Assessment of Factors Influencing Career Advancement Into

ASSESSMENT OF FACTORS INFLUENCING CAREER ADVANCEMENT INTO

ADMINISTRATION OF WOMEN EDUCATORS IN SELECTED PUBLIC

SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN NAIROBI COUNTY, KENYA

SAMUEL YOAA FLALEH STEPHENS, FMS

A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Education in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Award of Master of Education Degree in Educational Administration and Planning

THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN AFRICA

NAIROBI, KENYA

JUNE, 2017

DEDICATION

This thesis is dedicated to my mum, Mrs. Annie Wleh Yudeh Newton-Stephens, for her love and concern. This work is further dedicated to the entire Stephens’ family. Finally, I dedicate this thesis to all those who go along to seek to improve female educators’ career advancement in administrative positions.

ABSTRACT

There is a gender imbalance in administrative positions in public secondary schools in Nairobi County. The review of literature demonstrates that though there are many women in the teaching profession, they are appallingly underrepresented in administrative positions in public secondary schools. The study was guided by the following research questions: What factors motivate women to seek leadership or administrative positions in the public secondary schools? What are the perceptions of Teachers Service Commission Secretariat Officers, Principals, Deputy Principals and Teachers on women’s career advancement in school administrative positions in Nairobi County? Which are the challenges preventing women from assuming administrative positions in public secondary schools? What strategies can be used to mitigate the factors hindering women from taking up administrative positions in public secondary schools? Naturalistic research design, especially the phenomenology guided the study. A total sample size of 40 participants was used comprised of 5 principals, 5 deputy principals, 25 teachers and 5 Teachers Service Commission Secretariat Officers. Purposive sampling technique to select the five public secondary schools whose principals are women in Nairobi County. This study also used purposeful sampling technique to select participants. Data were collected through in-depth interviews semi structured interview guide, focus group discussion and observation guides. The study found self-esteem, actualisation, mentoring, role modelling and teamwork as motivators while family commitments and obligations vis-a-vis school roles and responsiveness were challenges encounter by female administrators. The study recommended that Teachers Service Commission to formulate a gender ratio based policy to be adopted when making school administrative appointments, design programmes on mentoring and role modelling for female teachers and school leadership be based on merit as a way of encouraging women teachers to take administrative positions.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to acknowledge my Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, who is able to do exceeding abundantly above all that we could ask or think according to the power that work in us. I am in awe of your love for me and the grace that you have bestowed upon my life. It is in You, my Lord and Saviour that I live, move, and have my being, and it is because of your faithfulness and love that I believe that the best is yet to come. Thus, I join the psalmist to say, ‘what shall I repay to the Lord, for all the things that He has repaid to me? I will take up the cup of salvation, and I will call upon the name of the Lord. I will repay my vows to the Lord, in the sight of all His people.

Precious in the sight of the Lord is the death holy ones. O Lord, because I am your servant, your servant and the son of your handmaid, you have broken bonds. I will sacrifice to you the sacrifice of praise, and I will invoke the name of the Lord. I will repay my vows to the Lord in the sight of all his people, in the courts of the house of the Lord, in your midst, Oh Jerusalem’ (Ps 115: 3-10).

Success and achievements do not come easily, yet we rejoice when our names are mentioned among educational award winners or people who have tremendously achieved success in their social life. In my case, this research thesis would never have come to fruition without the help of God the Almighty. Hence, I thank Him for giving me the strength, wisdom, understanding, love and the insight to come out with my research thesis. My deepest gratitude goes to Rev. Br.

Francis Lukong, the District Superior of the Marist District of West Africa, and the Marist

Brothers, for giving me the chance to build up my professional horizon in order to be more engaging in the spreading of the Gospel through education.

I am highly indebted to my supervisors, Dr. Kidanemariam Menghistu Sebhat, and Br. Dr.

Cyprian Bankakuu Gandeebo, for their relentless efforts in providing valuable guidance for the completion of this work. They painstakingly read through my research paper, trimmed the rough

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edges of the topic and drew my attention to ambiguities and inconsistencies. I am also grateful to

Dr. Lucy Wakiaga and Dr. Elizabeth Ngumbi, my previous Supervisors, who could not continue due to unavoidable circumstances. Most importantly, my sincere thanks go to Dr. Jared Ayona, my educational research method lecturer, in the Department of Postgraduate Studies, Faculty of

Education. Furthermore, I am indebted to all my friends, family members, and especially, my mother, Mrs. Wleh Yudeh Newton-Stephens, for their prayers and support. My special words of appreciation also go to Rev. Sr. Annie Be-U Doepoh, who has been editing my work relentlessly.

I cannot forget to appreciate and thank my classmates and all my lecturers for their affection and cooperation, which enabled me to come this far. May God richly bless and reward each one of them. Finally, I wish also to thank all the participants: the Principals, Deputy Principals, Teachers from Nairobi County and the Teachers Service Commission Secretariat Officers for availing their time to respond to the interview, without whose co-operation this work could not have been completed.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION ...... Error! Bookmark not defined.

DEDICATION ...... i

ABSTRACT ...... ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... v

LIST OF TABLES ...... x

LIST OF FIGURES ...... xi

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ...... xii

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Problem ...... 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem ...... 6

1.3 Research Questions ...... 7

1.4 Significance of the Study ...... 8

1.5 Scope and Delimitations of the Study ...... 9

1.6 Theoretical Framework ...... 10

1.6.1 Strengths of Liberal Feminism ...... 12

1.6.2 Weaknesses of Liberal Feminism ...... 13

1.6.3 Application of the Liberal Feminism to the Study ...... 14

1.7 Conceptual Framework ...... 15

1.8 Operational Definitions of Key Terms ...... 19

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction ...... 22

2.2 Review of Related Theories ...... 22

2.2.1 The Social Justice Theory ...... 22

2.2.2 Equity Theory ...... 24

2.3 Review of Empirical Studies ...... 26

2.3.1 Factors That Motivate Women in School Administrative Positions ...... 26

2.3.2 Stakeholders’ Perceptions on Women Career Advancement in School Administration 45

2.3.3 Main Challenges Preventing Women Assuming School Administrative Positions ...... 49

2.3.4 Strategies for Mitigating the Challenges Women face in Assuming School

Administrative Positions ...... 57

2.4 Summary of Reviewed Literature and Identification of Knowledge Gaps ...... 60

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction ...... 63

3.2 Research Design...... 63

3.3 Target Population ...... 64

3.4 Description of the Sample and Sampling Procedures ...... 66

3.4.1 Sample Size ...... 66

3.4.2 Sampling Procedures ...... 66

3.5 Description of Data Collection Instruments ...... 67

3.5.1 Interview Guide for Principals and Deputy Principals ...... 67

3.5.2 Semi-Structured Interview Guide for Teachers and Teachers Service Commission

Secretariat Officers ...... 69

3.5.3 Focus Group Discussion Guide for Teachers ...... 69

3.5.4 Observation Guide for the Selected Public Secondary Schools ...... 70

3.6 Trustworthiness of Qualitative Data ...... 71

3.6.1 Credibility ...... 72

3.6.2 Dependability ...... 73

3.6.3 Confirmability ...... 73

3.6.4 Transferability ...... 74

3.7 Data Collection Procedures...... 75

3.8 Data Analysis Procedures ...... 76

3.9 Ethical Considerations ...... 77

CHAPTER FOUR

PRESENTATION, INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

4.1 Introduction ...... 79

4.2 Response Rate of the Different Participants ...... 79

4.2.1 Gender of Participants ...... 81 vii

4.2.2 Age of Participants ...... 82

4.2.3 Level of Education for Participants ...... 84

4.2.4 Work Experience of Participants ...... 87

4.3 Factors that Motivate Women to Seek Administrative Positions ...... 91

4.4 Perceptions participants on Women Career Advancement in Public Secondary Schools .... 95

4.5 Challenges of Women Assuming Administrative Positions in Public Secondary Schools .. 98

4.6 Strategies to Mitigate Challenges of Women Assuming Administrative Positions in Public

Secondary Schools ...... 103

4.7 Summary of the Findings ...... 108

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction ...... 110

5.2 Summary of the Study ...... 110

5.3 Conclusions ...... 116

5.4 Recommendations ...... 117

5.4.1 Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MOEST) ...... 117

5.4.2 Teachers Service Commission (TSC) ...... 117

5.4.3 Female Principals ...... 118

5.4.4 Female Teachers ...... 118

5.4.5 Scholars ...... 119

5.5 Suggested Areas for Further Research ...... 119 viii

REFERENCES ...... 121

APPENDICES ...... 132

Appendix I: Letter to the Participants ...... 132

Appendix II: Letter to TSC Secretariat ...... 133

Appendix III: Participant Consent Form...... 135

Appendix IV: Interview Guide for Female Principals ...... 137

Appendix V: Interview Guide for Deputy Principals ...... 140

Appendix VI: Semi-Structured Interviews for Teachers ...... 144

Appendix VII: Semi-Structured Interviews for TSCSO ...... 149

Appendix VIII: Focus Group Discussion Guide for Teachers...... 155

Appendix IX: Observation Guide for the Schools ...... 157

Appendix X: Student I.D. CARD ...... 159

Appendix XI: Request Letter from CUEA to NACOSTI ...... 160

Appendix XII: Research Authorisation Letter from NACOSTI ...... 161

Appendix XIII: Research Authorisation Permit from NACOSTI ...... 162

Appendix XIV: Research Authorisation Letter from MOEST ...... 163

Appendix XV: Research Authorisation Letter from TSC Secretariat ...... 164

Appendix XVI: Map of Kenya Showing Nairobi County ...... 165

Appendix XVI: Map of Nairobi County Showing the Areas of Study ...... 166

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Number of Public Secondary Schools and Teaching Staff in Nairobi County ...... 65

Table 2 Summary of Sampling Matrix ...... 67

Table 3 Distribution of Participants Response Rates ...... 80

Table 4 Gender of Participants ...... 81

Table 5 Ages of Participants ...... 82

Table 6 Participants’ Academic Qualifications ...... 85

Table 7 Work Experience of Participants ...... 88

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Relationship among Variables...... 16

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

BOM Board of Management

CEOs County Education Officers

COK Constitution of Kenya

CSREES Cooperative State Research Extension Education Service

CUEA Catholic University of Eastern Africa

EOWWA Equal Opportunity for Women in the Workplace Agency

FGD Focus Group Discussion

FMS Fratres Maristae a Scholis

ILO International Labour Organisation

KEMI Kenya Education Management Institute

KICD Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development

KIST Kigali Institute of Science and Technology

KNCHR Kenya National Commission on Human Rights

KNCLR Kenya National Council for Law Reporting

MOEST Ministry of Education, Science and Technology

NACOSTI National Commission for Science, Technology and Innovation

NCGD National Commission on Gender and Development

NGOs Non – Governmental Organisations

PGDE Postgraduate Diploma in Education

PhD Doctor of Philosophy

PSS Public Secondary School

PSUL Penn State University Libraries

xii

PTA Parents -Teachers Association

ROK Republic of Kenya

TSC Teachers Service Commission

TSCSO Teachers Service Commission Secretariat Officers

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation

UNHCR United Nations High Commission for Refugees

UNIFEM United Nations Development Fund for Women

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Problem

Women possess enormous wealth in the socio-economic development of every country.

However, the majority are unable to utilise their potentials to the maximum and overcome the old- aged, inferiority complex, and advance into academia (Palacio, 2013). Nevertheless, women are becoming academically and socially active. They are now mindful of the fast changing social milieu and, therefore, making efforts to scale through the administrative ladder. They are now contributing extensively towards social transformation and nation building. In Section 56 of

Chapter 4 of the Constitution of Kenya (2010) points the welfare of women in both the social and political front (Kenya National Council for Law Reporting [KNCLR], 2010). Section fifty-six

(56) of Chapter four (4) of the Constitution of Kenya (2010) states that the State shall put in place affirmative action programmes designed to ensure that minorities and marginalised groups— (a) participate and are represented in governance and other spheres of life; (b) are provided special opportunities in educational and economic fields; (c) are provided special opportunities for access to employment; (d) develop their cultural values, languages and practices; and (e) have reasonable access to water, health services and infrastructure. The constitution advocates for all-inclusive processes in all elective positions and promoting affirmative action in areas where women seem to be marginalised.

The concept of affirmative action in the constitution guarantees increased participation of women in Kenyan society. The constitution also provides for legislation to regulate the improvement of women in administrative positions. This provides a level playing ground for all, regardless of gender. Women administrators provide moral support and act as role models to young

women (Palacio, 2013). Women educators act as role models for the girls and demonstrate the role of women and the position they occupy in society. Women administrators working with non- governmental organisations conduct human rights education at the grassroots levels, highlighting the need for the girl child education for posterity (Kilby, 2011). According to the United Nations

Development Programme ([UNDP], 2015) women empowerment in Kenya has been a gradual process since independence due to the patriarchal nature of our society, where it is believed that the role of men is to bring home the bacon while the female plays the receptive role.

In 2012, women comprised over a third of the workforce in the United States, yet they held a mere 14.3% of executive officer positions according to Fortune 500 companies report and only

8.1% of executive officer top-earning positions (Catalyst, 2013; Sealy & Vinnicombe, 2012).

During the same period, women held only 16.6% of the Fortune 500 board seats and fewer (6.6%) executive positions (Sealy & Vinnicombe, 2012). In the state of Iowa, over 80 percent of women aged 16 to 64 were reported to be the labour force, yet they worked for approximately four fifths

(79%) of men’s income for similar positions (median income of 34,534 United State Dollars for women vs. 43,872 United State Dollars for men to Murniati (2012).

Universally, education is accepted as the foundation for achieving the goal of social justice

(Furlong & Cartmel, 2009). The justification for developing women’s participation in top senior positions in higher education assumed based on the quality, equity, and development (UNICEF,

2013). Although over the decades, the progress has made globally in improving the status of women in administrative positions of higher education (Group World Bank, 2012) and also women have received varied treatments in higher education system by the United Nations and its specialised agencies, gender disparities still exist, especially in regard to participation in top

decision-making positions for female suffering from multi-faceted discriminations in occupying high ranking positions (Li, 2014).

Education is one of the most important means of empowering women with the knowledge, skills and self-confidence (Berkmans & Jyothi, 2014). Education enhances women’s ability to access knowledge, increase skills and accept changes. It also increases their employment opportunities. Empirical evidence shows that educated women provide better health, nutrition, care and social needs of their children, have fewer children and have delayed marriages (Pontara, 2001).

However, women have many roles they are expected to perform, and which often militate against their access, participation, retention and achievement in education.

According to Murniati (2012) who conducted a study on career advancement of women senior academic administrators in Indonesia: supports and challenges. The study adopted qualitative descriptive approach to investigate how eight women, senior academic administrators in two public research universities in Indonesia navigated their way to leadership positions. This study used in-depth interviews as data collection instrument. The findings of this study revealed that culture and religious beliefs distinctive to Indonesian contexts can facilitate or hinder women senior academic administrators’ career advancement. The study also decried the fact that when women advanced to top administrative positions, special attention is often focused on them being women. As such, female executives tend to face serious challenges on their way up the corporate ladder. Moreover, this indicated that all my participants agreed that women’s God-given task is to be a mother and a wife. This belief served as a strong foundation as these women navigated their careers. They affirmed that women should not forego and neglect these roles when pursuing their careers. The study recommended that for women to work more productively and effectively,

universities need to create sustainable trainings for administrative staff, decrease bureaucracy, and conduct performance-based review for staff.

The findings from this study is contrary to the liberal feminist theory which is implored for the current study. The theory strives for gender equity issues specifically concerned with the support of women in educational administration. According to Wallin (1999), this social-oriented theory strives for a society in which all individuals have the opportunity to realise their potential.

The sentiments are echoed by Combat (2014) who did a research on women aspiring to administrative positions in Kenya Municipal primary schools. The research employed qualitative approach and data was collected through interviews with the headteachers, deputy headteachers, female teachers and Ministry of Education. The study revealed that women’s representation in school administration is still far from proportionate to their representation in their teaching force.

The findings of the study also revealed that gender-related factors often deter women from entering school administrative roles and impede their career advancement. These factors included lack of role models and mentors, male-centric attitudes about what constitute leadership and family responsibilities tend to fall mostly on women. This study asserted that although there were more women in administrative positions today than a decade ago, there are a redundant number of top and even middle administrative positions in most organisations. This study recommended that strategies, policies and regulations, research, training, networking and advocacy to promote the status of women in education and leadership positions.

In the Kenyan scenario, Chelimo and Wosanju (2007) conducted a study on the challenges faced by females in educational leadership: problem encountered by women leaders in Eldoret,

Moi University. They found that women have grappled with leadership in educational administration for a long time). Yet, women in Kenya still fall behind in leadership positions, a

seemingly inherited barrier from deep ethnic inheritance. A review of women’s career advancement in school administration in 2005 indicated gender disparities (MOEST, 2005). The secondary schools in Kenya, just like other Sub-Sahara African countries are no different. Few women have been able to bust through the male dominated and highly coveted August House

(Parliament) (Pinto, 2007). Pinto further notes that lady politicians in Kenya have become famous partly because women do not fit into men’s stereotypes about women. Every election year in

Kenya, more female political aspirants surface, but very few make it to parliament (UNIFEM,

2008). This position appears to agree with Kariuki (2007), who states that leadership in Kenya has long been a male terrain.

Over the past few decades, many countries have made progress in gender equality in senior administrative positions, but globally, gains in gender equality in decision-making positions in the education and public secondary schools had been dull and spotted. To date, the most powerful and best-paid managerial positions are still out of reach for most women (KNCHR, 2011). In educational administration, the gender gap has been a worldwide outcry, and particularly in Kenya.

The administration of primary and secondary schools, including the appointment of head teachers, deputy headteachers, senior teachers and heads of departments point to the male dominance.

According to a study conducted by Steyn and Parsaloi (2013), on moving towards gender equality, the case of female headteachers in the Kajiado District of Kenya, “of the twenty (20) primary school teachers who applied for the post of headteacher in public primary schools in July

2008, only three were women” (p. 15). The study further showed that 27 teachers applied for the post of deputy headteacher and a disturbingly, six were women (District Education Office, Kajiado

County). However, this research examined women educators’ career advancement in public secondary schools administration in Nairobi County, Kenya.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Women continue to be underrepresented among the positions of public school administration. Despite having similar qualifications as men, and considering that career as women, outnumbering men educators in the sector, women are never given equal opportunities in school administration. The Equal Opportunity for Women in the Workplace Agency [EOWWA],

(2008) observed that there were few female teachers in leadership positions in the education sector.

To increase women representation and participation, EOWWA recommended affirmative action to improve that involvement. The significance of this study was to examine factors influencing women educators’ career advancement in selected public secondary schools in Nairobi County,

Kenya.

The bulk of school administrators are males, both at the primary and the secondary school levels. For instance, a study by Hungi (2011) shows that “up to 48% of pupils are taught by female teachers at the national level in Kenya, but only 15% of those pupils had a female head teacher.

As women are getting into educational professionalism, they anticipate to be in most of the top administrative positions, such as principals, deputy principals, heads of departments, and dean of students, among others.

There is a total number of 89 public secondary schools in the county, 49 schools are headed by female principals and the remaining 40 schools are in the leadership of male counterparts. The majority of the teachers 1351 in Nairobi County are females 683 is the number of male counterparts. The number of female principals in public secondary schools could be higher than comparable with the present one.

After more than two decades of research, many questions still remain unanswered regarding the underrepresentation of women in school administrative positions. The literature on

this topic provides some evidence of the under-represented, as well as common barriers for women who aspire to become principals and other school administrative officers. Nevertheless, it is limited in providing insight and recommendations regarding how current principals may overcome these barriers.

This study needs to provide information regarding principals who have overcome challenges. There is a need to establish strategies and solutions that will help to change the gender discrepancy that currently exists. Studies done on this topic are grounded emphasis on the social role and equity theories. The research methodology and design for most scholars adopted mixed method design. The current research adopted a qualitative paradigm and a liberal feminist theory to explore the factors that influence women’s career advancement to leadership positions in public secondary schools in Nairobi County, Kenya.

The research data were collected and analysed to contribute to much needed understanding. It is due to this state of affairs that the researcher showed and assessed the factors influencing female educators’ career advancement in public secondary schools in Nairobi County,

Kenya.

1.3 Research Questions

This study was guided by the following research questions:

i. What factors motivate women to seek leadership or administrative positions in the public

secondary schools in Nairobi County, Kenya?

ii. What are the perceptions of stakeholders on women’s career advancement in school

administrative positions in Nairobi County, Kenya? iii. Which are the challenges preventing women from assuming administrative positions in

public secondary schools in Nairobi County, Kenya?

iv. What strategies can be used to mitigate the factors hindering women from taking up

administrative positions in public secondary schools in Nairobi County, Kenya?

1.4 Significance of the Study

The significance of a study refers to the relevance of the study in terms of academic contributions and practical use of the findings. According to Kuliah (2013), the significance or rationale of the study addresses the need of seeking a solution to the problem, and how the solution will improve the human condition. According to Oso and Onen (2009) it is always stated as a suggestion or an intended expectation from the study.

The information on the influence of women educators’ career advancement into selected public secondary school administration will not only be useful in Nairobi County but also in Kenya at large because the findings will be useful to the government and other educational stakeholders in policy making and practices that will help address the problem of career advancement by women, the secondary school principals, teachers, students and researchers.

Moreover, the findings of this study will be used in formulating capacity building programmes to empower women’s career advancement into administrative positions of the public secondary schools of Nairobi County. Furthermore, the government officials in various ministries will find the study beneficial in making policies that will help Kenya to fulfil her goal, which will realise vision 2030, through effective allocation of balanced school administration of human resources.

Also, students will be able to gain from this study as they will be informed of the significance of promoting gender equity in schools and career advancement of female teachers in administrative positions.

The findings will help teachers aspiring to administrative positions. This is because they can reflect upon and act on some of the constraints that are a barrier to gender balance from the perspective of women occupying these positions.

This study will also help administrators, legislators, and educational programme developers and innovators in finding solutions to the secondary school workforce, especially the gender balance in the appointment of administrative positions. Solutions may be in the form of organisation and workplace re-structuring or shifting. So far, it is one of the studies that focuses on women educators’ career advancement in school administration in the public secondary schools in Nairobi County, Kenya. Thus, it is expected to produce hitherto new knowledge in this area. It is the researcher's ardent desire that this study will form useful material for reference to other researchers and other knowledge seekers in general.

This research has made recommendations on school leadership that can be used to motivate women to seek administrative positions in public secondary schools. Therefore, the use of particular knowledge and skills shall improve the total quality management of the secondary schools and enhance the standard of education in the Republic of Kenya and beyond. Finally, the research has contributed to the existing knowledge on the factors affecting female educators’ career advancement in administrative leadership in public secondary schools in Nairobi. The findings will also serve as useful feedback to educate employers, in both government and private secondary schools.

1.5 Scope and Delimitations of the Study

To make this study manageable and within the timeframe, this study focuses on the assessment of factors influencing female educators’ career advancement in public secondary schools’ administration in Nairobi County, Kenya. It concentrated on public secondary schools

whose principals were women in Nairobi County. The study was thus delimited to public secondary schools female principals, deputy principals, teachers and Teachers Service

Commission Secretariat Officers (TSCSO) in Nairobi County. The study was delimited to female principals in order to get their views about leadership of schools in Nairobi. Moreover, the study was delimited to public secondary schools because administrators and teachers at this institution are answerable to TSC unlike the private secondary schools. Nairobi County was chosen to carry out this study because it is the cosmopolitan city with a varied social cultural and religious beliefs.

It is comprised of educated and enlighten society with attitudinal changes.

Since the study was delimited to the public secondary schools whose principals are females, the study was not able to address the problems fixing public secondary schools whose principals are males. This study excluded also include teachers and administrators working private and religious secondary schools. This was because the factors determining their gender imbalance could be different from that of teachers and principals in public secondary schools. Moreover, the study used interview guide, semi-structured interview guide, focus group discussion guide and observation guide as data collection instruments.

1.6 Theoretical Framework

This study was based on the Liberal Feminism. Feminism has become an increasingly important tool in analysing the position of women within the discipline of education (Eisenstein,

2004). Eisenstein further said that feminist theories have focused on the oppression of women and addressed the possibility of considering the needs of women. Moreover, feminism is a response to women’s lives and experiences and the varieties of feminism reflects the changing and varied nature of the women’s experiences. Despite these difficulties, all varieties of feminism agree that women have been oppressed and unjustly treated. A fundamental goal of feminist theorists is to

analyse gender, that is, how gender is constituted and experienced and how people think—or equally important—do not think about it. The study of gender includes, but is not limited to what are often considered the distinctive feminist issues, that is, the situation of women and the analysis of male domination (Eisenstein, 2004).

This study implored a Liberal Feminist Theory for gender equity issues specifically concerned with the support of women in educational administration. According to Wallin (1999), this social-oriented theory proposed by Mary Wollstonecraft in 1792 strives for a society in which all individuals have the opportunity to realise their potential). This theory was later developed by other liberal feminists, such as John Stuart Mill, Helen Taylor, Betty Friedan, Gloria Steinem and

Rebecca Walker (Wallin, 1999).

Principles of liberty and equality is applicable to women. These include systemic issues as suffrage, the right to own property, the right to obtain a divorce, access to credit and educational opportunities, and a sexually neutral contract (Sommers, 2002). In essence, liberal feminists want reform, not radical social and institutional upheaval. Tuana and Tong (as cited in Wallin, 1999), assert that the beginnings of liberal feminist thought can be traced to those who strove for eradicating oppressive gender roles through the elimination of legislation and social conventions that limited women and males’ opportunities to compete for certain professions because of their gender. In this way, liberal feminism is a theory of rights concerned with the protection of individual rights. Specifically, liberal feminists fought for the rights to vote, to own property, to equal access to education, and to equal employment opportunity.

To underscore the premise, liberal feminists insist that society should give women the same educational and occupational opportunities that men have. For instance, in many societies, the education of girls and women has been considered less important than that of boys. Parents are not

only less likely to encourage high educational aspirations for their daughters, but where funds are short, they are likely to spend them on their sons’ education.

Liberal feminists believe that the best way to fight patriarchal systems is by establishing legislation to fight discrimination. For example, the right for some women to vote in 1918 and finally all women to vote in 1928 were liberal feminist approaches. The proposed and failed Equal

Rights Amendment of the early 1980s was also a liberal feminist approach. This school of thought believes that women would achieve better equality if they were just more visible in the current educational administration and other social structures within the society. Liberal feminists believe that changes in equal opportunities and educational policies, will end patriarchy (Wallin, 1999).

1.6.1 Strengths of Liberal Feminism

The main aim of the liberal feminists is the creation of equal opportunities, particularly in education and work. Moreover, the most positive thing about liberal feminism is that, it has contributed to considerable social change, especially in relation to employment opportunities and conditions, and social policy. Liberal feminists themselves have not produced a clearly developed theory of gender, but they generally rely on role theory (Wallin, 1999). One of the main strengths of liberal feminism is that, it aims for gradual change in the political, economic and social systems which, it is assumed, will in turn transform gender roles. This is considered a strength because it is a reasonable and realistic accomplishment. With this present time, liberal feminists pursue an aim through the introduction of legislation and by attempting to change attitudes. They encourage and support such measures as anti-discrimination and equal pay legislation in the hope that they will help to end discrimination. Liberal feminists do not seek revolutionary changes in society, but reforms that take place within existing social and political structures (Eisenstein, 2004).

Liberal feminists follow the tradition of Aristotle, whereby "traditional arrangements have great moral weight, and common opinion is a primary source of truth" (Sommers, 2002, p. 14).

Liberal feminists believe that the principles of liberty and justice should be applied to women and that society must work to remove laws and reform institutions that impinge upon equal rights.

Therefore, liberal feminism focuses primarily on systemic change. The research topic on

“assessment of factors influencing women educators’ career advancement into selected public secondary schools administrative position in Nairobi County” was researchable based on the strengths of this liberal feminism. Most importantly, its pursuit and aim through the introduction of legislation and attempting to change to the attitude, its aim for gradual change in political, economic and social systems which is assumed will in turn transform gender roles in the education arena.

1.6.2 Weaknesses of Liberal Feminism

Despite the many strengths of the Liberal Feminism theory, there are also weaknesses of the theory. According to Eisenstein (2004), liberal feminism has major flaws on three grounds.

Firstly, its claims that women can become like men if they set their minds to it, or the belief that nurture is the only difference between men and women, not dealing with potential real differences based upon biology. Secondly, its claims that most women want to become like men, and overestimating the number of women who want to abandon roles such as wife and mother for roles such as citizen and worker.

Finally, there is an assumption that liberal feminism gives a gender-neutral humanism over a gender-specific feminism, which therefore does not grant acknowledgment of the particularly lived experiences and epistemologies of women. In fact, many liberal feminists are moving away from their traditional belief that almost every woman can liberate herself 'unilaterally' by rejecting

her traditional sex roles. Individual action and social structures prevent many women from the securing full liberation: sexual equality cannot be achieved through women’s willpower alone.

Despite the weaknesses posed by the liberal feminist theory, it mainly focuses on the factors influencing women’s career advancement in the contemporise societies, disregarding subjective issues such as commitment to moral individualism, traditional beliefs and also creating a community out of an aggregate of freely choosing adult. Moreover, the researcher believes this theory will help to address the proposed research questions. This is because human beings are both social constructors and actors with agency within the social world. To think otherwise nullifies the complexity of the dynamics at play in the world of educational administration and sets up dichotomous and faulty understanding of individualistic meritocracy or social fatalism.

1.6.3 Application of the Liberal Feminism to the Study

The under-representation of women in educational administration is still common despite the high level of women’s career advancement in education. Although, there are number of educated women in our societies with the majority of these women in the teaching career, most of the public secondary schools’ leadership is occupied by men, especially in sub-Sahara Africa and in Kenya in particular. There are unequal opportunities, in education and work, which is a major concern for liberal feminism. School administrative positions are more dominated by male teachers. Women simply function as mere teachers in the schools. Education should be seen as a force for liberating women and not for oppressing them. Leadership based upon egalitarian principles will emerge as traditionally silenced and/or marginalised voices are encouraged to speak. Initiating female representation in leadership positions helps to change the rules and eliminate barriers.

This theory of liberal feminism helped this study to clearly outline the perception of teachers, students and stakeholders on women’s career advancement in school administrative positions in Nairobi County. It further helped the researcher to find out the factors that motivate women in leadership in selected secondary school administrative positions. In addition, it enabled the researcher to establish the challenges that affect women from taking up administrative positions in the public secondary schools. Finally, the researcher was able to establish various mitigating strategies put in place to curb challenges preventing women from arising in public secondary schools in Nairobi County.

1.7 Conceptual Framework

A conceptual framework is the researcher’s view about how the variables in the study were interrelated (Oladipo, Ikamari, Kiplang’at, & Barasa, 2015). According to Kombo and Tromp

(2006) a conceptual framework is a research tool intended to assist a researcher to develop awareness and understanding of the situation under inquiry and to communicate it. The conceptual framework for this study is diagrammatically represented in Figure 1. The model comprises independent, dependent and intervening variables. The independent variables constitute factors that motivate women in school leadership positions, stakeholders’ perceptions of women principals, challenges facing female Principals and strategies for mitigating the challenges preventing women from assuming school administrative positions.

Independent Variables Dependent Variables

I. Factors that motivate women Females Educators’ career

in school administrative advancement into school

positions administration

 Mentorship  Promotion to

 Organisational factors principalship and other school administrative  Building networks and relationships positions  Recognising  Commitment opportunities  Women participation  Gender in decision-making  Motivation

 Social supports  Personality traits

o Networking skills

o Adaptability o Resilience

o Confidence II. Stakeholders’ perceptions for

women principals III. Challenges facing female

Principals IV. Strategies for mitigating the

challenges preventing women from assuming school

administrative positions

Intervening Variables - MOEST policies - TSC policies (gender equality policy on promotion, recruit policy)

Figure 1: Relationship among Variables

Source: Researcher 2017

The factors that motivate women career advancement school administrative positions include mentorship, organisational factors, building networks and relationships, recognising opportunities, gender and social supports. It also comprises of personal traits that encompasses of networking skills, adaptability, resilience and confidence. Mentors serve as role models, because women who move into the academic and educational professions need support from other people to conform to their profession and to translate the culture of the institutions. Personality traits are a strong determinant of success for an academic administrator. One of the most consistent themes in studies on women’s career development worldwide was that women’s personal attributes can be a motivating or an impending factor to career development.

The perceptions of the stakeholders towards women principals play a major role in the achievement of educational goals and objectives of a school. The stakeholders in this study include principals, deputy principals, teachers and Teachers Services Commission Secretariat Officers

(TSCSO). Research showed that these preconceived perceptions have effects on women managers

(Chisholm, 2001).

Female principals face a number of challenges while executing duties in public secondary schools. These have made it impossible for other female educators to rise through the ranks to administrative positions. These challenges are both systemic and stereotypes that female educators have to overcome in order to rise in administrative positions. However, there are strategies put in place to mitigate the challenges that female educators face in advancing to top leadership in secondary schools.

The dependent variable consists of women educators’ career advancement into school leadership. This can be realised through women promotion to the principalship and other school

administrative positions and commitment to those positions. Also, women’s participation in the educational decision-making process can advance into leadership.

On the other hand, the intervening variables comprise of the MOEST/TSC policies and restrictions. These can become obstacles for achieving gender equity in taking up leadership positions in the public secondary schools. Therefore, this variable serves as a pointer or reminder, that if the MOEST and TSC policies restrict the freedom of female educators, it would be very difficult to have women in administrative positions in public secondary schools such as gender equality policy on promotion, recruit policy.

1.8 Operational Definitions of Key Terms

The operational definition of key terms is special and unique terms used in this research study. These terms were mainly formulated for the purpose. They were also meant to improve the research.

Administration: This is referred to as a capacity to coordinate the activities and effects of the members of schools towards achievement of the objectives and goals of education in Kenya.

Administrative Position: This is a work assignment which included planning, organising, leading, evaluating, and supervising the duties of other personnel in an educational system.

Administrator: It refers to the school principal who has been appointed by the TSC to run or manage a secondary school on behalf of MOEST within a given period of time.

Assessment: It refers to the act of making judgement based on ideas or opinions of the stakeholders on career advancement of female educators in administrative positions of public secondary schools.

Career Advancement: This concept refers to a move up the ladder to accept a new position. It also means the improvement in job which can be achieved in a number of ways. For instance, through higher pay, more hours, a promotion, increased stability, better pension provision and other fringe benefits, or by finding a better job.

Career Patterns: This refers to sequence of career positions held prior to securing the present position.

Coping strategies: This refers to the ways used by principals to manage the challenges in order to be in a position to run the school smoothly.

Education: This is the process of training and developing the knowledge, skill, mind, character, etc., by means of formal schooling at an institution of learning.

Female Education Administrators: These are female teachers in senior positions (principals, deputy principals, dean of students, heads of departments, senior teachers) in secondary schools.

Gender Equality: It is the provision of equal conditions, treatment and opportunity for both men and women to realise their full potential, human rights and dignity, as well as opportunities to contribute to and benefit from economic, social, cultural and political development. Gender equality also meant equal access to the opportunities that allow people to pursue a life of their own choosing and to avoid extreme deprivations in outcomes, that is, gender equality in rights, resources, and voice.

Gender Equity: This refers to the practice of fairness and justice in the distribution of benefits, access to and capital of resources, responsibilities, power, opportunities and services.

Gender Inequality: This is defined as the existence of disparities among individuals based solely on their gender rather than objective differences in skills, abilities, or other characteristics.

Gender Parity: This means that the same number of boys and girls that receive educational services at different levels and in diverse forms.

Gender: This refers to social and constructed differences in women’s and men’s roles and responsibilities, which are learned, vary from culture to culture and change over time. It is a membership in the same sex group. It is a depiction of fairness and impartiality.

Policy: This refers to guidelines to act as a guiding principle to show or direct the cause of action.

Principal: In Kenyan educational system, this is the post primary level of education and normally covers a duration of four years that is from Form One to Form Four. He/she is also a member of staff in a secondary school whose main responsibility is to provide leadership in instruction, governance, and student development.

Public Education: It is an instructional programme provided by the state or local school boards.

Secondary School: This refers to a school which provides secondary education to students between the ages of 11 and 16 or 11 and 19, after primary school and before higher education.

Stakeholders: These are persons with an interest or concern in activities of public secondary schools.

Teacher: This refers to a person in a secondary school whose main task is provision of instruction to learners or students.

Training: This refers to instruction to make one proficient in a skill or competency in certain tasks.

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction

This chapter reviewed theories and literature related to women educators’ career advancement in public secondary school administration in Nairobi County, Kenya. This was significant for purposes of identification of gaps in knowledge and the creation of an entry point for the proposed study (Orodho, 2009). According to Oladipo, Ikamari, Kiplang’at and Barasa

(2015), a literature review is the process of finding out what is already known or not known about the study. The review conceptualised the objectives of the study and focused mainly on basic perceptions of teachers, students and other stakeholders on women’s career advancement in school administrative positions in Nairobi County. The chapter also discussed the factors that motivate women in leadership; the main challenges preventing women from assuming administrative positions and strategies to mitigate the challenges preventing women from assuming administrative. The section discussed literature from the global, regional and local perspectives.

2.2 Review of Related Theories

The study is on an assessment of factors influencing career advancement in administration of women’s educators in selected public secondary schools in Nairobi County, Kenya. This study was underpinned by two theories. These theories include social justice theory and equity theory.

The theories are discussed below.

2.2.1 The Social Justice Theory

This study was underpinned by the social justice perspective. The definition of social justice is a shifting concept. It depends upon the context in which it is used. Within the context of education, Griffin (2006) defines social justice as a process and a goal: the goal of social justice

education is full and equal participation of all groups in a society that is mutually shaped to meet their needs. Social justice includes a vision of society in which the distribution of resources is equitable; all members are physically and psychologically safe and secure. The process of attaining the goal of social justice is democratic and participatory, inclusive and affirming of human agency and human capacities for working collaboratively to create change.

A social justice perspective allows one to emphasise moral values, justice, respect, care and equity. The crucial question of social justice is what ends were being pursued, whom do they benefit, and whom do they harm? The notion of social justice is an ethical framework in which equity and achieving a primary social objective gives priority.

Rawls, (as cited in Griffin, 2006), argues that social justice is defined by two principles.

The first is based on individuals having an equal right to basic liberties of the total systems. The second involves giving (a) the greatest social and economic benefits to those least advantaged, and

(b) attaching those benefits to the offices and positions in a fair and equitable manner. The notion of social justice suggests that treating all people equally may be inherently unequal. Griffin embraces this perspective and persuasively argues that organisations are obligated not only to safeguard the individual’s rights, but also to actively redress inequality of opportunity.

In adherence with the social justice philosophy espoused by Rawls, (as cited in Griffin,

2006), boards of regents of higher education should work for the equality of fair opportunity to ensure that all persons have access to basic liberties. They also should ensure that equality of fair opportunity exists—all offices and positions should be accessible to all persons under conditions of equality of fair opportunity. Persons with similar abilities and skills should have equal access to leadership positions in higher education administration—they should have equal access to economic and social capital. The emerging social justice discourse calls for higher education

leaders to question the assumptions that drive university policies and practices that may pose insurmountable barriers and invisible ceilings for women leaders aspiring to the presidency of colleges and universities.

2.2.2 Equity Theory

This study was also underpinned on Equity theory. In 1963, John Stacey Adam introduced the idea that fairness and equity are key components of a motivated individual. The theory is in the idea that individuals are motivated by fairness, and if they identify inequities in the input or output ratio of themselves and their reference group. They will seek to adjust their input to reach their perceived equity. Therefore Adam suggested that the higher an individual’s perception of equity, the more motivated they will be and vice versa.

In the education sector, the equity theory focuses on determining whether the distribution of school administrative positions is fair and genuine, and not based on gender. A teacher, principal or deputy principal perceives an unfair distribution of leadership positions, he or she will definitely be de-motivated. This was also echoed by Redmond (2013) when he said that equity theory proposes that a person’s motivation is based on what he or she considers to be fair when compared to others.

Despite the higher number of female educators in the teaching profession of public secondary schools in Nairobi County, only a few are found within administrative and management positions in schools. This will create fairness of job distribution within the educational sector.

Female teachers argue that the appointments of public secondary schools’ administrative position is not properly balanced. The female teachers’ argument is in line with Adams’ (1963) equity theory of motivation. Adams’ Equity.

The theory calls for a fair balance to be struck between employees’ inputs (e.g., hard work, skill levels, tolerance, and enthusiasm) and their outputs (e.g., salary, benefits, and intangibles such as promotion in school management, recognition, gender sensitivity in appointments). Thus, equity theory is concerned with the perceptions people have about how they are being treated as compared with others (Johnston, Mckeown & McEwen, 2009). In terms of schools, the theory is concerned about fair distribution of appointments amongst females and their male counterparts.

When a teacher perceives inequality in the distribution of administrative positions, he or she will act to correct the inequity. Equity theory deals with human motives and it should have wide applications in understanding organisational behaviour. The employee may lower productivity or reduce the quality of their job. To be dealt with equitably is to be treated fairly in comparison with another group of people (a reference group) or relevant other person. Equity involves feelings and perceptions and it is always a comparative process. It is not synonymous with equality, which means treating everyone the same, since this would be inequitable if they deserve to be treated differently.

Equity theory states, in effect, that people will be better motivated if they are treated equitably and demotivated if they are treated inequitably. It explains only one aspect of the processes of motivation and job satisfaction, although it may be significant in terms of morale.

There are two forms of equity: distributive equity, which is concerned with the fairness with which people feel they are rewarded in accordance with their contribution and in comparison with others.

In the education system, we have both intrinsic and extrinsic factors that can boost the self-esteem of female educator’s advancement to administrative leadership in public secondary schools. These factors can work for or against female educators rise in management in the teaching profession.

The second is procedural equity, which is concerned with the perceptions employees have about the fairness with which company procedures in such areas as performance appraisal, promotion and discipline are being operated. In the education system, we have laid down policies which serve as criteria during appointment of administrative leadership in institutions. These policies can be a hindrance to female educator’s advancement in administrative positions. This theory is useful to this study as it emphasises on the equity and fairness in procedures of promotion, appraisal and evaluation issues all of which need to be taken seriously in public secondary schools.

2.3 Review of Empirical Studies

According to Penn State University Libraries ([PSUL], 2016) empirical study is based on observed and measured phenomena and derives knowledge from actual experience rather than theory or beliefs. Empiricism is to denote a general approach to the study of reality that suggest only knowledge gained through empirical experience and the senses is acceptable (Bryman & Bell,

2007). In other words, the position indicates that ideas must be subjected to empirical before they can be knowledge. Therefore, the empirical studies were studied under the following sub-sections.

These were factors that motivate women in school leadership, stakeholders’ perception of women’s career advancement in school, main challenges that prevent women assuming school administrative positions and strategies for mitigating these challenges.

2.3.1 Factors That Motivate Women in School Administrative Positions

Different scholars have assessed the factors that influence women educators’ career advancement to administrative positions. Mohajeri, Mokhtar and Balash (2015) carried out a research on the challenges women encounter in their participation in senior administrative status in higher education. The study was conducted in Johor, Malaysia. The study used a qualitative approach and found that mentoring, personality traits and education and training were important

factors that enhanced women educators’ advancement to administrative positions. In as much as the study came up with findings, it failed to give specific qualitative design, the instrument used for data collection and data analysis procedures perhaps that were not effective.

2.3.1.1 Mentorship

According to Okumbe (2001), mentorship is a close-long term work relationship between a senior manager and a subordinate. It implies ‘coaching’ a junior staff to acquire job competence required in a given profession. Women principals are therefore mentors to young graduates entering the teaching profession. Similarly, young graduates look up to other successful women leaders for mentorship.

Mohajeri, Mokhtar and Balash (2015) conducted a study on challenges encountering the participation of women in senior administrative status in higher education, Malaysia. The study found that both formal and informal mentors serve as helpful sources of data on the organisational culture. Therefore, mentors serve as role models, and women who move into the academic and educational professionals need support from other people to conform to their profession and to translate the culture of the institutions. The results of surveys on mentoring in North American and

New Zealand universities have found that mentoring plays a significant role in developing women’ university presidents up the administrative status (Olson & Jackson, 2009; Neale & Özkanlı,

2010). Mentoring is one of the mediating factors for female’s career aspirations (Lam, 2009).

This study further stated that personality traits are a strong determinant of success for an academic administrator. One of the most consistent themes in studies on women’s career development worldwide is that women’s personal attributes can be a motivating or an impending factor to career development. Women’s internalisation of barriers may also contribute to their under-representation in management. Some examples of these barriers are lack of competitiveness,

limited access to professional training, lack of qualification, lack of confidence, and a fear of failure (Cubillo & Brown, 2003). For this reason, some women refuse to fight their way to the top because of their lack of self-confidence (Gray, 2011; Nguyen, 2013).

On the other hand, several personal attributes that are likely to help women in reaching top positions are networking skills, adaptability, resilience, sense of humour, determination, self- motivation, confidence, and independence and a high level of job commitment (Madsen, 2008;

Lam, 2009; Wajcman, 2013). These studies demonstrate that women with the above-listed personal attributes are likely to survive in the male-dominated world of higher education.

In addition, a significant amount of literature on women’s participation development in the western countries has discussed the impact of education and breeding in their career development.

Female’s faculty members gain from graduate training to achieve professorships. The study concluded that the gender discrepancy in higher education has shown that many lands have caused only minor progress due to socio-cultural, organisational and individual barriers. The literature review of the development of women’s participation in higher education identified three central components that account for women’ upward mobility in higher education: cultural factors, organisational patterns, and personality. The study fails to give a clear methodology adopted for the research. Furthermore, it sought to establish what Mohajeri, Mokhtar and Balash (2015) failed to capture in their study by analysing the factors that motivate women in school administrative positions.

Similarly, Mayer (2001) carried out a study on predictors of women’ success in achieving senior-level administrative positions in Cooperative State Research Extension Education Service

(CSREES). The survey was conducted at the University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri. This survey employed a multiple case study through which the researcher generated an intensive,

holistic description of women’ career progression in CSREES administration. Four women’ directors of CSREES served as subjects in the study. Four major themes emerged from the data gathered from four female directors through interviews and scrutiny of written materials. As expected, not every participant fit into every subject. Nevertheless, many commonalities existed.

Because many elements and variables influence and shape female’s professional careers in the

Cooperative Extension System, eight subthemes emerged that were connected with the four topics.

There was need to research more on this topic in a different context and using a rather different and bigger sample for the study and qualitative approach method and sampling methods.

Wakshum (2014) established major challenges that result in females’ under representation in educational leadership in the Ilu Aba Bora Zone, Ethiopia. To conduct this study, the descriptive survey method was employed. The participants of this study were 171 out of which 147 teachers were selected by using simple random sampling techniques using the lottery method. The eight school principals and eight education officials were selected by using the availability sampling technique. The data were collected using questionnaire, interview and document reviews. Both quantitative and qualitative methods of data analysis were employed in order to reach at conclusions. The study found that different education administrative bodies need to play their own roles in enhancing females’ participation in educational leadership. The main finding in this is that: schools need to encourage female teachers to come to educational leadership areas, schools may give chances to female teachers to participate in decision making positions such as school committees, unit leaders, and heads of department, mentors, and internal supervisors and so on.

The study recommended empowering strategies for women like short and long term training.

Moreover, giving recognition and encouragement performing female teachers and female students at school level, and the need for schools to do much work on awareness creation about gender

equality were key themes in the findings. However the study did not recommend ways by which women can be motivated to seek administrative positions.

In addition, the study suggested that the education office is another determinant body that can play great role in increasing females’ involvement in educational leadership. According to the participants, the education office has to work jointly with other offices and politicians to bring attitudinal changes in the communities to elude the stereotypes misperception about women.

In Kenya, Ongaki, Omwoyo and Musa (2015) did a study on gender disparities in education administration and management in Kenya. The study used a descriptive survey design and sampled schools from the larger Kisii County in Nyanza province by use of stratified random sampling. Ten girls’ boarding schools and five mixed schools headed by women principals were selected. The sample size of 67 participants comprised women principals, deputies (both male and female) women teachers and education officers’ from the County Education Office. Instruments included an interview schedule for women secondary school principals and questionnaires for the rest of the participants. The instruments were piloted in one school before their administration by use of test-retest procedure and made use of Spearman rank order correlation. The study instruments validated by a panel of competent supervisors.

Ongaki, Omwoyo and Musa’s findings were that women principals should therefore be mentors to young graduates entering the teaching profession. Similarly, they should look up to other successful women leaders either in the political field or corporate world for mentorship. A notable example to be emulated is a woman County Education Officer (CEO) who recently joined the elite league of top CEOs to become one of the youngest managing directors in a leading company in Kenya (Banda, 2008). Women aspirants to top management should look up to female mentors as they climb up the corporate ladder. The study used quantitative design and it employed

in Kisii County, Nyanza Province while current study used qualitative approach and it will be carried out in Nairobi County.

2.3.1.2 Organisational Factors

The literature alluded to evidence on how organisational structures shortcoming women in their participation in administrative positions. The review of literature on the impacts of structural practices on the development of women’s participation points to important factors; mentoring, workshops, dialogue and support group.

According to Mohajeri, Mokhtar and Balash (2015) carried a study on challenges encountering the participation of women in senior administrative status in higher education.

Methodologically the study was conducted using a qualitative approach. The study reviews literature papers in order to elicit the factors affecting women’s participation at top senior administrative positions. The reviewed papers are from 1995-2014. This review paper focuses on challenges encountering the participation of women in senior administrative status in higher education within Western and Eastern countries. The findings from the study revealed that two themes emerge from organisational factors, which included agricultural background as the norm and gender issues associated with male-dominated hiring practices. These themes were centred in middle-management positions rather than at senior-levels. The women interviewed in this study noted they had gotten into a mainly male-dominated field. Each woman in the field had to demonstrate how agriculture was a function of her background through degrees and/or experiences. The study also found that the traditional male occupation of agriculture is the traditional setting for an Extension director. The non-stated normative expectation of an agriculture background appears to be a barrier for women, because so few women have such a setting. The study participants chose careers considered non-traditional and ‘traditionally hierarchical

agriculture’ positions in extension that were dominated by men. Nevertheless, the study did not give any give any recommendations to its stakeholders. This gas will be filled with the current study.

Hora (2014) examined factors that affect women’s participation in leadership and decision making position, Ethiopia. The study adopted descriptive approach. A total sample of 357 (M 227 and F 130) employees who were working in a public institution of the town, about 107 (30%) from all public institutions, and two individuals: one from Women Affairs Office and the other from

Mayor Office of the town were selected as a sample participant. As the finding of the study revealed, though there was comprehensively formulated national women policy and strategies so as to promote women’s participation in sociocultural, political, and economical arenas before a decade, still there is low awareness about the concerns of the documents among both sexes of civil servants in Bedele town administration. Moreover, the finding of the study indicated that the majority of participants confirmed that if favourable conditions were set in place and women were provided the position to lead, they are as effective and successful as or more than that of their male counterparts. This indicates that there is some encouraging, but needing strengthen attitudinal changes among civil servants in the town towards women’s leadership and decision making. The study, therefore, took place in Ethiopia, and adopted descriptive approach. The current study adopted qualitative approach. Moreover, the data collection instruments and recommendations of the study are not given which the current study addresses.

Moreover, Kiruriti (2015) conducted a study on the obstacles faced by female educational administrators in educational administration in Mombasa County, Kenya. The study adopted a descriptive survey design with data collected through questionnaires and interviews. Selected women heads of institutions at both primary and secondary schools and women departmental heads in education at the regional and county levels were selected to constitute the sample. Forty six (46) 32

women administrators was selected using the stratified random sampling technique and purposive sampling was employed for principals and head-teachers respectively. The study established that training, mentorship, workshops, holding dialogue, being affirmative, assertive and have a support group for female teachers would encourage them to move up the ladder, hence pick up leadership positions within their areas. It also established that women should be encouraged to further their education 66 since it would help them get leadership opportunities when they are at par with their male counterparts. The study also revealed that role modelling was important for young girls to help them grow aspiring to become leaders in their fields. The study focused on obstacles faced by female educational administrators in educational administration in the Mombasa County without looking at factors that motivate female career advancement in an administrative position.

2.3.1.3 Building Networks and Relationships

The benefits of networking are abundant for novice school administrators. They include having acquaintances with people in advanced positions such as the TSC or MOEST. Building networks and relationships were the second theme arising from this study, with the three subthemes of role models, mentors, and political acumen. All the women in the study built a variety of local and regional networks that supported their rise to higher floors of government. Networking was important for the women in this subject area. The women described building strong partnerships with key external elements in their countries. Participants described themselves as having formed strong peer networks of communication and support in their respective provinces and across the rural area with others in similar positions prior to becoming senior-level administrators and while in these spots.

Participants defined a purpose model as someone in greater authority in whom their saw things that were strong that they wanted to emulate and who likewise acted as an important role in

their vocations. Role models demonstrated valued behaviour. One participant stated, I watched

how they handled situations and learned from them. Finding few female role models in CSREES,

the women in this study encountered role models in other fields or move around to male mentors

in CSREES.

Wajchman (2013) clearly demonstrated that participants gained from mentoring relationships. Mentors affirmed potential, recognise accomplishments and gifts, and encouraged professional development. All four women identified at least one individual who was critical to her career development and decision-making. They also identified relationships with allies and colleagues as important sources of mentoring. The wise men in this field were both male and female, and affirmed their potential, encouraged them to assume risks, participated in conversations in which there was an open exchange of ideas, listened to them, and helped them set career goals. Thus, several personal attributes that are likely to help women in reaching top positions are networking skills, adaptability, resilience, sense of humour, determination, self- motivation, confidence, and independence and a high level of job commitment (Wajchman, 2013).

Jarmon (2014) carried out a research on cracking the glass ceiling: A phenomenological

study of women’ administrators in higher education in Iowa State. The researcher used the

purposive qualitative phenomenological study to describe the ‘glass ceiling’ as a lived experience

of women senior level administrators in higher education in the Midwest. The study was designed

to focus on the positive approaches and experiences that influenced and contributed to the success

of women in senior level administration positions rather than to focus on the barriers.

The study revealed that networking was an information support system that women’s

administrators use in the development of a career path. The benefits of informal networking are

well acknowledged as important for upward mobility, including information exchange, career

planning and strategising, professional support and encouragement, and increased visibility. To begin networking, women would identify key individuals who can assist them in both their immediate work circle and beyond the organisation. They explored the opportunities available through organisations, such as Leadership America, that are devoted to enhancing the knowledge base and confidence of women. The study was carried in a different setting, that is, in Iowa State.

This current study was carried out in Nairobi County, and therefore, the need to compare findings in different localities.

Uwizeyimana and Mathevula (2014) conducted a research on promotion of female educators into school management positions: a gendered perspective. The study was conducted in

BA-Phalaborwa Municipality of Mopani District, Limpopo Province, South Africa. The study adopted the stratification process. The twenty (20) people in the sample included four males in management positions (1 in urban and 3 in rural areas) and four males not in management positions. The main finding of this research is that while there seems to be no gender based difference on some factors such as family responsibilities, lack of aspiration to management positions, lack of mobility, female educators’ fitness to hold management positions and lack of supportive networks as being the main barriers to female educators’ promotion in school management positions. The gender based differences exist on other factors such as lack of support from male colleagues, gender stereotyping, female educators’ uncertainty about their own abilities to manage. This study recommended that these findings will guide policy makers in crafting better strategies to deal with the problem of under-representation of women in school management positions.

The study’s findings corroborate the findings of other studies such as Brownell’s (2004) study, which found that family responsibilities constitute a major barrier to women’s advancement

to higher positions because accepting these higher positions often requires these women to leave home, relatives and the family in order to move across the country for better opportunities resulting in the loss of quality time with their families (Brownell, 2004). Based on these findings, it can be argued that the challenge for women seems to be finding the balance between keeping one’s family happy and handling the responsibilities that come with holding a school management position.

Such lack of the balance between keeping one’s family happy and handling the responsibilities also explains why female teachers seem to have given up the aspiration to school management position. A different paradigm design in a different context, would see the result altered.

In Kenya, Amondi (2011) investigated factors causing under representation of women in top educational management and leadership positions at the Ministry of Education headquarters in

Kenya. Descriptive survey design, utilising quantitative and qualitative approach was used in the study. Stratified random sampling was used to categorise the target population of one hundred and sixty-one educational personnel by level of management and gender. Simple random sampling was then used to get a study sample of 76 officers. Questionnaire and interview guide were used to gather information from the participants. The findings were the dual responsibility of family care and employment being too demanding; Society labelling women as wives and mothers and not capable of top management positions; both men and women not liking to work under women; belief that women in positions of power and authority tend to be lonely; and lastly management and leadership norms have been set by men and women seem not to fit. Qualitative research paradigm and in an urban context with slightly larger sample size can bring more findings as opposed to the approach used the review.

2.3.1.4 Recognising Opportunities

The third major theme of the study was recognising opportunities, and the two associated sub-themes were academic credentials, along with connections to academic departments, and positioning for career advancement. Participants in the related study stated that being known and afforded chances to advance and to increase their skills in government activity were key to their career progression. Women in the study found having the correct certification and being joined to an academic department were critical to career success. A link to an academic department early as young professionals was important to participants in this present study, because it allowed them to acquire credibility in their workplace and become recognised. Most women’ administrators began their careers along the most familiar route, the academic track, having got a faculty position in an academic department of the women in this field, as each new experience heightened their desire to go to the next step, to become an extension leader, they determined to put themselves for promotion. Professional development was also central to their accomplishments. However, participants found touting your own accomplishments was a stumbling block for women. One specifically stated, women are socialised not to tout their own accomplishments and that is why it is such a double edged sword. They almost subconsciously hide their light under a barrel as they are socialised that it is better to be prettier than to be smart.

2.3.1.5 Gender and Leadership

The fourth major theme emerging from the study was gender, with its sub theme, balancing personal and professional issues (Mohajeri, Mokhtar & Balash, 2015). Participants in this study found that being a woman was an issue in questioning, in being hired, and, at times, in puzzling out. The study found that it was easier to move up into a recognised administrative position in their own states, where colleagues, clientele, and stakeholders, as well as those who had the power of

making hiring decisions, knew and trusted them, were familiar with their work, were comfortable with them, and accepted them as one of us. Personal contacts and nominations by men appear to be important to women in the search process and in the selection of women as senior-level extension administrators at land-grant universities. Women in the study have been flexible and adaptable. They have shifted and changed as their life circumstances have changed and have made deliberate choices related to their career progression. The study concluded that a woman's advancement to directorship in extension administration was a complex combination of factors, including positioning, networking, matching organisational norms, and taking advantage of mentoring. This combination manifests itself in individualised career paths that have led to the top of these participants.

Robinson (2012) conducted a study on institutional factors contributing to the underrepresentation of African American women in higher education: perceptions of women in leadership positions in Georgia. The qualitative design and phenomenological approaches were used for this study as they both endeavoured to focus on the perceptions of several individuals rather than a life story on one particular subject matter. While African American women have faced challenges with regard to advancement in higher education, there have also been successes that have helped to pave the road for other African American women aspiring to leadership positions in academia. Although there are a minimal number of studies detailing barriers that

African American female administrators face in academia. Despite this enlightenment of living experiences voiced by African American women in higher education, the lack of strategies and effective responses in addressing these barriers continue to exacerbate the problem of obtaining successful leadership opportunities (Jackson, 2008). The study was carried out in a different setting

and using different sampling methods, but this study intends to use a different context and sampling methods.

Steyn and Parsaloi (2013) conducted a research on moving towards gender equality: the case of female head teachers in Kenya. Women’s unique traits and abilities can especially be observed and experienced from a female’s perspective. Moreover, there exists a need for aspiring women observe those who reflect their leadership styles, in order to demystify myths about women and leadership, and to encourage more women to desire to attain educational leadership. As such, the presence of women in positions of school leadership is essential to encourage aspirations in the younger generation and to combat reservations about the female’s capacity for leadership roles

(Kellerman & Rhodes, 2007; Chisikwa & Indoshi 2010).

Without a great number of female role models in the school leadership positions, female teachers simply do not perceive themselves as potential leadership candidates (Sherman, 2005).

Hence, it is important for girls to be mentored so that they can become the great leaders they want to be. In this regard, Kitele (2013) stated that although cultural and social barriers may interfere with the management of school affairs, there is a need for female head teachers to be encouraged to achieve leadership positions since they can manage the roles of leaders through mentorship.

Women develop their vision of leadership from the experiences they may have had as young girls

(Kamau, 2010; Chisikwa & Indoshi, 2010). Empowering women, therefore, begin by empowering the girl child at each step of the education ladder. Mareng (2010) comparison of women with education and women without education in Kenya revealed that educated girls are more capable of making their own decisions. Improving the career advancement of women in educational leadership positions therefore begins with girls and women gaining access to education. The

research design and methodology are not given in the above studies which the present study addresses.

2.3.1.6 Motivation

Okumbe (2001) defines motivation as a pleasurable or positive response resulting from the

appraisal of one’s job or experience. It refers to a set of favourable feelings with which employees

perceive their work. Job satisfaction results in the employee’s perception of how well the job they

perform, provide those things they consider important to them and to the organisation. Effective

teaching to realise the educational objectives demands motivated teachers. Thus, a motivated work

force increases production among individual employees.

Motivation can be understood from two dimensions. Psychological and management

perspectives. Psychological perspective refers to the internal mental state of an individual relating

to the internal initiation, direction, persistence, intention and termination of behaviour (Mullins,

2010). A motivational process consists of needs which are geared towards achieving desired goals.

The drives are action oriented approach certain goals to alleviate an individual need.

In management, motivation is an activity that managers do to their employees in an attempt

to boost their productivity in the organisation. It is the process of activating the willingness

potentials of the employees (Mullins, 2010). It is in terms of outward behaviour. Those motivated

exert extra effort to perform given tasks, unlike those not motivated.

Polinchock (2013) carried a study on female elementary principals' perceptions about

access to potential career routes to the administration in Pennsylvania. This study used a

convergent parallel mixed methods design. A convergent parallel mixed methods design involves

the concurrent collection of quantitative and qualitative data, the independent analysis of data from

both strands, the merging of results from both strands, and the interpretation of the merged results.

This type of design employs a quantitative method strand and a qualitative method strand for data collection and data analysis. Quantitative data from a survey was used to determine the relationship between female elementary principals’ aspirations to the administration and their perceived ability to access to positions in school and district leadership. Qualitative data from the open-ended questions on the survey and interviews from the case studies was used to explore how female aspirants to the administration envision their career pathways. The study found that women’s aspirations to the administration develop as they gain confidence in their leadership abilities, experience success in their current positions, embrace their leadership orientations, and reinforce their career commitments. These female administrator aspirants’ career decisions evolve as they develop self-efficacy and achieve their goals. The concomitant of their career decisions and career goals is influenced by the self-efficacy they derive from their professional experience.

Furthermore, these female administrator aspirants’ expressed their career goals in terms of being in a position where they have the broadest influence over student learning achievement and school systems. While becoming an administrator is a goal, it is not the sole driving force behind their career decisions. Rather, these female administrator aspirants envision their career pathways as a series of opportunities to fulfil their innate needs and to achieve their career commitments to students as opposed to a sequence of positions that lead to the administration. The study used mixed methods. The sample size and sampling procedures were not given. In addition, the study was carried out in the developed country which may have specific motivational factors different from those experienced in developing countries such as Kenya.

In Africa, Kagoda (2011) conducted study on assessing the effectiveness of affirmative action on women’s leadership and participation in the education sector in Uganda. The study found that society expects men to be natural leaders and challenging these stereotypes is an uphill task.

Women are expected not to be in all forms of leadership position. Therefore, few role models and mentors of women leaders. This of domestic life, make women fear additional responsibilities that will increase pressure on them.

In addition, women have made important advances in upgrading their academic qualifications making them eligible for promotion to leadership positions in both primary and secondary schools. In spite of the women’s efforts, men still dominate administrative positions.

This clearly shows that gender parity has not been attained equal as it regards leadership in the educational sector. This is a different context from where this study was carried, moreover the study above is not clear on sample size and procedure used.

Raburu (2015) conducted other research in Bondo, Kenya on the motivation of women’ academics and balancing family and career. It was conducted in Bondo, Kenya. Using a qualitative research approach and purposive sampling technique, the researcher used a face- to- face in-depth interviewing technique with 16 women academics from three universities in Kenya while drawing from a feminist perspective. The findings from the study were based on the individual’s beliefs, values and goals. In this context, the beliefs about competence, expectancy for success, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation became relevant to women’s academic careers. Socio-economic, intrinsic motivation, family, gender, role models and culture were among the factors cited to have motivated the participants in the present study towards joining and staying in academia. The study was carried in an institution of higher learning using qualitative research approach and purposive sampling technique while the current study took place in public secondary schools in Nairobi County.

2.3.1.7 Social Support

Moreau, Osgood and Halsall (2005) conducted a research on the career progression of women teachers in England: a study of barriers to promotion and career development final report

of the female teachers’ careers and progression project. The study was carried out in London

Metropolitan University. There were 15 case study schools randomly selected for the project.

The importance of professional support and encouragement was highlighted as a significant factor in achieving career success by a number of the teachers who were extremely satisfied with the direction in which their careers had gone. Headteachers and middle managers described the ways in which they had been encouraged and mentored throughout their careers. Local inspectors, teacher educators and senior teachers were all significant sources of encouragement at the outset, providing motivation and affirmation that they had what it takes to reach the top. The study examined the career progression of women teachers, but did not look into how social support of female teachers’ career advancement in administrative positions of public secondary schools.

Similarly, Otis (2013) conducted a study on social predictors of female academics’ career growth and leadership position in South-West Nigerian Universities. The study adopted a descriptive research design and the ex-post-facto design. The study also employed close-ended questionnaires to elicit responses from participants. The participants of the study included 511 female academics from graduate assistant to professor and 300 male academics in the senior cadre in six universities in south-west Nigeria. This research investigated whether social support, which comprises five variables (spousal support, parental influence, academic men collegial support, and attitude toward women), would predict female academics’ career growth and leadership position.

It was found that as a whole, social support predicted career growth and leadership position.

However, when taken independently, two of the variables, spousal support and parental influence, were significant in the prediction of career growth and leadership position. Moreover, all four independent variables predicted women leadership positions. This means that women academics were prepared for the odd the occupation offered, being in a male-dominated

occupation. Notwithstanding, women’s career is generally slower compared with their male academics due to the pressure from marriage, childbearing, and rearing. The study was carried in institutions of higher learning and adopted a descriptive research design and the ex-post- facto design.

Kiruriti (2015) conducted a study on the obstacles faced by female educational administrators in educational administration in Mombasa County, Kenya. The study involved a descriptive survey design with data collected through questionnaires and interviews. Selected women heads of institutions at both primary and secondary schools and women departmental heads in education at the regional and county levels were selected to constitute a sample. Forty-six (46) women administrators were selected using a stratified random sampling technique and purposive sampling was employed for principals and head-teachers respectively. The findings showed that there was need to encourage co-education so that women can cast off the old age inferiority complex and advance in academia. Women are proving to be academically better and socially more active. They are also aware of the fast changing social milieu and therefore making efforts to advance the leadership ladder. They are contributing extensively towards the social transformation and building of the nation. The Constitution of Kenya (2010) considers the welfare of women in both the social and political fronts. The constitution advocates for all-inclusive processes in elective position and even giving affirmative action where women seem to be marginalised. The concept of affirmative action in the constitution guarantees increased participation of women in Kenyan society. The constitution also provides for legislation to regulate women’s involvement in top leadership positions. This provided a level playing ground for all, regardless of one's gender. The researcher used descriptive survey. The context of the study is also different in nature, that is, the study was carried out Mombasa County, Kenya while the present

study was done in Nairobi County. Furthermore, the study mainly focused on the influence on social predictors of female academics’ career growth and leadership position, but did not examine how social support systems can influence the career advancement of female educators in school management and leadership positions, which is the basis of this present study.

2.3.2 Stakeholders’ Perceptions on Women Career Advancement in School Administration

According to Ministry of Women, Family and Community (as cited in Esa & Jamil, 2013), participation of women in various job categories is not weird to society nowadays. The development of a country and the role of women have changed. They are now multi-functional due to their role variety.

Women also consider playing an important role as an agent of economic engine nation in this new century. Mahpol (as cited in Esa & Jamil, 2013) said that, in a variety of roles, women have to face obstacles to improve the quality of work patiently, and there will have competition with men. Since the independence, the government has opened education to all the society women were given the same opportunities as men to enter into the school and higher education institutions. By leveraging the education and acquired knowledge, women are becoming more self-confident and have potential in many areas whether in economic, political or social. Women also show their ability because they need to do several responsibilities (Jones, 2012).

Women are no longer considered permanent place to be in the kitchen, but women have been a pillar in uplifting countries. Their credibility is not underestimated again because the ability of women can make them stand at the same level with men. The role played by women workers, especially, whether on the lower levels or at the top levels is any workforce (Firdaus, 2012).

The difference has been found between women’s and men’s ambition. However the path to senior roles for women is often more challenging. Women want to advance equally as men with

equal opportunities for learning, development, promotion and progression (Equal Opportunity for

Women in the Workplace Agency (EOWWA, 2008).

Nichols and Nichols (2014) conducted a study on the perceptions of school leaders: exploring school climate data based on principal gender and student achievement at Indiana

University. This project implored descriptive survey design. For the elementary teachers, a 5- point

Likert- type scale was used. Eight hundred and forty-seven teachers were interviewed. The study found that goal oriented women sought to move into leadership roles. Though women have to overcome cultural stereotypes and stigmas that consciously or unconsciously believes women in education are best suited for the classroom. This study was done in a different context and therefore the need to have it done somewhere else for the purpose of comparing the results. This study assumed a qualitative research paradigm using phenomenological design and using only interview guide, semi-structured interview guide and observation guide as instruments for collecting data.

Sherman (2005) has suggested that there is a definite pattern of gender division and labour in education and concluded that women have not made significant gains in educational administration because their femaleness appeared to be problematic in men dominated areas. The findings were: when women do eventually move into leadership positions, they tend to be judged more harshly than their male counterparts. Similarly, co-workers are more tolerant of dominant behaviour in men than in women, who are often penalised for exhibiting behaviours. Hence, competent women in leadership positions are often judged less likable than men who exhibit the same behaviour characteristics. However, this study did not identify stakeholders’ perceptions on women’s career advancement in school administration, which the current study seeks to assess.

Doubell and Struwig (2014) carried out a research on perceptions of factors influencing the career success of professional and business females in South Africa. The research paradigm

employed was positivistic, and therefore, quantitative. Convenience sampling was employed. The sample size comprised of 300 South African women in higher education, the accounting professions and the business sectors. The influence of background demographics on professional success is multi-faceted, ranging from birth order to socio-economic status. The findings indicated that first-born children are more confident, assertive and concerned about position and rank. Other attributes associated with first-born and only children include high-achievement orientation, high level of motivation, and leadership. The typical characteristics attached to birth order may influence personality and, therefore, behaviour in the workplace. Other demographic variables identified in literature as potentially impacting on professional success are a gender of siblings, ethnicity, education level, parent’s education level and profession, marital status and number and age of children.

Personality traits are a strong determinant of success for an academic administrator. One of the most consistent themes in studies on women’s career advancement worldwide is that women’s personal attributes can be a motivating or a hanging factor to career development.

Women’s internalisation of barriers may also contribute to their underrepresentation in managing.

Some examples of these barriers are lack of competitiveness, limited access to professional training, lack of qualification, lack of confidence, and a fear of failure (Cubillo & Brown, 2003).

Similarly, Nguyen, (2013) said, for this reason, some women refuse to fight their way to the top because of their lack of self-confidence.

On the other hand, several personal attributes that help women in reaching top positions are networking skills, adaptability, resilience, sense of humour, determination, self- motivation, confidence, and independence and a high level of job commitment (Wajcman, 2013). This study demonstrates that women with the above-listed personal attributes are to survive in the male-

dominated world of public secondary schools. In the aforesaid study, the researcher carried the study in a different context away from where this study is intended to be done. The study used a quantitative research design yet with convenience sampling method, whereas this study used a qualitative approach for the study and purposive sampling technique.

In Kenya, Kiruriti (2015) conducted a study on the obstacles faced by female educational

administrators in educational administration in Mombasa County, Kenya. The study adopted a

descriptive survey design with data collected through questionnaires and interviews. Selected

women heads of institutions at both primary and secondary schools and women departmental heads

in education at the regional and county levels were selected to constitute a sample. Forty six (46)

women administrators was selected using a stratified random sampling technique and purposive

sampling was employed for principals and head-teachers respectively.

Kiruriti established that Women administrators in most cases find themselves not being

fully accepted by the community they work with, making them feel their contributions to the

society not important. In this modern age, there are people who still believe that women are

incapable of competing effectively with men for higher job status. Thus, such, the type of thinking

devalues women’s liberation efforts. Women therefore have had a difficult time convincing the

men in some communities that they are capable of leading. In most cases, they have to work extra

hard in their occupation to be recognised and accepted as compared to their male counterparts who

are readily accepted in the community. It also indicated that there is a need for all stakeholders in

education to support women in their decision making since they can make viable decisions. There

is need for male principals to internally appoint women to leadership positions within their schools

for exposure and mentoring. There is a need for the government and school management to provide

a good working environment to enable women principals develop their careers.

The study concluded that culture has a negative influence on the career advancement of females. The study further established that male teachers were favoured in promotions just because they are men and because the position cannot be given to a woman. The study further stated that stereotyping had a negative influence on the career advancement of the females. The study also established that the familial factors like house chores affected the female teachers’ career performance as they missed to report of duty on many occasions, reported late for work as they have to leave the house in order. Finally, the study established that despite female teachers’ efforts being recognised by schools, they were largely bypassed when it comes to promotions disregarding their qualifications.

Therefore, the researcher concludes that the organisational setup also influenced female teachers’ career advancement. This study has taken a different direction from the aforementioned.

This study used a qualitative phenomenological design with purposive sampling method.

Moreover, the study looked at the obstacles faced by female educational administrators in educational administration but did not look at the factors motivating women in school leadership which this present study addresses.

2.3.3 Main Challenges Preventing Women Assuming School Administrative Positions

The study was also interested with the information about how challenges preventing women assuming school administrative positions. Over the decades, the progress made globally in improving the status of women in administrative positions of education (Group, World Bank,

2012). Women have also received varied treatments in the education system of the United Nations and its specialised agencies. Nevertheless, gender disparities still exist, especially in regard to participation in top decision-making positions. Women suffer from multi-faceted discriminations

in occupying high ranking positions (Li, 2014). Thus, the study discussed some these challenges done empirical studies below.

Moreau, Osgood and Halsall (2005) conducted a research on the career progression of women teachers in England: a study of barriers to promotion and career development final report of the female teachers’ careers and progression project. The study was carried out in London

Metropolitan University. There were 15 case study schools randomly selected for the project. The researcher used case study, and a balance of policy analysis and interviews with staff in each case school.

The study highlighted the complexity of career development processes. The under- representation of women at management level cannot be understood by a ‘deficit model’ (hostility to science or technology to a lack of understanding, resulting from a lack of information), in which women’ ‘lacks’ (of ambitions, skills, availability, confidence) are responsible for the current gender segregation of the teaching workforce. The study did not make further recommendations on the matters of enhancing to female educators’ career advancement in administrative positions.

It was also done in a different context and in an institution of higher learning.

Growe and Montgomery (as cited in Uwizeyimana & Mathevula, 2014) study conducted on promotion of female educators into school management positions: a gendered perspective. The study was conducted in BA-Phalaborwa Municipality of Mopani District, Limpopo Province,

South Africa. They came up with individual or meritocracy perspective barrier as their finding.

The meritocracy model, or the individual perspective model, was the first model used by researchers since the 1980s to explain the under-representation of women in educational leadership positions. Since this model looks to women as individuals for the cause of their relative failure to attain top management positions in terms of personal traits, characteristics, abilities, or qualities,

individual attitudes, such as self-image and confidence, motivation, and aspirations also fall into

this domain. The belief associated with this model is that women are not assertive enough to aspire

to leadership positions. This research showed that there is a need of analysing the strategies which

are put in place by MOEST to deal with promotion of female educators into school management

positions. However, the above study did not identify how these female educators can be promoted

into school management positions which the present research seeks to assess.

In addition to this, Shakeshaft (as cited in Uwizeyimana & Mathevula, 2014), notes that this model assumes that the most competent people are promoted solely on their ability. Lack of promotion of women, according to the model, is therefore assumed to be due to the fact that women are not the most competent and able people to be promoted. According to Van der Westhuizen (as cited quoted in Uwizeyimana & Mathevula, 2014), when the focus is on person-centred causation, individuals (in this case, women) are held responsible for their own problems or lack of success.

Unfortunately, when individuals are held responsible for their own problems, the solutions to those problems are then framed in terms of changing the defect or improving the individual rather than looking for systemic causes.

This arguably distorted belief about women is manifested in statements about women, such as: “they lack self-confidence, they do not want the power, they are just not assertive enough, and they don't aspire to line positions” (Pirouznia & Sims, 2006, p.10). From this perspective, women’ relative lack of promotion to administrative positions is due to their own lack of knowledge, skill and willingness to work hard (Welbourne, 2005). Equality can thus only come about when women themselves change, when they become better educated, more motivated, and more skilled.

Therefore, in order to aspire to management positions, women have first to address their own self-

perceptions and the limits they have learned, or internalised, as members of a powerless and oppressed group.

The individual perspective, it could be argued, is a very limited one and contrasting with the systemic gender bias model. More recent studies and feminist theorists see this perspective as part of a range of theoretical models bees needing to be related to specific social and socioeconomic contexts. Based on the individual perspective model, most of the authors point to issues such as lack of mobility for women’s educators, lack of confidence, and lack of aspiration

(Pirouznia & Sims, 2006; Oplatka & Tamir, 2009).

Okafor, Fagbemi and Hassan (2011) study on the barriers to women’s leadership and managerial aspirations in Lagos, Nigeria: an empirical analysis also found that a significant relationship existed between the gender stereotype of a woman manager and her career aspiration, and that women managers possessed all the attributes for top management, but what affected them were the individual factors (self-esteem, self-confidence, self-acceptance competence, commitment) and organisational factors (policies, training, strategies) within their context of operation. However, this study has failed to examine strategies for mitigating the challenges women face in assuming school administrative positions which the present study search to investigate.

Chabaya, Rembe and Wadesango (2009) in a similar way, conducted a study on the

persistence of gender inequality in Zimbabwe: factors that impede the advancement of women into

leadership positions in primary schools. A purposive sample of nine experienced female school

heads were interviewed while four female deputy heads and nine senior teachers (both male and

female) participated in three focus group discussions. One focus group comprised the four deputy

heads while the other two focus groups were made up of four and five senior teachers, respectively.

Family attachment was found to be the major reason why female teachers did not apply for school headship positions. Women were found not to be prepared to take up positions away from their husbands and children. In fact, given a choice between career advancement in places away from the family and staying with ones’ family, mostly women appeared to prefer the latter. One participant to have reported said that:

Most women do not want to apply for the posts saying perhaps she will be posted

somewhere far away from her family. That is the major reason why she talked to some

female teachers who are now qualified to be heads and they were saying they are not eager

to take the posts because of the location of the schools.

The findings of the study have shown that the majority of the women teachers in the sample was adequately qualified for promotion to school headship positions. Indeed, a large number of them either had a university degree or were pursuing degree studies. In contrast, most of them did not attempt to apply for school headship and hence were still class teachers. Therefore, one of the reasons for the persistent under-representation of women in school leadership roles was found to be their continued preference for family responsibilities at the expense of their own career development.

The study indicated that most women teachers see family responsibilities as a barrier that prevents them from applying for a headship post even though they are qualified. This is due to the way girls and women have been socialised which make them believe in the overriding importance of being a mother and wife. Even though this study employed purposive sampling, the sample size and the context of this study was different. Furthermore, the focus of this study was primary schools that may have different findings from this current study since it was based in public secondary schools.

Similarly, Uwizeyimana and Mathevula (2014) conducted a research on the promotion of

female educators into school management positions: a gendered perspective. The research was

conducted in BA-Phalaborwa Municipality of Mopani District, Limpopo Province, South Africa.

The population of this study consists of primary school educators in the Lulekani Circuit. The

population of the study consisted of 435 educators, with 343 female and 92 male educators. The

study used stratified sampling method and purposive sampling methods. The finding showed that

systemic gender bias conceptual model tends to explain the differentials in career aspirations of

men and females as an effect of the limited opportunities available to females (Pirouznia & Sims,

2006). The model focuses on the educational system its policies and practices (Khumalo, 2006) as

a barrier to the under-representation of women in leadership positions. Organisational structures,

and not the individual’s own competences condition female behaviours and attitudes in the

workplace (Pirouznia & Sims, 2006). According to this model, the problems are therefore external,

rather than internal, to females (Neidhart & Carling, 2003).

In other words, if women cannot enter high power positions, it is not due to the way in which they have been socialised as females, but because they are locked into low powered jobs by stereotyping the male-dominated system itself (Pirouznia & Sims, 2006). This model thus assumes that men advance to higher levels because they are favoured in promotional practices, and females cannot advance even if they wanted to because the system does not favour them (Bezzina, 2010).

In the context of systemic gender bias model (Pirouznia & Sims, 2006), females do in fact seek management positions, are prepared and available to occupy these positions. It is the conditions accompanying recruitment, and selection procedures that are managed largely by men, which prevent females from seeking and obtaining high level administrative positions.

The systemic gender bias model advocates that lack of networking, lack of female role models (Marcus, 2013), lack of support from colleagues and administrators (Chabaya. Rembe &

Wadesango, (2009); discriminatory hiring and promotion practices (Baldoni, 2013), lack of mentoring systems in the teaching profession, and a lack of support systems (from both family and colleagues) are seen as barriers to females’ promotion to administrative positions. The above study was done in a different context and using a mixed method research paradigm, on the other hand, the researcher on this topic took qualitative approach design. In addition, this study mainly focused on the promotion of female educators into school management positions, hence it is under the scope of this current study. This current study will mainly concentrate on an assessment of factors influencing career advancement in administration of women’s educators.

Jeruto and Kiprop (2014) also investigated hindrances that women face in gaining access

to primary school leadership positions in Rongai District, Rift Valley Province, Kenya. The study

utilised qualitative study techniques. A sample of 10 female school teachers was drawn from a

population of 102. Cultural barriers were found to be the dominant barrier to the advancement of

females into headship positions in primary schools. In the area of educational management

attitudes and perceptions, somehow people assume that men possess the necessary qualities to

perform organisational tasks. Hence, family responsibilities and cultural stereotypes confine

women in culturally defined roles. Internal factors such as low self-esteem are making females

unable to take up leadership roles. It is thus recommended that females play an active role in their

own advancement by applying for leadership positions in their schools, networking and

encouraging other females to climb the career ladder. The study was carried in a different context,

therefore, need to be done in a city for the purpose of comparing findings

District. The study established that the even though the perception of the society about the career females as being positive, females are still perceived as home makers who should be there at home to take care of the children which influenced their career advancement. The study found that culture has a negative influence on the career advancement of females. The study further established that male teachers were favoured in promotions just because they are men and because the position cannot be given to a woman. The study concluded that stereotyping had a negative influence on the career advancement of the females. The study also revealed that the familial factors like the house chores affected the female teachers’ career performance as they missed to report of duty on many occasions, reported late for work as they have to leave the house in order.

The study, therefore, concluded that familial factors affected the female secondary teachers’ career advancement. Finally, the study revealed that despite the female teachers’ efforts being recognised by the school, there were largely bypassed during promotions despite their qualifications. The study, therefore, concludes that the organisational setup influenced female teachers’ career advancement. This current study took place in urban middle class public secondary schools. This study adopted a different research paradigm in a different locality for the ultimate reason of comparing findings.

2.3.4 Strategies for Mitigating the Challenges Women face in Assuming School

Administrative Positions

Caren, Gupta, and Kes (2006) compiled a report on taking action to empower women:

United Nations (UN) Millennium Project Report on Education and Gender Equality. The task force affirms that gender equality and women’s empowerment are central to the achievement of all the Millennium Development Goals. Development policies and actions that fail to take gender inequality into account or that fail to enable women to be actors in those policies and actions will have limited effectiveness and serious costs to societies. The reverse is also true: the achievement of Goal 3 depends on the extent to which each of the other goal addresses gender-based constraints and issues. This task force believes that ultimate success in achieving Goal three depends both on the extent to which the priorities suggested here are addressed and the extent to which the actions taken to achieve the other Goals are designed to promote equality of men and women and boys and girls. While this interdependence among the Goals is important, the task force wishes to underscore that Goal three has intrinsic value in itself. That is why the report focuses on priorities and actions to achieve Goal three.

Like race and ethnicity, gender is a social construct. It defines and differentiates the roles, rights, responsibilities, and obligations of women and men. The innate biological differences between women and males form the basis of social norms that define appropriate behaviours for women and men and that determine women’ and men’s differential social, economic, and political power. The concept of empowerment is related to gender equality but distinct from it. The core of empowerment lies in the ability of a woman to control her own destiny. This implies that to be empowered women must not only have equal capabilities (such as education and health) and equal access to resources and opportunities (such as land and employment), they must also have the

agency to use those rights, capabilities, resources, and opportunities to make strategic choices and decisions (such as are provided through leadership opportunities and participation in political institutions). And to exercise agency, women must live without the fear of coercion and violence.

To ensure that Goal three 3 is met by 2015, the task force identified seven strategic priorities. These seven interdependent priorities are the minimum necessary to empower women and alter the historical legacy of female disadvantage that remains in most societies of the world: strengthen opportunities for post-primary education for girls while simultaneously meeting commitments to universal primary education; guarantee sexual and reproductive health and rights; invest in infrastructure to reduce women and girls’ time burdens; guarantee women and girls’ property and inheritance rights; eliminate gender inequality in employment by decreasing women’s reliance on informal employment, closing gender gaps in earnings, and reducing occupational segregation; increase women share of seats in national parliaments and local governmental bodies and combat violence against girls and women.

These seven priorities are a subset of the priorities outlined in previous international agreements, including the Cairo Programme of Action and the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action. The recommendations made in these international agreements remain important for achieving gender equality and women’s empowerment, but the task force sees the seven priorities as areas needing immediate action if Goal three is to be met by 2015.

In conclusion, much of what is said in this report has been known for several decades.

Though it has been difficult to translate that knowledge into development policy and practice at the scale required to bring about a fundamental transformation in the distribution of power, opportunity, and outcomes for both women and men. The next ten years provide a new window of opportunity to take action on a global scale to achieve gender equality and empower women, which

are critical for meeting the Millennium Development Goals. Governments and international organisations can provide an enabling environment to make this possible. Women’s organisations need the space and resources to bring about the societal transformations that remove the constraints, fulfil the potential, and guarantee the rights of women in all countries.

Irechukwu (2010) carried out a study on school management positions and women empowerment- a Rwandan case. This particular study was conducted in Kigali, Rwanda. For the purpose of data collection, each school was visited by an undergraduate student in Computer

Science at Kigali Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), who was also an indigenous. The central research question here was ‘Have women Managers/Principals performed in their various managerial capacities?’ To answer this question, data were collected from teachers in seven government secondary schools in Kigali. A total number of 100 questionnaires were sent out, but a total of 88 participants, which involved male and female teachers were sampled.

The study demonstrated the role of women in school administration. The study’s findings confirmed that women are good teachers. This result confirms the views of the outcome of the study in general and specifically buttressed Imanyi’s position that women have indispensable qualities for managing. The study recommended that society should prepare the female child to productive roles in the society. Girls should be taught to grow up as women who will shoulder the responsibilities on equal footing with men in all spheres of life. From the Kigali study, it can be said that if boys and girls are given equal opportunity and identical curricular in their education process, more women managers will be produced and will do better in careers which were dominated by men. Furthermore, more female principals should be given opportunities for school management as they will act as role models to the girls in their various schools. This study used a qualitative research method in different localities. Furthermore, this study did not recommend

strategies for mitigating the challenges women face in assuming school administrative positions in public secondary schools in Nairobi County, Kenya which the key concern for the present research.

Similarly, the National Policy on Gender and Development (2000), The Policy of

Education for All are cases in point. In 2004, the Kenyan Government further established the

Ministry of Gender. The women’s bureau within the Ministry was upgraded in status to a department with the broad objective of ensuring equality of opportunity for women in the development process. A National Commission on Gender and Development (NCGD) was also established in December 2004 with the mandate to promote gender mainstreaming as a policy for government institutions and the incorporation of gender perspectives into all areas of development

(Murniati, 2012).

2.4 Summary of Reviewed Literature and Identification of Knowledge Gaps

Although there is a substantial body of literature on women’s career advancement in administrative positions of education that have been reviewed, still exists a gap. The advancement of women in school administrative positions has mostly taken root in the western societies. While in developing countries, like Kenya, there is hesitation for the full participation of women in administrative positions. Studies and reports on the gender discrepancy in secondary school administrative positions have demonstrated that few countries have made better progress in addressing gender equity issues whereas others have made only minor progress due to social, political, and economic barriers (Murniati, 2012). On a global level, statistics indicate that women’s participation as students, teachers, and administrators has increased since the beginning of the twentieth century, but that does not necessarily mean gender equity has been achieved.

Women are still underrepresented in many fields and especially in top administrative positions in the public secondary schools.

Mohajeri, Mokhtar and Balash (2015) conducted a study on challenges encountering the participation of women in senior administrative status in higher education, Malaysia. They found that both formal and informal mentors serve as helpful sources of data on the organisational culture. Therefore, mentors serve as role models, and women who move into the academic and educational professionals need support from other people to conform to their profession and to translate the culture of the institutions.

Doubell and Struwig (2014) carried out a research on perceptions of factors influencing the career success of professional and business females in South Africa. The findings indicated that first-born children are more confident, assertive and concerned about position and rank. Other attributes associated with first-born and only children include high-achievement orientation, high level of motivation, and leadership. The typical characteristics attached to birth order may influence personality and, therefore, behaviour in the workplace. Other demographic variables identified in literature as potentially impacting on professional success are a gender of siblings, ethnicity, education level, parent’s education level and profession, marital status and number and age of children.

commitment) and organisational factors (policies, training, strategies) within their context of operation.

In Kenya, Nzoka (2013) carried out a research on determinants of career advancement among female secondary school teachers in Masinga District, Machakos County. The study adopted a descriptive research design in which the researcher sought to find out the challenges facing career advancement among secondary school female teachers in Kenya. The study found that culture has a negative influence on the career advancement of females. The study further established that male teachers were favoured in promotions just because they are men and because the position cannot be given to a woman. The study concluded that stereotyping had a negative influence on the career advancement of the females.

Moreover, most of the research on women and leadership concentrated on barriers to women’s advancement to leadership positions with no or little attention on the factors that encourage women’s educators’ career advancement in school administrative position. Studies done on this topic are grounded on the social role and equity theories. The research methodology and design for most scholars adopted mixed method design. The current research adopted a liberal feminist theory and qualitative paradigm to assess the factors that influence women’s career advancement in administration of women educators in selected public secondary schools in

Nairobi County, Kenya.

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the research design and methodology that guided the study. The sections in this chapter include the research design, the target population, the sample size, the sampling procedures, the data collection methods, the research instruments, the validity and reliability of research instruments, the data collection and analysis procedures, and ethical considerations.

3.2 Research Design

A Research design provides specific directions for procedures in a research study

(Creswell, 2014). A research design reflects the flow of the study. The methodology is a manifestation of what the researcher used to collect data and information needed for the entire study. This study employed a qualitative research paradigm using the phenomenological approach to assess factors that influence woman educators’ career advancement in public secondary schools administration in Nairobi County, Kenya.

According to Creswell (2014), phenomenology is a research strategy of inquiry in which the researcher identifies the essence of human experiences about a phenomenon as described by participants. The primary objective of phenomenological study was to explicate the meaning, structure and essence of the lived experiences of a person or a group of people around a specific phenomenon (Johnson & Turner, 2010). The key concern for using the phenomenological design that it sought meaning from appearances and arrived at the essence through intuition and reflected in conscious acts of experience, leading to ideas, concepts, judgements, and understanding of the participants.

The focus was to study the unit of analysis in a holistic perspective. Thus, qualitative research involved obtaining a holistic picture of what went on in a particular situation or setting.

It sought to probe deeply into the research setting to obtain an in-depth understanding about the way things are, why they are that way and how participants in their contextual natural setting perceive them (Mvumbi & Ngumbi, 2015).

In addition, qualitative approach was useful as it allowed participants the freedom to share their experiences in their own setting and in their own words. This sharing of personal experiences served to generate insights which were used to enrich the study (Gandeebo, 2007). Therefore, for the purpose of this study, the phenomenological design was used to assess factors influencing woman educators’ career advancement in selected public secondary schools administration in

Nairobi County, Kenya.

3.3 Target Population

Target population refers to the total number of subjects, or the total environment of interest to a researcher (Oso & Onen, 2011). The target population for this study was all public secondary schools headed by female principals. It also included all the teachers in public secondary schools in Nairobi County, and all Teachers Service Commission Secretariat Officers (TSCSO) in Nairobi

County. This category of participants was targeted since they are consumers and specialists of public secondary education and thus involved in one way or the other in the management of public secondary schools.

The Teacher Service Commission Secretariat Officers (TSCSO) were asked to indicate the total of public secondary schools in Nairobi County. The office was also asked to give the total number of female principals and their male counterparts, the number of total public secondary

schools’ teachers in Nairobi County is comprising the number of female and male teachers. The data collected were analysed and is presented in Table 1.

Table 1

Number of Public Secondary Schools and Teaching Staff in Nairobi County

Designation Number of Teachers Percentage (%) Female Principals 49 2.3

Male Principals 40 1.9

Female Teachers 1351 63.6

Male Teachers 683 32.2

Total 2123 100

Source: TSC Nairobi County Director Office (2017)

Table 1 established the actual number public secondary schools and teaching staff in

Nairobi County. There is a total number of 89 public secondary schools in the county, 49 schools are headed by female principals and the remaining 40 schools are in the leadership of male counterparts. This study used five schools whose principals were females. As indicated in table 1, there were teachers 1351 and 683 male teachers in all public secondary schools in Nairobi County.

The female teachers are more than their male counterparts because many of the female teachers have their spouses in urban Nairobi.

At the time of the study, there were, in total 49 female principals and 40 male principals.

The slight difference between the number of female and male teachers is due to several factors.

For instance, Chepkonga’s (2015), study the relationship between principals’ gender and

ICT integration in the management of public secondary schools: Nairobi County, Kenya and showed that the leadership positions in secondary schools in Nairobi are slightly higher for female

(51.5%) than for male (48.5%). Secondly, the presence of more female principals is attributed to

the fact that TSC has a policy of encouraging teachers to work close to where their spouses are and the majority of civil servants and other employees work in Nairobi city and got married to female teachers.

3.4 Description of the Sample and Sampling Procedures

The selection of the sample size was guided by non-probability sampling techniques.

Gandeebo (2015) defined non-probability sampling is a sampling technique where the samples are gathered in a process that does not give all the individuals in the population equal chance of being selected. The study employed purposive sampling technique was employed to select the public secondary schools and the participants.

3.4.1 Sample Size

Sample size refers to the number of observation or elements that constitute it. According to Oso and Onen (2009) a sample is defined as a part of the target (or accessible) population that has been procedurally selected to represent it. A sample is important because it helps a researcher to make conclusions about the entire population. It is not normally possible for a researcher to gather data from all members of a population especially if it is large. Therefore, the sample size for this study was 40 comprised of five women principals of five public secondary schools, five deputy principals, 25 teachers and five TSCSO.

3.4.2 Sampling Procedures

A sampling technique describes the process of selecting some part of a population to observe so that one may estimate about the whole population (Sharlon, 2010). It refers to the procedures used to select people, places, or things for study. This study used purposeful sampling technique to select all the participants. According to Gandeebo (2015) purposive sampling is when the researcher usually selects elements of the population that have information about the topic

being discussed. It is a strategy in which particular settings, persons, or events are selected deliberately in order to provide important information that cannot be adequately obtained from other people. In other words, researchers select participants from whom the requisite information can be obtained to assist in addressing the research questions and understanding the phenomenon under study.

Table 2

Summary of Sampling Matrix

Participants Sample Size Sampling Procedures Percentage (%) Principals 5 Purposive sampling technique 12.5

Deputy Principals 5 Purposive sampling technique 12.5

Teachers 25 Purposive sampling technique 62.5

TSCSO 5 Purposive sampling technique 12.5

Total Participants 40 100

Source: Researcher Sampling Matrix (2017)

3.5 Description of Data Collection Instruments

The researcher used interview guide, semi-structured interview guide, focus group discussion guide and observation guide to collect data from the participants. This assisted the researcher to gain accurate and deep understanding of factors influencing women's educators’ career advancement public secondary schools administrative positions.

3.5.1 Interview Guide for Principals and Deputy Principals An interview is a qualitative research technique that involves conducting in-depth interviews with a small number of participants to explore their perspectives on a particular idea, programme, or situation (Merrill & West, 2009). Interview guide is useful when one wants detailed information about a person’s thoughts and behaviours or want to explore new issues in depth. The

interviews enabled the researcher to capture a deeper perception of the participants. Through interviews, an interviewee’s thoughts, values, prejudices, perceptions, views, feelings and perspectives are expressed through probing (Gandeebo, 2015).

The study adopted interview guide (Appendices IV & V) to solicit data from principals and the deputy principals. The instrument enabled the researcher capture the more subtle experiences women face in their day-to-day working environments, their attitudes to work and the career choices they encounter. Moreover, interviews allowed participants to define the parameters of the conversation rather than be restrained by a predetermined agenda of the researcher. This enhanced the exploration of organisational values, functions and relationships in the context of personal career development. The researcher used a portable tape recorder with the permission of the participants and a notebook during the interview upon seeking consent from the participants. The interview was carried out face-to-face with the participants and it was guided by the interview guide. This is because face-to-face interview encounters between researcher and participants is directed toward understanding participants’ perspectives on their lives, experiences, or situations as expressed in their own words. It was used to capture the complete story of the interviews. The essence of this instrument was provided with wider and deeper insight on the topic under study and to meet the study specific objectives.

The interview guide and semi-structured guides (Appendices IV, V, VI & VII) participants had six sections. Section A solicited demographic information of the participants while section B captured the factors that motivate women to seek administrative positions. Section C sought the participants’ views on stakeholder perceptions of female’s principals in leadership positions. In section D, participants provided information on the challenges facing female principals in leadership positions. Section E sought for strategies that enhance female career advancement in

school administrative positions. Finally, Section F sought for any relevant additional information regarded the topic under consideration.

3.5.2 Semi-Structured Interview Guide for Teachers and Teachers Service Commission

Secretariat Officers

Semi-structured interview guide was used to solicit information from teachers and

Teachers Service Commission Secretariat Officers (TSCSO) participants. Semi-structured interview combines a highly structured agenda with the unstructured type (Gandeebo, 2015).

Semi-structured interviews are suitable for research that investigates the lived experiences of participants. The interviewer has some discretion about the order in which questions are asked, but the questions are standardised, and probes may be provided to ensure that the researcher covers the correct material (Harrell & Bradley, 2009). This kind of interview collects detailed information in a style that is somewhat conversational. Semi-structured interview is open, allowing new ideas to be brought up during the interview as a result of what the interviewee or participant brings up.

The researcher used semi-structured interview for teachers and TSCSO because it delves deeply into a research topic and to understand thoroughly the answers provided (Harrell & Bradley, 2009).

3.5.3 Focus Group Discussion Guide for Teachers

The Focus Group Discussion (FGD) guide was used to gather data from teacher participants (Appendix VIII). The FGD is a carefully planned procedure, designed to obtain views or perceptions of a given area of interest in a permissive non-threatening environment. It is usually aimed at achieving consensus over a phenomenon using a group or groups. Macqueen and Namey

(2012) defines focus group discussion as a group of individuals selected and assembled by researchers to discuss and comment on, from personal experience, a topic that is the subject of research. FGD is a powerful research instrument which provides valuable spontaneous information

in a little period of time and at comparatively low cost, provided the group has been well chosen in terms of composition and number (Kisilu & Delno, 2013). It enables participants to interact easily and to ask questions of each other, as well as to re-evaluate and look at their own apprehension of their experiences.

The essence for which the researcher used focus group discussion guide here was that it provided an in-depth explanation of the topic under study. Focus groups can reveal a wealth of detailed information and deep insight. During the focus group interview, the tape recording was used to get the full story of the group discussions if consent is obtained. The FGD focused on teachers (Appendix XII) was selected from the five schools. Out of the five schools, three schools participated in FGD, each group comprised of eight participants.

3.5.4 Observation Guide for the Selected Public Secondary Schools

This study adopted direct observation technique. Observational techniques are methods by which an individual or individuals gather first hand data on programmes, processes, or behaviours being studied. By directly observing operations and activities, the researcher can develop a holistic perspective, that is, an understanding of the context within which the project operates (Appendix

IX). This may be especially important where it is not the event that is of interest, but rather how that event may fit into, or be affected by, a sequence of events. According to Mugenda and

Mugenda (2010), a researcher utilises an observation guide to record what he or she observes during data collection. However, Ogula (2005) has cautioned that the researchers should not observe too many behaviours. The researcher also observed that the number of female teachers was higher than their male counterparts.

The observation technique was used to enable the researcher counter check the information that was obtained from the research instruments (interview guide, semi-structured interview guide

and focus group discussion guide) which were used in the study. This observation was based on the researcher’s personal experiences and perceptions as the researcher observed the interactions between the female principals and teachers. As a result, the researcher focused on the factors influencing women educators’ career advancement into school administrative positions.

3.6 Trustworthiness of Qualitative Data

One of the researcher’s most significant tasks is to ensure that the findings are trustworthy.

Validity and reliability are two important concepts in quantitative research. They helped to determine the accuracy and usefulness of research results. Validity is the degree to which results obtained from the analysis of the data actually represent the phenomenon under study (Creswell,

2014). Validity is the accuracy and meaningfulness of inferences, which are based on the research results. In other words, validity is the degree to which results obtained from the analysis of the data actually represent the phenomenon under study. Validity, therefore, shows how accurately the data obtained in the study represent the variables of the study (Mugenda, 2008).

Reliability, on the other hand, is the extent to which a measure gives consistent results.

Mugenda and Mugenda (2010), explain that reliability is a measure of the degree to which a research instrument yields consistent results or data after repeated trials. Reliability was ensured through consulting the supervisors to check the research instruments questions or ambiguities. The comments of the supervisors were incorporated and the research instruments reformulated.

However, since validity and reliability are positivistic or quantitative research concepts, hence credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability were employed. Credibility described the internal validity of research instruments while transferability described the external validity of research results. Dependability and confirmability, on the other hand, described the reliability of the research data or results.

3.6.1 Credibility

According to Patton (2002) credibility (truth value) deals with the question of ‘how congruent is the findings with reality’ Credibility is when the researcher analyses the data through a process of reflecting, sifting, exploring, judging its relevance and meaning and ultimately developing themes and essences that accurately depict the experience. According to Thurmond

(2001) credibility criteria involved establishing that the results of qualitative research were credible or believable from the perspective of the participant in the research. Credibility, therefore, in this study was established through member checking, that is sending the transcribed notes to the participants for review and verification.

Triangulation and member checking were used to assess credibility in this study. These two types of credibility ensured objectivity in the data. According Patton (2002) triangulation is a valid procedure where researchers search for convergence among multiple and different sources

(in this case interviews, semi-structured interviews, focus group discussion and observation) of information to form themes or categories in a study.

Thus, triangulation was involved comparing the information obtained using multiple sources to determine whether or not there was corroboration. The procedure aimed at searching for the convergence of the information. Cross-checking findings with literature review involved bringing the literature reviewed to bear on the findings from the various data sources to determine if the data is a true reflection of the variables under scrutiny. Therefore, the content of the study was given to three experts in the field. Their comments were incorporated in this study.

Another procedure or technique that validated this research study is the member checking.

According to Gandeebo (2015) member checking, also known as participant feedback is another technique that is used to offset researcher biases and to increase objectivity. The essence of the

member checking technique in this research was to ensure that what was recorded during the interview session and the observations truly reflected the minds, sayings and ideas of the research participants and by not of those of the researcher. Member checking was used to determine the accuracy of research findings. Member checking involved taking data, interpretations, and conclusions back to the participants for their feedback on the accuracy and the overall confirmation of the data (Merriam, 2002). Participants were asked to review transcripts of their interview to make corrections, deletions or additions to the data. Therefore, data from the interviews, document analysis and the observations was used to cross validate each other.

3.6.2 Dependability

Dependability (consistency) shows that the findings will remain steady if the study could be repeated (Cohen, Manion & Marrison, 2007). To ensure dependability, the researcher was encouraged to report in detail processes that will be used in the study so that it enables future researchers to repeat the same work (Patton, 2002). The dependability emphasises the need for the researcher to account for the ever-changing context within which research occurs. The researcher was responsible for describing the changes that occurred in the setting and how these changes affected the way the researcher approached the study. The researcher, therefore, ensured employment of triangulation of data collection methods. Moreover, the researcher reported in detail the processes to this study, by that making the future researchers to repeat the work. In doing so, the dependability of this study was determined by checking the data from the interview guides, document analysis and observation guide.

3.6.3 Confirmability

Confirmability addresses the question of objectivity in the instruments and study free from researcher bias. According to Richards and Morse (2012) confirmability is the degree to which the

results could be confirmed or corroborated by others and enhanced by: document the procedures for checking and rechecking the data throughout the study. In this study, the researcher ensured confirmability by reporting experiences and ideas of informants rather than the characteristics and preferences of the researcher. The researcher was also encouraged to admit his/her own predispositions to help confirm findings that are free of researcher bias as much as possible. Thus, confirmability was determined by linking the data to their sources. Moreover, the researcher used method and source triangulation in order to avoid the effect of researcher’s bias. In so doing, leading questions were avoided during engagements and interviews and participants were given more time. Finally, the researcher acknowledged within the researcher report the reason for employing the qualitative design.

3.6.4 Transferability

According Lincoln and Guba (as cited in (Mvumbi & Ngumbi, 2015) transferability

(applicability) in qualitative research can be defined as the degree to which the results of a research can apply or transfer beyond the bounds of the project. Transferability implies that the results of the research study can be applied to similar situations or individuals. The knowledge which was obtained in context was relevant in another and investigators who carry out research in another context will be able to utilise certain concepts which were initially developed. The essence of transferability of this research study was to contextualise the findings of this study to other studies or research findings without contradictions. Moreover, the researcher followed a research design and methodology. Data were collected using interviews, semi-structured interview guide, focus group discussion and observation guide for an explanation of the phenomenon of this study. This was to allow other researchers have clear idea and understanding, and able to create conducive judgments about the results and to transfer to other contexts of research.

3.7 Data Collection Procedures

Data collection, according to Kombo and Tromp (2006) is the gathering of specific information to be used to prove or refute some facts. After the defence and approval of the proposal, the researcher issued a letter from the University to seek a research permit from the

National Council for Science and Technology (NACOSTI). After getting the permit, the researcher made preliminary arrangements with the school principals one week prior the material day, in order to create sufficient rapport with the participants, raise their confidence and awareness as to the nature and purpose of the study, as well as inform them of their freedom to make informed choice.

For the purpose of this study, data were collected from primary sources through the use of an interview guide, focus group discussion guide, observation guide and semi-structured interview guide. A tape recorder was used to record the data during the interviews to synchronise the information that was obtained during the interview with the consent from the participants. The researcher requested a research permit through the Department of Postgraduate Studies in

Education of the Catholic University of Eastern Africa (CUEA) to National Commission for

Science, Technology and Innovation Research Institute (NACOSTI). The letter was then taken to the County Education Officer (CEO) of Nairobi.

When permission was granted, the authorising letter was then used to seek entry into the sampled public secondary schools to gather the required research data. When the permit was granted, the researcher made an official application to the principals of the sampled public secondary schools for permission to use the schools and the target participants for data collection.

Finally, the researcher booked appointments with the sampled participants for the purpose of administering the research instruments. Data were then collected from primary sources through

the use of an interview guide, focus group discussion, and observation during the data collection process. A tape recorder was used to record the data during the interview and later transcribed for easy comprehension and coding.

3.8 Data Analysis Procedures

Bryman and Bell (2007) defined data analysis as the process of bringing order to the data and organising the data into patterns, categories and descriptive units, while looking for relationship among them. Data analysis can be viewed as a process of interpretation, of dealing with the raw information in such a way that the messages contained in the data become clear

(Robson, 2007). The data derived from interview guide, semi-structured interview guide focus group discussion guide and observation guide were coded. Data collected by interviews were transcribed, categorised and given meanings or conclusions. Thereafter the researcher simultaneously combined or grouped themes and presented a narration of the essence of the experiences of the principals, deputy principals, teachers and TSCSO (Creswell, 2014).

A thematic analysis approach was then employed to analyse the data. According to the

Mugenda (2012) thematic analysis is a technique of analysing qualitative data in which the researcher identifies meaningful categories or themes in written text, conversations or conclusions.

The data that were obtained from these research instruments, that is, interview guide, semi- structured interview guide, focus group guide, and observations were analysed thematically by putting them under major themes. The researcher examined the collected data and identified information that is relevant to the research questions and objectives. The researcher also developed a coding system based on the samples of collected dated and classify major issues or topics covered. Finally, the researcher gave a summarised report identifying under each major theme, illustrations and use direct quotations to present the findings.

3.9 Ethical Considerations

A researcher must anticipate any ethical issues that may arise during the research process

(Creswell, 2009). Ethics is a matter of commitment to and behaviour guided by certain values

(Vogt, Gardner & Haeffele, 2012). According to Punch (2005) research involves collecting data from people, about people. Researchers need to protect their research participants by developing trust with them, promoting the integrity of the research, guarding against misconduct and any impropriety that might reflect on their organisations or institutions, and cope with new challenging problems. Ethical research practice is a dynamic process and should be monitored throughout data gathering, analysis, and reporting (Smith & Flowers, 2009). First and foremost, the researcher has an obligation to respect the rights, needs, values, and desires of the participants. Phenomenological research solicits sensitive and deep answers to questions, extracting meaning from statements and opinions.

Thus, the researcher designed an informed consent form for each participant and they were given an opportunity to ask questions before signing it. This means that, the researcher did not assign names of participants or their place of work during the research process. In order for the information to be reliable, the participants were assured confidentiality of the information they provide (Cohen, Manion, & Marrison, 2007). To ensure confidentiality and anonymity, pseudonyms were used in the data gathering process and during the report writing (Gandeebo,

2015).

Data that were obtained from books, journals, magazines, newspapers, conferences, reports, electronic sources, observation guide, theses and dissertations were correctly acknowledged (Mugenda & Mugenda, 2012). Before proceeding to the field to collect data, the researcher obtained a letter from the Catholic University of Eastern Africa permitting the

researcher to go for data collection. The letter was presented to the NACOSTI. After the grant of permission to carry out research in Nairobi County, he researcher proceeded then to the sampled public secondary schools.

The participants were also informed that participation was voluntary and they had the right to withdraw from the study at any moment. After the completion of the in-depth interviews, the participants were immediately given the opportunity to review their responses and to make any changes to their previous statements. The researcher ensured also an ethical consideration by acknowledging authors and contributions of all literature used in the study.

CHAPTER FOUR

PRESENTATION, INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

4.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the findings that were obtained from the study. The data gathered from both primary and secondary sources through interviews, semi-structured interview, focus group discussion and observations were presented, analysed, and interpreted in relation to the research questions. It explored the contextual concerns of the schools which were under investigation.

Assessment of factors influencing career advancement in administration of women educators in public secondary schools is shaped by the social context of the particular school or its immediate environment. Brief analysis will relate to the type of school, its principal, deputy principal and teachers. For ethical reasons the sampled schools are referred to as PSS 1 (Public

Secondary School 1), PSS 2 (Public Secondary School 2), PSS 3 (Public Secondary School 3) PSS

4, (Public Secondary School 4) and PSS 5 (Public Secondary School 5). Participants’ names have been identified by the title ‘principal’, ‘deputy principal’, ‘teacher’ and also ‘TSCSO’.

4.2 Response Rate of the Different Participants

The study targeted principals, deputy principals and teachers of the public secondary schools in Nairobi County, Kenya and their employer TSCSO. A total of 40 participants was sampled for the interview. However, only 39 participants were actually interviewed. This gave a response rate of 95 percent out of the targeted population. Of the five deputy principals, only four were interviewed. One could not be interviewed due to school related administrative responsibilities. Table 3 indicates the sample participants and those who were actually interviewed.

Table 3 Distribution of Participants’ Response Rates

Study Participants Sampled Participants Actual Participants Response rate (%) Principals 5 5 100 Deputy Principals 5 4 80 Teachers 25 25 100 TSCSO 5 5 100

Total 40 39 95

Source: Researcher (2017)

The researcher had four categories of participants as presented in Table 3. The statistics from the table indicate that almost all the sampled participants were interviewed. This translates into 39 response rate. The response rates for principals, teachers and TSCSO were hundred percent, respectively, while the response rate for deputy principals’ was four. This implied that the data were fit for analysis as suggested by Mugenda (2008) that a response rate above 75% is good for analysis. The focus group discussion was done only three schools with the participants of eight teachers from each school respectively. It was difficult to carry out the focus group discussion in the fourth and fifth schools because teachers were engaged in the supervision of midterm examination.

4.3 Demographic Information of the Study Participants

Participants backgrounds related to the significance of the study were explored. The demographic information about the participants in this study was necessary. It shows the characteristics of the participants in providing the required information for the purpose of drawing conclusions from them. Accordingly, the number of public secondary schools in the Nairobi

County and the number of teaching staff, their gender, age, academic qualifications were analysed and discussed.

4.2.1 Gender of Participants

An attempt was made to establish the participants’ gender distribution in the selected public secondary schools in Nairobi County, Kenya. The question was important to the study since it assisted the researcher to determine the number of female teachers and those in administrative positions in Nairobi County.

This is necessary as the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation

(UNESCO) report (2003) on education and gender recommended entrenching gender in education policies and plans to ensure parity suggesting that disparities are prevalent along gender lines.

Similarly, an International Labour Organisation (ILO) report (2004) on labour standards advocated for equal opportunities in international labour markets to redress ‘gender inequality’ at work.

Table 4 Gender of Participants

Participants Male (%) Female (%) Total Frequency Total % Principals - - 5 12.8 5 12.8

Deputy Principals 1 2.6 3 7.7 4 10.3

Teachers 8 20.5 17 43.6 25 64.1

TSCSO 3 7.7 2 5.1 5 12.8

Total 12 30.8 27 69.2 39 100.0

Source: Researcher (2017)

Table 4 showed, 27 of the participants were female while 12 were males. This means that there were more female participants than male. In other words, that there are more women in the teaching profession than men. Despite the purposive approach employed in this study, where female principals were targeted, the finding still showed that the number of female teachers exceeds that of male counterparts in public secondary schools in Nairobi County. For instance, in

one boys’ school, which was headed by a female principal, had a total number of 24 female teachers against 6 male counterparts.

4.2.2 Age of Participants

This section inquired about the age of the participants to ascertain whether the age of the participants determines their promotion into administrative positions in public secondary schools.

Moreover, the question of the age of participants was very significant to the researcher since the responses aided the researcher to evaluate whether indeed age does influence women’s career advancement in administration of women educators in the selected secondary schools. The data for the age were analysed and presented under each category in Table 5.

Table 5

Ages of Participants

Age Group Principals D/Principals Teachers TSCSO Total f % f % f % f % f % 26 - 30 - - - - 10 40 - - 10 40

31 - 35 - - - - 4 16 - - 4 16

36 - 40 - - - - 2 8 - - 2 8

41 - 45 1 20 1 25 3 12 - - 5 57

46 - 50 1 20 1 25 2 8 2 40 6 93

51 – 55 1 20 - - 3 12 3 60 7 92

56 - 60 2 40 2 50 1 4 - - 5 94

Total 5 100 4 100 25 100 5 100 39 100

Source: Researcher (2017)

As demonstrated in Table 5, there is distribution of ages amongst the participants. It is evident from Table 5 that two principal participants were between 56 – 60 years. This implies that as female teachers advance in age, the more likely they will ascend to leadership positions in public

secondary schools. Only one of the principals was between 41 – 45 years while another one principal was between 46 – 50 years. Finally, the remaining one principal was between about 51 -

55 years. This shows that the majority of the participants were in better positions to be mentors and role models to women teachers who were aspiring to school administrative positions.

However, the majority of the principals was also skewed towards retirement. This study concurs with the study of Glickman (2009) who found that motivation shifts depending on the age of employees. Young employees thrive on challenge, training and new opportunities while older employees are motivated by freedom, balance in their lives and transferable retirement packages.

Thus, there is a need to encourage more female teachers to seek leadership positions in public secondary schools.

As far as the deputy principals are concerned, the Table 5 illustrates that one participant was aged between 41 – 45 years. A second participant one was within the age bracket of 46-50 years while majority two were above 55 years of age. This shows that the deputy principals in this study were also nearing their retirement age. Table 5 also shows more teachers were in the age group of 26-30 years, representing 10 of the distribution. Similarly, four of the teachers were between the ages of 31 – 35 years. Another two of the teacher participants fell between 36 - 40 years. Also eight of the teacher participants were in the age bracket 51 -55 and 56 -60 respectively.

Another two were between 36 - 40 years and 46 – 50 years. Meanwhile, only two were in the 56

– 60 age bracket. This suggests that most teachers out of the teaching profession before they turn

55 years.

The majority of the teachers were between the age group of 26 – 30 years. At this stage

(age) teachers are geared towards exploring more in areas of specialisation as they get to acquaint themselves with the subject content. This shows that they have brought knowledge and application

to develop responsibility by contributing to the welfare of the schools they are serving as teachers.

In so doing, the majority of the teachers were females, 17, this could influence their attitude towards aspiring to leadership positions in the various public secondary schools they are serving.

Moreover, the teachers were above 25 years of age. At the same time, the majority of the teachers were young and so they were nearer to the age range of the students. This can help the students to understand their adolescent challenges.

Three of the workers in TSCSO were between the ages of 51 – 55 years. Two of the TSCSO participants were between the ages of 46 and 50. Thus, majority of TSCSO are getting to the age of retirement. Table 5 could imply an age of an individual is very significant when carrying out promotions to leadership in public secondary schools in Nairobi County. This study conforms to research done by Glickman (2009) who showed that motivation shifts depending on the age of employees. Young employees thrive on challenge, training and new opportunities while older employees are motivated by freedom, balance in their lives and transferable retirement packages.

Similarly, appointment of secondary school principals in Kenya by the TSC (Sang, Malisa & Sang,

2012) is done based on years of service which deter hard working teachers with less experience from pursuing promotion to administrative positions.

4.2.3 Level of Education for Participants

The study sought to find out the academic qualification for the participants and whether they have influence on promotion in administrative positions secondary schools in Nairobi County. The participants’ academic qualifications were analysed and the findings are shown in Table 6.

Table 6 Participants’ Academic Qualifications

Qualifications Principals D/Principals Teachers TSC Secretariat Total f % f % f % f % f % Diploma - - - - 1 4 - - 1 4 Bachelor - - - - 1 4 - - 1 4 Candidate Bachelor Degree 2 40 2 50 21 84 1 20 26 194

PGDE - - 1 25 - - - - 1 25

Masters 3 60 1 25 2 8 3 60 9 153

PHD ------1 20 1 20

Total 5 100 4 100 25 100 5 100 39 100

Source: Researcher (2017)

Table 6 illustrates the level of education for the different participants. It shows that two (2) principals had Bachelor’s degrees and the remaining three had Master’s degrees. The findings indicate that most principals, three public secondary schools in Nairobi County have obtained

(Masters Degrees) in Nairobi public secondary schools. The principals who participated in the study had varied academic qualifications in schools. The increase number in Master’s Degree was attributed to the fact that principals were well paid by TSC. They further offer scholarships to further their education

In addition, some institutions of higher learning are offering degrees over the school based courses which the principals take advantage of in Nairobi County. It is evident that female principals are highly qualified and therefore have the capacity to handle public secondary schools responsibly. Mugweru’s (2013) study on the promotion of secondary school teachers by gender, experience and school type: a case in Kenya supports the above finding. His study found that qualifications sought for promotions according to the school principals are academic,

qualifications, experience, participation in co-curricular activities and students’ performance in the subject taught by the teacher. Degrees and masters qualifications are prioritised. Teachers’ performance in school work is highly valued and is obtained from certificates of co-curricular activities and performance of learners in the teacher’s subject in KCSE examination. Those who had no examination classes are required to go with the results of the last examination class they had taught.

Table 6 further demonstrates that two of the deputy principal participants were Bachelor’s degree holders, while another one deputy principal participant had a Postgraduate Diploma in

Education (PGDE) qualifications. The remaining one participant had a Master’s degree. The distribution shows that 21 teacher participants with Bachelor’s degree holders, two are Master’s degree holders, one participant Diploma holder and another one on going teachers’ course in the process of attaining a Bachelor’s degree. This data clearly show that most teachers are Bachelor’s degree holder. Statistics from the Table 6 show that the teachers in the public secondary schools are well trained and qualified for the teaching job in secondary schools and even some of them have a Master’s Degree in their teaching subjects. Statistics from table 6 shows teachers, whether male or female start the journey of teaching profession as degree holders 21.

Among all positions of TSCSO, the most frequently reported educated officers are Master’s

Degree holders as it was indicated by three officers. The rest of the officers, one had PGD and

PhD respectively. Thus, it is clear that those who work with TSC Secretariat are well educated in schools’ management and administration.

The data reveal that the professional qualifications of principals and their deputies is a motivational factor for female teachers who want excel into administrative positions. These qualifications were significant since they are key leadership appointments. When females are

appointed to leadership it will serve to influence other female teachers whose desires are to become educational administrators in public secondary schools. Also, appointment to TSC require high qualified for female teachers who desire leadership beyond public secondary school administration.

4.2.4 Work Experience of Participants

The researcher was also interested in finding out the experience of the participants. The researcher intended to find out whether the number of years of service as principals, deputy principals, teachers or TSCSO could have an impact on career advancement into administrative positions. Therefore, the participants were asked to provide the length of years that they have worked in the teaching profession, especially as TSC employees in different capacities, such as principals, deputy principals, teachers and TSCSO. The experience of the participants was of significant importance to this study. The years of experience of teachers in public secondary schools were important in influencing their promotion to higher levels. The data obtained were analysed and presented in Table 7.

Table 7

Work Experience of Participants

Years of Experiences Principals D/Principals Teachers TSC Secretariat Total f % f % f % f % f % 1 -5 years 2 40 1 25 9 36 - - 12 101

6 -10 years 2 40 3 75 7 28 1 20 13 163

11 – 15 years 1 20 - - 3 12 3 60 7 92

16 – 20 years - - - - 1 4 1 20 2 24

21 – 25 years - - - - 2 8 - - 2 8

26 – 30 years - - - - 2 8 - - 2 8

31 – 35 years ------

36 – 40 years - - - - 1 4 - - 1 4

Total 5 100 4 100 25 100 5 100 39 100

Source: Researcher (2017)

Table 7 shows the number of years that the different participants had served in different capacities. The data provided in Table 7 indicate that majority two of the principals has had work experiences between 1 to 5 years and 6 to 10 while one principal has had work experience of between 11 to 15 years. The principal participants had sufficient work experiences (i.e. at least five years and above) and therefore show that they are able to provide adequate and sufficient information about leadership and administration. Besides female principals in this study had attained this administration’s position after long service in the profession in other capacities either as teachers or deputy principals.

Mugo (2011) did a study on the role of parents in promoting learning in public secondary schools in Teso District, Busia County, Kenya. His experience provides the opportunity for better

focused administration roles. His finding shows that principals who had taught in a particular school for six years and more should have developed quality instructional and administrative skills.

Where the duration of service has allowed for internationalisation of the best practice in the teaching and learning process, strengths and weaknesses in the curriculum delivery.

In addition, Hargreaves and Fullan (as cited in Mugweru, 2013), observed that experience goes hand in hand with consolidating achievement and identifying one’s career objectives. They associate early career stage with search for status, comfort, and happiness in work, family and friends while the middle age stage provides disillusionment, reflection and reordering priorities according to re-assessment of one’s capabilities and available opportunities. Experienced teachers who fail to advance may reduce their input in school work and concentrate on their families, particular interest or alternative supplementary careers.

The deputy principals were asked to indicate their work experiences in the various schools they worked. The data collected were analysed and the results were as follows; three of the participants have had work experiences between 6 - 10 years while one deputy principal had also work experiences between 1 – 5 years. This implies that the longer the teacher advance in the workplace, the more they gain experience. This evidence that the deputies had have wide knowledge in their administrative positions. As majority three were women, they can also serve as motivation to the rising of the female teachers into school leadership positions because most of the deputies had been in administrative positions for more than 6 years.

All the teacher participants were asked to indicate their working experience. None of the teacher participants indicated that they had work experience of between 1 – 5 years, followed by seven teacher participants of between 6 – 10 years. Three had teaching experience of 11-15 years and another two teachers had teaching experience of between 21 - 25 and 26 – 30 years

respectively. Moreover, one teacher had taught for between 36 – 40 years. This is an indication of how wealthy of knowledge of teaching experience of the teachers in this study. Nevertheless, from the statistics in the above table also shows most of the teachers are in the initial stage of teaching and therefore need to be nurtured for leadership positions.

Similarly, appointment of secondary school principals in Kenya by the TSC (Sang, Malisa

& Sang, 2012) is done based on years of service which deter hard working teachers with less experience from pursuing promotion to administrative positions. Nevertheless, some of the teachers had teaching experience of between 21 - 25, 26 - 30 and 36 - 40 years, respectively, but they have not been promoted to administrative positions. The reasons given among others are due to the few vacancies in administrative positions in the system. This fact was echoed by Simmons

(as cited in Mugweru, 2013) in his study on promotion of secondary school teachers by gender, experience and school type: a case in Kenya. He found that few teachers get into administrative positions due to few vacancies that exist, making upward mobility within the school less likely.

Similarly, As Coleman (as cited in Moreau, Osgood & Halsall, 2005) notes women that numerically dominate the teaching profession in most countries. However, a minority hold management positions. Most women leaders have often found lower levels of the educational ladder. In addition, women teachers in junior, middle and secondary schools, and in colleges and universities are less likely to achieve management positions than their male peers.

The staff officers of TSC Secretariat are well experienced employees. They had a great wealth of experiences and knowledge. Three of the participants have working experience of between 11 – 15 years. One of the participants had gained working experience between the years of 6 – 10 and 16 – 20 respectively. All the TSCSO that were interviewed had been principals in the public secondary schools before working with the TSC. The experience of the TSCSO

participants in their current status was based on the period of time they have been serving in the ministry of whom some started as mere classroom teachers. The longer the stay in the educational system, the higher the chance of rising to administration, leadership and this serves as a fundamental reminder to female teacher aspiring to rise into management positions in public secondary schools.

4.3 Factors that Motivate Women to Seek Administrative Positions The section highlights the view of female principals on the factors that motivate them to seek administrative positions in public secondary school. It records participants’ views on the factors that motivate women to seek leadership or administrative positions in public secondary schools in Nairobi County, Kenya. The key themes that emerged from the study participants included self-esteem and actualisation as one of the motivators, parents serving as teachers/administrators, administrative and management courses, and team work.

On the factors that motivate women to seek leadership or administrative positions in public secondary schools, one of the principal pointed out that: “Self-esteem and actualisation as one of the motivators” (Interview: PSS 3 Principal on February 26, 2017). This is in line with

Polinchock’s (2013) finding that women’s aspirations to the administration develop as they gain confidence in their leadership abilities, experience success in their current positions, embrace their leadership orientations, and reinforce their career commitments. Furthermore, Priola and Brannan

(2009), note that women’s self-determination to progress and success is fundamental to their career progression.

The findings also corroborate with a liberal feminist theory which was implored for this study. The theory believes that changes in equal access to credit and educational opportunities in the workplace make one to realise his or her potential (Sommers, 2002). This is why the women

principals in this study unanimously said that “self-esteem and the actualisation as one of the motivators” as they serve as school principals.

This is further supported by Kelsey, Allen, Coke and Ballard’s (2014) conducted a study on female administrators share women career path choices who reported that building relationships and focusing on participatory leadership were key to their successes. The terms ‘encourager’, ‘risk taker’, ‘visible role model’, ‘approachable’, ‘hands on’, ‘communicator’, ‘genuine’, ‘resilient’,

‘compassionate’, and ‘spiritual’ were used frequently by the female administrators to further describe their strengths. They commented also that networking with other people; staying current in the field, and leading by servant leadership, were identified most often by the participants as strategies for increasing self-confidence and developing into a strong leader.

In addition, this finding lends credence to the findings of Aguba (2009) that, irrespective of gender, teachers are more productive, satisfied with their job and healthier physically, emotionally, socially, and academically when motivated. It further noted that a conducive school climate and job security influence teachers’ dedication to their job.

One of the principals also commented that “women are motivated by the fact that women are parents and at the same time teachers of students and, therefore, producing well educated students who will make impacts to the society is a motivation in itself” (Interview: PSS 2 Principal on March 3, 2017). The current study’s findings corroborate with Grogan and Shakeshaft (2011) who also found that women principals relate spirituality to the way they model behaviour and inspire others. It helps them to explore others’ worlds because the lives of children are directed to the social context in which they develop, not just the school. Watching children develop is motivational for women principals. Thus, female principals’ presence in schools is enough motivation to other female teachers who are seeking management and leadership positions that

make female teachers productive towards achievement of their objectives. In the same way, the girl - child student in these schools, in one way or another, emulates enthusiasm in female teachers that are in leadership positions. Thus, female principals who have excelled are role models, mentors and motivators.

This supports Mohajeri, Mokhtar and Balash’s (2015) study on challenges encountering the participation of women in senior administrative status in higher education, Malaysia. Their findings showed that mentors serve as role models, because women who move into the academic and educational professionals need support from other people to conform to their profession and to translate the culture of the institutions. Thus, mentoring is one of the mediating factors for female’s career aspirations. This finding further confirms with the study carried out by Kelsey,

Allen, Coke and Ballard (2014) on female administrators share their career path choices. The study revealed that successful women need to encourage and support younger females. In this way, women build other women through encouraging, mentoring, and serving as role models.

Similarly, Knab (2009) made a comparative study of leadership practices of principals and established that effective leaders set an example and commitment through daily acts that creates progress. Apart from setting an example and commitment, Knab also denoted that effective leaders delegate and involve their subordinates. By delegating some roles and responsibilities of female teachers, they are given access and exposure, which builds confidence towards taking up leadership and administrative positions in the public secondary schools. Conclusion in one of the

Focus Group Discussion (FGD) alluded to this point:

Assigning female teachers’ roles is a gateway to promotion, therefore, workshops and

administrative courses in school management change the way female teachers perceive

leadership enabling them to overcome the generalised fallacy that school leadership

belongs to the male gender. Thus boast their morale to engage in school management and

leadership (FGD: PSS 3 Teachers on February 17, 2017).

Team work is another motivator that was expressed in this study. The study showed that

everyone in public secondary schools and indeed the entire society has a role to play in the

leadership development of Evert. The majority of the participants alluded to the idea that teamwork

is the key factor motivating female principalship. For instance, one of the teachers said:

Teamwork serves as one of the key motivating factors towards female career advancement

in leadership. Through teamwork, female educators learn different administrative skills

from each other. In so doing, it encourages workers to apply for administrative positions

because teamwork is a training in itself for a leadership role in the school setting. We have

an informal group for female teacher where we discuss matters related to our profession

(Interview: PSS 4 Teacher on February 22, 2017).

This assertion agrees with Kiruriti (2015) who conducted a study on the obstacles faced by female educational administrators in educational administration in Mombasa County, Kenya.

The study established that in this modern age, there are people who still believe that women are incapable of competing effectively with men for higher job status. Thus, such type of thinking devalues women’s liberation efforts. Women therefore have had a difficult time convincing the men in some communities that they are capable of leading. In most cases, they have to work extra hard in their occupation to be recognised and accepted as compared to their male counterparts who

are readily accepted in the community. It also indicated that there is a need for all stakeholders in education to support women in their decision making since they can make viable decisions.

This finding also confirms to Leech and Foulton’s (2008) on faculty perceptions of shared decision making and the principals’ leadership behaviours in secondary schools in a large Urban

District Education. They posited that organisational structure should be built to encourage group action, which includes the sharing of information, resources and ideas.

Finally, this study findings on self-esteem and actualisation as one of the motivators is contrary to popular belief that perpetuates a false perception that women lack the personality and the experience needed when faced with tough situations (Mathipa & Tsoka, 2006). Mathipa and

Tsoka (2006) conducted a study on possible barriers to the advancement of women to leadership positions in the education profession. They found that poor self-image is a factor attributed more to women than to men. It is one of the major factors that explain the continued under-representation of women in management positions in general and in South Africa in particular. The study concluded that female principals and their co-workers need encouragement and motivation to be able to encourage and support other female leaders.

4.4 Perceptions participants on Women Career Advancement in Public Secondary Schools This section deals with the perceptions of stakeholders on women’s educators, career

advancement in public secondary schools. It was aimed at finding out the perceptions of

stakeholders on women’s career advancement in public secondary schools’ administration. The

perceptions of stakeholders on women’s career advancement in the public secondary school

administration were analysed and summarised.

Participants indicated that gender was not an issue in promotion of female teachers into

administrative positions. They contend that female principals are effective and are better managers

of public secondary institutions. According to the TSCSO, female principals manage resources and perform better based on those who are apparently in the school leadership and administration.

As one of the TSCSO reported:

Most female principals are very effective and are better managers of public institutions.

Most principals of the year’s award are grabbed by female principals. Schools headed by

female principals are normally regarded with high esteem that is, highly disciplined,

perform well academically, and finances well managed (Interview: TSCSO on February

24, 2017).

Participants in the FGD observed that administrative positions are challenging though manageable and interesting. Participants commented that:

Gender is not an issue in service, what is important is the delivery. There is no difference

between female principal and male principal as far as administrative leadership of public

secondary schools is concerned. An assessment about female and male principals get

almost the same score because they all produce good results. (FGD: PSS 4 Teachers on

March 6, 2017).

The finding is similar to Kanjere’s (2008) study on challenges faced by women administrators. The study established that if woman administrator are empowered they can strengthen the lives of their communities through the purpose of ‘Ubuntu’ (an Nguni Bantu term which can be roughly translated as ‘human kindnesses). Women principals are understandable, relate very well and lead by example while male principals are dictatorial and unapproachable. As it was alluded by a female teacher:

Women principals lead by example while most men principals are dictatorial and

unapproachable. Female principals are approachable, keener and hands on their work.

Moreover, female principals listen and understand, but they do not listen to teachers

challenges. Approach to policies is more mature in an understandable manner, female

principals are able to handle dockets satisfaction which men cannot do. (Interview: PSS 5

Teacher on March 10. 2017).

Similarly, a male thinks that women are more tolerant than male managers. This is how he described his principal who is female:

She is a good principal, I have no problem with her. Ready to give assistance whenever the

need arises. It has been awesome. She is very understanding with the teachers and students

together. Very enlightening and informative, especially on matters concerning policies that

guide the profession (Interview: PSS 4 Teacher on March 6. 2017).

Most of the participants were supportive to female principals. This was echoed by a TSCSO

Participant:

Female principals relate very well, there is no discrimination and they are equally

participating in head teacher association’s leadership with equal mentions. Female

principals are so loving and motherly to their students that inspire, motivate and encourage

them to work harder in their duties, especially in academics and instil morals (Interview:

TSCSO on February 23, 2017).

This finding concurs with Kouzes and Posner (2012) that good leaders foster competence and confidence in those they lead. They get personally involved and build relationships that are inspirational. Thus, it was likely these women trapped into qualified leaders in their pathways to

the principalship. These female principals practiced effective leadership skills and know how to

bring emerging management leadership talent forward.

Female principals also poorly motivate, discourage female teachers in the educational system

from assuming administrative positions. One of the deputy principal participants indicated:

Poor motivation from female principals is limiting female teachers to ascend to school

administrative positions. Female principals require lots of commitment to remain at peace

with teachers. It is quite difficult to access them since its dependant on one’s personality.

(Interview: PSS 1 Deputy Principal on March 6, 2017).

This study corroborated with Kagoda (2010) who observed that low self-esteem, negative

image and inadequate appreciation of value of teachers work in most Sub-Saharan countries where

many schools do not provide role models to help teachers grow professionally. They attributed this

to low motivation of experienced teachers. On the contrary, as stated by Gourley (2013), women

need to be encouraged by others to see themselves at the head of things because of they have more

skills than they know and have softer skills and special capabilities.

Similarly, Wolfram, Mohr and Schyns (2007) contend that there are prevalent staff prejudices

against female leaders. They further argued that female leaders were at risk of receiving less

professional respect from their staff than male leaders and staff with traditional gender role and

attitudes were prone to have comparatively little professional respect for female leaders. This

shows that in the post primary institutions of learning students’ attitudes towards female principals

and the respect they accord them is gender biased.

4.5 Challenges of Women Assuming Administrative Positions in Public Secondary Schools

This section presents the challenges faced by women educators advancing in school administrative leadership in the public secondary schools. Even though women are motivated to

seek administrative positions, they are often faced with challenges that limit their assuming administrative positions in public secondary schools. The participants in this study highlighted some of these key challenges, including family roles and responsibilities, the insecure school environment and poor mentoring from female principals.

In this study, an interview conducted on challenges preventing women from assuming

administrative positions in public secondary schools, family commitments and obligations vis-a-

vis school roles and responsibilities came up as the main challenge. Most participants showed how

difficult it is for female principals to balance between the school roles and family responsibilities.

One of the deputy principals said:

Roles and responsibilities in public secondary schools are so overwhelming, requiring a

constant hand on leadership making female teachers to shy away in fear of compromising

their own family obligations. Balancing school work and family time is a big challenge,

especially where their spouses do not support their work place (Interview: PSS 2 Deputy

Principal on March 3, 2017).

This statement echoes what Hoff and Mitchell (2008) discovered in their study on cyber bullying causes, effects, and remedies. The study revealed that women in leadership are faced with the dilemma of balancing societal expectations of women regarding their family responsibilities with that of workplace leadership. This was also confirmed by the study conducted by Wakshum

(2014) on females’ participation in educational leadership in secondary schools of the Ilu Aba Bora

Zone in Ethiopia. The findings revealed that family and home responsibilities, misalignment of personal and organisational goals some early contributors to women‘s lack of administrative success. Women aspirants are often restricted by family demands or are believed to be hindered by family commitments.

The findings in this study further corroborate other studies. For instance, Uwizeyimana and

Mathevula’s (2014) on promotion of female educators into school management position: a gendered perspective, found that female educators, who are in management positions are sometimes at a disadvantage. Some women in management positions in their schools are sometimes often forced to relinquish their positions in order to follow their husbands when their husbands are promoted to management positions in other provinces.

Similarly, in Kenya, Kiruriti (2015) carried out a study on the obstacles faced by female educational administrators in educational administration in Mombasa County, Kenya. The findings indicated that the majority of the participants (58.7%) felt what a very serious obstacle was for most women wanting to work closer to their families. The review of related literature of this study clearly showed that family responsibilities constitute a major challenge to women’s advancement to administrative positions in public secondary schools. Accepting these leadership positions sometimes require them to leave home, relatives and family (Uwizeyimana & Mathevula, 2014;

Pirouznia & Sims, 2006; Chabaya, Rembe & Wadesango, 2009).

Insecurity was also cited as a challenge especially in places where they are not accepted.

For instance, the comment of one of the teachers is indicative of this:

No female teacher would like to work in a public secondary school that is in an insecure

environment despite being appointed in such area as a teacher, senior staff, deputy principal

or principal. These insecure environments can be in the form of the community not wanting

the teacher, political instability and individual indifference (Interview: PSS 5 Teacher on

March 8, 2017).

Female teachers will not be ready to teach, leave alone taking leadership responsibilities in such

areas. In such areas that are insecure, the population of female teachers regions is dismal. In Kenya,

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Kamau (as cited in Nzeli, 2013) outlined that sex role stereotyping, insecurity in schools, role conflicts between traditional and administrative roles as well as personal barriers are the major challenges faced by female head teachers in the administration of the secondary schools.

Cultural and religious factors pose a challenge on the ability of female teacher educators to assume administrative positions. For example, in some communities, educated women are not regarded and will not be seen to take up religious and cultural duties and responsibilities segregate female teachers from assuming administrative positions. One female teacher who has served longer in the teaching profession alluded to this fact when she said:

There are many qualified ladies in our rank; some of whom are pursuing degree courses in

various universities and even some have completed studies but no leadership position has

been offered to them. Cultural and religious factors pose a challenge on the ability of female

teacher educators to assume administrative positions. Society is very dismissive towards

ladies - that men can do the job better (Interview: PSS 2 Teacher on February 28, 2017).

This assertion corroborated by Ballenger’s (2010), a study on female’s access to higher education leadership: cultural and structural barriers. The study found that women leaders often confront cultural rules and patriarchal ideologies of feminine propriety that link womanhood with marriage, unpaid work and the family, and justify women in lower management positions with a partial chance of authority. In addition, this concurs with Wakshum’s (2014) study of cultures, the

Ethiopian society is patriarchal. The Wakshum’s study established that women who do not perform domestic roles were viewed as deviants making it difficult to assert themselves when it comes to seeking positions outside the home. In addition, women carry out almost all the productive roles of the households. The average Ethiopian woman puts in 15-18 hours of work per day, which has never been valued in economic terms.

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Moreover, this study agrees with Jeruto and Kiprop (2014) who did a study on hindrances that women face in gaining access to primary school leadership positions: the Case of Rongai

District, Rift Valley Province, Kenya. The study revealed that all the participants interviewed were of the view that, strongly held views by members of their society as regards leadership belongs to men and has greatly affected their chances of promotion into leadership positions in their society.

One participant commented the following: “society has myths that ladies may not provide strong leadership” (Interview: PSS 3 Teacher on February 24, 2017).

The FGD with teachers also agrees with this assertion. For instance, one of the teachers said:

There were no serious interventions from the larger society to enlighten both male and

female about the capabilities of women in the society. The society is still looking at women

as weaker beings. Poor mentoring from the already existing female principals is a great

challenge in leadership transition to fellow female teachers. There was no evidence of

mentorship programmes that are there for female teachers to ascend to leaderships besides

own personal initiatives. Had it been that mentorship programmes are in place, then this

study would have come across individual female teachers partaking (FGD: PSS 1 Teachers

on February 17, 2017).

Earlier studies that concur with the finding, which are found in the literature review include the systemic gender bias model that advocates that lack of networking, lack of female role models

(Marcus, 2013), lack of support from colleagues and administrators (Chabaya, Rembe &

Wadesango, 2009); discriminatory hiring and promotion practices (Baldoni, 2013), lack of mentoring systems in the teaching profession, and a lack of support systems (from both family and colleagues) are seen as barriers to females’ promotion to administrative positions.

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Further, male leaders traditionally mentored each other; while women leaders were often mentored by males (Searby & Tripses, 2006). Brunner and Grogan (2007) found differences in the networking and mentorship of women leaders who aspired to be administrators and women leaders who had no aspiration for the administration. Women who aspired to the administration were more interested in networking and seeking mentors than non-aspiring administrators (Brunner &

Grogan, 2007). Both groups of women leaders stated that administration required long hours; however, the non-aspiring administrators stated the work was hard at a higher frequency. Dudek

(2012) concurred with Brunner and Grogan (2007) that the majority of women administrators had both men and women mentors; however, women administrators sought support and friendship from their mentors. These authors also determined that formal networks were as beneficial as informal networks. Peters (2010) found that women school leaders often had informal mentors that emphasised friendship with no set of preliminary guidelines for the mentorship.

4.6 Strategies to Mitigate Challenges of Women Assuming Administrative Positions in

Public Secondary Schools

This section was meant to propose strategies to improve the challenges encountered in women from taking up administrative positions in public secondary schools. It responded to the fourth research question. Thus, the fourth research question sought to find out the strategies can be used to mitigate the factors hindering women from taking up administrative positions in public secondary schools. To effectively address the intentions of this question, participants were asked to identify critical competitive strategies that can be used to mitigate the factors hindering women from taking up administrative positions in public secondary schools.

The key themes that emerged from this research question were as followers: The use of gender equality policy that is enshrined in the Kenyan constitution, advocates for recognition of

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female gender when making appointments has tremendously seen rising of the female to the helm of management in secondary schools as compared to a couple years ago. Training in management courses, seminars and workshops undertaken early enough and prior to ascending to leadership positions has shaped and influenced female teachers to focus on the epic, finally, to draw examples from merit performance benchmarking with other teachers who have excelled in leadership positions. Female principals are also tasked with the responsibility of mentoring and role modelling young female teachers in teaching profession. One of the female TSCSO’s participants said:

Training and seminars for school management courses have seen a paradigm shift in the

way educator’s perceived administrative position in public schools. These courses have set

a common playing ground for both male and female teachers. Also, the gender equality

policy that is enshrined in the Kenyan constitution, advocates for recognition of female

gender when making appointments has tremendously seen rising of the female to the helm

of management in secondary schools as compared to a couple years ago (Interview: TSCSO

on February 24, 2017).

Furthermore, the findings argue with the liberal feminism which is the theory of this study.

Liberal feminists believe that changes in equal opportunities and educational policies, will end patriarchy (Wallin, 1999). Liberal feminists encourage and support such measures as anti- discrimination and equal pay legislation in the hope that they will help to end discrimination.

Liberal feminists do not seek revolutionary changes in society, but reforms that take place within existing social and political structures (Eisenstein, 2004).

The spirit of non-discrimination, equity, equality and inclusiveness runs through the

Constitution of Kenya ([COK] 2010). Article 27(8) of the Constitution states that “State shall take

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legislative and other measures to implement the principle that not more than two-thirds of the members of elective or appointive bodies shall be of the same gender. The Teachers Service

Commission follows a policy on gender and equality in the constitution when making appointments of public secondary school principals, though it seems to favour male teachers in the county basing on the demographics.

In a comparative study on gender disparities in education administration and management in Kenya (Ongaki, Omwoyo & Musa, 2015), recommended that the Ministry of Education needs to address the glaring gender imbalance right from the headquarters to the zonal levels. They further proposed that TSC should revise the promotion guidelines to make it more gender sensitive to ensure more women ascend the managerial ladder. At the school level, women teachers could network and encourage one another in the fight against under-representation.

In addition, Sang, Masila and Sang, (2012) conducted a study on gender inequality in administration of secondary schools in Kenya. They revealed that research on secondary school administration in Kenya offers only a weak basis for guiding policy and programme development.

More needs to be done to attain gender equity in the administration of secondary schools in Kenya.

For instance the introduction of a quota system that specifically allocates slots for female administrators may be necessary. Such a measure would ensure that there is gender representation and equity in secondary school administration in the country.

Female teachers are advised to go for training in management courses, seminars and workshops to increase their probabilities of getting appointments in the administrative positions.

A teacher participants indicated that “training in management courses, seminars and workshops undertaken early enough and prior to ascending to leadership positions has shaped and influenced female teachers to focus on the epic” (Interview: PSS 5 Teacher on February 2017). Training is

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defined as the organised activity aimed at imparting information or instructions to improve the recipient’s performance or to help him or her to attain a required level of knowledge or skill (Saeed

& Asghar, 2012). Another scholar describes training as the formal and systematic modification of behaviour through learning which occurs as a result of education, development and planned experience (Armstrong, 2009). This study concurs with Armstrong (2009) who believes that the development activities help a person to make positive contributions to the organisations. Training helps for the proper utilisation of resources; that further helps employees to achieve organisational as well as personal goals.

As Saeed and Asghar (2012) pinpoint, training and development improves the motivation and satisfaction level of teachers, increase their skill and knowledge, and also expands the intellect on the overall personality of the teacher thus enhancing teaching commitment. Their study, therefore infers that training is a motivating factor which enhances the knowledge of the teacher towards the job. By the help of training teachers become proficient in their jobs and they become able to give better results.

The Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MOEST) through its various agencies has continued to offer training courses in management of schools. For instance, the Kenya

Education Management Institute (KEMI) offers a Diploma programme that was rolled out to implement management policies, procedures and reforms in the education sector 2014. This utilises modern management tools in institutions. It also champions to develop the necessary leadership skills required in the contemporary education sector. The modules in this Diploma programme have been designed to allow you to study in a flexible manner through distance and work-based learning. For each module, learning objectives and tools has been indicated. The programme is open to every teacher, regardless of the status in school. Moreover, the results of the

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study also support the earlier findings of training programmes targeting female teachers are core to the realising effective administration of leaders, and such programmes could serve to motivate potential female principals to embrace the challenge of intentional leadership (Sang, Masila, &

Sang, 2012).

Another strategy is mentorship of female teachers that starts as early as delegating some roles and responsibilities as they gradually rise through the ranks continually moulding female teachers to have confidence and stability in management. This was alluded to by a deputy principal who said “we draw examples from merit performance benchmarking with other teachers who have excelled in leadership positions. Female principals are also tasked with the responsibility of mentoring and role modelling young female teachers in the teaching profession” (Interview: PSS

2 Deputy Principal on February 22, 2017).

Similarly, Kiruriti (2015) established that training, mentorship, workshops, holding dialogue, being affirmative, assertive and have a support group for female teachers would encourage them to move up the ladder hence pick up leadership positions within their areas. It also established that women should be encouraged to further their education since it would help them get leadership opportunities when they are at par with their male counterparts. The study also revealed that role modelling was important for young girls to help them grow in an aspiration to become leaders in their fields.

There was an observation by the researcher that appointments should be based on qualification and merit performance of an individual and not guided as per the job group. This would encourage female teachers joining the profession to be proactive in exploiting the leadership potentials in them fully without fear of other external constraints. There was also viewed about

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creating a certain position in the public secondary school institution basically meant for female

teachers.

4.7 Summary of the Findings

The chapter has presented the data, analysed, discussed and interpreted the findings as per research question. The data were collected qualitatively using interview guide, semi-structured interview guide, focus group guide and observation guide. This first research question was aimed at finding out the factors that motivate women to seek administrative positions in selected public secondary schools in Nairobi County, Kenya. The key themes that emerged from this research question included self-esteem and actualisation as one of the motivators, parents serving as teachers/administrators, administrative and management courses motivating, and team work.

The perceptions of stakeholders on women’s career advancement in the public secondary

school administration were analysed and summed up in both positive and negative perspectives.

The positive perspective encompassed gender was not an issue for promotion to administrative

positions, most female principals are most effective and are better managers of public secondary

institutions, women principals lead by examples while men principals are dictatorial and

unapproachable, female principals are understandable and female relate very well. On the other

hand, the negative perspective was only on poor motivation from some female principals.

Despite the factors that motivate women to seek administrative positions, there were some challenges preventing women from assuming administrative positions in public secondary schools which were addressed by the second question. The participants in this research study highlighted the challenges. The key themes that emerged from this research question were family roles and responsibilities, the insecure school environment and poor mentoring from female principals.

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The key themes that emerged from this research question four were as followers: The use of gender equality policy that is enshrined in the Kenyan constitution, advocates for recognition of female gender when making appointments has tremendously seen rising of the female to the helm of management in secondary schools as compared to a couple years ago. Training in management courses, seminars and workshops undertaken early enough and prior to ascending to leadership positions has shaped and influenced female teachers to focus on the epic, finally, to draw examples from merit performance benchmarking with other teachers who have excelled in leadership positions. Female principals are also tasked with the responsibility of mentoring and role modelling young female teachers in teaching profession

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CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction

In this chapter, the researcher highlights the summary of the research findings, conclusions based on the study, recommendations to the various stakeholders in MOEST and public secondary schools, and suggested areas for further research studies. It should be stated that these conclusions are based on the information derived from the interview, semi-structured interview guide, focus group discussion and observation guide carried out by the study participants. This study was guided by four research questions.

5.2 Summary of the Study

The key concern of the study was the assessment of factors influencing women educators’ career advancement in selected public secondary school administration in Nairobi County, Kenya.

Women have enormous wealth to contribute to nation building, but few have been given the chance to do so. Factors that influence the advancement of women in administrative positions have been proposed by various scholars, but few have been delved into female educators’ career advancement in public secondary schools. The researcher used four research questions to guide the study. The research questions were as follows:

What factors motivate women to seek leadership or administrative positions in the public secondary schools? What are the perceptions of TSCSO, Principals, Deputy Principals and

Teachers on women’s career advancement in school administrative positions in public secondary schools in Nairobi County? Which are the challenges preventing women from assuming administrative positions in public secondary schools? What strategies can be used to mitigate the factors hindering women from taking up administrative positions in public secondary schools?

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The significance of the study was to provide useful information to all education stakeholders on how to improve and increase the number of female principalship. It concentrated on public secondary schools whose principals were women in Nairobi County. The study was thus delimited to public secondary schools female principals, deputy principals, teachers and TSCSO in Nairobi County. Nairobi County was chosen to carry out this study because it is the cosmopolitan city of the nation.

This study was based on the Liberal Feminism. Liberal Feminism was proposed by Mary

Wollstonecraft in 1792 who strives for a society in which all individuals have the opportunity to realise their potential. Feminism has become an increasingly important tool in analysing the position of women within the discipline of education (Eisenstein, 2004). Eisenstein further said that feminist theories have focused on the oppression of women and addressed the possibility of considering the needs of women. Moreover, feminism is a response to women’s lives and experiences and the varieties of feminism reflects the changing and varied nature of the women’s experiences. Also, the study was underpinned by two theories. These theories include social justice theory and equity theory.

The conceptual framework for this study was diagrammatically represented model comprise of independent, dependent and intervening variables. The independent variables constitute factors that motivate women in school leadership positions, stakeholders’ perceptions of women principals, challenges facing female principals and strategies for mitigating the challenges preventing women from assuming school administrative positions. The dependent variable consists of women educators’ promotion to the principalship and other school administrative positions and commitment to those positions. Women educators’ participation in the educational decision-making process enables them to advance to leadership. The intervening

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variables comprise of the MOEST/TSC policies and restrictions. These can become obstacles for achieving gender equity in taking up leadership positions in the public secondary schools.

Review of the related literature was aligned to the research questions. The review conceptualises the objectives of the study and focuses the research topic. The study employed a qualitative research design using the phenomenological approach. The researcher used interview guide, semi-structured interview guide, focus group discussion and observation guide to collect data from the participants. Qualitative data were analysed thematically and summarised using descriptive statistics.

The study targeted principals, deputy principals and teachers of the public secondary schools and their employer TSCSO. A total of thirty-nine participants were interviewed (5 principals, 4 deputy principals, 25 teachers and 5 TSCSO). Of the 5 deputy principals who were to be interviewed, only 4 were available and interviewed. The 5th one was out of school on administrative duties. This study used purposive sampling to select the schools and the participants.

There were a total number of 89 public secondary schools, out of which 49 schools are headed by female principals and the remaining 40 schools are in the leadership of male. As indicated in Table 1, the majority of the teachers 1351 in Nairobi County is females while 683 are males. The study findings also revealed a large number of sampled participants who were interviewed, this translates into 39 response rate. The response rates for principals, teachers and

TSCSO’ interview guide were 100 respectively, while the response rate for deputy principals’ interview was 4. The gender, participant finding showed, of those interviewed, 27 were females while 12 were males.

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The first research question was aimed at finding out the factors that motivates women to seek leadership or administrative positions in public secondary schools in Nairobi County, Kenya.

The study established that self-esteem and actualisation as some of the motivators. Female principals’ presence in schools is enough motivation to other female teachers who are seeking management and leadership positions that make female teachers productive towards achievement of their objectives. In the same breadth, the girl - child student in these schools in one way or another emulates the enthusiasm in female teachers that are in leadership positions.

Delegating some roles and responsibilities of female teachers, especially with the onset of their profession gives them access and skills, in the finality builds confidence towards taking up leadership and administrative positions in the public secondary schools. This can be done through training in seminars, workshops and administrative courses in school management.

The second research question aimed at finding out the stakeholders’ perceptions on women’s career advancement in school administration. The perceptions of stakeholders on women’s career advancement in the public secondary school administration were analysed and summarised. These include gender is not being an issue in the service, what is important is the delivery. There is no difference between female principal and male principal. Female principals manage resources and perform better based on those who are apparently in the school leadership and administration.

Women principals are moderate in their decision-making process while most male principals are dictatorial and sometimes unapproachable. They are approachable, keener and hands on their work. Moreover, they listen and understand the other female teachers’ challenges.

Approach to policies is more mature, they are able to handle dockets satisfactorily. Most female principals relate very well, there is no discrimination and they are equally participating in

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headteacher association’s leadership with equal mention and the female principals are so loving and motherly to their students that inspire, motivate and encourage them to work harder in their duties, especially in academics and instil morals.

Participants in this study indicated poor motivation from female principals is limiting female teachers to ascend to school administrative positions. Female principals require lots of commitment to remain at peace with teachers. It is quite difficult to access female principals since its dependant on one’s personality. In addition, some participants stated that they require lots of commitment to remain at peace with female principals.

The third research question was aimed at finding out the challenges that prevent women from assuming administrative positions in public secondary schools. The participants in the research study highlighted the following challenges. Family commitments and obligations vis-a- vis school roles and responsibilities came up as the main challenge with most of the participants showing how difficult it was for female principals to balance between the two. Roles and responsibilities in public secondary schools are so overwhelming, requiring a constant hand on leadership making female teachers to shy away in fear of compromising their own family obligations.

Insecurity was also cited as a challenge. In secure environments can be in the form of the community not wanting the teacher, political instability and individual indifference, especially in places where female principals are not accepted. Female teachers will unwillingly be ready to teach, leave alone taking leadership responsibilities in such areas. In such areas that are insecure, the population of female teachers regions is dismal. Cultural and religious factors have a challenge on the ability over rising of a female teacher in administrative position based on diverse societies they are serving.

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Poor mentoring from the already existing female principals is a great challenge in leadership transition to fellow female teachers. There was no evidence of mentorship programmes that are there for female teachers to ascend to leaderships apart from own personal initiatives. Lack of networking, support from colleagues and administrators lack of mentoring systems in the teaching profession, and a lack of support systems (from both family and colleagues) are seen as barriers to females’ promotion to administrative positions.

The fourth research question sought to find out the strategies that can be used to mitigate the factors hindering women from taking up administrative positions in public secondary schools.

Participants identified, for instance, the use of gender equality policy that is enshrined in the

Kenyan constitution, advocates for recognition of female gender when making appointments has tremendously seen rising of the female to the helm of management in secondary schools as compared to a couple years ago. TSC follows a policy on gender and equality enshrined in the constitution when making appointments of public secondary school leadership.

Training in management courses was another strategy. This is done through seminars and workshops undertaken early enough and prior to ascending to leadership positions has shaped and influenced female teachers to focus on the epic. The MOEST through its various agencies has continued to offer training courses in management of schools. For instance, KEMI offer Diploma programme that was rolled to implement management policies, procedures and reforms in the education sector and utilise modern management tools in institutions in 2014.

Mentorship of female teachers that starts as early as delegating some minor roles and responsibilities as they gradually rise through the ranks continually moulding female teachers to have confidence and stability in management. Female principals are also tasked with the responsibility of mentoring and role modelling young female teachers in teaching profession.

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5.3 Conclusions

In order to improve women’s experiences in public secondary schools administrative positions, there is a need to find a deeper understanding of how their experiences interact and are a result of challenges facing them in school management and settings. This can be done by continuing research on a wider scale leading to policy implementation and culture shifts in order to retain and include more women in all levels of schools administrative positions.

The present study contributes to an understanding of formulating capacity building programmes to empower women’s career advancement into administrative positions of the public secondary schools of Nairobi County, Kenya and the country at large. Furthermore, government officials, especially MOEST and TSC will find the study beneficial in making policies that will help Kenya to fulfil her goal, which will realise vision 2030, through effective allocation of balanced school administration human resources. It has also been established that though relevant legislation has been enacted by the government of Kenya (Republic of Kenya, 2006) to assist women in advancing careers in the public areas, especially in the education sector, there are still factors that mitigating preventing women from assuming school administrative positions.

Despite the factors that motivates women to seek leadership or administrative positions discussed above, there were some challenges preventing women from assuming administrative positions in public secondary schools. These challenges include family responsibilities and school work, poor mentoring, cultural and religious factors, recommended that women play an active role in their own advancement by applying for leadership positions in their schools, networking and encouraging other women to climb the career ladder. Finally, if more research on women’s career advancement is done, there will be lesser marginalised and under-presentation of women in public secondary schools management and leadership positions.

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5.4 Recommendations

The focus of the study was to assess factors influencing women educators’ career advancement into selected public secondary school administration in Nairobi County, Kenya.

Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations have been made to the various stakeholders. These include MOEST and TSC, female principals, teachers, parents, policy makers and students on how to encourage women educators’ career advancement in selected public secondary schools administration in Nairobi County, Kenya

5.4.1 Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MOEST)

As regards to factors that motivate women to seek leadership or administrative positions, the study established self-esteem and actualisation as some of the motivators of female enhancement to public secondary school leadership. Based on the findings therefore this study recommends to the MOEST to enhance programmes on mentoring and role modelling not only of female teachers, but also girl child early enough in life to prepare them for leadership roles in the society. These can be done through seminars, workshops and administrative courses in school management besides the responsibility of every actor in learning institutions to boost the morale and changing the way they perceive leaderships of public secondary schools.

5.4.2 Teachers Service Commission (TSC)

The study also recommends to the TSC to formulate a gender ratio based policy to be adopted when making appointments of leadership in public secondary schools. The field of teaching is flooded by female gender as compared to the male counterparts. For as long as the gender and equality policy is followed as provided by the Kenyan constitution, the disparity between the female and male principals in public secondary schools will continue widening unless something is done. Gender based ratio policy will allocate a given percentage of appointment

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reflecting the population of a given gender. That is a bigger ratio should be given to female teachers in matters of leadership appointments in public secondary schools.

This research also recommends to the TSC to make appointments of public secondary school leadership based on merit of an individual, regardless of the gender, religion and cultural backgrounds. The female should be highly regarded as far as leadership is concerned, so that those who show ability and competence should be recognised as well.

5.4.3 Female Principals

Besides the good rapport of the female principals among stakeholders, there is a fear that few female principals who are not up to the task paint a bad picture for the rest. Thus, the researcher recommends those few female principals that are not always available for their teachers should avail themselves of them constant interactions, appointment or regular staff briefings/meetings.

This will enhance the relationships between the school and administration and teaching, therefore leading to effective and efficient teaching and learning. Moreover, this good relationship that will exist among female educators will boast a mentorship- networking atmosphere of the institution.

5.4.4 Female Teachers

This study recommends female teachers to be go getters as far as leadership in public secondary schools is concerned. They should be on the forefront to seek this position early enough when they join the profession considering to put all the attributes that are required from them. As teachers they are well enlightened and therefore should move away from this mind-set that leadership is a reserve for male.

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5.4.5 Scholars

Moreover, the research limited itself to assessment of factors influencing women educators’ career advancement into selected public secondary schools. Therefore the study recommends more to be done in both public primary schools.

5.5 Suggested Areas for Further Research

Through this study, another suggested areas has been exposed for further studies to be pursued. Research on gender differences within public secondary school’s administrative position needs to continue in order to provide equity among the ranks. It is true that this study has given numerous avenue in the areas of learners and particularly for policy makers, it is very essential to give other areas in which changes to the study will ascertain the applicability of the findings in this research study and hence increase transferability. The key concern of the study, which is the assessment of factors influencing women educators’ career advancement into selected public secondary school administration in Nairobi County, Kenya is a very broad and peculiar. Therefore, it requires more research to be carried out to gain more knowledge on the subject.

Thus, the researcher is suggesting the following area for further research:

i. The issue of women’s underrepresentation is an issue of concern worldwide. Every country

is finding a way to solve this peculiar phenomenon. Therefore, since this was done in public

secondary schools in a Nairobi County, Kenya, there is a need for the same study be carried

out in Private Secondary Schools in Nairobi County, Kenya.

ii. There are forty – seven (47) Counties in Kenya, but the study was undertaken only in the

Nairobi County with five public secondary schools whose principals are females. Thus, it

is hereby suggested that other research be conducted in the rest of the forty – six (46)

counties.

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iii. Further research should be conducted on the same research study, but using quantitative

methodology would be useful in order to capture additional demographic information of

the participants. This quantitative method approach to the inquiry would afford the

opportunity to collect quantitative data to measure the participants’ views based on pre-

determined items, as well. iv. A study on TSC scheme of promotion and its effect on women’s career advancement into

administrative position in public secondary schools in Nairobi County, Kenya.

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APPENDICES

Appendix I: Letter to the Participants

The Catholic University of Eastern Africa (CUEA) Postgraduate Studies in Education Educational Administration and Planning Faculty of Education P.O. Box 62157-00200 Nairobi, Kenya

Dear Participants, I am Samuel Yoaa Flaleh Stephens FMS, a Master student at the Catholic University of Eastern (CUEA) specialising in Educational Administration and Planning. As part of the requirement for graduation, I am required to do research. This research is a partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of a Masters degree. I wish to carry out a research among public secondary schools whose principals are women in Nairobi County, Kenya. I would appreciate if you could, therefore, spare me your precious time and respond to some questions for me today. The interview requires your experiences regarding women’s career advancement in public secondary schools administrative positions. If you think that you need more time to respond to the questions, I will be flexible and willing to accommodate your suggestions. I will also take notes during the interview so that all necessary information will be captured. Please be assured that all responses will be kept confidential and anonymous. The interview responses will be used only for the purpose of the study. In addition, I will ensure that all information that I include in the final report does not identify you as the participant. Please, feel free not to respond to any question that you feel uncomfortable with. Thank you for your time. Yours Faithfully,

Samuel Yoaa Flaleh Stephens, FMS

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Appendix II: Letter to TSC Secretariat

The Catholic University of Eastern Africa (CUEA) Department of Educational Administration and Planning Faculty of Education P.O. Box 62157-00200 Nairobi, Kenya

The Secretariat The Teachers Service Commission TSC House, Upper Hill, Kilimanjaro Road P.O. Box Private Bag Nairobi County, Kenya

RE: REQUEST FOR RESEARCH AUTHORISATION

I am Samuel Yoaa Flaleh Stephens FMS, a Master student at the Catholic University of Eastern (CUEA) specialising in Educational Administration and Planning. As part of the requirement for graduation, I am required to do research. This research is a partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of a Masters degree. I wish to carry out a research among public secondary schools whose principals are women in Nairobi County, Kenya. As the employer of principals, deputy principals and teachers in all public secondary institutions in the Republic of Kenya, I would really wish to engage the Secretariat on matters of administration more so those institutions administered by female principals. The objective of this research is to examine factors influencing women educators’ career advancement in selected public secondary schools in Nairobi County, Kenya. I seek your indulgence because of the assurance of first-hand information that will enable the research to make proper conclusions and even make alternative mitigations just in case there is a need. I would appreciate if you could, therefore, spare me your precious time and respond to some questions for me today. The interview requires your experiences regarding women’s career

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advancement in public secondary schools administrative positions. If you think that you need more time to respond to the questions, I will be flexible and willing to accommodate your suggestions. I will also take notes during the interview so that all necessary information will be captured. Please be assured that all responses will be kept confidential and anonymous. The interview responses will be used only for the purpose of the study. In addition, I will ensure that all information that I include in the final report does not identify you as the participant. Please, feel free not to respond to any question that you feel uncomfortable with. Thank you for your time.

Yours Faithfully,

Samuel Yoaa Flaleh Stephens, FMS

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Appendix III: Participant Consent Form

The Catholic University of Eastern Africa (CUEA)

Department of Educational Administration and Planning

Faculty of Education

P.O. Box 62157-00200

Nairobi, Kenya

Dear Participant, I am Samuel Yoaa Flaleh Stephens FMS, a Master student at the Catholic University of Eastern

(CUEA) specialising in Educational Administration and Planning. As part of the requirement for graduation, I am required to do research. This study is a partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of a Masters degree. I am carrying out a study on “assessment of factors influencing career advancement into administration of women educators in selected public secondary schools in Nairobi County, Kenya”. Your school was purposely selected for this study since it headed by a female principal. Therefore, you are kindly invited to participate in this study to support the researcher in achieving the objectives the study is the assessment of factors influencing career advancement into administration of women educators in selected public secondary schools in

Nairobi County, Kenya. Please, note that your participation in this study is free consent. The information you provide will be treated with confidentiality and anonymity. You are kindly required to sign the consent form provided if you are to participate in this study.

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Participant Consent Declaration:

I understand that my participation is free during this study and volunteer. I have read and understood the above procedures and the study objectives. There is no penalty whatever for participating and that I have not been coerced or pressurised into signing this consent form. Thus, signed this form out of my free will to participate in this study. I am therefore willing to provide all necessary information that will fulfil the essence of the study.

Signature of Participant: ______Signature of Researcher: ______

Date: ______Date: ______

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Appendix IV: Interview Guide for Female Principals

Section A: Demographic Information

1. Name of School: ------

2. Type of School: ------

3. Number of Staff: Females ------Males ------Total ------

4. Number female Teachers in Administrative Positions ------

5. Principal’s Qualifications: ------

6. How long have you been a principal in this secondary school? ------

7. Indicate your Age by ticking (√)

26 – 30 31 -35 36 - 40 41 - 45 46 - 50 51 -55 56 - 60 61 above

8. Date of the Interview: ------

Section B: Factors that Motivate Female educators to Seek Administrative Positions

9. Was teaching your childhood dream?

10. Who is your mentor?

11. Did you ever imagine being a leaders in the society?

12. How did you ascend to leadership in public secondary school?

13. What are some of the attributes that propelled you in leadership?

137

14. How long have been in the teaching profession?

15. How long have you been in this school?

16. Did you attend a school management course before you were appointed as principal?

Yes ( ) No ( )

If yes, what aspects of school leadership or administrative tasks were tackled?

17. What has been your experiences as female principal in terms of school leadership?

18. What are those things that are encouraging you to be in the leadership position?

19. What criteria are followed when appointing a principal?

Section C: Stakeholders’ Perceptions

20. What has been your relationship with your employer (TSC), teachers and students?

21. What feedbacks do you get from your staff in terms of your role as principal?

22. Do you receive any incentives as a female principal?

23. How do you relate with other male principals in the same position as yours?

24. What is the feeling of the stakeholders that your school is headed by a female principal?

Section D: Challenges facing Females’ Principals

25. Are there any challenges in the area of school leadership as a female principal?

26. If yes, how do you deal with these challenges?

27. Do your staff cooperates in solving the school challenges?

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Section E: Strategies for Improving Females’ Administrative Leadership

28. What have you been doing or put in place as a female’s principal to encourage more

women in secondary schools’ administrative leaderships?

29. What do you think the government through the MOEST, TSC and NGOs in education

sectors need to put in place in order to promote female career advancement in school

administrative leadership?

30. What is the most important piece of advice you would share with young women teachers

pursuing senior level administrative positions in secondary schools?

Section F: General Contributions of Participants

31. Are there more issues you would like to share with me which I have not raised and you

feel to bring them out?

Thank you for your kind cooperation.

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Appendix V: Interview Guide for Deputy Principals

Section A: Demographic Information

1. Name of School: ------

2. Type of School: ------

3. Number of Staff: Females ------Males ------Total ------

4. Number female Teachers in Administrative Positions ------

5. Deputy Principal’s Qualifications: ------

6. How long have you been a deputy principal in this secondary school? ------

7. Indicate your Age by ticking (√)

26 – 30 31 -35 36 - 40 41 - 45 46 - 50 51 -55 56 - 60 61 above

8. Date of the Interview: ------

Section B: Factors that Motivate Female educators to Seek Administrative Positions

9. Was teaching your childhood dream?

10. Who is your mentor?

11. Did you ever imagine being a leaders in the society?

12. How did you ascend to leadership in public secondary school?

13. What are some of the attributes that propelled you in leadership?

140

14. How long have been in the teaching profession?

15. How long have you been in this school?

16. Did you attend a school management course before you were appointed as principal?

Yes ( ) No ( )

If yes, what aspects of school leadership or administrative tasks were tackled?

17. What has been your experiences as female principal in terms of school leadership?

18. What are those things that are encouraging you to be in the leadership position?

19. What criteria are followed when appointing a principal?

20. How long have been in the teaching profession?

21. How long have you been in this school?

22. Did you attend a school management course before you were appointed as Deputy

Principal?

Yes ( ) No ( )

If yes, what aspects of school leadership or administrative tasks were tackled?

23. Was becoming a secondary school administrator position your childhood dream?

24. What has been your experiences as deputy principal in terms of school leadership?

25. How are you motivated working under the female principal as a deputy?

26. What criteria are followed when appointing a deputy principal?

141

Section C: Stakeholders’ Perceptions

27. What has been your relationship with your principal, teachers and students?

28. Do you receive any incentives as a deputy?

29. How do you relate with other male educators in the same position as yours?

30. What are your views as the stakeholder of the school about the female principal?

31. How easy is it to access the female principal?

32. Do you see any difference between a male principal and female principal in terms of

administrative and leadership responsibilities in your school?

Section D: Challenges facing Female Principals

33. Is there gender related challenges regarding responsibilities of female principals?

34. Are there any challenges in the area of school leadership?

35. If yes, how do you deal with these challenges?

36. Does your staff cooperate in solving the school problems?

Section E: Strategies for Improving Females’ Administrative Leadership

37. What have you been doing or put in place as a deputy principal to encourage more

women in secondary schools’ administrative leaderships?

38. What do you think the government through the MOEST, TSC and NGOs in education

sectors need to put in place in order to promote female career advancement in school

administrative leadership?

142

39. What is the most important piece of advice you would share with young women teachers

pursuing senior level administrative positions in secondary schools?

Section F: General Contributions of Participants

40. Are there more issues you would like to share with me which I have not raised and you

feel to bring out?

Thank you for your kind cooperation.

143

Appendix VI: Semi-Structured Interviews for Teachers

Section A: Demographic Information Instruction: Please fill in the blank spaces and tick (√) where appropriately.

1. Indicate your gender: Male ( ) Female ( )

2. Indicate your Age:

26 – 30 31 -35 36 - 40 41 - 45 46 - 50 51 -55 56 - 60 61 above

3. Indicate your qualification(s): ------

------

4. Teacher Subject(s) ------

5. Name of the school: ------

6. Date of interview: ------

Section B: Factors that Motivate Female educators to Seek Administrative Positions

7. How long have you been in the teaching profession? ------

------

8. What are the things that are encouraging you to be in the teaching profession? ------

------

9. If you had a more payable job would you remain in the teaching profession? ------

------

144

------

10. Do you look forward to becoming a school administrator? If yes, what encourages to

remain steadfast?

11. What does it take someone to rise into management and become exemplary?

Section C: Stakeholders’ Perceptions

12. What are the roles of a principal? ------

------

13. How do you feel about having woman principal or knowing that your principal is a

woman? ------

------

14. How easy is it to access the female principal? ------

------

15. What are your own experiences as a teacher working with a female principal? ------

------

145

16. What is the difference between a male principal and women principal in term of

administration and leadership? ------

------

17. What are those experiences that are motivating you to work under woman principal as a

vice principal, dean, Head of department (HOD), director of studies (DOS) or teacher?

18. Have you ever been promoted to any of the administrative positions? If yes, how did it

happen? If no, what do you think will be the cause(s)? ------

------

19. As a deputy principal, dean, Head of department (HOD), director of studies (DOS),

teacher… what has been your experience(s)? ------

------

Section D: Challenges Facing Teachers

20. Are there challenge(s) in the area of teaching as a teacher working with the female

principal? ------

------

21. Does the female principal advocate for the promotion of her teachers? ------

------

146

------

22. How can you promote woman teachers into school administrative position in your

school? ------

------

23. Do you think there is a need to have more women in school leadership? ------

------

24. Do you see any difference between a male principal and female principal in terms of

administrative and leadership responsibilities in your school? ------

------

Section E: Strategies for Enhancing Females’ Administrative Leadership

25. What do you think the government through the MOEST, TSC and NGOs in education

sector need to put in place in order to promote female career advancement in school

administrative leadership? ------

------

147

26. What have you been doing or put in place as a teacher to encourage more women in

secondary schools’ administrative leaderships? ------

------

Section F: General Contributions

27. Are there more things you would like to share with me which I have not captured them

above? ------

------

Thank you for your kind cooperation.

148

Appendix VII: Semi-Structured Interviews for TSCSO

Section A: Demographic Information

1. Sex: Males ( ) Female ( )

2. Qualifications: ------

3. Position in TSC: ------

4. Indicate your Age by ticking (√)

26 – 30 31 -35 36 - 40 41 - 45 46 - 50 51 -55 56 - 60 61 above

5. Date of the Interview: ------

Section B: Factors that Motivate Female educators to Seek Administrative Positions

6. How long have you been working in TSC Secretariat? ------

------

7. Have you been working as a teacher, deputy principal or principal before the TSC

Secretariat? ------

8. What is your current position in the TSC Secretariat? ------

------

9. How long have you been in your current position? ------

------

149

10. Did you attend a school management courses before you were employed as TSC Secretariat

staff? Yes ( ) No ( )

If yes, what aspects of school leadership or administrative tasks were tackled? ------

------

11. What is the total number of public secondary schools in Nairobi County? ------

------

12. How many of these public secondary schools are headed by female principals? ------

------

13. What is the total number of teachers in public secondary schools in Nairobi County?

------

14. How many of these teachers are females? ------

------

15. Was leadership your childhood dream? ------

------

16. Who is your mentor? ------

------

17. How did you ascend to leadership in TSC? ------

------

150

18. What are some of the attributes that propelled you in leadership? ------

------

19. Did you attend a school management course before you were appointed as principal?

Yes ( ) No ( )

If yes, what aspects of school leadership or administrative tasks were tackled? ------

------

20. What has been your experiences in dealing with the female principal in terms of school

leadership? ------

------

21. What are those things that are encouraging you to be in the leadership position? ------

------

22. What criteria are followed when appointing a principal? ------

------

Section C: Stakeholders’ Perceptions

23. What feedbacks do you get from the staff at the TSC Secretariat in terms of female

principals in public secondary schools? ------

151

------

24. In your opinion, how do female principals relate with other male principals in the same

position in public secondary schools? ------

------

25. What is the feeling of other stakeholders such as the Board of Management (BOM),

Parents, teachers, students, among others on school headed by a female principal? ------

------

Section D: Challenges facing Females’ Principals

26. In your opinion, what way does marital status affect a women’s ability to participate in

school leadership? ------

------

27. In your opinion, what factors encourage or discourage women from taking up school

leadership in the educational sector? ------

------

152

------

28. Are there any challenges in selecting female principals in school leadership positions?

------

29. If yes, how do you deal with these challenges?------

------

30. In your opinion, are there gender related challenges regarding responsibilities of female

principals? ------

------

Section E: Strategies for Improving Females’ Administrative Leadership

31. What strategies have TSC put in place to assist women to participate effectively in school

leadership? ------

------

153

------

32. Are there policies to boost women’s access to leadership position at the TSC? ------

------

33. What is the current climate regarding women in leadership in the public secondary

schools? ------

------

34. In your opinion, what is the most important piece of advice you would share with young

women teachers pursuing senior level administrative positions in secondary schools?

------

Section F: General Contributions of Participants

35. Are there more issues you would like to share with the researcher which he/she has not

raised and you feel to bring them out? ------

------

Thank you for your kind cooperation.

154

Appendix VIII: Focus Group Discussion Guide for Teachers

Section A: Personal Experiences of Teachers

1. What are the things that are encouraging you to be in the teaching profession and would

you remain if had a better paying job?

Section B: Factors that Motivate Female educators to Seek Administrative Positions

2. What is your experience as a teacher, working under a female principal and perhaps the

difference between a male principal and women principal in term of administration and

leadership?

3. What are those experiences that are motivating you to work under woman principal as a

vice principal, dean, Head of department (HOD), director of subject (DOS) or teacher?

4. Have you ever been promoted to any of the administrative positions? If yes, how did it

happen? If no, what do you think will be the cause(s)?

5. As a deputy principal, dean, Head of department (HOD), director of subject (DOS),

teacher… what has been your experience(s)?

6. What takes an individual teacher to arise in school administration and stand above the rest?

Section C: Challenges Facing Teachers

7. How does the female principal advocate for the promotion of her teachers and more so

female teachers?

8. Do you think there is a need to have more women in school leadership?

9. Do you see any difference between a male principal and female principal in terms of

administrative and leadership responsibilities in your school?

155

Section D: Strategies for Enhancing Females’ Administrative Leadership

10. What do you think the government through the MOEST, TSC and NGOs in education

sector need to put in place in order to promote female career advancement in school

administrative leadership?

Section E: General Contributions

11. Are there more things you would like to share with me which I have not captured them

above?

Thank you for your kind cooperation.

156

Appendix IX: Observation Guide for the Schools

Name of School

School Type School size Small Medium Large

Date of Observation Stakeholders’ Perceptions: I. TSC II. Principals III. Deputy Principals IV. Teachers Mentoring How the principal relates to the staff Relationship between the principal and students Relationship between principal and female teachers School climate Strategies for promoting female career advancement

157

in an administrative position

Challenges facing female principals

General Comments

158

Appendix X: Student I.D. CARD

159

Appendix XI: Request Letter from CUEA to NACOSTI

160

Appendix XII: Research Authorisation Letter from NACOSTI

161

Appendix XIII: Research Authorisation Permit from NACOSTI

162

Appendix XIV: Research Authorisation Letter from MOEST

163

Appendix XV: Research Authorisation Letter from TSC Secretariat

164

Appendix XVI: Map of Kenya Showing Nairobi County

Source: Google Map (wikimedia.org, 2017)

165

Appendix XVI: Map of Nairobi County Showing the Areas of Study

Key : Areas of study Source: Google Map (wikimedia.org, 2017)

166