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The Politics of Inequality Competition and Control in an Indian Village

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The Politics of Inequality Competition and Control in an Indian Village Asian Studies at Hawaii, No. 22 The Politics of Inequality Competition and Control in an Indian Village Miriam Sharma ASIAN STUDIES PROGRAM UNIVERSITY OF HAWAll THE UNIVERSITY PRESS OF HAWAII Copyright © 1978 by The University Press of Hawaii All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States ofAmerica Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Sharma, Miriam, 1941­ The politics ofinequality. (Asian studies at Hawaii; no. 22) Bibliography: p. Includes index. 1. Villages-India-Case studies. 2. Local govern­ ment-India-Case studies. 3. India-Rural conditions -Case studies. 4. Caste-India-Case studies. I. Title. II. Series. DS3.A2A82 no. 22 [HV683.5] 950'.08s ISBN 0-8248-0569-0 [301.5'92'09542] 78-5526 All photographs are by the author Map 1by Iris Shinohara The Politics of Inequality - To the people ofArunpur and Jagdish, Arun, and Nitasha: for the goodness they have shared with me Contents LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS X LIsT OF TABLES xiii PREFACE xv CHAPTER 1 POLITICS IN INDIAN VILLAGE SOCIETY 3 Politics in Arunpur 5 The Dialectic 8 Fieldwork and the Collection of Data 12 CHAPTER 2 THE VILLAGE OF ARUNPUR 19 Locale ofArunpur 21 Village History 24 Water, Land, and Labor in the Agricultural Cycle of Arunpur 28 Traditional Mode of Conflict Resolution: The Panchayat 37 The Distribution of Resources in Arunpur 40 CHAPTER 3 ARUNPUR AND THE OUTSIDE WORLD: THE EXTENSION OF GOVERNMENT ADMINISTRATION 49 Extension ofGovernment Administration 49 New Alternatives for Conflict Resolution 53 New Resources and Relationships with Government Personnel 55 Expansion ofGovernment Administration and the Political Arena 59 viii CONTENTS CHAPTER 4 CASTE AND KIN: THE NETWORK OF SOCIAL RELATIONS 61 Formal Relations among Castes: Dominance and Jajmani 62 Informal Relations among Castes: Friendship and Sex 76 Kinship in Arunpur 79 CHAPTER 5 CONFLICT IN ARUNPUR: DISPUTES THAT Do NOT ESCALATE 88 Conflict within the Family 89 Conflict among Affines 97 Conflict within the Khandan 103 Disputes within Jajmani Relations 105 Containment of Conflict 106 CHAPTER 6 THE ANATOMY OF LEADERSHIP: BIG MEN OF ARUNPUR 109 Cultural Categories of Village Leadership 109 Big Men in Arunpur before Independence (1947) 114 Big Men in Arunpur Today 118 Cultural Categories and Village Leaders 130 CHAPTER 7 THE POLITICAL ARENA IN ARUNPUR: FACTIONS 134 Origin ofPartibandi in Arunpur 135 Factions and the Organization ofConflict 141 The Dynamics ofFactions: Escalation ofConflict to the Political Arena 144 Recruitment ofPartibandiPersonnel 148 The Organization and Interactions of Partibandi Conflict 155 CHAPTER 8 THE POLITICAL ARENA IN ARUNPUR: CLASS CONFLICT 160 Caste Culture ofthe Chamars 162 The Conditions of Mazburi: Agricultural Labor among the Chamars 166 Disputes between Malik and Mazdur 171 Factions among the Chamars 177 Change and Class among Arunpur Chamars 181 CHAPTER 9 THE POLITICS OF WATER 185 Distribution ofWater in Arunpur 186 Competition for Water Organized by Factions 188 Competition between Classes 191 Competition among Individuals 194 The Structure of Conflict 197 CHAPTER 10 ELECTORAL POLITICS IN ARUNPUR: THE 1969 MIDTERM POLL 201 Village Participation in State Politics 202 CONTENTS ix Perceptions of Voting and Political Ideologies 203 Village Factionalism and the Election 207 Class Tensions and the Chamar Vote 210 Arunpur Intercollege and the Midterm Poll 213 Election Day in Arunpur: Regional Politics and the Village Arena 214 CHAPTER 11 CONCLUSIONS 219 The Political Arena in Arunpur 219 From British Raj to Entrepreneurial Big Man 223 New Alternatives for Action 225 Competition for New Resources 226 Effect ofa Changed Political Arena on Factional Conflict 227 Development of Class Conflict 229 Caste and Class in Indian Politics 232 GLOSSARY 237 BmuoGRAPHY 239 INDEX 251 - Illustrations MAPS 1. Map of India, showing location of Banaras District in the state ofUttar Pradesh 2 2. General locale ofArunpur 7 3. Arunpur and immediate environs 22 CHARTS 1. Genealogy 1: Descendants ofArun Singh, Main Pura 26 2. Genealogy 2: Little Pura Bhumihars 27 3. Conflict over resources: Water from the government tubewell 198 FIGURES 1. Manual boring ofa tubewell. 30 2. Laborers irrigate a field from a ditch. 32 3. Cutting fodder by hand. 34 4. Carrying fertilizer ofdried manure from the fields. 36 5. A Community Development worker helps a villager sign his name in the registry during a village meeting in which the possible installation ofa government tubewell in Ku- sampur is considered. 51 ILLUSTRATIONS xi 6. A Brahman from a nearby village performs traditional priestly functions during the naming ceremony for a newborn Bhumihar. 65 7. A Lohar works on a plough. 70 8. A Musahar gathers wood. 72 9. A Kohar sits before his potter's wheel. Pandeyji is behind him. 75 10. Villagers participate in wrestling matches and feats of strength on the festival ofTij. 77 11. Men ofall castes share the ganjha chi/am. From left to right: a Brahman, two Dharkars, and a Bhumihar enjoy a smoke while sitting along a tubewell canal. 80 12. Bhumihar children from Narain Singh's house. 83 13. Giving an oil massage to newborn infants is a villagewide. practice.. 85 14. Women gather in the Pradhan's house to bid a sad farewell to a daughter who is leaving for her in-laws' house, after thegauna. 99 15. Present descendants ofArun Singh, the elders of the Pradhan's house, husk corn. Amar Singh is at the far right. 116 16. The Pradhan. 121 17. Raj Kumar Singh. 122 18. Chandra Singh, drinking tea while campaigning for the Jan Sangh, is flanked by a Saranpur supporter on the left and Lalji Singh standing behind him. 124 19. Jai Singh, on the left, and his staunch Arunpur supporter campaign for the Jan Sangh in the constituency. 125 20. Brahman priests officiate at the ceremony to sanctify the land upon which Krishna Singh's house will be built. Krishna's two brothers are standing, while a third squats with his wife behind him. 128 21. Entertainers at a feast honoring a Chamar woman who died at a very old age. 163 xii ILLUSTRATIONS 22. Enjoying the antics ofa performing monkey in Chamar Pura. The woman at the extreme right is ofthe Teli caste. 165 23. Ploughman holds two ploughs. 168 24. Chamar and Musahar laborers pick what remains in Chandra Singh's potato fields. 173 25. Raj Narain, member ofParliament (now Minister of Health and Family Welfare in the central government), gives a campaign speech during an SSP rally in Dallia bazaar. 206 26. Women wait to cast their votes at the Arunpur Intercollege polling station. 215 Tables 1. Caste hierarchy in Arunpur 6 2. Population ofArunpur 23 3. Land ownership in Arunpur by caste (in bighas) 35 4. Land in Arunpur by amount owned 42-43 5. Land by categories of ownership 44 6. Land ownership among Bhumihars 44 7. Caste and occupation in Arunpur 45 8. Estimated annual cash income (in rupees) 46 9. Education in Arunpur 47 Preface Although I write here about politics and inequality in India, both are universal aspects of human society. As the form of political activity will differ from one culture to another, so too will the way in which inequali­ ty is manifested in behavior and sanctified (or condemned) in ideology. India has proven a fascinating place to look at the dialectics of political interaction that occur within a traditional ideology of caste-which legitimizes inequalities through a belief in the divine order of hier­ archy-and within the alternative ideology of equality, to which the na­ tional government has affirmed its commitment. The example of India also permits us to examine the ways in which contradictions between these two ideologies affect political behavior in a changing environment. In many ways, a specialized study of any selected aspects of a culture will present a distorted view, especially to those readers who may be un­ familiar with other parts of the whole. A generalized ethnographic ap­ proach would avoid this pitfall, in the main, although it rarely allows for detailed study of any single activity system. Since politics deals with con­ flict over the allocation and control of things valued in society, an ethnography of a political system will necessarily focus on what may ap­ pear as the more disruptive elements of the social fabric, ignoring areas involving cooperation and direct concern for one's fellows. During the course of three visits and two and a half years of living in India, I have amply witnessed and been affected by this latter part of social life. The lack of focus on cooperative activity here is no comment on the extent of its existence within Indian society and culture. This study has come about as a result of an evolution of personal in- xvi PREFACE terest and research that dates from the time I was an "occasional" stu­ dent at the University of London, when I concurrently met two people. One introduced me to the rich culture of India and the other to the equal­ ly rich discipline of anthropology. My husband Jagdii'lh, and subsequent­ ly all members of my sasural, have imbued in me a respect and love for things Indian, while at the same time they have not blinded me to what they see as the shortcomings in their way of life. Doranne Jacobson has shared with me her commitment to anthropology, knowledge of India, and regard for the country. Additionally, Professors F. G. Bailey and Adrian Mayer, at the School of Oriental and African Studies (London), helped me gain a foundation of learning that I was able to build upon subsequently at the University of Hawaii. Teachers and fellow students here have provided a stimulating environment in which to carry on fur­ ther study. Specifically, I would like to acknowledge Jack Baumer, who taught me Hindi, and Bob Harrison, Ben Kerkvliet, and Woody Watson, for their concern and patience in helping me to formulate the dissertation on which this book is based.
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