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475257 1 En Bookbackmatter 173..320 Appendix 1 Lunar and Mars Satellites and Rovers A.1.1 Lunar Satellites and Rovers Due to page limitations, only missions flown within the last quarter century are listed. Clementine Orbiter Officially called the Deep Space Program Science Experiment (DSPSE), the Cle- mentine mission was a joint space project between the DoD’s Ballistic Missile Defense Organization (BMDO) and NASA. Launched on January 25, 1994, the objective was to test sensors and spacecraft components under extended exposure to the space environment and to make scientific observations of the Moon and the near-Earth asteroid 1620 Geographos. The project was named after the song “Oh My Darling, Clementine” because after it had finished its mission the spacecraft would be “lost and gone forever.” The lunar observations included imaging at various wavelengths in the visible, ultraviolet and infrared parts of the spectrum, laser ranging altimetry, gravimetry, and charged particle measurements. These observations were for the purposes of obtaining multi-spectral imaging of the entire lunar surface, assessing the surface mineralogy, obtaining altimetry from 60Nto60S latitude, and obtaining gravity data for the near side of the Moon. On reaching Geographos it was to determine the size, shape, rotational characteristics, surface properties, and cratering rates of the asteroid. Clementine carried seven distinct experiments: • Ultraviolet/Visible Camera. • Near Infrared Camera. • Long Wavelength Infrared Camera. © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 173 M. von Ehrenfried, From Cave Man to Cave Martian, Springer Praxis Books, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05408-3 174 Appendix 1 • High Resolution Camera. • Two Star Tracker Cameras. • Laser Altimeter. • Charged Particle Telescope. The S-band transponder facilitated communications, tracking, and gravimetry. The mission had two phases. After two Earth flybys, lunar orbit insertion was achieved approximately a month into flight. Lunar mapping was undertaken over a period of two months using a 5-hour elliptical polar orbit which included an 80-minute mapping phase. After a month of mapping southern latitudes, the orbit was adjusted to conduct another month of mapping northern ones. Over a total of 300 orbits it obtained imaging and altimetry coverage from 60Sto60N. After an Earth to Moon transfer and two more Earth flybys, the spacecraft was to head for Geographos, arriving three months later for a flyby. Unfortunately, on May 7, 1994, after the first Earth transfer orbit, a malfunction caused one of the attitude control thrusters to fire for 11 minutes, using up the supply of propellant and causing the vehicle to spin at about 80 rpm. This meant that the asteroid flyby would not yield useful results. The spacecraft was therefore put into a geocentric orbit that passed through the Van Allen radiation belts in order to test the various components on board in that environment. The mission ended in June 1994 when the power level declined to a point at which the telemetry downlink was no longer intelligible. Fig. A.1.1 Artist’s conception of the Clementine spacecraft. Photo courtesy of the Naval Research Laboratory. Appendix 1 175 SELENE (KAGUYA) Orbiter The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) launched the SELenological and ENgineering Explorer (SELENE), a.k.a. “KAGUYA,” on an H-IIA vehicle on September 14, 2007, from the Tanegashima Space Center (TNSC). The name KAGUYA means “radiant night,” and is from the Japanese story “The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter” in which Kaguya, a princess who fell to Earth from the Moon, is returned home. The major objectives of the KAGUYA mission were to obtain data about the origin and evolution of the Moon, and to develop the technology for future lunar exploration. KAGUYA consisted of a main satellite orbiting at about 100 km (62 mi) altitude, plus two small satellites: a Relay Satellite and a Very Long Baseline Interferometer (VRAD) Satellite in polar orbit. On February 1, 2009, KAGUYA lowered its perilune to a 50 km (31 mi) altitude, then lowered it again on April 16, 2009 to 10–30 km (6–19 mi). The mission ended with the spacecraft impacting on June 10, 2009.1 JAXA investigated the SELENE Lunar Radar Sounder (LRS) data at locations close to the Marius Hills Hole (MHH), which is a skylight potentially leading to an intact lava tube, and found a distinctive echo pattern exhibiting a precipitous decrease in echo power, subsequently followed by a large second echo peak that may indicate the presence of a lava tube. The search area was further expanded to span 13.00–15.00N, 301.85–304.01E around the MHH, obtaining similar echo patterns at several locations. Most of the locations are in regions of underground “mass deficit” suggested by analysis of GRAIL mission gravity data. Some of the observed echo patterns occur along a rille close to the MHH, or on the southwest under- ground extension of that rille. Intact lava tubes offer a pristine environment for studying the composition of the Moon, and could serve as secure shelters for humans and instruments. Nine images were taken of the MHH at approximately 14.09N, 303.31E. The pit is estimated to be 48–57 m (131–197 ft) in diameter, to be about 45 m (148 ft) deep, and to have a roof thickness of 40–60 m (131–197 ft).2 The pit is believed to have been formed by the partial collapse of a lava tube. See Chapter 3.1 for an overview of the Oceanus Procellarum region of the Moon. Chang’e 1 Orbiter Named after a Moon goddess, the robotic lunar-orbiting Chang’e 1 was part of the first phase of the Chinese Lunar Exploration Program. It was launched on October 1For a short video of SELENE flying over the Apollo 11 landing site go to: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sV3GKy8Hr_A 2For a video on possible lava tubes at Marius Hills go to: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fC_gAY48Rrc 176 Appendix 1 24, 2007, from the Yichang Satellite Launch Center, and achieved lunar orbit on November 5, 2007. A year later, a map of the entire lunar surface was published using data collected by Chang’e 1 between November 2007 and July 2008. The mission was scheduled to last for a year, but it was later extended and the spacecraft was operated until March 1, 2009, when it was taken out of orbit and impacted on the Moon. Data gathered by Chang’e 1 was able to produce the most accurate and highest resolution 3D map yet made of the lunar surface. It was the first lunar probe to conduct passive, multi-channel, microwave remote sensing by using a microwave radiator. Its sister probe, Chang’e 2, was launched on October 1, 2010. The Chang’e 1 mission had four major goals: • Obtaining 3D images of the landforms and geological structures of the lunar surface as a reference for planning future soft landings. The orbit of Chang’e1 was designed to provide full coverage, including areas near the poles that were not covered by previous missions. • Mapping the abundance and distribution of various chemical elements on the lunar surface for an evaluation of potentially useful resources. • Probing the features of the lunar soil and assessing its depth, as well as the amount of helium-3 (He-3) present. • Probing the environment between 40,000 km (24,854 mi) and 400,000 km (248,548 mi) from Earth, studying the solar wind, and the effects of solar activity on the Earth and the Moon. The lunar probe was composed of five major systems: the satellite system, the launch vehicle system, the launch site system, the monitoring and control system, and the ground application system. Five goals were accomplished: • Researching, developing, and launching China’s first lunar probe. • Mastering the basic technology of placing a satellite into lunar orbit. • Conducting China’s first scientific investigation of the Moon. • Initially forming a lunar probe space engineering system. • Accumulating experience for subsequent phases of China’s Lunar Explo- ration Program. Chandrayaan-1 Orbiter/Impactor Chandrayaan-1 was the Indian Space Research Organization’s (ISRO) first lunar probe. The mission included an orbiter and an impactor. It was launched from the Dhawan Space Centre using a PSLV-XL rocket on October 22, 2008. On November 14, 2008, the Moon Impact Probe separated from the spacecraft and struck the south pole in a controlled manner, making India the fourth country to deliver its flag to the Moon. The probe impacted close to the crater Shackleton, ejecting subsurface soil that could be analyzed for the presence of lunar water ice. Appendix 1 177 The orbiter carried high resolution remote sensing equipment for visible, near infrared, and soft and hard X-ray frequencies. It was intended to survey the lunar surface over a period of two years in order to map its chemical composition and 3D topography. The polar regions were of particular interest, due to the suspected presence of water ice. There were five ISRO payloads and six that were flown at zero cost for other space agencies which included NASA, ESA, and the Bulgarian Aerospace Agency. One of the mission’s greatest achievement was the discovery of the widespread presence of water molecules in the lunar soil. After almost a year, the orbiter started to suffer a number of technical issues, including losing its star sensors and thermal difficulties. It stopped transmitting on August 28, 2009, and shortly thereafter ISRO officially declared the mission over. Although it operated for 312 days versus the intended two years, the Chandrayaan mission achieved 95 per cent of its planned objectives. Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter NASA-GSFC’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) was launched on June 18, 2009 by an Atlas V rocket to provide global data about the Moon, including day-and-night temperature maps, a geodetic grid, high resolution color imaging, and the Moon’s ultraviolet albedo.
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