The Xavier Zubiri Review, Vol. 9, 2007, pp. 99-109

Peace Studies and the Philosophy of Xavier Zubiri

Alberto Valiente Thoresen Centre for Peace Studies, University of Tromsø Tromsø, Norway

Abstract

Peace Studies have to grow at a time when the original idea of a modern university is in ruins. Culture has stopped being university’s purpose and philosophy is no longer its guardian. Knowledge lacks structure and orientation. The contemporary main purpose of universities is quality and excellence. But what does this mean? More specifically, what are excellent Peace Studies? Ironically, only philosophy can answer this question. Xavier Zubiri’s critique of Western thought is a good reference for this. His ideas on reality, reality by postulation, intelligence, objects of knowledge and processes of generation of knowledge can be used to determine, structure Peace Studies and resuscitate the value of intellectual life.

Resumen Los estudios de la paz tienen que crecer en un momento cuando la idea original de la universidad moderna queda en ruinas. La cultura ha dejado de ser el propósito de la uni- versidad y la filosofía ha dejado de ser su guardián. Al conocimiento le faltan la estructura y orientación. El propósito principal contemporáneo de universidades es calidad y excelen- cia. ¿Pero qué significa esto? ¿Más específicamente, cual son los estudios de la paz excelen- tes? Irónicamente, sólo filosofía puede contestar esta pregunta. La crítica de Xavier Zubiri del pensamiento Occidental es una referencia buena para esto. Sus ideas sobre la realidad, la realidad por postulación, la inteligencia, objetos de conocimiento y procesos de genera- ción de conocimiento pueden usarse para determinar y estructurar los estudios de la paz y resucitar el valor de vida intelectual

I. Introduction losophical tradition certain democratically According to William Readings the chosen canons of literature, as the guardi- bases of the modern Western university ans of culture in their universities. Even- can be traced back to the philosophical tually, this led to a process of “de- work of the German Idealists, from Schiller referentialisation” of culture, the end to Humboldt.1 For them, reason, as pon- product of which was that the word “cul- dered by Kant, was to develop knowledge, ture” came to mean nothing at all as such. and this knowledge was to determine cul- The result was that culture ceased to be ture. Readings adds that this rational cul- the unifier of research, teaching and learn- ture guarded by philosophy was to func- ing in a university, replaced by the “nor- tion as the unifier of the activities of a uni- malising” notion of excellence.2 versity, whose purpose was to function as Readings suggests that culture used to the producer of knowledge, conflict solver be the soul of the university, and now it is and organiser of the life of the people of a a program of study: Cultural Studies. Pea- rational state. ce Studies could be seen as a development For Readings, from this starting point, in this direction. In other words, when the American scholars substituted for phi- main purpose of a university ceases to be

99 100 Alberto Valiente Thoresen ______developing culture that can, among other 2) Disorientation in the world: The intel- things, guarantee peace, it becomes rele- lectual function lacks a clear role in vant to have Peace Studies as an inde- the current world. Intellectual activity pendent field of study. is only measured in relation to how Such tendencies become increasingly useful it is. The rest is disregarded as widespread in the contemporary phase of mere curiosity. This view parallels the globalisation characterised by Americani- notion of legitimation of knowledge by sation, which has implied to a large extent performability, identified and opposed more focus on excellence than on cultural by Lyotard.6 development in universities throughout 3) Lack of intellectual life: Scientific the world. But like the term “culture,” or methods are increasingly simple “peace,” the word “excellence” says noth- techniques, a sort of meta-technique.7 ing by itself, as long as it is not accompa- nied by philosophical considerations that II. Who was Xavier Zubiri? establishing the criteria that ideally make Xavier Zubiri was born in San Sebas- something excellent.3 tián, , December 5th, 1898. He star- What then should be the standards of ted studies on philosophy and theology at excellence in Peace Studies? A multidisci- the Seminar of . Zubiri’s mentor plinary field becomes impractical unless was the Spanish José Ortega the different sciences can play a specific y Gasset, who Zubiri met in 1919. Ortega role in it, with a purpose and as a part of a was responsible for introducing Zubiri to greater intellectual project. Ironically the main currents of European thought of enough, the only possible way to answer the time, especially Husserl’s phenomeno- such a question successfully is by return- logy. By 1920 Xavier Zubiri obtained a ing to what the German Idealists identified doctorate of philosophy in . A year as the unifier of the activities of a univer- later, he moved to Belgium to study philo- sity, namely, philosophical reflection on sophy in the Institute Superior of Philo- the purposes, the object of knowledge, the sophy of the Catholic University of Lou- process of knowledge and the epistemology vain. In May that same year, Zubiri pre- of Peace Studies. sented his doctoral thesis in the University A good reference for reflections on such of Madrid with the title “A Phenomenologi- issues is the work of the Spanish philoso- cal Theory of Judgement”. Before turning pher Xavier Zubiri. He developed a radi- thirty, in 1926, Zubiri was tenured as the cally new open realism,4 which culminated Chair of the History of Philosophy in the in the trilogy Sentient Intelligence, the first Faculty of Philosophy and Literature of the volume of which was published in 1980. Central University of Madrid. Three years As early as 1942, Zubiri had identified the later, his interests in phenomenology took destruction of philosophical life in univer- Zubiri to Freiburg to attend courses with sities that was pointed out by Readings in and . 1996: But he did not remain there very long. A 1) Levelling positivation of knowledge: year later, in 1930, Zubiri’s interest in Sciences lack systemic unity and per- moved him to , where he spective. They are all set in the same met among others, Einstein, Schrödinger, plane. One is as important as the Zermelo and Jaeger. His thought at this other. When disciplines are regarded time was concerned with incorporating as scientific, they acquire the same into philosophy what he called the “new rank. Lyotard identified a deepening physics”,8 referring to the findings of rela- of this problem. For him, “classical di- tivity and quantum mechanics. By 1931 viding lines between the various fields he returned to his Chair in the Central of science are… called into question”.5 University of Madrid.

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It can be said that Zubiri moved away his thought with close students. In 1974, from wars in the course of his life. First, a this seminar started publishing the jour- year before the outbreak of the Spanish nal titled Realitas, which gathered articles civil war in 1935, he moved to Rome to inspired in much of Zubiri’s work and ot- study linguistics. After a year there, he her . In 1979, the Federal travelled to Paris, where he imparted cour- Republic of Germany granted Zubiri the ses in the Institut Catholique. His stay Cross of Merit (Das Grosse Verdienst there was interrupted in 1939 when he Kreuz), and in 1980 he received a Doctora- decided to return to Spain and started te Honoris Causa from the University of working as a lecturer in Barcelona. He had Deusto in Bilbao; the same year the first left Paris just a year before it fell to the volume of his landmark trilogy Sentient Germans during the Second World War. Intelligence was published. In 1983 Zubiri Despite the fact that the civil war was over started working on a new book entitled in Spain, his return was not problem-free. Man and God, but never completed it. He The political climate in fascist Spain was died the 21st of September of that year. repressive, and due to lack of liberties in His students and collaborators in the Franco’s regime, Zubiri resigned from Xavier Zubiri Seminar (which later became work in Spanish universities in 1942. the Xavier Zubiri Foundation) began pu- From then on, a circle of close collabora- blishing Zubiri’s unedited works. The first tors financed his work. In 1944 he was of these, Man and God (1984), was edited able to publish one of his best-known by Ignacio Ellacuría, one of Zubiri’s closest works; Nature, History, God. collaborators. Then the following books In 1947, Zubiri presided over the Socie- were published: About Man (1986), The ty of Studies and Publications, financed by Dynamic Structure of Reality (1989), On Banco Urquijo in Madrid. This society be- Emotions and Volition (1992), The Philo- came a new intellectual forum where Zubi- sophical Problem of the History of Religions ri was able to expound and discuss his (1993), The Fundamental Problems of Wes- thought with a growing number of stu- tern (1994), Space, Time and dents and friends who in 1953, 30 years Matter (1996), The theological problem of before his death, published the book “A man: Christianity (1999), Man and truth Tribute to Xavier Zubiri”. However, Zubiri’s (1999). In the year 2000 his First Writings exile from universities implied that his (1921-26) were published. In 2001 the thought was not well known outside very book On Reality came out and in 2002 limited circles. For many years, Zubiri did About the problem of Philosophy and other not publish at all in peer-reviewed jour- writings (1932-1944). nals. Zubiri’s first contact with the English- The culmination of Zubiri’s philosophy speaking world was in 1946, when he at- would be his theory of Sentient Intelligen- tended a conference in Princeton and lec- ce, which was not published until 1980. tured on the real in mathematics. Never- The first step in the process of maturation theless, his lecture was in French and had of his thought was the book On Essence, the title “Le réel et les mathématique: un published in 1962, followed by The Dyna- problème de philosophie”.9 Fritz Wilhelm- mic Structure of Reality in 1968, which sen, A.R. Caponigri, Thomas Fowler and which in many ways completed the Nelson Orringer have translated some of thought of On Essence. In between these Zubiri’s work to English.10 two books, Zubiri wrote the popular book Five Lectures on Philosophy. In 1970 a III. An Attempt to Rescue Metaphysics “Second Tribute to Xavier Zubiri” was pu- Zubiri’s work can be seen as an attempt blished. The Seminar Xavier Zubiri was to save metaphysics in the twentieth cen- created in 1971 within the Society for Stu- tury.11 His intention must have been to dies and Publications (from Banco Urqui- provide a solution to the problems he iden- jo). Here, Zubiri got the chance to discuss tified in 1942: levelling of the tasks of

XAVIER ZUBIRI REVIEW 2007 102 Alberto Valiente Thoresen ______sciences, lack of orientation of knowledge cious, etc. Man would be, ultimately, in the world and the relative unimportance a stratification of qualified zones with of intellectual activity.12 respect to consciousness. This subs- For this task Zubiri took his starting tantivation is inadmissible. “The” acti- point in Heidegger’s revival of the question vity of consciousness does not exist, of being and metaphysics. Heidegger wro- “the” consciousness does not exist, te, “The question of the meaning of Being and neither does “the” unconscious, must be formulated. It is a fundamental nor “the” subconscious; there are only question, or the fundamental ques- conscious, unconscious, and sub- tion…”.13 Zubiri criticised what he called conscious acts. But they are not acts Heidegger’s “substantivation” of Being, of consciousness, or the unconscious, which was the result of substantivating or the subconscious. Consciousness space, time and consciousness. In the does not perform acts. Heidegger took introduction to the English translation of a step further. Although in his own Nature, History, God Zubiri wrote: way (which he never managed to con- Space, time, consciousness, being, are ceptualise or define), he accomplished not four receptacles for things, but the task of substantivizing being. For only characteristics of things which him things are in and through being; are already real, they are the charac- because of this, things are entities. teristics of the reality of things, and Reality would only be a type of being. things, I repeat, are already real in This is the old idea of “real being”, es- and by themselves. Real things are se reale. But real being does not exist. not in space or time, as Kant thought The only thing that exists is the real (following Newton), but rather real being real, realitas in essendo, I would things are spatial and temporal, so- say. Being is only one moment of rea- mething quite different than being in lity.14 space and time. Intellection is not an Zubiri identified two problems in Wes- act of consciousness, as Husserl tern thought that were the source of these thought. Phenomenology is the great substantivations: substantivation of consciousness, which has been current in modern 1) Logification of intelligence. This is to philosophy since Descartes. However, think that human intelligence is lim- there is no conscience; there are only ited to (or begins with) logos (Greek for conscious acts. This substantivation word or thought). Accepting this mis- has already been introduced into a take, which has been present in West- great portion of the psychology of the ern philosophy since Parmenides, end of the XIX century for which “psy- leads to postulating that thought re- chic activity” was synonymous to “ac- fers to things that can be represented tivity of consciousness”, and concei- ideally and verbally. Parmenides wrote ved all things as “contents of cons- that only esti (Greek for ‘it is') is, and ciousness”. It even created the con- that it is impossible for it not to be. cept of “the” subconscious. This is On the other hand, Parmenides inadmissible, because things are not thought that to consider that the ne- contents of consciousness, but only gation ouk esti (Greek for “it is not”) is, terminus of consciousness: conscien- implies taking a “wholly incredible ce is not the receptacle for things. course, since you cannot recognise From its own perspective, psychoana- not being (for this is impossible), nor lysis has always conceptualised man could you speak of it, for thought and and his activity with reference to Being are the same thing.”15 In other consciousness. It has told us about words, for Parmenides that which “the” consciousness, “the” uncons- cannot be stated verbally as some-

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thing that “is”, does not exist. Accord- knowledge has an empirical base. ing to Jordan Williams, Parmenides’ Logification of intelligence disregards esti played a similar role as cogito for sensual apprehension and reason, and Descartes. In the Way of Truth, Par- therefore leads to a limited and inappro- menides wrote; “It is, and… it is im- priate view of reality, which is only very possible for anything not to be”. Later partially understood by logos. Sensual Descartes paralleled this with his fa- apprehension, intuition and manifesta- mous premise: “Cogito, ergo sum”. In tions of reason like imagination are needed other words, thinking is Being.16 to understand other aspects of reality. This leads to the other error identified by Examples of this are how in physics, Eins- tein came up with the theory of relativity Zubiri: through sensing reality and imagining 2) Entification of reality: Reality is seen possible situations. If Einstein had been as a zone of things. A set of entities limited to the logos (language) that existed with an essence that can be verbally in his time for confronting a zone that is represented.17 out there called “physical reality” (with for The root of these two problems can be example Newtonian Physics and mathema- traced to the acceptance of a dualism bet- tics of the time) he would never have figu- ween intellective knowing and sensing. red out that the speed of light should be This dualism limits human intellection to seen as a constant independently of the the efforts that logically organise concepts. speed of the observer. Further, he would It is a dualism that has a long history in have never realised that in such a model, Western thought. For example, Time and space are no longer given facts, considered reasoning and recalling princi- but that they can warp and bend depen- ples as two intellective acts, which could ding on the presence of mass, energy and be considered as separate from the sen- momentum.20 Einstein’s findings showed sual apprehension of reality.18 that time and space are not substantives Zubiri argued against this dualism bet- but characteristics of reality. Therefore, ween intellection and sensing, and conse- Zubiri tries to incorporate this into philo- quently this confusion between intellection sophy. Reality is not a sort of being in a and Being. For him, all intellection is con- zone called “Spacetime,” as Phenomenolo- ditioned by reality. Human brains are me- gy’s substantivation of Dasein or being there (in a zone) would suggest. This oppo- re organs of formalisation that re-actualise ses Newton’s view of space and time as that reality through a faculty that has fixed, and resolves Kant’s confusions on three modes: the topic. In 1783 Kant conceived space A) Sensual apprehension: Senses and time as necessary a-priori concepts or B) Logos: Distinguishing one thing forms of seeing the world, and not as given from another. facts, when he wrote Prolegomena to Any C) Reason: Allows us to explain what Future Metaphysics. Further, human reali- things are and why they are. ty is not consciousness/sub-conscious- ness of being there. Consciousness/sub- The faculty that is comprised by these consciousness are just characteristics of inseparable modes is called Sentient Inte- real human acts. lligence. There is no duality in sensing and For Zubiri, reality is open and for this, thinking. Reason is not more actualisation it can never be fully understood by sen- of reality, just a more exhaustive and re- tient intellection. For instance, Einstein’s actualisation of the form and content of relativity theories are more convenient for reality. When actualised reality is retained explaining reality in outer space and large in the brain it generates knowledge. When distances, but they do not apply so well to knowledge is the result of reason it is ca- elementary particles and everyday situa- lled “understanding.”19 This shows that all tions. It has been a struggle for physicists

XAVIER ZUBIRI REVIEW 2007 104 Alberto Valiente Thoresen ______to bridge the gap between General Relativi- human brains through sensing, logos and ty and Quantum Meachanics. String Theo- reason—modes of intelligence, which is in ry is a set of theories that attempt to resol- itself a part of reality. These recognitions ve this, but even if these theories succeed, are the basis of Zubiri’s critique of Hume’s they will hardly tell us everything about analysis of causality.28 They imply that reality.21 Saying that reality has the cha- reality is not only imposed on human racteristic of time implies acknowledging beings. We can also postulate reality. Fow- dynamism. This makes it even more pro- ler writes, “Postulations are indeed, real; blematical to pretend that intelligence can they have the formality of reality. They apprehend everything that reality has not differ from rocks, chairs, and tables in yet given of itself.22 that their content has been constructed according to concepts”.29 Although the acceptance of postulated realities has ma- A Philosophy about Reality ny similarities with (weak and strong) For Fowler, Zubiri thought that philo- constructivism, the two should not be con- sophy’s main concern should not be Hus- fused. The acknowledgement of postulated serl’s Phenomenological Method, Heideg- realities does not question the existence of ger’s understanding of phenomena, or a reality in and by itself. However, many Ortega y Gasset’s notion of life. Philosop- constructivists (especially strong construc- hy’s main concern should be reality that tivists) argue that all facts can be cons- exists in and by itself:23 tructions of the mind.30 Zubiri’s suggestion was more modest and argued that postu- For Zubiri, reality in the primary or lated realities refer to things like literature, fundamental sense is a formality, not mathematics, political entities, and so a zone of things. We sense not just on.31 content (that would probably be im- possible), but necessarily something When a mathematician (or anyone el- more. We sense the content in a de- se) speaks about the number π or e, terminate form, as something other; he is speaking about something which and this form of otherness, which really exists, though neither he nor completes the content but is not re- anyone else grasps the content of the- ducible to it, is formality.24 se transcendental irrational numbers through ordinary sense perception.32 Fowler adds that formality refers to the specific forms in which reality is imposed These postulated realities presuppose to human senses. Some animals could call the existence of things in and by themsel- formality stimulus. Human beings call it ves. There cannot be postulation of reality reality. Content is the structured and dy- without the previous existence of non- namic notes that exist in and by them- postulated realities. A person is an exam- selves. Formality is not added to content. ple of a combination of reality in and by These are two juxtaposed aspects of real- itself and a postulated reality. For exam- ity. These notions are not necessarily new. ple, elements have interacted through evo- We find already in the writings of Aristotle lution and conception to render the per- a distinction between form and matter. sons. And persons themselves are a com- took further this concept bination of body and psyche, which are and Kant used it when analysing space themselves a combination of reality in and and time.25,26,27 by itself and postulated reality. Further, The word “reality” does not refer to a society is a combination of persons and zone of things that is outside the mind. their postulated realities, and culture, Such a reality could only be discovered by society’s collective psyche. This collective intelligence. Reality refers to a formality psyche can be peaceful or non-peaceful. with a content that is re-actualised in (See Appendix Figure 1).

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Understanding and Science This open reality is more than what closed meta-narratives can say about it, since Intelligence can re-actualise postulated logos or even sentient intelligence can ne- and non-postulated realities and generate ver understand reality fully. Therefore, knowledge about them. This knowledge Lyotards’ claim that there is a “truth re- can be called understanding if it comes quirement of science being turned back from reason. A scientist follows a particu- against itself”,37 should not be taken as lar method to achieve this. Fowler sug- argument in favour of the illegitimacy of gests: scientific knowledge. Such observation In his work, the scientist postulates only serves to confirm the limits of scienti- reality, and then explores that reality fic knowledge; a method that nonetheless to draw out its consequences and to possesses fewer limitations than other see how well it corresponds to reality forms of knowledge that do not combine beyond apprehension. This is the the three modes of intelligence: primordial true meaning of the so-called model apprehension, logos and reas-on. Philo- building to which many writers on sophy should be regarded as the result of science refer.33 science and a rational attempt to provide an overview that tries to overcome some In other words, scientists postulate ex- limitations of science. It cannot overcome planations on the base of experience. If all, but this does not mean that an at- verifiable by contingency or necessity, the- tempt at this should not be made. se explanations generate understanding Since the scientist postulates models of accepted as reality. Fowler adds that the reality, in this sense, science is always Scientific Method in light of Zubiri’s subjective. However, if the objects of scien- thought can be summed up as follows:34 tific inquiry are non-postulated realities, in 1) Start with some knowledge of reali- this sense, science can have non- ty at all three levels: sensing, logos, subjective objects of study. Successful or reason. excellent scientific theories modify what human beings call “reality.” Thus the 2) Postulate reality. Theory of Relativity gave us relative space, 3) Explore the postulated reality. relative time, speed of light as a constant, E=mc2 and eventually nuclear weapons.38 4) Verify. The social sciences’ immediate objects 5) Modify the canon of reality. of study are postulated realities. Psycholo- gy studies postulated psyches; anthropo- These postulations show that all sci- logy deals with postulated notions of what ence is normative to a certain degree, be- it is to be a person. While sociology analy- cause scientists norm or decide in every ses postulated social realities; economics stage of this process and they influence investigates postulated systems of produc- what human beings call “reality.” This tion, distribution and consumption. Histo- proposition parallels pragmatic thought ry on the other hand studies postulated that states that what is true is that which accounts of the past. is regarded as relevant for pursuing de- terminate goals in reality in the short or IV. Science and Peace Studies long term.35 Agreeing with Lyotard, there are no truths, just opinions. “True know- A Peace Researcher postulates reality ledge… is always indirect knowledge; it is on culture, conflicts and society. He or she composed of reported statements that are inquires about that reality in order to es- incorporated into the metanarrative of a tablish how to drive the situation to peace subject that guarantees their legitimacy”.36 and to see how well this corresponds to However, some opinions are more useful reality beyond his or her apprehension. and describe reality better than others. Peace Studies is model building about

XAVIER ZUBIRI REVIEW 2007 106 Alberto Valiente Thoresen ______conflicts with the ultimate purpose of non- these experiences. These impressions are violence. the base that reason uses to give form to Culture, conflicts, society, non-violence sentient scientific postulations about the and peace are all real, but they are all a world. Reason is a pre-condition for these particular sort of reality: postulated reali- scientific postulations, which can be orga- ties by human beings. They exist, but it is nised according to the sort of realities that hard to perceive these realities other than are their objects study. For example, if through reflection. Reflection is performed they are postulated realities or realities in by subjects, and this presents a particular and by themselves. Sciences in the outer challenge for peace studies, since each circles are not only dealing with reality in postulated reality can take individual and by itself, but also postulated realities. forms. There are consequently different Thereby what are often referred to in Nor- forms of the concepts of culture, conflict wegian, as Real Sciences would be those and society. However, when there is that deal mostly with reality in and by agreement on the forms of these issues, it itself: the inner circles represent them. can be said that there is inter-subjective What Norwegian institutions of higher understanding on them. learning call Theoretical Sciences, would be those represented by the outer circles. V. Conclusion: Excellent Peace Studies However, these are sciences dealing with real things too. It is just that they deal For Readings, the main objective of mostly with postulated realities as psy- contemporary universities has become ches, society, accounts of the past, stories, excellence. According to Fowler’s interpre- systems of production-distribution- tation of Zubiri, excellent science would be consumption, and so on. In the end, phi- that one that can be verified, accepted and losophy’s task is to make sense of all the which modifies the canon of reality. Peace results from these sciences and to try to Studies (as any study) include science, but determine how their postulations can af- they are something more. They are also fect what humans call reality. In Peace meta-science. That is, reflection upon the Studies, philosophers are to find out if the relationship of science to reality, its met- culture that originates from the scientific hods, the relationships between sciences knowledge of reality we have is peaceful or and the purposes of all this. not, and how to drive reality to peace. Excellent Peace Studies would then be This way of seeing things might remind viable models or postulations of experien- some of Comte’s “Encyclopaedic Law” or ces of culture, society and conflict; formu- his “Hierarchy of Sciences”. What it has in lated in appropriate academic language common with Comte’s scheme is that it is and style; in a verifiable way that makes an attempt to structure knowledge and them acceptable; transforming the inter- define functions of the different discipli- subjective canons of culture, society and nes. But it differs from Comte’s positivism conflict in the direction of peace. But besi- in that it does not limit itself to science. des this, Peace Studies is also reasoned According to Comte’s “Law of Human Pro- reflection on the relationships between the gress” throughout history, humanity has different postulations that are made from gone through three stages in the develop- different standing points in reality. (See ment of knowledge: theological, metaphy- Appendix Figure 2). sical and scientific. This last one is accor- The figure in the appendix shows that a ding to him the final one and the access to precondition for Peace Studies is the ob- all truth. This law is based in what Lyo- ject of Peace Studies: sensual apprehen- tard called the emancipation and the spe- sion of realities. Qualitative, kinetic, spa- culative narratives. According to Lyotard tial and quantitative ways of apprehending these narratives expose the limits of scien- reality serve as the basis for language and tific method. Zubiri acknowledges these maths, which help us name and organise limitations. Moreover, Zubiri does not ad-

XAVIER ZUBIRI REVIEW 2007 Peace Studies and the Philosophy of Xavier Zubiri 107 ______mit Comte’s higher praise for science than b) Logos: Ways of verbalising, con- for metaphysics. Therefore the “Encyclo- ceptualising or representing reali- paedic Scheme” we have produced here for ty. Are they conducive to peace or Peace Studies should be instead called the not? “Hierarchy of Knowledge” (according to c) Scientific Models of reality: How Zubiri) instead of the “Hierarchy of Scien- can reality be explained in a way ce”,39 and it should be read with flexibility. that drives it to peace? Zubiri’s philosophy helps solve for Pea- ce Studies the problems in the university d) Creativity: It structures the stu- identified by Zubiri. Let’s try to recall these dies and tells us how the results of problems: the studies can drive culture to 1) Levelling positivation of knowledge: peace. Zubiri’s philosophy gives order and 2) Disorientation in the world. Accor- structure to the function of knowled- ding to Fowler’s reading of Zubiri, ge. Sciences can be structured in re- quality science modifies what human lation to the reach and character of beings call reality. Science with a their main objects of study. For purpose, as Peace Studies, has a di- example, those that study different rection. Its purpose is to modify rea- sorts of non-postulated realities and lities into peace. those that study different sorts of postulated realities. Moreover, philo- 3) Lack of intellectual life: In a dynamic sophy is not in the same level as world Peace Studies needs constant science. Philosophy gives structure philosophising about objects of and interprets the results of science. knowledge, process of knowledge and their relationships. Moreover, the re- This opens for four general philosop- sults of research in Peace Studies hical fields in Peace Studies corresponding cannot remain isolated. They must to each of the modes of intelligence identi- be set in perspective by intellectuals fied by Zubiri: (philosophers) in relation to all the a) Cognitive frames with which we disciplines that make out Peace Stu- experience reality. How do they af- dies. fect peace?

Appendix

Postulate d reality e.g. Litera ture

Reality

in and by itself.

e.g. Rocks

Figure 1. Static Picture of Reality and Postulated Reality

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StructuringStructuring thethe Functionfunction ooff Knowledgeknowledge iinn PPeaceeace StStudiesudies Logos Reason (Philosophy)

Languages and Knowledge of Mathematics Peaceful Culture

Psychology, Anthropology, Sociologgy Economics, Literature,, History Kinetic

Qualitative Geography, Geology Spatial Biology Quantitative Chemistry Physics

Sensual Apprehension of Reality

Figure 2. Function of Knowledge in Peace Studies

Notes

1 Readings, William, The University in Ruins, 9 [Unfortunately the text of this work has been Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard Univer- lost.—ed.] sity Press, 1996. 10 Fowler, Thomas, “History of Zubiri Studies 2 Foucault, Michel, Discipline and Punish, and Activities in North America,” The Xavier translated by Alan Sheridan, London: Pen- Zubiri Review, Vol. 6, pp. 99-104. guin, 1975, p. 183. 11 González de Posada, Francisco, Introduction 3 Readings, op. cit. to Inteligencia Sentiente, Edición Abreviada, 4 Samour, Héctor, 2003, Voluntad de Libera- Madrid: Editorial Tecnos, 2004, p. 60. ción. La filosofía de Ignacio Ellacuría, Grana- 12 Zubiri, op. cit. da: Editorial Comares, 2003, p. 3-5. 13 Heidegger, Martin, Being and Time [1926] 5 Lyotard, Jean Francois, The Post-Modern translated by John Macquarrie and edgard Condition: A Report on Knowledge, translated Robinson, Oxford: Redwood Books, 1993. by Geoff Bennington, and Brian Massumi, 14 Zubiri, Xavier, Nature, History, God, trans- Manchester: Manchester University Press, lated by Thomas Fowler, Lanham, MD: Uni- 1979, p. 39. versity Press of America, 1980. Text avail- 6 Ibid. able at www.zubiri.org. 7 Zubiri, Xavier, Naturaleza, Historia y Dios, 15 Fairbanks, Arthur, The First Philosophers of Madrid: Editorial Nacional, 1944, p. 5-32. Greece, London: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner, 8 Zubiri, op. cit. 1898, p. 91.

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16 Williams, Jordan, Ancient Concepts in Philo- chives/spr2005/entries/aquinas/ (accessed sophy, London: Routledge, 1993, p. 30. 8/30/2005). 17 Fowler, Thomas, “Zubiri’s Critique of Classi- 28 Fowler, Thomas, “The Formality of Reality: cal Philosophy,” The Xavier Zubiri Review, Xavier Zubiri’s Critique of Hume’s Analysis of Volume 1, pp. 68 (1998). Causality,” General Sessions from the XX 18 Xavier Zubiri, Inteligencia sentiente, Madrid: World Congress of Philosophy, The Xavier Sociedad de Estudios y Publicaciones, 1980, Zubiri Review, Volume 1, pp. 57-66 (1998). p. 349-350. 29 Fowler, Thomas, “Reality in Science and 19 Fowler, Thomas, “Introduction to the Philo- Reality in Philosophy. The Importance of the sophy of Xavier Zubiri,” The Xavier Zubiri Re- concept of Reality by Postulation,” op. cit., p. view, Volume 1, pp. 5-16 (1998). 45. 20 Greene, Brian, The Elegant Universe, New 30 Goldman, Alvin, “Social Epistemology”, The York: Vintage Books, 1999, p. 5-7. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2001 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), 21 Greene, op. cit. http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2001 22 Orringer, Nelson, “Cognitive Intertexts of /entries/epistemology-social/ (accessed Estructura Dinámica de la Realidad or Aris- 9/1/2005). totle Dynamized,” The Xavier Zubiri Review, 31 Fowler, Thomas, “A Framework for Political Vol 4., pp. 5-18 (2002). Theory Based on Zubiri’s Concept of Reality,” 23 Fowler, “Zubiri’s Critique of Classical Philo- The Xavier Zubiri Review, vol. 4, pp. 109-132 sophy,”, op. cit. (2002). 24 Fowler, Thomas, “Reality in Science and 32 Fowler, Thomas, “Reality in Science and Reality in Philosophy. The Importance of the Reality in Philosophy. The Importance of the concept of Reality by Postulation,” The Xavier concept of Reality by Postulation,” op. cit., p. Zubiri Review, Vol. 7, pp. 41-56 (2005). 47. 25 Watkins, Eric, “Kant's Philosophy of Scien- 33 Ibid., p. 49. ce”, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 34 Ibid., p. 49-50. (Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), 35 http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2003 James, William, Pragmatism: A new name for /entries/kant-science/.(accessed some old ways of thinking. Popular lectures 8/27/2005). on philosophy, New York: Longmans, Green and Co., 1907. 26 Cohen, S. Marc, “Aristotle's Metaphysics”, 36 Lyotard, op. cit., p. 35. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), 37 Ibid., p. 39. http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2003 38 Fowler, Thomas, “Reality in Science and /entries/aristotle-metaphysics. (accessed Reality in Philosophy. The Importance of the 9/1/2005). concept of Reality by Postulation,” op. cit., p. 27 McInerny, Ralph, O’Callaghan, John, “Saint 50. Thomas Aquinas”, The Stanford Encyclopedia 39 Martineau, Harriet, The Positive Philosophy of Philosophy (Spring 2005 Edition), Edward of Auguste Comte , Michigan: Bell & Howell N. Zalta (ed.) http://plato.stanford.edu/ar- Company, 1858.

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