? (Answer Yes/No). (d) If you were not forced for lack of choice, why did you choose this occupation '1 23. (a) Have you yourself changed your occupation from another kind to this one '1 (.Answer Yes/No.) (b) If yes, explain why you have changed your own occupation '1 66 THAPll

24. What kind of work would you like your son to do ? 25. (a) If you are engaged in trade or business, mention the commodities dealt.in. (b) How do you get your finance ? (c) What is your approximate profit? G. Indebtedness 26. If the household is in debt, mention (a) Amount of debt outstanding (b) Source of credit 27. (a) Are you content with the present occupation? (Answer YesJNo). (b) If no, what other work are you doing? H. Education 28. (a) How much did you spend last year on the education of your children ? (b) How many of your children are reading at school or college? School: Male/Female College: Male/Female (c) Does any member of the household regularly read a newspaper or listen to news broadcasts through the community radio sets? I. Community 29. (a) Does the head of the household know name of the Zila Parishad/Panchayat/Thana/District in which his village is situated ? (b) Does the head of the household know names of the principal rivers flowing through the district ? 30. (a) Do you think that abolition of Zamindari and intermediary rights has resulted in any good to you'] (Answer Yes/No). (b) If yes, indicate how you have benefited. (c) If no, why have you not been benefited? 31. If you are a share-cropper, (a) Could you get yourself recorded as a share-cropper in the revisionary Settlement? (Answer Yes/No). (b) Have you been evicted from your land as a result of recent land legislation? (Answer YesJ No). If 'Yes', give particulars. 32. (a) Have you benefited from any scheme ofland reclamation or land development? (Answer Yes/No.) (b) If yes, explain how have you benefited. 33. (a) Is there a co-operative society in your village ? (Answer Yes/No). (b) If yes, are you a member ? (Answer Yes/No). (c) If no, why are you not a member? 34. (a) Is there a N. E. S. Block in your area? (b) Do you know the functions of Gram Sevak? (Answer Yes/No). (c) If yes, describe his functions. (d) Has the Gram Sevak ever come and talked to you ? (e) Has he demonstrated any of the improved agricultural practices mentioned above? If so, did you follow his advice ? 35. (a) Have you been benefited from the N. E. S. Block? (Answer Yes/No). (b) If yes, how have you been benefited ? SCHEDULES 67 36. (a) Is there a Panchayat in your village? (Answer Yes/No). (b) If yes, how long has the Panchayat been in your village ? (c) What are the main functions of the Panchayat ? (d) What are the main parties in your Panchayat and which caste is leading the Panchayat ? (e) Has there been any improvement in your village since the Panchayat was established? (Answer Yes/No). (f) If yes, what have been the Improvements ? (g) What activities or works of community benefit (school buildings, wells, Panchayatghars, youth clubs, etc.) . have been taken up in your village since the establishment of the Panchayat? (h) Did you participate in these (by contributing land, labour. cash or material, etc.)? If not, why not ? (i) Have you benefited from the work/activity ? 37. (a) Has any caste or tribe of your village got a separate panchayat of its own? (Answer Yes/No). (b) If yes, what are the main functions of this caste or tribal Panchayat ? (c) Since the statutory Panchayats are functioning, why do you think these caste or tribal Panchayats should still continue ? 38. (a) Is there a family planning centre in your area? (Answer Yes/No). (b) Do you know that man and wife can prevent conception of a child by deliberate means, if they Wi5h to do so ? (c) Does the head of the household wish that no more children were born to him ? J. Diet 39. (a) How many times a day do the members ofthe household take their meals ? (b) What are the usual items of diet at each meal ? (c) What are the foods or drinks prohibited ? (d) Does the household take sugar/tea ? K. Utensils 40. (a) What utensils are used for preparing food and for storage of drinking water ? (b) Of what materials are important untensils made ? L Fuel 41. What fuel is ordinarily used for cooking ? M. Furniture and ornaments 42. (a) Does the household possess a bedstead khatia/chair/table/mirror/bench/stool/jalchowkij wall shelf? (Cross out those not found ). (b) Is the household using any new kind of furniture for the first time in the last five year5 ? (c) Does the household use mosquito net? 43. List of all the ornaments used'by (a) men and (b) women. Give the local names and mention whether gold or silver or brass or any other material is mainly used. Give drawings. N. Houses . 44. Give a plan of the house and compound showing the main places, the material of the roof, walls and doors and the measurements of the bed-room. Give sketches and photographs wherever possible. O. Consumer Goods 45. (a) Does the household possess hurricane lantern/petromax or hazak/torch/kerosene stove/ bicycle/gramophone/radio set? (b) Has any of the items been acquired for the first time in the last five years? If yes, which are these articles ? (c) Does the household use toilet soap/washing soap? ~d) Are clothes sent to w~sherman to be cleaned ? SCHEDULE FOR COLLECTION OF ADDITIONAL INFORMATION 1. Educational Qualifications (i) llliterate (ii) Without educational standard (iii) Primary or basic (iv) High School (v) Intennediate (vi) Graduate (vii) Post-graduate (viii) Diploma (ix) Holders of Oriental Titles (x) Any other qualifications 11. Types 0/ non- Workers- (i) Full time student or child attending school (ii) Engaged only in household duties (iii) Dependents, infants and children not attending school and persons pennanently disabled (iv) Retired persons not re-employed, rentiers, persons living on agriculture, royalty, rent or divi dend or persons of independent means (v) Beggars, vagrants, independent women without indication of source of existence (vi) Inmates of penal, mental and charitable institutions (vii) Person$ seeking employment for the first time (viii) Persons employed before but now out of employment and seeking work III. Land- (i) Area owned by household .. (ii) Area held from Government under a tenure less substantial than ownership .. (ill) Area leased in .' (iv) Area leased out IV. Number of rooms in the house- Y. Have YQJi during the last ten years-

(i) Acquired any property Name of Property Value in Rupees (il) Made any savings in cash/National Savings Certificates Cash National Savings Certificates SCHI1:DULES 69 (iii) Invested capital in any new undertaking or building ( give value in Rs. ) (iv) Secured better irrigation facilities Yes/No (v) Purchased better cattle Yes/No (vi) Acquired more land for cultivation Yes/No (vii) Invested by taking a debt

Details of investment Value in Rupees

(viii) Sold any property Details of property Value in Rupees VI. Diet (i) Is your family (a) Vegetarian (b) Non-Vegetarian NOTE-A vegetarian family is that which does not allow meat, eggs, etc. in its kitchen. (ii) What is household's staple diet 'l (Give details). VII. Income- Household's gross monthly income in rupees from : (i) Salary or wages (ii) Industry run by the household (fu) Business run bY,the household (iv) Cultivation of the household (v) Rent from land leased out (vi) Rent from house (vii) Pension .' (viii) Gifts and pr('sents (ix) Help from relatives ex) Other sources VIII. Expenditure- Household's monthly expenditure- A. Food Crops- Unit Quantity in Value in 1. Cereals and Pulses Mds. Seers Rupees Remarks

Wheat Mds. Rice Other grains " " Dat Seers Total 70 THAPIJ

2. Vegetables Unit Quantity in Value in Remarks Mds. Seers Rupees Potato .. Mds. Onion .. Seers ., Other Vegetables " Total

3. Meat and Fish Meat .. Seers Fish " Others .. Total

4. Milk Mds. 5. Ghee and Oil Vegetable oil Seers Mustard oil .. Ghee Desi .. Total

6. Condiments Chillies Seers Tamarind Salt " Others " " Total

7. Sugar and Gur

.Sugar Seers Khandsari .. Gur ••

Total

3. TeaandCojJee Packet Tea ) of 1/8 Coffee .. lb.

Total .. SCHl!'.DULEs '1

Unit Quantity in Value in Mds. Seers Rupees Remarks 9. Intoxicants } Bottle Liquor :: of 24 oz. Bhang Tola

Total 10. Fuel and Light Fuel Mds. Kerosene oil Bottle of 24 oz.

Total 11. Tobacco Smoking Seers Chewing Chattaks

Total

12. Other Foods Pan No. Supari Seers Refreshments, etc. " Total 13. Clothing and Footwear Dhoti Pair Saree ., Other cloth Yard Shoe (Oesi) Pair Shoe (English) " Total 14. House House rent Repair of house, if owned,

Total 72 THAPU

Unit Quantity in Value in Mds. Seers Rupees Remarks B. Miscellaneous Expenditure- 1. Education 2. Dhobi or Soap 3. Barber 4. Travelling 5. Medical fees and medicines 6. Religious observances 7. Amusements 8. Provident Fund and other compulsory savings 9. Payment of debt 10. Remittances to dependents living elsewhere 11. Litigation 12. Servants 13. Other items, if any (specify) Total c. Cultivation, Industries and Business- 1. Cultivation run by the household 2. Industry run by the household 3. Business run by the household . rrotal

N. B,-Total of column 1 will not be done. D. Grand total of A to C (value only) E. Surplus or Deficit MEDICAL CARE A. Maternity Cases- 1. Number of cases hospitalized 2. Number of cases- (a) Confined in hospital (b) Confined by bringing doctor home (c) Confined by qualified midwife at home (d) Confined by unqualified dai at home (e) Confined without assistance B. Ordinary Medical Treatment (a) Allopath (b) Ayurvedic (c) Homeopath (d) Combination of more than one system (e) Unani (f) Quack SCHEDULES 75

C. Medical Consultation- (a) In public hospitals and dispensaries (b) In private hospitals and dispensaries (c) By calling in physicians, allopaths, homeopaths, etc. D. Whether vaccinated (Yes/No) CAUSES OF INDEBTEDNESS

Amount of debt in Rupees 1. Purchase of land 2. House construction or repairs to existing buildings 3. Marriages 4. Funerals S. To give dowry 6. To clear old outstanding debts 7. Sickness 8. Ordinary wants 9. Household cultivations 10. Industry run by the household 11. Business run by the household 12. Others, if any, specify SOCIAL AND CULTURAL 1. Does your household get a daily newspaper? (Yes/No). 2. Does any member of your household work for social uplift? (Yes/No). 3. Does any member/members of your household take active part in politics? (Yes/No). 4. Has any member/members of your household joined a Co-operative Society? (Yes/No) If yes, specify the type of Co-operative Society. SCHEDULES

PART II VILLAGE SCHEDULE Name of Police Station Kame of village ...... •...... , number of village ...•...... Aroa of the village ...... •...... , number of household ...... What is the religion which majority of the villagers profess? 1. Topography of the village- (a) Is the village situated on a plain/on an undulating surface / on a plateau/on a hillock/ or atthe bottom of a depression ? ...... • • ...... (b) The system of grouping of houses-average distance between two clusters of houses reason for such grouping, e.g., whether on account of the nature of the surface of land or on account of social custom (c) Internal roads-tanks-village common-any stream or other extensive sourc~ of water-proximity or otherwise of any jungle-approximate number of shade-bearing trees and how they are arranged 2. What is the local legend about the village? 3. Detailed description of average house of the members of each caste, religious group, occupational group in the village 4. Name and distance of hat or hats to which surplus produce of the village is taken for sale 5. Name and distance of the nearest Railway station and Bus route 6. Distance by road from Police Station and s.ub-division headquarters 7. (0) Distance of the Post office from thevillage (b) Distance of the Telegraph office from the village (c) Can money be sent through that Post office? 8. Religious practices followed by members of each caste, tribe and religious group in the village. The description of the religious practice in each case should begin with the name or names under which the Supreme Being is known and then proceed from ceremonies that might be observed in respect of a person from some time before he is born and end with the funeral rites after his death " 9. Give details of places of common religious worship, if any 10. Describe community festivals if held in the village. 11. Dress commonly worn by the villagers with special reference to peculiarities on account of caste, tribe or religious sanction or economic status 12 Number and types of schools in the village 13. Describe social recreation centres, if any 14. State of co-operative movement in the village (number and nameil of co-operatives). SCHEDULES Nature of Social disabilities suffered by different castes in the village

(I) (II) (UD (IV) (V) Access to Disabilityregarding services Avoided by caste Hindu inregard to ,..-___.A.,_ __ ...... r------.,A-.-----...... r- -, Name of Caste Shop, Temple Any Brah- Barber Washer- Any Touch Serving Serving Rlmarkt hotel, or other man man other cooked water restau- place place priest village food rant of of servant worship public resort

Village Disputes referred to different authorities last year

(I) (II) (III) (IV) (V) (VI) Leading members of each disputant party Nature of adjudicating Caste Name Caste/Tribe Nature Decision of Nature Remarks (Whe- authority Panchayat of the adjudicat of therthedecision dispute ing authority sanction was enforced, whether there is preference for adjudication by particular tn>e of authority, m particular type of case, place of trial, etc.) Caste Panchayat Informal Panchayat Statutory Village Panchayat Court Others (Specify)

Village Leaders, Members of Panchayat, Priests and other office-bearers

(I) (II) (III) Members Name of Orpnization Name Caste Occupa- Age Since How Remune- Other Remarks tion when gained ration, if offices holding position any held in· the side the office village

Statutory Panchayat Caste Panchayat (name of caste) Other Leaders Members of Board of Direc toll of Co-operative So ciety '16 'l'HAPU Cultural Life ofthe Village

(I) (II) (III) (IV) (V) (VI) (VII) Rough proportion of Office-bearers members belonging to Brief note Brief note Brief note r- ~ on basis of on objec- on activi Names ofclubs, When Differ- Differ- Age Name Caste Occupa- Age Educa- member- tiveofthe ties of the libraries, drama establi ent entocc- tion tion ship, organiza- organiza- parties or other cul- shed castes upations/ subscrip- tion tion turalorganizations groups tion, signing in the village of pledge, etc.

Recreational and Artistic Activities enjoyed by the Villagers

(I) (II) (III) (IV) (V) (VI) (VII) (VIII) (IX)

Type ofactivity * Brief Whereroom Frequency Extent of Extent of Ifactivity is In What agency Who trains, descrip- placed (if and duration activeparti- participation village, do visi- sponsors, players, etc. tion outside the (specifywhe- cipation of of people of tors from other promotes or (His name, village,name therdaily, people of themain village participate finances address, and distance monthly, sea- themain castesorco- I ..A..__ caste, of the place) sonal, etc.) castes and communities Appro- Role occupa- mmunities as audience ximate (player, tion) inperforma- (many,few, num- audience nce(many, some) ber other- few, some) wise)

1. Sports and games 2. Drama, music, dancing,etc. 3. Cinema 4. Filmstrip, puppet show, etc.

S. Fairs 6. Festivals 7. Other entertain ments .Indicate nature and reason of celebration.

PSUP-A. P. S Ce~ ISO. (M)