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Index

American Security Project 229 Art 12 42 Annan, Kofi 180 Art 23 26 Arctic region 17, 31–2, 75, 230 Art 24 3, 25–6, 34–5, 105 Argentina 199 Art 25 26 armed conflict Art 27 26, 34 climate-induced conflict 31 Art 28 3 assessment and recognition 85–6, Art 29 42 132–5 Art 38 26, 104–5 post-conflict peacebuilding Art 39 4, 14, 26–7, 104, 106, 191, 138–42 198 preventative peacekeeping 135–8 Art 41 27, 48–9 definition and characterization 36–8 Art 42 27 population displacement 91, 167–8 Art 43 3 Responsibility to Protect (R2P), and Art 45 3, 6 180 Art 46 6 UN combat missions 4–5 Art 47 3–4, 6 Ashton, John 218 Art 48 3, 6, 26 assistance, definition 26 Art 94 74 Australia 75 Art 96 74 Art 103 13, 26, 53, 104, 109 Ban Ki-moon 29, 33, 40, 165, 177, conflicts with EU law 78 242 Preamble 179 Barker, Rodney 188–9 Chimni, B.S. 91 Beckett, Margaret 12, 28 China Berat, Lynn 73 UNSC climate change policy, and Bolivia 199–200, 205 199, 209–11, 213, 219, 238 Born, Camilla 229 US–China relationship 221–2 Bosnia 4, 135 civil war, climate change influences Brazil 199 on 85–6 Burkett, Maxine 74 Climate Change Displacement Coordination facility, proposal 77 Cambodia 77 climate change economic sanctions 48 118 Compliance and Implementation Capacity-building Initiative for Committees 56–7 Transparency 120 vs comprehensive/smart sanctions Cassese, Antonio 106 49–51, 54–5, 239–40 Charter of the United Nations 3 human rights challenges 54–6, Art 1 105–6 59–60 Art 2 27, 105–6 implementation 51–6

245

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246 Climate change and the UN Security Council

monitoring 51 barriers 141–2 post-Paris Agreement 56–8 green peacekeeping 142–3 responsibility vs power conflicts post-conflict peacebuilding 58–9 138–42, 144 vs sui generis reactive measures preventative deployment 135–6, 57–8, 60 145, 240 trade challenges 52–6, 59–60 Responsibility to Protect (R2P), triggers for 50–51 and 137–8, 144 climate change, generally population displacement, and 88–9 environment–conflict nexus 85–6, unintended impacts 32, 88–9, 221 132–5 UNSC, and positive impacts 133 contributions to 166–7, 238 security implications 14, 28–9, 30–34, 32–43, 115–16, 220–21 role and responsibilities 179–81 security scorecard 236–7 climate change security scorecard threat multiplier, as 15, 29, 31, 33, 236–7 66, 134, 152–3, 164–5, 186, climate crime court, proposal 212, 214, 235 international mechanisms 74–5, see also peace and security 77–8, 80 climate change law limitations 77, 240 Multilateral Environmental political perspectives 79–80 Agreements (MEAs) 101 role 74–5, 77–9, 240 UNSC powers 64, 104–5, 122–3 UNSC creation 66–7 application 115–22 climate crimes enforcement 119–22 challenges 69 legislative 116–19 legality 69–71 obligations, amendment 118–19 liability 72–3 obligations, creation 117–18 standards of proof 71 see also Kyoto Protocol 1997; Paris conceptualization 66–8, 76 Agreement 2015; UNFCCC crime of omission 79 1992 67–8 climate change litigation interpretation challenges 76 domestic cases 75–6 climate migration ICJ advisory opinions 74–5 challenges 86–7, 96 climate change mitigation and drivers 87–91, 220 adaptation natural resources access, and 88, challenges 165–6, 220 133 decentralization 233–4 peace and security, as threat to framework approach, benefits of 89–91, 115–16 232–4 SIDS and coastal regions 88–9, 93 institutional fragmentation and trends and projections 85 coordination, and 165 UNSC measures migration, as driver for 88–9 challenges 86–7, 96 negative security impacts 32, 88–9, limitations 94–6 221 mandate requirements 91 non-state initiatives 232–3 climate security, definition 229 peacekeeping operations, and coastal regions 131–2, 140–42, 144–5, 240 climate migration, and 88–9, 93

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Index 247

sea level rise impacts 30–32, 163–4, Hyogo Framework for Action 221, 235 2005–2015 171 see also Small Island Developing ICL Draft Articles 2007 172–3 States (SIDS) Sendai Framework for Disaster common but differentiated Risk Reduction responsibilities 1, 79, 119, 213 2015–2030 171–2 Convention on Biological Diversity UNSC role 240–41 1992 174 humanitarian aid 166–7, 175 Convention relating to the Status of Responsibility to Protect (R2P) Refugees 1951 93 175–8, 180 Conway, Declan 186 responsibility to respond 174–8 Corfu Channel case 174 risk assessment 241 corporate responsibility 103 disease Côte d’Ivoire 133 climate change, and 39–40 counter-terrorism security, as threat to 31, 38, 42, enforcement measures 111–13 132, 220, 234 extra-territorial scope 36–7 drugs, illicit 37 non-UN initiatives 7 sanctions, legal conflicts 78 Ebola 10, 38–40, 42, 234 UNSC Resolution 1373 (2001) 7–8, ecocide 67–8 42, 74, 105, 107–13, 117 Ecocide Convention 1973 (draft) 68 UNSC responsibilities 7–8, 35, 235 economic sanctions Counter-Terrorism Committee 7, comprehensive vs targeted/smart 111–13, 234 49–51, 54–5, 239–40 Counter-Terrorism Executive conflict diamonds 52 Directorate 112 effectiveness 50 crimes against humanity 70, 73 human rights challenges 54–6, Cyclone Nargis 176–8 59–60 legal basis 48–9 defence policies vs reactive measures 57–8, 60 climate change issues considered in sui generis measures 57–8 155–9 trade challenges 52–4, 59–60 disaster relief role in 236 triggers for 50–51 green peacekeeping 142–3 green procurement 158–9 see also climate change economic US vs EU policies 156–8 sanctions Democratic Republic of the Congo Egypt 204 140 Energy Union (EU) 147, 150, 153–5 dengue fever 31 environmental conflict 132–5 desertification 87 EU climate security policy diamonds 52 Adaptation Strategy 158 disaster law challenges 147–8 definitions 173 climate change as threat multiplier development 18, 169–74 152–3 emergency response plans 168–9, Climate Diplomacy 153 175, 181 defence policy, role in 155–9 human rights, and 170–71 development of 147, 149, 159

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248 Climate change and the UN Security Council

development policy, and 149–50, Global Field Support Strategy 142 152–3 Gray, Allan 68 energy policy, and 147, 150, 153–5, 159 human rights impacts 75 Global Monitoring for Environment Nationally Determined and Security system 157–8 Contributions (NDCs) 103 institutionalization 149–50 non-state mitigation mechanisms multilateralism, and 148, 152 232–3 New Climate for Peace, A 154–5 P5 contributions 58, 87 regulatory scope 149 UN missions, environmental securitization management of 142–3 discursive 152–3 voluntary emissions reduction 103 indirect 149–52, 159 Guterres, António 32, 242 trends 147–8, 150 spillover effects 149–50 Hagel, Chuck 223 split responsibilities 148 Hansen, James 163 UNSC policy, influences on 151–2 Heede, Richard 76 EU Emissions Trading Scheme 76 Higgins, Polly 68, 73 European External Action Service High Level Panel on Peace Operations (EEAS) 153 (HIPPO) 136 extreme weather events HIV/AIDS 38, 132, 166, 220, 234 Cyclone Nargis 176–8 human rights damage and costs 162–4, 176–7 economic sanctions, challenges to flooding 164 54–6, 59–60 Hurricane Katrina 162–3, 216 impact of, modelling 163 development 170–71 security threats, as 162–3, 220 hierarchy 106–7 sui generis measures 57–8 Inuit, greenhouse gas effects on 75, tipping points 17 173–4 trends 31, 163 human security climate change, and 14–15, 30–32, Fabius, Laurent 33 165 Falk, A. 68 disease 31, 38–40, 132 Fawcett, A. 17 North–South disparities 165 Fidler, David 170–71 population displacement 31, 196–7 89–91 food insecurity, trends 31, 220, 235 threat, recognition of 32–4 forced marriage 70, 73 food insecurity, and 31, 220, 235 210–11, 215–16, 218–19 UN role and responsibilities 179–81 see also peace and security Gabcˇikovo-Nagymaros case 78–9 humanitarian aid General Agreement on Tariffs and disaster relief funds 176–8, 180, Trade (GATT) 53 236 genocide 73, 106 international law obligations 151–2, 156, 166, 198 169–70 Global Conflict Risk Index (GCRI) UNSC role and responsibilities 136–7 166–7, 175

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Index 249

humanitarian intervention standards of proof 67–8, 71 assistance, definition 26 establishment 67, 73 Responsibility to Protect (R2P) 180 mandate powers 67 Hurricane Katrina 162–3, 216 Rwanda 6, 67 Hyogo Framework for Action Sierra Leone 67, 70–71, 77 2005–2015 171 Yugoslavia 6, 67 international Inter-American Commission on development 18 Human Rights 75 see also climate change law Intergovernmental Panel on Climate International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies 170 Change (IPCC) 2 International Law Commission climate migration 89–90 Draft Articles on the Prevention of role and functions 12, 32 Transboundary Harm from threshold/tipping point impacts Hazardous Wastes 2001 16–17 172–3 Working Group II 89–90 Draft Articles on the Protection of International Convention on the Persons in the Event of Protection of the Rights of all Disasters 2007 172–3 Migrant Workers and Members international law, generally of their Families 1990 95 complexity and conflicts 104 International Court of Justice 8 human rights, and advisory opinions 74–5, 174 hierarchy of 106–7 legal review role 35 law development 170–71 role and function 79 natural disasters 170–71 treaty obligations, sustainable state responsibilities 173–4 development 78–9 non-derogation 106 UN jurisdiction, interpretation of state role and responsibilities 35 169–74 International Criminal Court 80 disaster response 171–3 international criminal law human rights violations 173–4 crimes against humanity 70–71, humanitarian aid 169–70 73 limitations 169–70 intent 73 Responsibility to Protect (R2P) legality principle 69–71 177–8 liability theories transboundary harm, not to cause accomplice liability 71–2 171, 174 joint criminal enterprise 71–3 UNSC creation of 74, 104–5 standards of proof 67–8, 71 climate change, relevance to war crimes 67–8 115–22 international criminal tribunals enforcement, and 111–15, 119–22 Cambodia 77 legal hierarchy 53, 105–7 climate crimes for legislative mechanisms 107–11, establishment mechanisms 116–19 73–4 legislative success 114–15 legality, and 70–71 limitations 105–7, 122–3 liability, and 72–3 treaty obligation amendments potential 66–7 110–11, 118–19

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250 Climate change and the UN Security Council

treaty obligation developments see also UN Security Council 108–9, 117–18 liability, theory of see also climate change law accomplice liability 71–2 International Maritime Organization 1 joint criminal enterprise 71–3 international organizations Liberia 140 climate change policy responsibility, Lowe, Vaughan 9 with 1–2 Luck, Edward 3 legitimacy 189–90 196 International Relief Union 170 international trade Macedonia 135 climate change sanctions, WTO McInnes, Colin 220 challenges to 52–6 Michalowski, Raymond 68, 79 Inter-relationship of Energy, Climate migration and Security, 2007 debate 11–12 access to natural resources, and 88, interstate/intrastate conflict see armed 133 conflict drivers 85–6 Inuit 75, 173–4 climate change 87–91 Iraq 49 climate change mitigation 88–9 ius cogens norms 106–7 economic policies 88–9 natural disasters 87–8 joint criminal enterprise 71–3 sea level rises 88 urbanization 89 Kadi vs European Council 54–5, 78, host states, challenges for 86 107 migrant workers’ rights 95 Kelsen, Hans 106 non-refoulement principle, and 91 Kimberley Process 52 UNSC, and Kosovo 4 challenges for 86–7, 96 Kouchner, Bernard 177 legitimacy of 93–5 Kramer, Ronald 68, 79 see also climate migration; Ku, Charlotte 39 population displacement Kuwait 4, 49 Monbiot, George 223 Kyoto Protocol 1997 monitoring bodies 6 implementation and enforcement Morisetti, Neil 218 102, 119–20 Morphet, Sally 210–11 US refusal to ratify 75 Multilateral Environmental withdrawals from 118 Agreements (MEAs) 101–3 Myanmar 176–8 Lake Chad Basin 2, 15, 23, 40, 231 legality principle 69–71 Nationally Determined Contributions legitimacy, generally (NDCs) 50, 103, 120 identification challenges 192–3 NATO international organizations, of climate change policy 229–30 189–90, 203 smart defence strategies 156 legitimation, and 188–9 natural disasters output legitimacy 190–91 definition 173 research approaches 192–3 emergency response plans 168–9, sources 189–90 175, 180, 236

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Index 251

impacts of 164–5, 167–8, 220 Office of the United National High costs 162–4 Commissioner for Refugees 2 migration 87–8 modelling 163 P5 international law responses to disaster relief role 180–81 169–71 greenhouse gas contributions 58, human rights, and 170–71 87, 191–2, 199, 204 Hyogo Framework influences of 209–10 2005–2015 171 legitimacy 94–5 ICL Draft Articles 2007 172–3 limitations on 211 Sendai Framework national roles and hierarchy 210–11 2015–2030 171–2 pocket veto 210 trends 164 UNSC climate change policy, and UNSC, and China’s attitude to 209–11, 213, enforcement powers 121 219, 238 humanitarian aid 166–7, 175 conflicts 79–80, 94–5, 191–2, Responsibility to Protect (R2P) 199, 204, 209 175–6, 175–8, 180 France’s attitude to 210–11, responsibility to respond 174–8 215–16, 218–19 natural resources influences on 223–4, 238–9 access to Paris Agreement, and 222–3 climate change impacts 32, 168, Russia’s attitude to 209–10, 214, 220 219–20, 238 climate migration, and 88, 133 UK attitude to 214–15, 218, 238 management, peacekeeping role US attitude to 212–13, 216–18, 140, 240 238 76 UNSC membership 3–4, 10–11, 19, New Zealand 202 26 Nigeria 76 veto powers 209–10 no-harm principle 171, 174 New Guinea 197 non-refoulement principle 91 Parenti, Christian 78 non-state actors Paris Agreement 2015 33, 101, 223 climate change responsibilities Capacity-building Initiative for 102–3 Transparency 120 international obligations challenges 102–3, 205–6 enforcement 108–9 climate change vulnerability 57–8 relevance to 110 compliance review mechanisms UNSC imposition 108 120–21 voluntary greenhouse gas emissions economic sanctions, and 56–8 reduction 103 enforcement 120–21, 205–6 North Korea 4, 118 implementation and adoption 102, nuclear weapons 8, 74, 174 117–18 see also weapons of mass loss and damage provision 77–8 destruction Nationally Determined nullum crimen sine lege 69–71 Contributions (NDCs) 103, 120 non-state actors, role of 102–3 Obama, Barack 217, 222 P5, and 222–3

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252 Climate change and the UN Security Council

policy overlaps 116 Responsibility to Protect (R2P), Preamble 103 and 137–8, 144 reporting obligations 121–2 climate-induced conflict role and functions 101–2 assessment and recognition 85–6, US withdrawal from 204–5, 217–18 132–5 voluntary emissions reductions early warning mechanisms 102–3 136–7, 145 peace and security, international post-conflict peacebuilding climate change as threat multiplier 138–42 15, 29, 31, 33, 66, 134, 152–3, preventative peacekeeping 135–8, 164–5, 186, 212, 214, 235 240 climate change security scorecard High Level Panel on Peace 236–7 definition and characterization Operations (HIPPO) 136 27–8, 34–40, 43–4, 191 mandates, development of 140–41 threat to mission trends 4–6, 131–2, 134–5 armed conflict, and 31, 36–40 natural resources, management role climate change as 14, 28–9, 140 34–43, 115–16, 229 reactive nature of 134–5 disease as 38–40, 42, 234 UNSC controls 141, 144 non-military sources 35–7 UNSC responsibilities 5–7, 92–3 population displacement as 31–2, Penny, Christopher 186 40, 89–91 population displacement recognition of 4, 14, 26–7, 34, climate change impacts 87–90 40–41, 104, 106, 191 climate change mitigation, and scientific uncertainty, and 41 88–9 terrorism as 36–7, 40, 191 drivers 85–90 WMD as 36–7, 40, 42 management mechanisms 118 UNSC role and responsibility 92–3, non-refoulement principle, and 91 168 threat to international peace and action, legal justification 43–4, security, as 31–2, 40, 86, 104, 234 89–91 remedial action 40–42 trends 167–8 TIPS resolutions 6, 92–3 urbanization 89 peacekeeping see also climate migration authorization 5–7, 131 barriers to 134–5 Qatar 200 climate change mitigation mechanism, as 131–2, 140–42, refugees, generally 144–5, 240 non-refoulement principle, and 91 barriers 141–2 status and rights 93 Global Field Support Strategy see also climate migration 142 Responsibility to Protect (R2P) 15, green peacekeeping 142–3 137–8, 144, 175–8, 180 post-conflict peacebuilding Rice, Susan 212 138–42, 144 risk assessment 241 preventative deployment 135–6, Rosenthal, Gad 74 145, 240 Rothe, D. 218

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Index 253

Rushton, Simon 220 P5 greenhouse gas contributions 58, Russia 198–9, 209–10, 214, 219–20, 87 238 state responsibility, generally Rwanda 6, 67 international law, and disaster response 171–3 Sands, Philippe 74 human rights violations 173–4 Scharpf, Fritz 190 humanitarian aid 169–70 Scott, Shirley V. 39, 132, 186 limitations 169–70 sea ice melt 17, 32, 75 obligations 169–74 sea level rise Responsibility to Protect (R2P) human security implications 30–32, 177–8 221, 235 transboundary harm, not to cause migration impacts 88 171, 174 negative impacts 163–4 Stockholm Declaration 1973 174 Sen, Amartya 180 Sudan (Darfur) 39, 90–91, 235 Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Suez crisis 1956 5 Reduction 2015–2030 171–2 sustainable development sexual violence 38 treaty obligations, ICJ interpretation Sierra Leone 67, 70–71, 77, 133 78–9 Sindico, Francesco 222 UN responsibility 29, 43, 139 Slovakia 196 Switzerland 196–7 Small Island Developing States (SIDS) temperature increases 17, 30–31, 163 climate change impacts 11–12, terrorism see also counter-terrorism 31–2, 40, 93, 166 definition 109 migration 88–9, 93 peace and security, as threat to mitigation challenges 167 36–7, 40, 191 sea level rises 30–32, 164, 235 threshold/tipping points UN Security Council debate 29, environmental impacts 16–17 192, 197–8, 211–12 social impacts 17–18 Somalia 4, 79 TIPS resolutions 6, 92–3 South Africa 49 Toronto Conference 1988 1 Southern Rhodesia 49 Trail Smelter case 174 Special Representatives and transboundary harm, duty not to cause Rapporteurs 6, 239 171, 174 Stafford Disaster Relief and Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Emergency Assistance Act 1988 Nuclear Weapons 1968 110, 118 (US) 168–9 Tru-Frost, Cora 92–3 state responsibility, for climate change Trump, Donald 217–18 determination of 50–51, 74 Tuvalu 75 economic sanctions, triggers for 50–51 UN Development Plan (UNDP) 14 Nationally Determined UN Environmental Programme Contributions (NDC) 50 (UNEP) 32 obligations conflicts 58–9 UN General Assembly P5 climate change policy conflicts 2009 climate change debate 13, 32 79–80 High Level Meetings 32

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254 Climate change and the UN Security Council

Resolution 63/281 (2009) 13, 43, climate change responsibility 166, 211, 213–14 2007 debate 11–12, 28–9, 86, 92, Resolution 66/290 (2012) 14 192, 211, 214 Resolution 69/1 (2014) 42 2011 debate 13–14, 29, 86, 92, role and responsibilities 179 192, 205–6, 211, 214–15 UN Global Compact for Corporate 2013 debate 15, 29, 212–15 Sustainability 103 2015 debate 15, 29, 86, 212–14 UN Office for the Coordination of 2016 debate 15 Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) 2017 debate 15, 30, 212–16 166–7, 175, 181 appropriateness of forum 165–6, UN Security Council 192–3, 230–31 authority attitudes towards, analysis armed force, for 27 basis for 26–7, 34–5, 42–4, 193–206 234–5, 241–2 authority for action 38–43, 191–2 climate change action, for 38–43, historical role 2–3, 25 191–2 human security, and 14–15, 28 competence, and 92 hybrid approaches 231–4, 242–3 economic sanctions 48–9 legitimacy and effectiveness hierarchy in international law 53, 9–11, 16–18, 179–81, 105–7 186–206 legal review, and 35 mitigation and adaption 166–7, measures, scope of imposition 27, 179–81, 238 40–41 opposition 12, 29–30, 192–3, 230 non-binding recommendations Responsibility to Protect (R2P) 26–7 15, 137–8, 144, 175–8, 180 peacekeeping 131 sustainable development, and 29, preventative action 41 43 remedial action 40–42 climate migration measures scientific uncertainty, and 42 challenges 86–7, 96 subsidiary bodies 42, 111, 119 legitimacy of 93–5 climate change economic sanctions mandate requirements 91 Compliance and Implementation conflict combat operations 4–5 Committees 56–7 functional and monitoring bodies 6 vs comprehensive/smart sanctions historical development 3–4, 8 49–51, 54–5, 239–40 law-making powers 7–8, 64, 74, human rights challenges 54–6, 104–5, 122–3, 239 59–60 climate change, relevance to implementation 51–6 115–22 legal basis 48–9 enforcement, and 111–15, 119–22 monitoring 51 legislative mechanisms 107–11, post-Paris Agreement 56–8 116–19 responsibility vs power conflicts limitations 105–7, 122–3 58–9 success of 114–15 vs sui generis reactive measures treaty obligation amendments 57–8, 60 110–11, 118–19 trade challenges 52–6, 59–60 treaty obligation developments triggers for 50–51 108–9, 117–18

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Index 255

legitimacy Resolution 1540 (2004) 74, 105, climate change mandate 194–6, 108–11 198, 201, 203–5 Resolution 1625 (2005) 199 climate change measures 191–2, Resolution 2069 (2012) 37 203 Resolution 2106 (2013) 38 climate change responsibility Resolution 2177 (2014) 10, 38, 42 9–11, 16–18, 179–81, Resolution 2349 (2017) 15, 30, 39, 186–206, 244 41, 231 climate migration measures 93–5 role and functions enforcement powers 194, 196–7, assistance, definition 26 201 counter-terrorism 7–8, 35, 235 expertise 194, 196–7, 199, 201, direct action 7–8 204–5 discretion 26, 34–5 generally 8–11, 186–8 economic measures 48 implementation, influences of effectiveness 10–11 202 emphasis, changes in 7–8 inaction, of 202–3 generally 3–4, 8–9, 19, 25, 36 interpretation 188–9 influences on 8–9 legal legitimacy 189, 196, legal obligations 13 198–200 legislative 7–8, 74 limitations 203–4, 238 peacekeeping 4–7, 92–3 negative vs positive attitudes response, categories of 20–21 195–202, 204–5 thematic issues of peace and performance legitimacy 189–90, security (TIPS resolutions) 6, 196–7, 199–200 92–3 procedural legitimacy 196–7, 200 structure 3–4, 7 relevance of 202–3 threat to international peace and resolutions 194, 198–9, 201, security, and 92–3 204–5 action, legal justification 43–4, sources 189–90 104, 234 stakeholder participation 194, remedial action 40–42 200–201 TIPS resolutions 6, 92–3 state influences on 190–93, 201 veto powers 3, 209–210 limitations 4, 7–8, 27 UN Sustainable Development Summit membership 2015 139 P5 3–4, 10–11, 19, 26 Under2 Coalition 232–3 responsibilities 6–7, 12 UNFCCC 1992 1 voting rules 26 Annexes 119 Military Staff Committee 3–4 conclusion 12 peacekeeping missions 168 Conference of the Parties 101 controls 141, 144 21st COP (2015) 33, 151, 154 responsibilities 5–7, 131 implementation and enforcement trends 4–6, 131–2 119–20 Resolution 983 (1995) 41 proposed protocols 77 Resolution 1308 (2008) 38 role 29, 101, 213, 215 Resolution 1373 (2001) 7–8, 42, voluntary emissions reduction, and 74, 105, 107–13, 117 103

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256 Climate change and the UN Security Council

see also Kyoto Protocol 1997; Paris war crimes Agreement 2015 ecocide 67–8 genocide 73, 106 climate change policy 151, 156 water management, transboundary UNSC climate change policy, conflicts 220 attitudes to 214–15, 218, 238 Watt-Cloutier, Sheila 75 United States weapons of mass destruction 36–7, climate change litigation 75–6 40, 42, 105 climate change policy, domestic 229 enforcement measures 113–14 influences on 216–18 UNSC Resolution 1540 (2004) 74, limitations 165 105, 108–11 national security, and 217–18 weather see extreme weather events climate change policy, UNSC Wood, Michael 109 attitudes to 33–4, 197, 209, 212–13, 216–18, 238 World Bank 1, 141 US–China relationship, and World Conference on Disaster 221–2 Reduction (Hyogo Framework, defence policy, climate change 2005) 171 issues in 156 World Meteorological Organization emergency aid regime 168–9 32 extreme weather impacts 162–4, WTO 216 climate change sanctions, Kyoto Protocol, refusal to ratify 75 challenges to 52–6 P5, position in 210 dispute resolution mechanism 80 Paris Agreement, withdrawal from 204–5, 217–18 Yugoslavia 6, 67

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